◄UNIT 12:AGRICULTURE IN THE WORLDUNIT 14:POWER AND ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE WORLD►

UNIT 13: MINING IN THE WORLD

  • UNIT 13: MINING IN THE WORLD

    Key unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to explain the
                                                     impact of mining on sustainable development of

                                                    different countries in the world

    Introductory activity

    The underground is very rich in natural resources, but they have to be utilized in a
    sustainable manner in order to support socio-economic development of different
    countries owning those natural resources. However, if they are not exploited well,

    the physical environment can be degraded.

    S

    1) Identify the economic activity taking place in the areas shown on
    photographs above.
    2) Name the major minerals of the world and mention the countries which
    are exploiting them.
    3) Examine the factors that have favoured mining activities in USA or South Africa,
    4) Analyse the effects of exploitation of minerals to the economic development

    of any country like Rwanda.

    13.1. World distribution of major minerals

    Activity 13.1

    V

    1. Identify the major world minerals and state where they are found
    using the above map.
    2. Using the legend presented in map above, state the countries where
    the following minerals are exploited: Gold, copper, oil and natural gas, lead.
    3. Explain how the natural resources in specific minerals can be

    exploited without affecting the environment.

    Mining refers to all the processes by which minerals are obtained from the
    earth’s lithosphere. Minerals may be in gaseous, liquid or solid form. The
    processes involved depend upon the mode of occurrence of the mineral.

    Three major mining areas may be distinguished on the basis of variety of
    mineral resources, amount of exploited minerals, and their production. These are:

    •     North America: From central Alaska and north-central Canada to
    southern Mexico. The central plains from the Gulf of Mexico to the
    Laurentian shield contribute more than half of the total value of

    minerals mined in the USA and about one-fourth that of Canada.

    • Africa: African regions are also endowed with minerals such as
    petroleum, natural gas, coal, Sulphur, potash, lead, zinc, gold etc.
    • Eurasia: From United Kingdom and the Iberian Peninsula to east
    central Siberia. West Europe is rich in coal, iron ore, bauxite, salt,
    potash etc., but it lacks in copper, lead, zinc, tin and alloys etc.
    • South-east Asia: Includes India, China, Japan, Malaysia, and Indonesia.
    This region has sufficient output of earth material to cater to the
    domestic needs of a large population. India and China have sufficient
    coal, iron ore and a variety of alloys. Malaysia and Indonesia have surplus tin.

    The table below shows the minerals, their uses and where they are found. The

    countries shown are just some among the many other ones.

    D

    V

    X

    4

    N

    Application Activity 13.1
    1. Identify two areas outside Rwanda where tin and coltan are
    extracted in large quantities.
    2. Apart from Tin and Coltan, state other major world minerals.
    3. Draw a sketch of Rwanda and show the major areas where minerals
    are exploited or extracted.

    4. Using the world map locate the major mining areas of the world.

    13.2. Methods of mining
    Activity 13.2
    Read the passage provided below and answer the following questions:
    Mahoro is one of the prosperous investor who is interested in mining. She
    recently visited DRC and the research findings included the following: (i)
    Some mineral ores are near the surface; (ii) Some minerals are deeply
    located below the surface area.
    1. Using the past studies, describe the mining method that can be
    used by Miss Mahoro in the exploitation of the mineral ores near
    the surface and mineral ores occurring deep into the crust.
    2. Identify and explain the effects of different mining methods on the
    physical environment and suggest the appropriate ways to deal
    with the negative effects of those mining methods.

    When extracting mineral from underground/ground deposits, there are
    various methods that can be used. These methods depend greatly on the mode
    of occurrence of the mineral, of the value of the mineral, and the size of deposit.
    The most common mining methods include the following:

    13.2.1. Opencast or open pit mining
    This is the easiest and the cheapest way of mining minerals that occur close to
    surface. This simply involves the removal of the overburden that is the earth or
    other rock bands lying above the mineral-bearing strata.
    This is the simplest and cheapest method of mining. It is used where minerals

    are very close to the surface of the earth.

    X

    13.2.2. Underground mining
    When the minerals lie deep below the surface, the overburden is too thick to
    be removed by mechanical shovels and underground mining methods have to
    be used. This mining method involves creation of network of both vertical and
    horizontal tunnels. These follow the mineral bearing rocks. The vertical tunnels
    are called shafts. The mined minerals are transported along the shafts using
    conveyor belts on which lifts, or cages are affixed. The cages move up and down
    the shaft.

    There are circumstances where the mineral ore bearing rocks occur in a
    horizontal manner. In this case horizontal tunnels are created to have access
    to the mineral ore extraction. Such tunnels are called Adit or crosscut opening.
    There must be proper ventilation to allow the miners have clean and safe air,
    the roofs of the tunnels must be supported with strong pillars and strong wire
    mesh. This method is used in extraction of mineral ores in countries such as
    gold mining in South Africa, copper and cobalt in DRC and Zambia.

    The following are different underground mining methods:
    i) Drift or Adit method: This is whereby the minerals are extracted from
    the sides of a hill or a valley. The mineral bearing veins or seams are found
    protruding on the side of the valley or hills.

    ii) Shaft method    : this is used to extract minerals found in deep or very
    steep inclined seams. Vertical shafts are sunk underground. From these,

    horizontal tunnels or galleries are dug to reach the mineral bearing rock.

    D

    iii) Hill slope boring: This is used in the extraction of minerals such as coal
    which may outcrop from the hill side. A gently sloping shaft is dug into the

    hillside to reach the mineral.

    R

    iv) Solution method: This is done from the surface of the earth. Shafts
    are sunk down into the mineral deposits. Pipes are installed to link the deposits.

    v) Drilling method    : This method is used in the extraction of non-solid
    minerals such as oil and natural gas from the ground. It involves the
    creation of drill and after the drill reaches the mineral, pumps are inserted

    to transport the oil or gas to the collecting and refinery centres.

    C

    13.2.3. Alluvial mining
    Alluvial mining refers to the situation where minerals are got from alluvial
    deposit from water bodies mainly rivers. The following methods are used to
    extract them:

    Placer mining method:     this is done by mixing the alluviums with water and
    tilting or rotating the gravels until the light particles (sand, mud, dust, stones)
    are washed off, leaving behind those with higher specific gravity like gold, tin,

    platinum etc.

    Panning: This method is used by small scale miners. This involves mixing of
    water with mineral bearing deposits scooped from riverbeds. The mixture is
    then lifted into a pan. The pan then is rotated vigorously and later tilted to
    incline on one side. The lighter material of sand, mud, dust and stone debris are
    left behind stuck on the wet drier side of the heavier material consisting of the

    mineral is found at the bottom of the water.

    E

    i) Hydraulic mining: This is use of water sprayed from powerful pumps on
    the sides of valleys or slopes to bring down the alluvial deposits once the

    alluvial deposits have landed on the floor of the valleys, they are collected.

    Application Activity 13.2
    Analyse the photographs below and use them to answer the questions

    that follow:

    D

    1) Name the economic activities that are taking places at the areas
    represented by figure A and figure B.
    2) Describe other methods of mining used in the world.
    3) Analyse the impact of the two methods mentioned represented by

    figure A and B on the physical environment.

    13.3. Factors affecting mineral exploitation
    Activity 13.3
    Read the passage shown below, and use it to answer the following
    questions:
    Several countries of the world have a variety of mineral. Some countries are
    enjoying the successful economy due the mining activities while others are

    still lagging behind economically despite having large deposits of minerals.

    Z

    1. Explain the factors that have contributed to the differences associated
    with mining represented in the passage above.
    2. Evaluate the effects of the activity being carried out in Figure A on

    the physical environment.

    The factors that influence or affect mineral exploitation include the following:
    • The value of the mineral: Minerals of high value such as diamond are
    exploited at any cost. They can be mined without incurring losses.
    • Size of deposits: This factor influences the nature and type of
    equipment to be used. The bigger mineral deposit attracts more
    investors since they do not fear the loss.
    • Transport costs: when transport facilities are well developed and
    the transport costs are affordable mineral deposits around attract the investors
    • Mode of occurrence of minerals: Minerals that are near the surface
    of the earth are more profitable to exploit since less expensive mining
    methods and equipment are involve. This means that, if the mineral is
    deep underground, it becomes costlier to exploit it.
    • Labour: Mining requires both skilled and semi-skilled labour. In
    developed countries, it is easy to get the required labour unlike in
    developing countries.
    • Capital: The presence of adequate capital will encourage the
    exploitation of minerals. This because mining requires heavy
    equipment that is expensive to purchase. When capital is not enough it
    means that the mineral deposits can hardly be mined.
    • Market: Mining is majorly conducted for commercial reasons.
    Therefore, its success depends entirely on the presence or availability
    of enough market. If there is a high demand for a given mineral, such
    mineral will be exploited.
    • Technology: Mining requires appropriate technology. Countries
    with advanced levels of technology exploit their deposits better than
    developing countries with low levels of technological advancements.
    • Political climate: When the country is secure in terms of security
    and political stability, minerals will be exploited. This is so, because
    both foreign and local investors will be interested in making business
    ventures in the sector of mining.
    • Government policy: Minerals can only be exploited when there are
    favourable and friendly governmental policies. Such as tax holidays,
    quick and on-line registration of companies and affordable licensing procedures.
    • Power: Mining requires adequate supply of power and energy. This
    because of the heavy equipment used in the exploitation of minerals.
    Therefore, in areas where power is unreliable it is very hard to exploit

    minerals that are deep in the underground.

    Application Activity 13.3
    1. Account for the low levels of mineral exploitation in the developing world.
    2. To what extant is the mode of occurrence of mineral ore responsible

    for its exploitation in DRC.

    13.4. The effects of mining to the economies of the world
    Activity 13.4
    Use the Internet, Geography textbooks, previous knowledge acquired in
    Geography to;
    1. Evaluate the effects of mining to the socio-economic development
    of the countries.
    2. Analyse the effects of mining operations on the physical environment
    in Rwanda.

    The mining sector contributes a lot to the socio-economic development of
    countries. Some of the contributions are positive while others are negative.
    Below is a detailed explanation of the effects of mining to the economies of the
    world:

    13.4.1. Positive effects of mining to the economies of the world
    The mining industry has had an influence on the economy in a number of ways,
    which may be summarized as follows:
    • Employment opportunities: There are thousands of people employed
    by the sector of mining either directly or indirectly. These people have
    their lives improved because of the salaries they earn.
    • Development of transport and communication facilities: Mining
    has influenced the establishment of varying forms of transport and
    communication infrastructures. There are feeder roads and all whether
    roads radiating from mining centers to ports and urban centers. For
    example, the Tazara railway line was constructed because of copper
    mining in Zambian.
    • Source of revenue: The companies that are involved in mining sector,
    pay taxes to the government. They must attain license and such calls
    for payment of a given fee. The revenue collected is thereafter used to
    development the country.
    • Source of foreign exchange: Mining sector contributes a lot to the
    earning of foreign exchange to the countries. Minerals are exported
    to other countries and such has enabled them to have huge sums of
    foreign currencies.
    • Urbanization of many areas: Mining operations have encouraged the
    growth and development of the urban centres. That is, many people
    move to mining areas and such increasing population numbers attract
    other infrastructural development to the area and eventually, towns
    and cities develop. The good examples are: Lubumbashi, Belfast,
    Johannesburg, and Lagos.
    • Growth and development of industries: Mining has led to the
    development of large manufacturing industries. There are industries
    engaged in smelting of mineral ores, others processing minerals to both
    semi-finished and finished goods. On the other hand, there are other
    industries that are dealing with manufacturing of mining equipment.
    • Diversification of the economy: Mining has assisted the countries
    to have another alternative economic activity. This implies that the
    countries are able not to depend on few economic activities such as
    agriculture, fishing, industrialization and tourism, the country can
    utilize the mining sector too.
    • Improved international relations: The exporting and importing
    countries always tend to have a friendly relationship. This means
    that as one provides mineral ores another provides market. This
    interdependence results into having political allies that can support
    one another times of crisis.
    • Improved standards of living: People earn income in form of wages
    and salaries which is used to better and improve their way of living,
    such as sleeping well, dressing, good shelter, acquisition of education
    for their children and meeting the domestic demands such as food,
    medical treatment among others.
    • Acquisition of skills: The people employed by the mining sector,
    learn a lot of skills through the staff development trainings. These
    skills acquired can be later utilized by individual to start up their own
    business projects.
    • Exploitation of other resources such as generation of HEP: Mining
    has influenced the tapping of other resources such as using of water
    falls in power generation such as Hydro-electric power. This so because
    of the high need for power in running of the heavy machines.
    • Tourist attraction: The mining operations and installations attract
    many people from various parts of world. These people pay a fee to
    the concerned countries and companies in concern. Such therefore,
    develops tourism which is one of the sources of foreign exchange.

    13.4.2. The negative effects of mining to economic development of     countries
    Mining industry has played a positive role in the economic development of the
    world’s countries. However, this sector is known to have contributed negatively
    to the economic development in various ways. The following are some reported
    negative effects of mining on the economic development:

    • Mining has become the chief cause of     pollution in many countries of
    the world. Waste soils, impurities, fumes from the equipment used
    and by products associated with mining operations have resulted
    in pollution of rivers and environment. This has also contributed to
    serious global warming as a result of environmental degradation.

    • The mining sector has also contributed to depletion of natural
    resources in and around mining areas. The exhaustion of minerals
    causes unemployment of miners, which becomes a challenge to the
    governments and increases overdependence ratio.

    • There are sometimes great losses incurred by the mining companies.
    This because some minerals are of low demand. Such reduces the
    investment base of the people.

    • The shortage of mineral and the fluctuation of prices make it hard for
    the economic planners to have a reliable policy designing system that
    is workable and functional. Such leaves a great gap within economic
    development. To worsen the situation, some companies fail because of
    registering losses.

    • Mining has become one of the attractive sectors that employ thousands
    of people. This has however, left other economic sectors with reduced
    productivity.

    •     Soil exhaustion land suitable for agriculture is wasted or removed
    when mining is taking place using Open cast. This has left some areas
    faced with shortage of food.

    • There is increased environmental degradation caused by the high
    demand for timber which is used in the mining sector. At the same
    time, large chucks of forested areas are cleared as minerals are being
    searched leading to deforestation.

    •     There is increased government expenditure as it tries to address
    the challenges caused by the mining sector. Such as rehabilitating
    depleted areas and filling up the deep pits left behind by the mining
    companies. The money spent would otherwise be used to develop
    other sectors that directly benefit the citizens.

    •     Displacement of people, many homesteads is involuntarily displaced
    when mining operations are to take place from a specific area. This
    breaks the social ties that families share. Resettling them in other parts
    of country too is costly.

    • Profit repatriation, most of the mining sectors are owned and
    managed by foreign companies. These have always repatriated the

    profits and leaving little for reinvestment in the country.

    • Urbanization associated effects, has partly come into existence
    because of mining operations in some areas. This has come along with
    slum developed, organized crime, and other ill-effects. All these put

    together affect the development of the economy.

    Application Activity 13.4
    1. Assess the contribution of mining on the economic development of Rwanda.
    2. Discuss negative effects of mining to the physical environment of Rwanda.

    13.5. Case studies of mining in selected countries
    Activity 13.5
    Using the geographical documents, text books and internet:
    1. Describe mining activities taking place in Russia, China and South Africa.
    2. Examine the factors that have favoured the development and
    growth of mining sector in China.
    3. Assess the contribution of mining sector to the socio-economic
    development of South Africa.

    13.5.1. Mining in Russia
    The mining industry in Russia is among the highly developed sectors in the
    country and the world at large. Russia is known for having almost all known
    minerals resources in the world. Russia has the world’s largest proven iron
    ore reserves and the world’s second largest coal reserves (20%). The mining
    industry of Russia is one of the leading mining industries in the world. Russia
    having been naturally endowed with a wide range of mineral resources, the
    country put them to better use and became the world’s leading mineral resources
    producer. It contributes up 14% of the world’s total mineral extraction, Russia
    possesses the following minerals reserve: Iron ore, Manganese, Chromium,
    Nickel, Platinum, Titanium, Copper, Tin, Lead, Tungsten, Diamonds, Gold, Oil,

    Natural gas, Coal.

    There are four major mining regions in Russia. These are:
    • Southern region of Russia which is known for coal mining and oil drilling.
    • West Siberia also known for coal and oil.
    • Urals region which is important in copper, manganese, platinum and
    tungsten mining.
    • Murmansk region which is known for exploitation of copper and lead.

    Factors that favour mining in Russia
    • The presence of a wide variety of mineral reserves, the country is
    blessed naturally with a variety of minerals that have enabled a steady
    supply of the minerals on the international market.

    •     The availability of capital from the state and from the international
    mining companies that exploit minerals in the area. This explains why
    they are able to use modern equipment as well as hiring the experts.

    •     Supportive government policies, these have favoured the
    establishment of mining companies since they are offered tax holidays
    and subsidization in times of economic hardships.

    •     The availability of both skilled and unskilled labour from the locals
    and immigrants in the country. The mining sector requires enough
    labour force. Having it at a hand’s reach provides the opportune
    moments of prosperity.

    •     Presence of advanced technology that is required in the mining
    sector. The Russian mining companies have managed to exploit the
    deeply concealed minerals and drilling of oil from off-shore oil deposits.
    This is all attributed to the availability of technology that s advanced.

    •     Adequate power supply that is required to power the sector. The
    nuclear power production as well as other forms of power and energy
    in large levels, has enabled the mining companies to operate at all time.

    •     The presence of a well-developed transport and communications
    system     needed for the transportation of minerals and their products.
    The Russia is one of the countries of the world with well-developed
    means of transport.

    The challenges faced by the mining sector in Russia
    • Depletion of mineral reserves. The prolonged period of exploiting
    minerals in Russia has left most of the mineral ore deposits exhausted.
    • There is a low discovery rate of new reserves. This has put the mining
    sector of Russia at a significant risk of having some minerals being

    expensive to get.

    • The mining sector of Russia is still devoted to the traditional
    machinery used in the reasonable years gone by.

    • High death rates, in the mining sites of Russia are very high. This is
    because the soils of Russia in places where mining is conducted are
    less consolidated such as in coalfields.

    • There is stiff competition from other countries engaged in mining     sector.
    • The mining sector is challenged with prominent levels of pollution of all kinds.
    • In some places mining has led to the displacement of people from
    their homes. In areas where mineral resources are found, in most case
    people are displaced and resettled in other places. This is costly and socially challenging.
    • Land degradation, Mining scars of exhausted areas that are completely
    of less or no importance in terms of production.

    13.5.2. Mining in China
    China is one of countries with a variety of mineral resources. In terms of
    scale and magnitude, China’s mining industry ranks third in the world. The
    mining sector in Chinese is greatly supported by high levels of technology and
    supportive government policies. The country has several minerals such as:
    gold, cobalt, iron and steel, nickel, vanadium, molybdenum and manganese.
    There are several mining centers in china, but the most dominant and major

    ones include the following:

    Mining regions and mineral produced in China

    b

    Other mining centers include Tayeh, Bayan Obo, Anshan, Shantung, Kiuchuan,
    Xinjiang and Guangzhou. An increasing demand for mineral resources has
    made the Chinese industries to supplement the locally mined minerals with the
    imported ones. The country has oil fields in Beijing, Lanzhou and Chongqing
    among other regions.

    The factors that influence the development of mining sector in China are similar
    to the ones discussed on a general perspective earlier. At the same time, refer to

    the factors that favour the development of mining sector in Russia.

    13.5.3. Mining in South Africa
    In South Africa, mining has been the main driving force behind the history and
    development of this African’s most advanced and richest economy, after Nigeria.

    Large scale mining started with the discovery of     diamond on the banks of the
    Orange River in 1867 by Erasmus Jacobs and the subsequent discovery and
    exploitation of the Kimberley pipes a few years later. This has been followed
    by the discovery of Gold in Kaapvaal Craton, chrome, platinum, vanadium,
    vermiculite, manganese are also produced in South Africa. This country is also
    a huge producer of iron ore. In 2012, it overtook India to become the world
    third biggest iron ore supplier to China.

    Diamond and gold production may now be well down from their peaks, but
    South Africa remains a cornucopia of mineral riches.

    The country is endowed with a variety of natural resources. It has large mineral
    reserves. The Republic of South Africa is the world’s largest producer of
    manganese ore, platinum group metals and gold.

    Other minerals found in South Africa include; diamond, coal, copper, uranium,

    iron ore, asbestos and silver.

    e

    The factors that have contributed to the development of mining in South Africa
    and the effects of mining in South Africa are not different from those discussed

    on general perspective of mining. You can refer to them.

    Application Activity 13.5
    1. For either Russia or China, account for the successful mining sector.
    2. Note down the lessons you have learnt from the study on mining in
    Russia and show how you can use them to improve mining sector

    in your country.

    End unit Assessment
    Study the photograph provided below and use it to answer the questions

    that follow:

    3

    The above photograph shows the pollution of water as result of mining.
    This polluted water flows to the bigger water bodies and their outlets
    further redistribute the water to other parts.

    1. Assess the impact of mining on the environment.
    2. Suppose you were living in the area where this photograph was
    taken, explain the challenges you are more likely to face.
    3. Create a program which aims at addressing the negative impact of
    mining on the physical environment.
    4. Identify and explain the environmental concerns associated with mining

    ◄UNIT 12:AGRICULTURE IN THE WORLDUNIT 14:POWER AND ENERGY PRODUCTION IN THE WORLD►