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UNIT 17 :TRADE AND COMMERCE IN THE WORLD
Key unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to evaluate the
impact of trade and commerce on the sustainabledevelopment of different countries in the world.
Introductory activity
For different reasons, many countries come together and create regional
bloc such as European Union or East African Community. Conduct your own
research and answer the following questions:
1. Identify different regional integrations operating with Rwanda.
2. What advantages does a country benefit from being a member of atrading bloc?
17.1. Definition, types of trade and factors influencing international trade
Activity 17.1
Madame Kayitesi buys goods in large quantities from Inyange Industry.
She owns one of the biggest shops in her village. Her products are bought
by the local people and she takes some to the nearest markets in her
district. Some of Inyange industry products are exported overseas.
1. Identify the major imports of Rwanda
2. Mention the types of trade indicated in the passage.
3. Explain the factors influencing trade between Inyange industryand overseas countries.
17.1.1. Definition of key terms
Trade is the activity of buying and selling or exchange of goods and services at
many levels. within a country or between countries. It also occurs between two
individuals through the exchange. Trade is part of commerce.
Commerce is the activity of buying and selling goods and services, especially
on large scale or huge quantities.
The earliest form of trade was probably “barter trade” in which one type of
commodity was exchanged for another of equal value. The present trade is
based on the exchange of goods and services for money.
The present trade includes:
a. Internal trade: This is the exchange of commodities within a country. It
is also known as domestic trade. Traders normally need to exchange what
they have with what they don’t have.
b. Whole sale: This occurs when traders buy goods in bulky from both the
manufacturers and importers.
• Retail trade: This is where traders buy goods from the wholesalers
and sell them in detail to the individual customers. Goods are sold into
smaller units to kiosk owners, hawkers, shopkeepers and supermarket.
c. International trade: This type of trade occurs between different nations
of the world, on a global scale. Its rationale lies in the fact that no country
can produce everything that it needs. It involves:
• Bilateral trade: it is a trade between two countries.
• Multilateral trade: it is a trade between many countries, through the
exchanging imports where goods and services bought and brought into
the country, and exports where goods and services are transferred toanother country for sale.
17.1.2. Factors influencing international trade
The type and volume of trade that takes place at any level in any place is
influenced by a number of factors. The most important factors are:
• Capital: This is the greatest single factor influencing trade. Money is
the engine that runs trade. Traders require capital to establish their
businesses, purchase their wares and transport the commodities.
Where capital is inadequate the volume of trade will also be low.
• Demand and supply: For trade to take place there must be sufficient
demand and good chain of supply of the items.
• Transport and communication: Traders and goods need to move
from one place to another to effect various trade related transactions.
• Trade barriers: This includes the quota system for international
trade, where a country may impose limits on imports and exports.
• Government policy: This is where the government influences trade in
certain commodities through taxation. For example, the government
levies heavy taxes on certain goods such as cigarettes and alcohol.
• Creation of trading blocs: The creation of regional common trading
markets enhances trade due to increased cooperation between the
member countries.
• Political climate of a country: Political problems such as wars affect
both internal and external trade because wars discourage foreign
investors and at times destroy industries; whereas good diplomatic
relationship between countries encourages foreign investments.
• Population size and structure: This offers ready market for
consumption of commodities and labor in trading activities.
Application Activity 17.1
Discuss how the following factors influence international trade in Rwanda:
─ Regional integration
─ Government policy
─ Population
17.2. Causes of low levels of international trade in developing countries and importance
of international trade in the development
Learning activity 17.2
Learning activity 17.2
Most of the industrial products used in developing countries are imported
from Europe, USA, ASIA etc. African countries also export agricultural
products to the rest of the world but the gap between imports and exports
in less developed countries still remains big.
1. Identify the products exported by European countries in Africa.
2. Outline the major exports of Rwanda to the developed countries.
3. Explain the causes of this inequality between exports and imports.
17.2.1. Causes of low levels of international trade in Developing
Countries
The following are the major factors causing the low levels of international trade
in developing countries:
• Difficulty to access the foreign markets: The foreign markets are
dominated by the goods and services from developed countries
because they have better quality and produce more quantity of goods.
• Inadequate and insufficient domestic supply on the international
market: This causes the increase in prices and this affect the final
consumers.
• Exportation of unprocessed products: Most of the developing countries
export unprocessed products due shortage of industries or low level of
technology.
• Exportation of bulk and perishable products: Bulky and perishable
goods such as horticulture products, fruits, vegetables and animal
products, etc. present high risks to be damaged in transport process,
or conservation.
• Anti-competitive practices: Most of the developing countries are
under anti-competitive practices by private enterprises in restricting
the market access of developing countries to industrialized countries.
• Capital inflows: The growing constraints on foreign aid and the
difficulties in attracting increased foreign private financing and
investment are affecting the growth prospects of countries lagging
behind in global integration.
17.2.2. Importance of international trade in development
International trade helps in development as follows:
• Foreign trade and economic development: Foreign trade plays an
important role in the economic development of any country.
• Foreign exchange earnings: Foreign trade provides foreign exchange
which can be used to reduce poverty. The foreign earnings for
developing countries are obtained through exportation of products
especially agricultural products and raw materials.
• Market expansion: The demand factor plays very important role in
increasing the production of any country. The foreign trade contributes
to expand the market and encourages producers.
• Foreign investment: Besides the local investment, foreign trade
encourages investors to invest in those countries where there is a
shortage of investment.
• Increase in national income: Foreign trade increases the scale of
production and national income of a country. To meet the foreign
demand, we increase the production on large scale so Gross National
Product (GNP) also increases.
• Price stability: Foreign trade helps to bring stability in price level. All
those goods which are short and prices are increasing can be imported
and those goods which are surplus can be exported. There by stopping
fluctuation in prices.
• Specialization: this refers to the quality and quantity of products by a
given country. Each country adopts the specialization in the production
of specific commodities, in which it has comparative advantage. So all
trading countries enjoy profit through international trade.
• To improve quality of local products: Foreign trade helps to improve
the quality of local products and extends market through changes in
demand and supply as foreign trade can create competition with the
rest of the world, and reduces the cost of importing production.
• Import of capital, goods and technology: The inflow of capital, goods
and technology in some less developed countries has improved their
economies, due to foreign trade. Foreign trade is also responsible for
spreading or acquisition of knowledge and how-to-do from developed
countries to under developed countries.
• Cooperation: Foreign trade provides an opportunity to the people
of different countries to meet, discuss, and exchange views and ideas
related to their social, economic and political problems.
Application Activity 17.2
1. Assess the role of international trade in the economic development of Rwanda.
2. Suggest ways of reducing the gap between low exports and highimports in developing countries.
17.3. Major financial centers and trading blocs of the world
Learning activity 17.3
1. Make research and explain the objectives of International Monetary
Fund (IMF).
2. Using specific examples, explain how the trading blocs improve the
economic development of member countries.
17.3.1. Major financial institutions and centres in the world
(1) Major financial institutions in the world
A financial institution exists to provide a wide variety of deposit, lending and
investment products to individuals, businesses or both. While some financial
institutions focus on providing services and accounts for the general public,
others are more likely to serve only certain consumers with more specialized
offerings.The major financial centers include:
a. The International Monetary Fund
The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created in1945 and has Washington
D.C. as the Headquarters. It began with 45 members.
The aims of IMF are to promote international economic cooperation and
international trade, strives to help stabilize exchange rates among member
countries. IMF takes a lead in advising member countries and ultimately helps
to avoid financial crises. The IMF also provides loans to help its members tackle
balance of payment problems, stabilize their economies and restore sustainableeconomic growth.
b. The World Bank
The World Bank or the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development
(IBRD) was founded in 1944. Its headquarters is in Washington D.C.
It was set up with the aim of reconstructing the war-affected economies of
Europe (during the Second World War) and assisting in the development of the
less developed countries of the world.
Today, the World Bank is more concerned with the development of member
countries especially the developing ones. It provides loans for the purchase
of capital goods necessary for development. In so doing, the World Bank
concentrates on loans for projects that are clearly profitable. The World Bank’scurrent focus is on achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
(2) The major financial centres in the world
A financial centre is a location that is home to a cluster of nationally or
internationally significant financial services providers such as banks, investment
managers, or stock exchanges.
The major global financial centres include:
• Amsterdam: (in Netherlands) is well known for the size of its pension
fund market. It is also a centre for banking and trading activities.
• Chicago: The Illinois city has the “world’s largest exchange-traded
derivatives market.”
• Dubai: In the United Arab Emirates, Dubai is a growing centre for
finance in the Middle East, including for Islamic finance.
• Dublin: In Ireland, is well known because of its International Financial
Services Centre, “IFSC”. It is a specialized financial services centre with
a focus on fund administration and fund domiciling. It also conducts
activities such as securitization and aircraft leasing.
• Frankfurt: (In Germany) Frankfurt attracts many foreign banks which
maintain offices in the city.
• Hong Kong: (China) as a financial centre, Hong Kong has strong links
with London and New York City. It developed its financial services
industry. Most of the world’s 100 largest banks have a presence in
the city. Hong Kong is a leading location for initial public offerings,
competing with New York City.
• London: (England) London has been a leading international financial
centre since the 19thcentury. And is the largest centre for derivatives
markets, foreign exchange markets, money markets, issuance of
international debt securities, international insurance, trading in gold,
silver and base metals and international bank lending. London benefits
from its position between the Asia and U.S.A
• Madrid: (Spain) Madrid is the headquarters to the Spanish company
Bolsas y Mercados Españoles, which owns the four stock exchanges
in Spain, the largest being the Bolsa de Madrid. As a financial centre,
Madrid has extensive links with Latin America and acts as a gateway
for many Latin American financial firms to access the EU banking and
financial markets.
• New York City: (USA) Since the middle of the 20th century, New York
City, has been described as a leading financial centre. New York City
remains the largest centre for trading in public equity and debt capital
markets, driven in part by the size and financial development of the
U.S. economy.
• Paris: (France). It is home to the Banque de France and the European
Securities and Markets Authority. Paris has been a major financial
centre since the 19th century. The European Banking Authority (EBA)
has a headquarters in Paris fromMarch 2019.
• Seoul: (South Korea) It is the capital that has developed significantly
as a financial centre since the late 2000. Seoul has continued to
build office space with the completion of the International Financial
Center in 2013.
• Shanghai: (China)This is one of Chinese and world financial centre. It
competes with New York and London. China is generating tremendous
new cap ital and state-owned companies in places like Shanghai.
• Singapore: Singapore has developed into the Asia region’s largest
centre for foreign exchange and commodity trading, as well as a
growing wealth management hub. It is one of the main centres forfixed income trading in Asia.
17.3.2. World trading blocs and regional integration(i) Definition
A trade bloc is a type of inter-governmental agreement, often part of a regional
inter-governmental organization, where regional barriers to trade, (tariffs and
non-tariffs barriers) are reduced or eliminated among the member states
Regional integration is a process in which neighboring states enter into an
agreement in order to upgrade cooperation through common institutions and rules.
(ii) Advantages of trading blocs and regional integration
The following are the advantages of trading blocs and regional integration:
• Foreign direct investment: An increase in foreign direct investment
results from trade blocs and benefits the economies of participating
nations. Larger markets are created, resulting in lower costs to
manufacture products locally.
• Economies of scale: The larger markets created via trading blocs
permit economies of scale. The average cost of production is decreased
because mass production is allowed.
• Competition: Trade blocs bring manufacturers in numerous countries
closer together, resulting in greater competition. Accordingly, the
increased competition promotes greater efficiency within firms.
• Trade effects: Trade blocs eliminate tariffs, thus driving the cost
of imports down. As a result, demand changes and consumers make
purchases based on the lowest prices, allowing firms with a competitive
advantage in production to thrive.
• Market efficiency: The increased consumption experienced with
changes in demand combines with a greater amount of products being
manufactured to result in an efficient market.
(iii) Disadvantages of trading blocs and regional integration
The following are the disadvantages of trading blocs and regional integration:
• Limited fiscal capabilities: Some regional integration agreements
that involve the creation of a common currency most notably the
European Union’s lead to fiscal crises.
• Cultural centralization: Strong integration like the European Union
can lead to the loss of unique minority cultures within a region. The
European Union has a series of languages that it deems to be the
official languages of the EU government. These do not include minority
languages spoken by remote communities in Europe.
• Loss of sovereignty: A trading bloc, particularly when it is coupled with
a political union, is likely to lead to at least partial loss of sovereignty
for its participants.
• Concessions: No country wants to let foreign firms gain domestic
market share at the expense of local companies without getting
something in return. Any country that wants to join a trading bloc
must be prepared to make concessions.
(iv) Factors affecting regional integration
The factors affecting regional integration are the following:
• Homogeneity of the goods produced among the member states can
hinder trade. If countries produce the same goods, there is no need to
trade amongst each other. This situation is seen among East African
countries which produce almost the same agricultural products such
as maize, sugar etc. this undermines trade among them.
• Shortage in foreign exchange. Some countries may not have enough
foreign money to trade and buy from other countries. This may be
because they do not earn enough from their exports.
• Countries may have different ideologies. They may not be comfortable
with their cultures or opinions. This makes it difficult to synchronize /
harmonize their economic strategies.
• In the trading blocs, trade is undermined by poor transport and
communication. This is experienced mainly in developing countries.
This makes it difficult to trade and move from one country to another.
• For business to flourish there must be a peaceful environment.
Therefore, if a member state is experiencing political instability, it
will affect trading relations in the whole bloc. This undermines trade
among the member states.
• Some countries have trading partners who are not in the trading bloc.
They prefer to trade with them rather than the member states of the bloc.
• Member states could experience lack of funds or capital. They are
unable to pay for goods ordered. This interferes with the functionality
of the trading bloc.
• Member states may not use the same language. There will be a language
barrier among them making it difficult to communicate. This will make
trading in the bloc more difficult and hinder economic integration.
• Countries in the bloc may have different levels of development.
Countries that are more developed will benefit more from the common
market. The less developed countries will feel unfair trading practices
against them.
• In trading blocs, especially Africa, the member countries sell
unprocessed primary goods. This limits trade because there are
limited manufactured goods in the market.
• There is interference from developed countries that are not in the
trading bloc. They impose conditions that limit trade among the
member states. This will undermine the union.
(v) Problems affecting international trade
Trade, like other human activities is facing some problems at regional and
international level. They could be economic, social, political, environmental
and cultural in nature. Problems of international trade include:
• Protectionisms: There are ways of implementing a protectionist
policy, and every country in the world protects some of its goods.
• Tariffs: The effect of high tariffs is to make imported goods equally or
more expensive than home produced articles.
• Quotas: If tariffs are ineffective in halting the inflow of cheap foreign
goods, countries may resort to imposition of quotas. By a quota system
a country refuses to import more than a specified quantity of a certain
commodity.
• Subsidies: The government of a country may pay subsidies or give
tax relief, in order to keep home prices down. This operates in much
the same way as tariff but involves assistance to home industry rather
than penalization of foreign producers.
• Trading blocs: In recent times trade has been modified by the
formation of economic unions such as EEC (European Economic
Community). Though tariffs are broken down between the member
nations and there is greater flow of the trade amongst them.
(vi) Possible solutions to problems of international trade
The following are the solutions to the problems of international trade:
• Joining and enforcing trading blocs like EAC, EEC.
• Common market or grouping which not only reduces tariffs and other
restrictions within the group but at the same time raises tariff barriers
against outsiders.
• Construction and rehabilitation of infrastructure among member
countries
• Political negotiations and discussions to reduce and final end political
instability and insecurity so that a favorable trading atmosphere is
created.
• Improving the quality of manufactured goods so that they are attractive
and competitive on the international market.
• Foreign investment to diversify domestic economy within countries.
This may overcome the problem of similarity of goods on the market.
Application Activity 17.3
Answer the following questions:
1. Discuss why Rwanda should make trade with other countries.
2. Analyse the challenges faced by Rwanda in carrying out trade with
other countries.
3. Discuss how “gains from international trade are mostly beneficial
to rich countries”
4. Suggest what the city of Kigali can do to become an international
financial center
17.4. Case studies
17.4.1. Regional integration
Learning activity 17.4
1. Describe the major objectives of EAC.
2. Analyse the challenges faced by ECOWAS member states in
implementing its objectives as a regional block.
(i) The East African Community
The East African Community (EAC) is an intergovernmental organization
composed of six countries in the African Great Lakes Region of Eastern Africa.
The country members are: Burundi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, Tanzania,
and Uganda. The headquarters of EAC is at Arusha in Tanzania.
The organization was founded in 1967, collapsed in 1977, and was revived on
7 July 2000. In 2008, after negotiations with the Southern Africa Development
Community (SADC) and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
(COMESA), the EAC agreed to an expanded free trade area including the
member states of all three organizations. The EAC is an integral part of the
African Economic Community.
In 2010, the EAC launched its own common market for goods, labour and capital
within the region, with the aim of creating a common currency and eventually a
full political federation. In 2013, a protocol was signed outlining their plans forlaunching a monetary union within 10 years.
Aims of EAC
The following are the aims of EAC:
• To revive free movement of people, goods, money, and services.
• To create common (tax) tariff.
• To create large market for goods and services.
• To promote regional cooperation.
• To improve communication.
• To share electricity.
• To promote industrialization in the region
(ii) Economic Community of West African States
The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) was created in May
28,1975 via the treaty of Lagos. ECOWAS is a regional grouping with a mandate
of promoting economic integration in all fields of activity of the constituting countries.
Member countries of ECOWAS include Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Cote
d’ Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Niger, Nigeria,Sierra Leone, Senegal and Togo.
Objectives of ECOWAS
The following are the objectives of ECOWAS:
• To promote economic cooperation
• To uplift living standards of member states
• To achieve and maintain economic stability of member countries
• To enhance free movement in member states without immigration
formalities.
This regional organization has achieved the following:
• ECOWAS has frozen all customs and tariffs on goods originating within
West African and this has led to industrial growth.
• It has decreased prices among the member states of some products
like petroleum.
• It has increased technological exchange among the member states.
• There has been an improvement of communication in the region.
17.4.2. Trading blocs
(i) Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is an organization
of oil-producing countries. It controls 61 percent of the world’s oil exports and
holds 80 percent of the world’s proven oil reserves. OPEC’s decisions have a
huge impact on prices. The country members are: Algeria, Angola, Ecuador,
Gabon, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United
Arab Emirates and Venezuela.
OPEC’s three goals
• To keep prices stable. It wants to make sure its members get what a
good price for their oil.
• To adjust the world’s oil supply in response to shortages.
• To coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its membercountries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets.
(ii) The European Union
The European Union (EU) is a union of 28 independent states based in Europe.
It is the largest single common market in the world. The European Union has a
common currency, the euro, which is acceptable in all member states. EU helps
in promoting trade, agriculture and creation of employment.
Member states of the EU are Austria, Netherlands, Hungary, Belgium, Portugal,
Latvia, Denmark, Spain, Lithuania, Finland, Sweden, Malta, France, Poland,
Slovakia, Germany, Slovenia, The United Kingdom, Greece, Ireland, Italy, TheCzech Republic, Estonia, Luxembourg and Cyprus.
Application Activity 17.4
1. Describe the major aims of OPEC.
2. Explain how ECOWAS member states have benefited from thisintegration.
Skills lab
Trade and commerce has a great impact on the sustainable development of
different countries in the world. Evaluate the impact of EAC to the sustainabledevelopment of Africa.
End unit Assessment
1. Draw the map showing the member countries of E.A.C.
2. Conduct your own research to identify different regional
integrations operating with Rwanda and show their main objectives.
3. Examine the role of regional integration in the social, economic
development of Rwanda.
4. Analyse the reasons for low level of international trade indeveloping countries.
GLOSSARY
Acid lava: A molten material flowing from a volcanic vent. Acid lavais high in silicates, viscous,
and does not flow far. It creates a steep sided dome
Adit: Horizontal tunnels that have access to the mineral extraction.
Aquaculture: Refers to breeding, rearing and harvesting of plants and animals in all types of
water environments.
Ashes: The solid remains of fires. Specifically, it refers to all non- aqueous, non-gaseous residues
that remain after something is burned
Bedding: An arrangement of rock strata in bonds of various thickness and characters.
Brine: It is water that contains salt.
Buffer zone: It is an area of land designated for environmental protection.
Cinder cones: These are the simplest type of volcano. They are built from particles and blobs
of congealed lava ejected from a single vent.
Circumnavigation: Originally meant going around something, by ship. Usually it means people
going around the world.
Colluvial complex: This is the lower concave slope where there is gradual deposition of eroded
material
Condensation: This refers to the process by which water vapour in the air is changed into liquid
water. Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible for the formation of
clouds. These clouds may produce precipitation, which is the primary route for water to return
to the Earth’s surface within the water cycle.
Continental shelf: The submerged, gently sloping margins of a continent.
Contour: It is a line drawn on a map joining all the places with the same altitude above sea
level.
Deciduous forests: Forests or shrubs which shade all their leaves at certain season of the year
as opposed to evergreen forests.
Drill: It is a hydraulic method of mining and conveying coal in substantially vertical seams.
Escarpment: Fault scarp or the wall of a rift valley.
Extensive farming / agriculture: Is an agricultural production system that uses limited inputs
of labour, fertilizers, and capital, in comparison to the land under cultivation.
Family planning: The practice of controlling the number of children one has and the intervals
between their births, particularly by means of contraception or voluntary sterilization.
Foot: It is an a measure of length used in some systems, 1 foot = 0.3048 metres.
Fossil: Is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past
geological age.
Gem: A precious stone that has been cut and polished and is used in jewellery.
Gravity: The force which attracts objects towards one another, especially the force that makes
things falls to the ground.
Inch: It is a measure of length used in some systems, 1 inch = 0.0254 metres; there are 12
inches in one foot.
Independent variable: These are variables being tested. Whereby its change directly results
into a change in dependent variables.
Inland water bodies: Sources of water that are found within a country. They include rivers,
lakes, and swamps.
Jewellery: Decorative objects worm on your clothes or body which are usually made from
valuable metals such as gold and silver and precious metal.
Leap year: A year that happens every four years and has an extra day on 29 February.
Light year: The distance that light travels in one year (about 9,500,000,000,000 km).
Metropolitan: It refers to a large city, its surrounding suburbs, and other neighbouring
communities.
Mile: It is an English unit of length, 1 mile = 1,609 metres.
Mineral deposit: Is an aggregate of a mineral in an unusually high concentration. About half of
the known chemical elements possess some metallic properties.
Mineral ore: A naturally occurring solid material, from which a metal or valuable mineral can
be extracted profitably.
Open-pit, open-cast or open cut mining: Is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or
minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow.
Plankton: The food for fish either in form of tiny sea organisms or plants that grow in water
bodies.
Population policy: A population policy is a set of measures taken by a State to modify the way
its population is changing, either by promoting large families or immigration to increase its
size, or by encouraging limitation of births to decrease it.
Sewage: Used water and waste substances that are produced by human bodies, that are carried
away from houses and factories through special pipes (= sewers).
Shaft: A long narrow, usually vertical passage in an underground mining, used especially for a
lift/elevator or as a way of allowing air in our out.
Sluice: A sliding gate or other device for controlling the flow of water out or into a canal to
wash something with stream of water.
Subduction: A geological process that takes place at convergent boundaries of tectonic plates
where one plate moves under another and is forced or sinks due to gravity into the mantle.
Regions where this process occurs are known as subduction zones.
Tsunami: The waves caused by sudden movement of the ocean due to earthquakes, landslides,
large volcanic eruptions or meteorite impact in the ocean.
Vulcanicity: The process through which gases and molten rock are either extruded on the
earth’s surface or intruded into the earth’s crust.
Wood fuel pellets: Pellet fuels (or pellets) are biofuels made from compressed organic matter
or biomass. Pellets can be made from any one of five general categories of biomass: industrial
waste and co-products, food waste, agricultural residues, energy crops, and virgin lumber.
Xerophyte: This is a species of plant that has adaptations to survive on an environment with
little liquid water such as a desert or an ice or snow covered region.
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