Farming (Agriculture and Animal husbandry)

Key Unit Competence:

 Learners should be able to successfully conduct rearing of poultry and pig.

6.1 Learning Objectives 

(i) Knowledge and understanding 

(ii) Skills 

(iii) Attitudes and values 

Introduction 

Animal production is a very important component of agriculture in Rwanda. Various species of animals are kept to produce different products. Poultry, for example, produce eggs and meat while pigs produce pork and bacon. Pig skin is used to produce suede which is used to prepare different leather products. These animals should be properly fed and kept in well prepared structures to protect them from bad weather elements and predators. The structures should also be spacious and easy to clean so as to prevent disease infection. Poultry is a class of domesticated birds which include chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, pigeon and ostriches. They are mostly kept in farm under confinement, though some are kept under free range systems.  

Pigs are mammals with stout bodies, flat snouts, small eyes and large ears. When in the wild, they are social animals and live on roots of plants, fruits and fleshy leaves. However, when domesticated, they are mostly kept in confinement and are fed on grain offals and kitchen swill. 

Analyse the above photograph carefully: 

1. What are the consequences of humans living with animals in the same house? 

2. Prepare the possible solutions to the above problem? 

6.2 Standards of aviary and pigsty 

Activity 6.1:  A field visit to a non-ruminant farm where poultry and pigs are reared to observe shelters, materials they are made of and how they are arranged

Make a field visit to a non-ruminant farm where poultry and pigs are reared and then carry out the following activities: 

1. Aviary 

An aviary is a large enclosure for confining poultry.

A standard aviary should allow the poultry sufficient space to: 

Stocking rate 

Standard stocking rate in the battery cage system, each bird is allowed 400cm square of the cage surface while in the deep litter system, the stocking rate is, 4-6 layers, 11-15 broiler birds per square metre. 

Conditions for a suitable aviary 

Birds require regular exercises and mental stimulation. It is important to ensure that these needs are met when housing them; consider: 

(a) Space 

This depends on  the size of poultry. It should allow free  movement and flight without causing injuries. Poultry need a lot of vertical space for flight. 

(b) Perches and roosts 

They need movable perches and other objects to play with when interacting with each other. 

(c) Other factors 

Houses should also be provided with:  

(d)  The houses should also be: 

2.  Pigsty  

This is an enclosure for raising domestic pigs. 

Pigs need dry bed and protection from extreme temperature and sun. They need enough space, fresh air hygiene, access to feed and water and good sleeping area. 

Conditions for a suitable pigsty 

(a) Environment  requirement

(i) Temperature: The critical temperature requirement for pigs vary according to their total body weight and the house conditions. Newborn piglets need 27–35˚C while adults can  manage up to 16˚C. Chilly effects are fatal. High temperatures  can be reduced by spray or cooling the house with water.  

(ii) Drought: Droughty conditions lower temperature and make the house chilly. Cracks on the walls should be sealed to prevent drought. Wind breaks should be provided.  

(iii) Dryness: A dry concrete floor warms easily. Dry bedding of straw or wood shavings should be spread on the concrete to provide insulation.  

(iv) Ventilation and insulation: Fresh  air in the building  is important to remove water vapour, carbon dioxide, ammonia, airborne dust, bacteria and odours. However, the walls should be well insulated to prevent loss of heat through conduction.

(b) Building orientation 

The buildings should be constructed facing away from the direction of  the wind. Selected trees can be planted in the shelter belt to break the wind. 

(c) Hygiene  

Sheds should be clean, dry and dust-free to reduce disease infections. Pig sheds should have sufficient effluent channels to remove manure and dirty water. 

(d) Space  

Stocking rate should be checked to prevent reducing the performance of the pigs. Minimum floor space requirement is as follows: 

(e) Feeding and watering  

Each pig requires adequate access to feed and water. Poor access leads to uneven growth, impaired feed conversion efficiency and increased proportion of poor graded pigs. 

Feeding 

The space required per pig at the feed trough is as follows: 

(i) At eight weeks (weaners ) – 0.15 m/pig 

(ii) Growers – 0.25 m/pig 

(iii) Finishers – 0.3 m/pig (iv) Breeding stock – 0.45 m/pig 

Watering 

Water should be available all the time. It should be clean, cool and good quality. Bite-type nipples or pressure plate operated bowl drinkers can be used for the weaners. At least one drinker for every 6–8 weaners. 

Growers  and finishers should have one drinker for every 10–15 pigs. At least 140–160  litres of water per sow per day but when flushing, 250–300 litres per sow per day.

(f) pens 

(i) Pen floor: The pen floor should be partly or fully slatted  for ease of cleaning. However, sold concrete is also used. 

(ii) Dry sows: Can be housed individually or in groups. However, if housed in groups, they should be protected from aggression by other sows  especially during early pregnancy. This can cause embryos  to dislodge from the uterine wall and die. Each sow should be allowed a space of 1.4 m2 on the floor. 

(iii) Farrowing and  suckling pens: Farrowing crates and heated creeps increase piglet survival. Crates are adjustable to fit the growth of the piglets. Farrowing pens should be 2.1 m × 1.65 m, 2.1 m × 1.8 m or 1.8 m × 1.8 m. The floor should remain dry and artificial heating  is incorporated. 

(iv) Grower pens: Weaners are reared in grower pens from 10 weeks of age. To prevent growth setbacks and stress, regular movements should be avoided. Enough space should be provided. 

(v) Boars pens: This pen is used for holding mature boar for mating. The space provided should cater for boar and sow during mating. A breeding crate is installed. 

(g) Location  

Sufficient distance between piggery, ponds, manure or used bedding disposal areas to prevent odours. Waste should not be drained into natural water sources such as rivers. 

6.3 Fitting materials to construct aviary and pigsty 

Activity 6.2: A research activity to find out the type of materials used to construct an aviary and pigsty, and how they are arranged

Note: In this activity, you will be required to use the observation and the findings from the field visit conducted in Activity  6.1 to carry out the following activities: 

Aviaries and pigsties require different construction materials: 

(a)  Choice of materials 

When choosing the materials to construct aviaries and pigsties, the following factors should be considered: 

• Suitability to the weather conditions of the area – Materials which resist the climatic condition should be chosen. 

• Availability – It is important to use local materials which are easily available. 

• Cost of the materials – Cost should be analysed against benefits. The poultry or piggery project should be able to pay for the  cost of building within a specified period. Affordable  materials  should be used. Cost of maintenance after  construction should be considered. 

• Durability – Materials which are long lasting should be used to avoid frequent replacement. 

(b) Skills for handling and using the materials when constructing should be available. 

(c) Risks against fire, pollution of the surrounding areas and health of the birds and pigs should be a major factor to consider. 

(d) Future modification and expansion of the building incase production level changes. 

(e) Conformity with the existing government policies. 

The following materials are used for construction of aviaries and pigsties: 

(i) Timber: 

This is used to construct the roof structure, walls and sometimes the floor if it  is slatted. It should be treated so that it lasts longer. Timber can be used in form of posts, plywood frames or logs. Workability  of the timber should also be considered. It should be easy to saw, shape or nail. It is easier to work with softwood when constructing aviaries and piggeries other than hard wood. It should  be used in places where it does not come into contact with water frequently. This will avoid rotting.

 (ii) Bricks: These are sun-dried  mud blocks or they can be fire burned to make them last longer. They are used to construct the walls. 

(iii) Cement 

Cement is used to bind and hold the bricks together. It is hydrated with water and mixed with sand to make mortar. The mixture is placed between the bricks and also as plaster to smoothen the walls and floors. 

(iv) Concrete  

This is a mixture of sand, cement and stones commonly called gravel or ballast. Water is in correct proportions. When the mixture sets, it forms a hard stone-like structure. The relative proportions of cement, water and the aggregates influence the binding  and the strength of the concrete. It produces a fairly expensive building when used. 

Normal mixtures of the ingredients depend on where the blocks are to be used, for example, concrete  floors, floor slabs and walls of pigs  and poultry housing require  1:3:4 ratios of cement, sand and ballast. 

(v) Roofing sheets  

These are used as roofing materials. They can also be used for the walls. 

Materials used for roofing should: 

The following materials can be used for roofing: 

(vi) Wire mesh  

Wooden wires are used to construct half of the wall on the leeward side of the shelter. This allows proper ventilation of the shelter. 

(vii) Hinges  

These are used  to fix doors, windows and gates. They allow free movement when opening and closing the house. 

(viii) Fasteners  

These are used to hold building materials together. They include: 

(a) Nails – These are used to hold the timber together. Different sizes of nails are used depending on the thickness of timber.  

(b) Screws – These are stronger than nails hence used where more joining power is required.  

(c) Bolts and nuts  – These are used where stronger joints are needed. They provide more strength than nails and screws. They should be used with washers to prevent the nuts from sinking into wood. 

6.4 Aviary and pigsty construction 

Activity 6.3:  A practical activity to construct a standardised aviary and a pigsty 

Using the materials provided, carry out the following activities: 

Proper planning and purchase of construction materials should be done. It is  important to consider the type, size and the cost of house required.

(a) Aviary construction 

To construct a deep litter poultry house for 200 birds, the following materials are required: 

These materials can be replaced with any other alternative as long as they are cheap and easily available. A building has three parts; the floor, walls and the roof. 

Construction of the floor 

A smooth  concrete floor is recommended. It is durable, vermin proof,  easy to clean and  disinfect. It should have a concrete thickness  of 80 mm –100 mm. The concrete should be mixed at a ratio  of 1:2:4 or 1:3:5. The floor base should be raised about 150 mm high with hardcore compaction before the concrete mixture is poured. 

Construction of the walls 

1. A stone or masonary wall is built from the concrete floor and raised about 1000 mm high all round. 

2. Strong  timber frames of 2 × 4 inches are set all round into the concerete floor about 500 mm deep. They should be at a distance of 1 mm from each other. These frames will support the roof and the timber offcuts, for the walls. The walls should be 2.5 m high at the  front and 2 m high at the back. 

3. The offcuts are nailed on the timber frames about 2 m high at  the back and 1.5 m high at the front to form the wall as shown in fig. 6.12. This is for a half gabble house. 

4. A door  space of 3 ft wide and 1.25 m high is left at the front. A ventilation space of 1 m high should be left at the front. 

5. Chicken wire mesh is then nailed to cover the whole width  of the ventilator space at the front. 

Construction of the roof 

(i) Timber  frames of about 2 × 2 ft are nailed on the timber set vertically into the concrete floor horizontally to form the roof. These horizontal timber are called purlins. Roofing materials are fixed on these purlins. 

(ii) Corrugated iron sheets are fixed on the purlins. A roof overhang of 500 mm is allowed both sides to protect the walls from rain and sun. 

Fixing the door 

The door is fixed with 2–3 hinges and screws. The door should be timber and should open inwards. Fig . 6.14 shows the type of wooden doors  to be used. 

(b) Pigsty  construction 

A pigsty is divided into several units called  pens which house different  pigs according to  age, sex and development stages. 

Materials and quantities required 

(a) The floor – The materials used for the floor  and walls should be resistant to rotting to allow daily washing. They should also resist strong chemicals  such as disinfectants and detergents. The floor should be smooth and flat to prevent injuries. The pens can be fitted with water troughs and feed troughs which can be permanent or movable to allow  cleaning. Pens for boars are fitted  with breeding crates while the farrowing pens require farrowing crates. The floor should have a slope towards the  outside to allow drainage of water and urine. 

(b) The walls – They should be concrete or raised about 30 cm high with concrete or stone to allow cleaning.  The rest of the walls are wooden or made of iron sheets, where the ambient temperatures allow. 

(c) The roof – It is made of properly insulated materials such as asbestos or iron sheets if insulation is provided. 

House partitions 

Pens are partitioned according to the requirement of the types of pigs to be housed. Each pen consists of: 

(i) The breeding or mating pen 

This pen is used to house mature boar kept for service. It should be 6 m × 3 m. The pen is large enough to accommodate both the sow and the boar during mating. 

(ii) The  farrowing pens 

Each  pen should measure about 2.4 m × 1.52 m. It should be closed type with walls measuring 2.5 m to 3 m high and window space on the leeward side. It should have guard rails places 0.2 m from the ground and 0.2 m from the walls. A space of 1.5 – 2 m² should be left as a the creep area. 

(iii) Growing or finishing pig unit Growers or finishers are mostly raised on concrete or slatted floor. Solid walls  for the unit are about 1.2 m high while the rest is covered with wire mesh. The roof is about 2.4 m to 3 m high at the high side and 1.8 m to 2 m at the lower side. Each pen should be 2.4 m – 3 m × 9.3 m.

Other requirements 

(a) Design – The building  can be narrow with pens on one side and an alley on  the other side as shown in figure 6.18. 

The building can also be wide with several pens on both sides  and an alley in the middle as shown. 

(b) Each pen should have a sleeping area, feed and water troughs and a dunging area. Walls for the dunging should be 1.5 m high to allow the sun. Thus  the dunging  area is also known as sunning area, where the pigs go to bask. 

(c) Where the floor is concrete, it should slope about 3 cm – 4 cm towards the drainage gutters in the alley. Warm bedding should be provided in the sleeping area. 

(d) Where possible, instead of concrete water troughs, automatic water nipples can be fixed.

6.5 Non-ruminant (poultry and pig) feeding

Activity 6.4: A field visit to a poultry and pig farm to find out their feeding and feeding plans 

Make a visit to a poultry and pig farm and carry out the following activities: 

When kept under free range poultry forage for most of their feeds, they eat insects’ grain spilled by other animals and some plants around the farm. They are also given kitchen swill to supplement with forage. Poultry kept in confinement are fed from their houses. Their feed consists mostly of grain and other by-products from food processing industries. 

Poultry and pigs are non-ruminant animals. Non-ruminant animals are animals with only one stomach compartment and therefore they cannot break down food with a lot of crude fibre. These animals are also referred to as monogastric. Like humans, poultry and pigs are omnivorous. Fig. 6.20 (a) and (b) show the digestive systems of poultry and pigs respectively.

Unlike the ruminants, poultry and pigs do not have the rumen-reticulum complex which harbours micro-organisms for breaking down crude fibre. However, both have caeca which harbour a few micro-organisms. This means that they can handle very little fibre in their diet. The diets of poultry and pigs should consist of fibre from soft vegetables such as kales, cabbages and others, energy proteins, vitamins and minerals. These feeds are given as concentrates in form of mash, pellets or cakes. They are given in dry form and therefore poultry and pigs need to be given plenty of clean water always.

 Exercise 6.1 

The following illustrations show different types of feedstuffs given to animals in the farm. Study them carefully and identify the ones that are fed to poultry and pigs. 

6.5.1 Food for pigs

Activity 6.5:   A research activity to find out feed diet given to pigs

Use the references provided to carry out the following activities: 

Pig diet is composed of the following: 

(a) Grain offals  

Like poultry, pigs eat grain offals such as grain hulls, bran germ, gluten, middlings, grain screenings, groats, mill run, maize hominy, rice polishings, wheat red dog and wheat shorts. 

(b) Industrial by-products  

The primary  aim of using industrial by-products to feed pigs is to reduce the cost of raising pigs. A variety of by-products are available for pig diets. They include:

(c) Tubers  

Root tubers  constitutes a rich source of carbohydrate energy in the diet of pigs. The energy in roots is in form of starch which is similar in starch from cereals. The root tubers include:

• Cassava: Cassava roots contain 30 – 40% dry matter depending on variety, soil type, moisture and age of the roots, with starch being  about 90% of the total  dry matter. They have 2 – 4% crude protein. The roots also contain vitamin C, thiamine, riboflavin and niacin.

• Sweet potato: Sweet potato roots contain high starch content, vitamin A, ascorbic acid, thiamine, riboflavin and niacin. Fresh vines also provide up to 27% dry matter, 40% protein for growing and finishing pigs. 

(d) Blood flour  

This is also known  as blood meal. It is a dry powder made from animal blood. It usually comes from livestock slaughter house by-product. It is collected during slaughter, dried and made into blood meal.

Blood meal contains protein and is used to supplement diets based on cereal grain plant and by-products and forages. The method used to  dry the blood does not affect the nutritional quality of the protein in the meal.

Methods  of drying blood 

(i) Batch dry rendering – It involves the cooking of whole blood in a jacketed cylindrical cooker that is heated indirectly by steam at a high pressure. 

(ii) Ring dried rendering – This involves coagulating the blood by steam heating. The coagulum is centrifuged and dried with hot gas in a ring drier. 

(iii) Spray dried rendering – Spray dried blood meal is manufactured using a similar 

method for skim milk powder. In this case, the liquid blood is sprayed inside a warm chamber and then becomes fine powder instantly. 

Ring dried and spray dried blood meal have a greater content of total and available amino acids which is of better nutritional quality. Blood  meal can also be solar or oven dried by small-scale farmers. Blood  is collected in large pans and boiled slowly while constant stirring. It is reduced to a moisture content of  10 –12%  and then spread on a concrete floor for sun-drying. 

It is fed mixed with bran or other by-products from cereal grains. Drum drying is also done where raw blood  is made to form a free-flowing slurry that is deposited onto the surface of a heated drier drum to form a film. The film is rapidly dried and scraped off and made in flakes. 

(e)  Grasses 

Pigs pick some grass from the sunning yard and when foraging. However, the digestive system is not adopted to digest the cellulose in grass  since they have a simple stomach. Therefore, pigs make little use of grass. Fresh grass contain a lot of vitamins and water.  The grass provides the roughage needed to facilitate the movement of food through the gut and, therefore, prevent constipation. 

(f)  Concentrates 

This is a feedstuff which contain high nutritional value and little  fibre.  There are two types of concentrate feeds,  the  energy concentrates and the protein concentrate. While the energy concentrates contain high carbohydrate content for energy, the protein concentrate are rich in proteins. The concentrates fed to pigs are well balanced with carbohydrates, proteins, vitamins and minerals. The type of concentrate feeds given to pigs depends on the age, size, breeding stage and environment.

(g)  Water  

Water is the most abundant compound and performs important functions in the body of pigs. Pigs require water for various reasons, which include, metabolic functions, adjustment of body temperature, movements of nutrients into the body tissues, removal of metabolic waste, production of milk and for growth and reproduction. In general, pigs require 9 – 23 litres of water per day depending on the production stage. 

Oil cake  

These  are coarse residues obtained after oil is extracted from the oil seeds. They are rich in proteins, minerals and are valuable as feeds. The feed is in form of a solid compressed/solid cake. There are  different types of oil cakes: 

            Fig. 6.25: Oil pressing mill (extraction) 

6.5.2. Food for poultry

Activity 6.6: Research activity for find out food diet for poultry

Using the reference provided, carry out the following activities: 

Poultry diet consists of the following: 

(a) Grain offals (grain by-products ) 

The common cereal offals or by-products fed to poultry include: 

(b) Insects  

Non-confined poultry fed for themselves. The larger part of their food consists of insects, vegetation and sand particles. Confined bird can also  be raised on insects. The insects provide the birds with protenous  feed, iron, calcium and omega. Insects such as silk worms, locusts, crickets, fly larvae, earthworms and grasshoppers  are safe to feed poultry. 

(c) Fodder for feeding poultry  

Poultry is a class of birds which are non-ruminants and, therefore, cannot handle a lot of roughages. They can be fed on  sprouted fodder. 

Feeding sprouted fodder to supplement the normal layers mash has the following benefits:

Procedure for sprouting fodder 

Chick fodder cakes 

Sprouted fodder is also used to feed brooder chicks. It is fed in form of “fodder cakes”. 

It has the following advantages: 

The “fodder cakes” are  small containers which may be round or rectangular in shape. It is grown using the same procedure as the sprouted  fodder. 

Graminae’s grains  

They are grains from cereal crops. The most important cereal grains being maize, rice, wheat, barley and sorghum. They are edible  seeds from the grass crops. These crops belong to the family graminae agronomically. The seeds mostly form a caryopsis which is a fruit with fused testa. The  grains are processed into products such as starch, malt, biofuel and sweeteners (high fructose syrup). Their by-products form the bulk of poultry feed called grain from offals. 

Blood flour  

A dry powder made from animal's blood which is also fed to poultry  as well as pigs which are described under food for pigs on page 290 of this book. It is fed to different types of poultry as follows: 

• In broilers – Blood meal is a good protein source which is used to replace fish meal. It results in improved performance and greater profits. 

• Laying hens – Blood meal is palatable as other  animal products. Sundried blood meal is given at 4.5% of the birds diet. It increases feed intake, live weight gain, egg weight and yolk colour. It also improves iron (Fe) content in yolks. 

However, it should not be used to replace soyabean meals fully in layers diets since it can cause undesirable flavour in eggs. 

(f) Oil cakes  

Poultry is also fed on seed cakes which are compressed by-products of oil extraction. The most common oil seeds used as cotton seeds are sunflower, groundnuts and palm kernel cake. 

6.5.3 Pig feeding according to the development stage

Activity 6.7:  A research activity to make feeding plans for pigs and feeding pigs according to the development stage 

Using the references and materials provided, carry out the following activities: 

Pigs  have fast growth rate and  reach maturity within 5–7 months. They are prolific and provide a rapid rate of returns to capital invested. However, pigs require high quality well balanced feeds. They tend to compete with humans for feedstuffs such as cereal grains, legumes and tubers, since they are monogastric.

The nutritional needs for pigs change each week for nursery piglets and each month for the grower pigs. The nutritional quality of the feed especially protein level should be correct for the pigs at each stage. The protein requirement for the different stages are as follows: 

The  type of concentrate feed given to the pigs depends on the stage of growth as follows: 

Creep feeding 

Creep feeding is specifically formulated for piglets from 10 days old to weaning at 8 weeks old. It is easily digestible and is high in proteins about 20–23%. It is low in fibre content. The name creep is derived from the fact that it is placed in the section of the pen called creep area. This is where the piglets can reach but not the sow. Creep feeding should start when the piglets are 10–14 days of age and continue up to weaning. It introduces the young piglets to dry feed consumption. 

Feeding orphaned piglets 

Piglets can be orphaned due to the death of the mother after farrowing or from lack of milk in the mother due to poor health. They can be raised as follows: 

Feeding the growers 

Growers are the weaned pigs  which are prepared for sale, slaughter or breeding. They are fed on a complete balanced diet in sufficient quantities. They are given sow and weaner meal containing 16% protein immediately after weaning. However, during the finishing period from 23 kg to slaughter  weight, they are fed on pig finisher meal with 14% protein. They should be given plenty of clean water in water trough or nipples. 

Feeding the breeding stock 

The growing pigs which are being prepared for breeding are called the breeding stock. They include gilts and young boars. Older breeders such as pregnant and dry sows are also part of the breeding stock. They are fed on sow and weaner meal which is well balanced at a rate of 1.8 – 2 kg per day. It contains 14% protein.

Lactating gilts and sows should be fed 15% crude protein diet  at the rate of 3 kg per day for the sow and an addition of 0.25 kg per day for every piglet. The quantities of feed given to each group of pig is as shown in table 6.1.

Creep pellets should be mixed gradually with pig finisher meal for the fattening pigs from 43–56 days (7–8 weeks) of age for gilts and barrows meant for breeding. 

Creep pellets should be mixed gradually with sow and weaner meal from the age of 43–56 days (7–8 weeks) in preparation for weaning. The quantities  of feed given to the fattening pigs is shown in table 6.2.

Pregnant (in pig) sows and gilts should be given sow and weaner meal according  to stage of gestation as shown in table 6.3. 

Note that sow and weaner meal is reduced for the pregnant sow or gilt so that it is feeding on 1kg by the end of gestation. The reduced feed is replaced with bran at the same rate to avoid constipation. Lactating sows should be given sow and weaner meal. 

Table 6.4 shows the feeding plan for lactating sows.

The frequency of feeding per day should be  as follows: 

Water requirement 

Clean water should be given adilibutum, that is, throughout the day and night. Pigs should drink water as they require since the feeds they eat are dry. Table 6.5 shows the amount of minimum water required per pig per day. 

6.5.4 Poultry feeding according to stage of  development, species and breed 

Activity 6.8:  A research activity to make feeding plans for poultry to stage of development, species and breed

Using the references and materials provided, carry out the following activities: 

Poultry production is divided into three categories: 

In all these cases, feeding of the birds depend on the species, type of breed and the stage of development. There are three types of concentrate feeds given to poultry depending on the development stage. 

Feeding plan for layer birds 

Chick and duck mash should be fed to the birds in the first eight weeks. This should be followed by growers mash up to 2 weeks before the start of lay. Birds are then put on layers mash  up to the end of production. During the changes of the rations, the two rations should be mixed so that the change is gradual.  

                                Table 6.6 shows layers feeding plan. 

Feeding plans for broilers or meat birds 

Broiler birds have been genetically selected for rapid growth rate and efficient feed conversion. They are fed throughout to ensure full market size within a specific period. 

The feeding of broiler involves two diets and uses phase feeding system as follows:

(c) Each level is fortified with toxin binder to kill toxins which may be contaminating the feed. It also contains probiotics to kill pathogens. 

The quantities of each feed per bird is shown in table 6.7. Water is given adilibitum. 

6.6 Pig and poultry, parasites and diseases

Activity 6.9:  A field visit to farms where pigs and poultry are reared to find out parasites and diseases of pigs and poultry, and how they are controlled 

 Make a visit to farms where pigs and poultry are reared and carry out the following activities: 

(i) Find out the type of parasites and diseases that affect pigs and poultry. 

(ii) Observe the parasites and diseases that attack pigs and poultry and match each disease or parasites with the characteristics. 

(iii) Discuss and record your findings. 

(iv) Present teacher’s summary notes. 

Pigs and poultry parasites – These are parasites which attack pigs and poultry  in the farm. Pigs and poultry parasites are divided into two categories namely; 

6.6.1 External parasites of pigs 

These parasites attack the external part of the body either on or under skin. Pigs are attacked by  the following external parasites:

(i) Ticks  

The type of tick that attacks pig is known as the bont legged tick (Amblomma spp). It is common in confined pigs. 

Preferred sites – The larvae and nymphs are found attached under the tail, udder, scrotum  and tail bristles.   

Disease transmitted – This  tick transmits sweating sickness in pigs which also  affects cattle, sheep and goats. 

Control –  Spraying and dusting the pig and bedding with acaricides. 

(ii) Sarcoptic mange mite 

This is a small greyish-white, round parasite of about 0.5 mm in size.

Sites  of attack – It  is found encrusted in the ears. It is spread   to the piglets by the sow.  It dies quickly if the pen is vacated for 5 days. 

Damage – It  causes severe  hypersensitivity or allergy in sow. 

Symptoms 

(i) The pig shakes the ears vigorously and severe rubbing of the skin against the pen walls.  

(ii) It produces small  red pimples on the skin, covering the whole body. 

(iii) In chronic form, there is encrustations on the ears and sides of the neck, elbows and the top of the neck.

Control 

• Maintain biosecurity measures, that is, the incoming stock should be thoroughly investigated and sprayed. 

• Spraying with miticides regularly. 

• Leave the pen – vacant for three days clean and disinfect thoroughly.

(iii) Lice – Pig lice (Haemotopinus suis) 

It has piercing and suckling  mouth parts. It is greyish-brown in colour with black markings. 

Sites of attack – The louse  is seen in all parts of the body especially the skin folds of neck, jowl, flanks, inner legs and ears. It  is spread through contact during huddling and from infested pens. 

Damage – Causes anaemia in young pigs and affect growth rate and feed efficiency. 

Control 

(iv) Ringworms 

Fungal disease found in both outdoor and indoor pigs. It affects pigs at all ages. 

Cause – Microsporum nanum is the most common fungal infection in pigs. Higher infections are experienced in unhygienic conditions, where the stocking rate is high with high humidity and dirty bedding. 

Symptoms  

(i) Lesions found all over the body. 

(ii) Circular spots which enlarge to cover a big area. 

(iii) The skin turn reddish to light brown. 

Control 

• Maintenance of proper sanitation through removal of used dirty  and wet bedding. 

• Provide antibiotics to infected pigs. 

(v) Other external parasites 

• Mosquitoes – bite and irritate the pigs. 

• Flies – cause annoyance  and may transmit infectious diseases such as salmonellosis. 

Irritation and annoyance may through the pig off-feed leading to poor growth and loss of weight. 

6.6.2 Internal parasites of pigs Pigs 

performance is influenced by internal parasites greatly. They can also kill young pigs. 

Effects: Internal parasite infestations in pigs lead to the following effects: 

1. Pork tapeworm (Taenia solium) 

This tapeworm is an intestinal zoonotic parasite prevalent in areas where pork is eaten. The adult worm is white, flat with segmented body. It has a distinct head called scolex with suckers and hooks for attachment. It uses two hosts to complete  its life cycle. The intermediate host is the pig and humans are the definitive hosts.

Transmission – It is transmitted to pigs through human faeces or contaminated fodder and to humans through uncooked or undercooked pork. Its life cycle is as follows: 

• Pigs ingest infective eggs which develop into larvae. 

• The larvae enter into the muscles  of the pig and form a bladder worm called  cysticercus. It has an inverted scolex. 

• Once the pork  is eaten by human, the cystercercus everts itself and attaches on the walls of the intestines. 

• It grows proglottids which are shed off when mature from human with faeces and the cycle repeats again. 

Symptoms 

(i) General emaciation. 

(ii) Scouring especially in piglets. 

(iii) Oedematous swelling on the muscles especially the jaw muscles. 

(iv) Parasite segments (proglottids) are seen in the  feaces. 

(v) Anaemia especially in piglets.

2. Red stomach worm (Hyostongylus rubidus) 

This is a blood sucking nematode which is found in the pasture. They invade the stomach and may lead to gastritis, submucosal oedema and formation of ulcers. 

Symptoms 

3. Large roundworm (Ascaris suum) 

This is the most important gastro-intestinal  worm of pigs. It is common in growing pigs than in adult pigs. Female worms are large than the males.  

Damage 

Heavy infestation may lead to blockage of small intestines and bile ducts.  

Symptoms 

4. Other parasites include: 

Internal  parasite control 

To control internal parasites in pigs, good sanitation and adequate nutrition are important measures. These help in reducing the adverse effects of infestation. The major method of transmission is through contamination of food, soil or bedding with faeces or urine. The usual disinfectants may not kill eggs, larvae and worms hence the following measures: 

• Thorough cleaning of the houses and equipment with detergent and steam or hot water. 

• Burning of infected surfaces and bedding materials. 

• Use of hydrated lime mixed with water to wash all the surfaces and equipment. 

• Therapeutic treatment of pigs with  anthelmintics can be carried out through deworming. However, this is a temporary measure unless the conditions for trasmisison are completely removed. 

• For tapeworm control, meat should be cooked properly, freezing to 40oC for 24 hours, good hygiene with proper disposal of human waste. 

6.6.3  External parasites of poultry 

(i) Chicken mites –  These are also called red mites or roost mites. They suck blood from the birds. Egg production drops and young chicken may die. Chicken mites hide in cracks and crevices during the day. 

(ii) Scaly leg mites – They cause scaly  legs and live under these scales on the feet and legs of chicken. Heavy infestation may cause rough appearance and enlargement of the legs. 

(iii) Poultry lice – The most common type of lice poultry is body louse. Other lice that attack poultry include fluff, wing, shaft and head lice all of which are chewing lice. Infected birds loose weight, egg production, drops  and young birds may die.

(iv) Fowl tick – These ticks are dark-coloured blood suckers. They hide in cracks during the day and attack the birds when sleeping. 

(v) Fleas and bedbugs – These are also blood suckers  and may become a problem in the poultry house. Fleas stay on the birds while bedbugs feed on the bird at night  and hide during the day. 

(vi) Flies – These do not attack poultry. However, they may become nuisance around the house and heavy infestation maybe a problem with neighbours. 

 Exercise 6.2 

Table 6.8 shows photographs of external parasites of poultry. Study them carefully then identify each one of them and state their effects in poultry. 

Control of external parasites 

6.6.4  Internal parasites of poultry 

Internal parasites that affect poultry include large round worms, crop worms, cecal worms, tapeworms, flukes, gapeworms and gizzard worms.

(i) Large roundworms 

These are nematodes which spend their entire life cycle in the small intestines. The eggs pass out with dropping  and have to go through a period of development before they infect other poultry. When in large numbers, they may block the movement of food through the intestines. 

(ii) Tapeworms  

Eggs of tapeworms develop in an intermediate host such as flies, beetles, slugs, earthworms or grasshoppers before they are picked by the birds. Poultry is the definitive host. The eggs develop in small intestines of the chickens and start laying eggs which pass out with droppings. This parasite also affects quails, turkeys and guinea fowls. 

(iii) Gizzard worms  

Gizzard worms have an indirect life cycle. That is, the eggs develop in an intermediate host such as grasshoppers, weevils and certain species of beetles.  When the infected host is swallowed by poultry, the larvae develop into a mature parasite and invade the gizzard of the chicken. They lay eggs which pass out with droppings. This parasite also affects turkeys. 

(iv) Cecal worms  

They are found only in the ceca of chicken. The chicken, ingest eggs from the soil or by eating eggs from the soil or by eating infected earthworms. The parasite also affects ducks, geese, guinea fowl, pea fowl, pheasants and turkeys.

(v) Gape worm  

These worms use two hosts to complete their life cycle. They use earthworms, snails, slugs, houseflies or centipedes as intermediate host and poultry as definitive host. They also occur in turkeys, pheasants, guinea fowls and other wild birds. The adult males and females are permanently attached to each other. They are found attached to the lining of the trachea and eggs are coughed out by the birds or pass out with droppings. 

Control of internal parasites in poultry 

This can be done through: 

6.6.5 Pig diseases  

Activity 6.10: A research to find out the diseases that commonly attack pigs, their causes, symptoms, damages and control measures 

Use the references provided to carry out the following activities: 

Disease  is a condition where the harmony in the function of body organs is upset and disturbed. It can result in large losses of profit for pig and poultry keepers. In prevention, sound knowledge of the disease, characteristics and use of modern drugs is important. 

The  most common pig diseases include taeniasis pasteurellosis, brucellosis, porcine epidemic diarrhoea and coccidiosis. 

(a) Taeniasis 

This disease affects pigs from  tapeworm infestation. It is also known as cysticercosis. Cysticercosis is a tissue infection caused by the larvae stage cysts of the tapeworm.

Cause 

Pigs develop cysticercosis from swallowing the tapeworm eggs in the feaces from an infected human. The eggs hatch in the small intestines and larvae migrate throughout the body forming cysts in the muscles. The cysts can form in the brain causing a condition called neurocysticercosis. 

Symptoms 

The symptoms vary depending on the  part of the body where the cysts form.

(i) Muscles – If the cysts form in the muscles, there will be lumps on the under skin, which may be visible or felt. 

(ii) Eyes – Cysts may float in the eyes and cause blurred vision or a detached retina. 

(iii) Brain, spinal cord neurocysticercosis which cause seizure, loss of body balance and death. 

(iv) Liver and lungs – The cysts cause cysticercosis disease or fever.

Control  

Control tapeworm infection in human through proper sanitation. 

(b) Pasteurellosis 

This disease is also known as Haemorrhagic septicaemia. It is an infectious disease affecting cattle, sheep and pigs. It is common where animals are overcrowded. Young animals are more suspectible than older animals. 

Cause 

It is caused by the  bacterium Pasteurella septicum 

Symptoms 

The acute form of the disease is characterised by: 

There may be diarrhoea with blood spots  in the chronic form.

Damages  

Loss of animals through death which may occur in 12–36 hours. 

Control and treatment 

Treatment can be given using sulphonamides or antibiotics. Animals can be vaccinated with a P1-3/pasteurella vaccine every  six months. Proper housing and feeding also control the disease. However, chronic cases should be slaughtered and destroyed. 

(c) Brucellosis 

Also known as contagious abortion. It is a bacterial disease affecting pigs, cattle, sheep and goats. It is zoonotic, contagious  and infectious. 

Cause 

Brucellosis is caused by the bacterium Brucella suis in pigs. It is spread through ingestion of infected tissues or fluids. Infected boars may transmit the disease to the sows during service. 

Symptoms 

Abortion of about 0–80% of the infected cases which may occur early in gestation and may not be detected. Sterility in sows, gilts and boars can occur. Orchitis and reduced libido in boars. 

Control and prevention 

• Testing and culling or isolating the cases that test positive. 

• Slaughtering and burning  the infected animals. 

• Intensive disinfection after handling  infected materials. 

Damage 

Large loss of animals through death. 

(d) Porcine epidemic diarrhoea (PED) 

This is a condition of severe diarrhoea which affects pigs. It is not zoonotic hence does not pose any risk to other animals including humans. 

Cause  

It  is caused  by a coronavirus which infects the cells lining the small intestines of a pig. The virus is spread via the faecal-oral route, that is, the infected faeces of pigs. This faeces can be brought in by trucks, human boots and clothes. The virus is not systematic and does not enter other tissues. 

Symptoms 

In adult swines, the disease is mild and mortalities are rare. The pigs may suffer from acute watery diarrhoea and mild fever, loss of appetite and listlessness. Newborn piglets die within  five days of infection. This disease has high mobility rate but low mortality rate in pigs. 

Control  

(e) Coccidiosis 

This is a protozoan disease that attack all animals including man. 

Cause 

Coccidiosis is caused by a group of protozoan parasites known as coccidia of Eimeria spp. Pigs are affected by a specific coccidian which infects the lining of the alimentary canal. It is common in pens that are not cleaned well. 

Symptoms 

The disease is common in sucking piglets 5–15 days old  but occasionally in finishers and adults. Diarrhoea in piglets due to damage caused to the walls  of the small intestines. This is followed by secondary bacterial infections.  The animals produce faeces which vary in consistency and colour from yellow to grey-green or bloody according to the severity of the  disease. 

Damage 

The parasite damages the walls of the pig's intestines leading to secondary infection of bacteria and virus. These infections may kill the pig. They become thin quickly and die from dehydration. 

Control 

Exercise 6.3 

Table 6.9 shows illustrations of some practices  used to control diseases in pigs. Study them carefully and then identify the practices being carried  out  and the disease(s) controlled. 

6.6.6 Poultry diseases 

Activity 1 6.11: A research activity to find out the diseases that commonly attack poultry, their causes, symptoms, damages and control measures 

Use the references provided to carry out the following activities: 

The poultry kept in the farm have a certain risk of introduction of disease causing organisms. This risk occurs because of the interaction between  the infectious organisms and the birds. The most common diseases of poultry reared in the farm include the Newcastle disease, pullorum, coccidiosis, mycotoxicosis and Marek’s disease. The measures used to control these diseases largely depend on size of the farm, link to the other farms, physical facilities and the operational procedures implemented.

(a) Newcastle disease 

It is also known as respiratory nervous disorder. This disease is very contagious and infectious. It affects birds of all ages and most of them die. It is a notifiable disease in Rwanda. 

Cause 

Newcastle disease is caused by a virus paramyxo virus which affects chickens and turkeys. 

Symptoms 

Damage The disease is airborne and therefore has high mobility rate. Birds die in large numbers, that is, can wipe a whole flock suddenly.

Control Newcastle disease has no treatment but prevented through: 

• Vaccination programmes should be adhered to strictly as follows: 

• When nasal or eye drops are used, the vaccine should be used as per the manufacturer's specification. A dropper should be used. 

• If the vaccine is administered in drinking water, it should be mixed thoroughly with clean water and given immediately.  Water should be withheld a few hours before vaccine is administered.

• Mass slaughter of the whole flock is carried out, then the carcasses burned. 

• Quarantine measures. 

(b) Pullorum disease 

This disease is also known as bacilliary white diarrhoea (BWD). It is an acute and  infectious disease which affects chicks. 

Causes 

Pullorum disease is caused  by a bacterium Salmonella pullorum. It affects chickens and turkeys, quails, pheasants, ducks, peacocks and guinea fowls.  It can be eggborne transmitted to unhatched chick through the egg. Infected birds can also spread it through their droppings to the chicks after hatching. 

Symptoms  

(i) Chicks hatched from the infected eggs appear weak with depressed  appetite, poor growth and may die later. 

(ii) Older birds look depressed with ruffled feathers, pale shrunken combs, diarrhoea. 

(iii) Mortality rate can reach 25–60%.  

Damage 

Control 

(c) Coccidiosis 

This disease affects the young as well as the adult birds. It is more likely to occur when birds are confined in a small area than in the open range system. It attacks chickens, ducks   and turkeys. 

Cause 

Coccidiosis  is caused by a protozoa known as coccidia of the Eimeria species. This protozoa infects the lining of the alimentary canal. It is transmitted through ingestion of infected droppings. 

Symptoms 

(i) Production of white, yellow  or blood stained diarrhoea.

(ii) Unthriftness may be seen in birds. 

(iii) Lack of appetite leading to drop in egg production. 

(iv) If not attended to, birds may die in mass though death is not sudden. 

Control 

• Use of coccidiostat both for prophylactic measures (prevention) and for cure. The drug should be mixed with drinking water or with feeds. 

• House perches, laying boxes and equipment for watering and feed should be kept clean  and disinfected. 

• Humans entering the house should disinfect at the entrance. 

• Overcrowding of the birds should be avoided.

• Dry litter should be maintained through provision of proper ventilation. Also by avoiding water spillage. 

(d) Mycotoxicosis  

Fungal or mycotic diseases cause high economic losses in poultry production due to  the production of mycotoxins. Mycotoxins are secondary fungal metabolites produced in grains or poultry feed. 

Cause  

Mycotoxicosis is a secondary fungal infection brought about by the fungus produced in grains or poutry feeds. Birds can also pick the toxins from contaminated litter. 

Symptoms 

Damage 

Mycotoxins  cause the production of immunosuppression in birds which make them prone to bacterial and viral infections. 

(e) Marek’s disease 

This disease is highly contagious. It affects chickens, quails, turkeys and pheasants. 

Cause 

The disease is caused by Marek's virus  of the herpes group which causes tumour in the body. It accumulates in feather follicles and spread in dust. Can remain in the poultry house for 6 months. The virus can be transmitted directly through oral  ingestion or indirectly through inhalation. 

Symptoms 

Marek’s disease presents itself in three forms: 

(i) Nervous form 

(ii) Abdominal form  

(iii) Ocular (eye) and skin form 

Control 

There is no effective treatment of Marek’s disease. Control is through vaccination. High hygiene and sanitation measures should be maintained. This avoids early exposure of young chicks to the disease. Vaccination is performed before hatching where the 18 days old egg is in ovo injected or injection of dayold chicks. 

6.7  Farm sanitation (rules for a pig and poultry   farm sanitation)

Activity 6.12:  A visit to a poultry or pig farm to practice hygiene measures 

Make a visit  to a nearby farm or school farm and carry out the following activities: 

Hygiene and sanitation play a major role in any effective disease control programme for poultry and pig production premises.

Among the most important requirement to facilitate hygiene and sanitation is to adopt the “all in-all out” method. This is where all the birds within should be of the same age group. It is also important to restrict each enterprise to a single type of breed. 

Poultry and pig premises should be well equipped with facilities for entry of each new batch of animals and exit of the market animals and birds. They should also be equipped with mechanisms of disinfection, fumigation, removal of dead carcass and isolation of sick animals. 

Sanitation conditions in both poultry and pig production include: 

1. The houses should be constructed away from other livestock premises and away from roads connecting to other livestock premises. 

2. The houses should be constructed of materials which can be easily cleaned and disinfected. 

3. All vegetation around these premises should be cleared. 

4. Drinking water source for the animals and birds should be in a place away from contaminants and pollutants. 

5. Water source should be close and with enough water especially for the pigsty. 

6. Waste water from premises should have a proper drainage to keep the area dry and free from flies. 

7. Litter and manure from the floor of the houses should be removed and heaped for composting at the distant and covered with polythene sheets. 

8. The maintenance of a disinfection system or foot bath at the entrance of each  house prevents introduction of infectious organisms. 

Sanitation rules in a poultry and pig farm can be summarised  as follows: 

(a) Proper housing – Poultry and pig houses need to be kept clean always.  Disinfection  helps to kill disease-causing organisms and prevent their multiplication. Waste materials and vegetation around the house should be cleared to control vermin. 

(b) Proper disposal of dead birds and pigs should be done by burning or burying the carcass  deep to prevent the spread of diseases. 

(c) Isolation and quarantine – Sick birds and animals should be  isolated from the healthy ones and nursed separately to recovery. Incase of highly infectious and contagious diseases, quarantine measures should be taken. These measures will involve several farms in a large area.Therefore, the local government should be involved and the public notified. 

(d) Proper nutrition – Birds and pigs that are well fed with balanced diet remain healthy since they are able to resist diseases and will not  suffer from deficiency disorders. 

(e) Slaughterring and burning. Infected animals should be culled and slaughtered. Any animals slaughtered for the purpose of disease and parasite control should be burned and buried deep. The area should be restricted from animals and humans.

Group activity 

Feeding and carrying out  sanitation in a non-ruminant (poultry and pig) farm 

Visit a farm where poultry or pigs are reared. This can either be the school farm or neighbouring farm. The activities will be carried out for a whole school term on daily basis. You will need one hour everyday after classes. Each group will be given one day per week. Working in groups, carry out the following activities: 

Unit Summary 

Confined birds are housed in structures called aviaries while pigs in pigsties. Ideal aviaries and pigsties should provide the proper conditions required for feeding, breeding exercises and protection from diseases and adverse climatic conditions. They should be constructed with materials that are affordable, available and able to keep the animals safe. 

Standard aviaries constructed should cater  for different groups of poultries according to sex, development stage and species. Thus, different  groups of birds should be housed separately since they require different housing conditions. The same is applicable to the pigs. Different groups of pigs require different housing conditions. Therefore, the units of housing which is known as pens should be constructed to cater for the pigs according to their sex and development stage. 

Pigs and poultry are non-ruminant and so feed on diets they can easily handle. The food for the pigs consists of grain offals such as industrial  by products from grains and by-products from animal tissues such as meat and bone meal, milk and milk products, blood flour, water and oil cakes. In addition to most of these foods, poultry require insects, sprouted fodder and whole grains. Their feeding follow different feeding plans which should be adhered to strictly. 

Poultry and pigs are attacked by many enemies and diseases. The enemies are referred to as parasites which deprive the birds and pigs of their food, as well as transmit some diseases. The common external parasites include lice, fleas, mites, ticks, fleas and mosquitoes. These are controlled through spraying and dusting using effective insecticides and acaricides. 

Poultry and pigs are also affected by internal parasites which include different types of worms. These have adverse effects on the health of the livestock and intensive control is important. Methods such as maintenance of hygienic conditions through cleaning and disinfection, deworming and proper sanitation by humans help to reduce transmission. 

Diseases that attack pigs include taeniasis, pasteurellosis, brucellosis, porcine epidemic diarrhoea and coccidiosis. Some of these diseases are viral and lead to losses of animals while others are bacterial and can be treated. Vaccination, provision of antibiotics, disinfection and maintenance of biosecurity are all integrated methods of controlling these diseases. 

Diseases that affect poultry include Newcastle disease, pullorum, coccidiosis, mycotoxicosis and Marek’s disease. Most of these diseases are viral. However, poultry diseases do not affect human beings though they lead to huge economic losses in terms of capital invested. Effective control measures include vaccination, farm sanitation and maintaining biosecurity in the farm.

Key terms 

1. Acaricides –  Chemicals used to kill ticks. 

2. Acute disease –  It is a disease or disorder  that lasts a short period and comes on rapidly. 

3. Adilibutum – All the time, provided without a measure or without limit. 

4. Airborne – Acquired through the air by inhalation. 

5. Allergy – A number of conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to something in the environment. 

6. Anaemia – A condition where lack of iron in the body leads to reduction in red blood cells. 

7. Annoyance – To become a nuisance or to irritate. 

8. Biosecurity – A set of measures designed to protect the farm from the entry and spread of parasites and diseases. 

9. Boar – A mature male pig. 

10. Breeding crate –  Wooden or metallic and used during mating to prevent heavy boars  hurting small sows. 

11. Broiler – Domestic fowl bred and raised specifically for meat production. 

12. Cake – The mass that results from pressing seeds, meat or fish to remove oils, fats  or other liquid. 

13. Casein – The protein from skim milk used to make cheese. 

14. Chaff – Glumens, hulls, joints and small fragments of straw that are separated from seed in threshing or processing. 

15. Chronic – It is a condition that is persistent or long lasting  in its effects. 

16. Crude proteins (cp) – The sum total of all nitrogenous compounds in a feed. 

17. Definitive host – The primary host in which a parasite reaches maturity and reproduces sexually. 

18. Draught – Dry, cold windy conditions blowing  through livestock houses. 

19. Dry matter (dm) – Actual percentage of proteins, carbohydrates and minerals in feed.

20. Feed conversion ratio (FCR) – A measure of the animals ability to change feed mass into desired output. 

21. Feed efficiency – A measure to determine the ability of an animal to turn feed nutrients into products. 

22. Furrowing crate – A small metal cage in which pregnant sows are restrained before giving birth until piglets are weaned. 

23. Gilt – A young female pig from weaning to first parturition. 

24. Granule – A small compact particle of a substance. 

25. Hooks on scolex – These  are part of a structure called rostellum on the tapeworm's head used for attachment. 

26. Infective egg – A parasite egg with a developed larvae inside it. 

27. Irritation – State of inflammation or painful reaction to an allergy. 

28. Lactating sow – Sow that is in milk and suckling young ones. 

29. Lactation – The secretion of milk from the mammary glands. 

30. Litter – Fibrous materials used on the floor of poultry and pig houses. 

31. Mash – A mixture of food ingredients in meal farm. 

32. Meal – An ingredient(s) that has been ground or reduced to a particle size large than flour. 

33. Metabolite – A product  of metabolic action. 

34. Mobility rate – The ease and speed at which a disease spreads in an area. 

35. Mortality rate – (also death rate)  is a measure of the number of deaths in a particular population compared to the size of that population per unit of time. 

36. Offal – Low grade residue left from the milling of some products. 

37. Pellets – Agglomerated feed formed by compaction or feed compacted to form different shapes. 

38. Piglet – A young pig from birth to weaning. 

39. Proglottid – It is a segment of tapeworm  containing both male and female reproductive organs which detarches from the body and spreads the infective eggs.

40. Ration – The total amount of feed (diet) allocated to one animal for a 24-hour period. 

41. Roughage – Plant material high in crude fibre but low in digestibility and low in protein. 

42. Scolex – The anterior headlike segment of a tapeworm having suckers and hooks for attachment. 

43. Scratch grain – Whole cracked or coarsely cut grain. 

44. Secondary host – (also intermediate host) A host that harbours a parasite for a short transitional period during which some developmental stages are completed. 

45. Shelter belt – A line of trees or shrubs planted to protect structure from strong wind. 

46. Slatted floor – Wooden or metal floor with narrow gaps between slats to allow discharge of droppings and urine. 

47. Sow – A mature female pig after first parturition. 

48. Stocking rate –  The number of animals on a given amount of land over a certain period of time. 

49. Sub-mucosal tissues – A layer of connective tissues that supports the mucous membranes. 

50. Sucker on scolex – It is a muscular structure for suction on the host or subtrate. 

51. Supplement – A feed used with another to improve nutritive value. 

52. Symptom – A physical or mental feature that is indicative of a disease condition. 

53. Systematic – Starts in one part of body and then spreads to the other organs and systems. 

54. Therapeutic measures – Services that are intended to help cure a disease. 

55. Transmission –  The mode in which a disease spreads from the source to the animal. 

56. Whey – The watery part of milk separated from the coagulated curd. 

57. Zoonotic disease – A disease that is naturally transmissible from vertebrate animals to humans and from humans to the animals. 

End of Unit 6 Assessment 

1. Describe the distinguishing characteristics of a non-ruminant animal. 

2. Study the set of materials given in set A below and then match them with their functions given in set B. 

3. Describe the qualities of good materials for roofing a poultry house. 

4. A Secondary 3 student was given the following feedstuff to prepare a balanced diet for feeding pigs. Extract the feedstuffs that the student would have used to make a balanced diet from the list given below.  

5. The table below shows diseases that attack poultry and pigs. Study it carefully and then fill in the blank spaces.

6. The picture below shows a pig attacked by certain internal parasites. Study it carefully and then answer the questions that follow. 

7. Outline four benefits of feeding layer birds with sprouted fodder.