Unit 2: GERMAN AND BELGIAN COLONISATION
Key unit competence To be able to explain the causes and impact of German and Belgian colonisation.
Activity 2.1
1. Find out the meaning of the word ‘colonisation’ from the Internet and the dictionary. Write the meaning in your notebook.
2. Copy the following map in your notebook then answer the following questions:
i) Identify the current names of the countries on the map.
ii) Write down the countries that colonised the ones you identified in question (i) above.
iii) Estimate the period under which colonial administration in each of the shown country ended. Present your findings in class for further discussion.
Introduction
German colonisation of Rwanda began with the coming of European explorers to Africa. This was around 1880, when Africa experienced an increase in European explorers. History has it that the desire to discover unknown facts like the source of the Nile could have been one of the factors that drove explorers to Africa. From 1856, the Geographical Society of London had started to organise regular exploration missions to discover the source of that river. Some of the explorers who visited Rwanda include Sir Henry Morton Stanley, Dr Oscar Baumann and Comte Gustav Adolf Von Götzen. Sir Henry Morton Stanley reached Akagera River in 1875. He named the river “Alexandrine Nile”. He traveled along the river and finally camped on an island in Lake Ihema. He later attempted to enter Rwanda only to be stopped by Rwandan warriors. This forced him to abandon his plans.
Another attempt to enter Rwanda was made by Dr Oscar Baumann in 1892. Baumann was a German explorer. On his way from Burundi, he arrived in southern Rwanda on the 11th of September 1892. He left on 15th September 1892. His mission was, just like Morton Stanley, to find the source of the Nile.
His attempt to enter Rwanda was also unsuccessful as he was attacked and repulsed by Rwandese warriors at Nyarutega (Bwanamukali).
Fig. 2.2: Dr Oscar Baumann
Comte Gustav Adolf Von Götzen was the only successful explorer to enter Rwanda. He was a German administrator and an explorer. He led a caravan of 362 people and 17 soldiers. He entered Rwanda after crossing Akagera River above Rusumo Falls.
Fig. 2.3: Comte Gustav Adolf Von Götzen
Von Götzen was guided by Prince Sharangabo, the son of King Rwabugiri. He was later received by King Kigeli IV Rwabugiri on May 25th 1894 at Kageyo in Kingogo. Von Götzen stayed there up to 2nd June 1894 before leaving in the direction of the volcanoes.
He did not only succeed to enter Rwanda, but also went on to become the first Governor General of German East Africa and Rwanda.
German occupation of Rwanda
Von Götzen was followed by a second German mission led by Captain Ramsay who arrived in Rwanda on March 20th 1897 during the reign of King Yuhi V Musinga. Ramsay was the regional military chief of Tanganyika-Kivu whose capital was at Ujiji in Tanganyika. During this vist, Captain Ramsay gave King Musinga the Germany flag as a symbol of German authority. From then, the German occupation of Rwanda became a reality. This was followed by the German regional territory of Tanganyika-Kivu being divided into small regions. Rwanda-Urundi became a region with the capital in Usumbura (Bujumbura). This region was placed under the control of Captain Bethe. The captain had arrived in Rwanda in March 1898 at the royal residence of Gitwiko in the present day Kamonyi District. Von Götzen had a mission of signing an agreement with King Musinga in which Rwanda would effectively become a German Protectorate. This agreement eventually was concluded on 5th March, 1898 and Rwanda was to be the 20th province in East Africa. The Musinga-Bethe agreement involved political, administrative and military protection which the German Government was to effect.
Fig. 2.4: King Musinga
2.1 Causes of German and Belgian colonisation
Activity 2.2
The following are some of the factors that made Belgians and Germans move into Rwanda:
• Industrial revolution in Europe
• Investment of surplus capital
• Rwanda as a source of raw materials
• Need for market
In groups, discuss how each factor led to colonisation of Rwanda. Make notes for presentation in a class discussion.
a) Industrial revolution in Europe
Industrial Revolution begun in Britain in the second half of the 18th Century. It led to an increase in demand for raw materials needed by the industries for further production. As production increased, so was the need for an expanded market for the manufactured products. To ensure that production and subsequent consumption of the manufactured goods continued, European countries had to look up to Africa to provide the much needed raw materials and market.
b) Rivalry among European countries
Rivalry between European countries also contributed to colonisation of African countries. For instance, Britain and France had hated each other for centuries due to the infamous hundred years war, and they both wanted to out-do the other in Africa. However, the race for power was not limited to Britain and France. Other nations wanted to benefit as well, like Germany, Italy and Spain. Nationalism was quite popular in many Western European countries where everyone wanted their country to be the strongest. Competition to produce more and supply more also contributed to the rivalry among European powers such as Britain and Germany. Both had to protect their overseas territories because the territories supported the entire industrialisation process. Continued occupation and exploitation of these territories subsequently led to the European countries in charge to lay a claim on them as their colonies in years that followed.
c) Investment of surplus capital
Continued production and supply of manufactured goods led to massive profits to bourgeoisies who owned the factories. These wealthy people wanted to invest their surplus income outside their countries because of competition and reduced investment opportunities their countries offered. This factor pushed them to look for opportunities as far as into Africa.
d) A source of raw materials and cheap labour
European colonies were able to acquire raw materials and cheap labour for use in their home industries. The labour was also used in neighbouring colonies to the benefit of the colonisers. For example, Belgians acquired cheaper labour from Rwanda for use in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Africans helped in the collection of ivory and rubber and extraction of minerals in the upper Congo basin for sale elsewhere in world. In addition, a number of major Belgian investment companies pushed the Belgian government to take over the Congo and develop the mining sector. This sector required local labour which was regionally acquired.
e) Prestige and geostrategic interest
Some European nations competed to assert themselves as major super powers. For example, the newly formed nations of Germany and Italy wanted to catch up with England, France and other established colonial powers. Thus, they felt that they had to acquire colonies in African countries for national prestige. More colonies for these countries was a sign of a nation’s strength. In addition, European countries which had already established themselves in some African countries felt that it was necessary for them to acquire more countries for geostrategic reasons. Due to this reason, countries often conquered a country to hinder the expansion of a rival power or to facilitate communication between different regions of the empire. For example, Germany had already acquired Tanganyika, and therefore wanted Rwanda and Burundi in addition for effective control of the region. They also wanted to outdo Belgians who already had Congo Free State.
f) Need to spread Christianity
The colonisation of Rwanda was a way to spread Christianity by European missionaries. The missionaries were mainly Roman Catholics and Anglicans. They later established their churches and missions in Rwanda.
g) Stopping slave trade and slavery in Rwanda
Germany and Belgium colonised Rwanda to stop slave trade. They also wanted to stop inhuman labour that had already taken course in Rwanda.
h) Need to settle their excess population
The colonisation of Rwanda by Germany and Belgium was for a reason. Their main target was to settle their excess population and at the same time provide them with employment opportunities. Unemployment was growing at a high rate amongst European countries. Therefore, colonising Rwanda was seen to provide a solution to the problem.
i) Need to promote western civilisation
The Germans and Belgians considered Rwanda to be backward and therefore had a strong desire to civilise it socially, economically and politically.
j) The role of the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference
During this time, African countries were distributed among European countries where Rwanda was given to Germany. This accelerated and contributed to the colonisation of Rwanda.
German administration in Rwanda
Activity 2.3
1. Draw a sketch map of Rwanda and show its boarders by 1910.
2. Explain the causes of revolts against Musinga during the German rule.
3. Discuss the impacts of those revolts on Rwanda.
In Rwanda, Germans used indirect rule. This form of administration used traditional leaders to administer on behalf of the Germans. It also respected and maintained local culture. The implementation of the German rule was to be attained through the Military Phase and Civil Administration Phase.
a) Military Phase (1897-1907)
This phase was characterised by occupation of Rwanda between 1897 and 1907. At the same time, the German government gave support to the local leaders to stop several revolts. Therefore, the military post at Shangi and Gisenyi were only meant to bring people in those areas under German rule and under the local Rwandan regime headed by King Musinga.
b) Civil Administration Phase (1907-1916)
This started at a time when Rwanda became a Residence Administrative. The administrative services were transferred from Usumbura to Kigali and Richard Kandt was made the head. Kandt was given the responsibility of establishing the civilian rule, conducting census, collecting taxes and creating a police force. Kigali was founded as the imperial residence. In addition to that, the German government provided military support to the local authorities to stop several uprisings like those staged by Ndungutse and his assistants, Rukara and Basebya. The Ndungutse rebellion started in the north of Kabare in 1911. Ndungutse, whose real name was Birasisenge, wanted to declare himself a legitmate king after claiming to be the descendant of Mibambwe IV Rutarindwa and Muserekande nicknamed “Nyiragahumuza.’’
The following were the causes of the Ndungutse rebellion in northern Rwanda:
1. There was need to recover lost glory by the people which had been taken over by the royal court of Rwanda.
2. They were also subjected to forced labour introduced by the Germans during the fixing of frontiers in 1910. To them, this was unfair, and therefore made them to revolt.
3. The Germans forced people to supply them with food. This annoyed them, causing a revolt not only against the German rule, but also to the central authority headed by the king. Basebya was one of the rebellion leaders. He was a son to Nyirantwari of Rugezi and a member of the Abashakamba militias of Kigeli IV Rwabugiri. With his group of warriors known as Ibijabura, Basebya conquered Buberuka, Kibali and the whole of Bukonya. With three conquered regions, Musinga’s power was seriously challenged. Following the expedition of Ndungutse in Bumbogo and Buberuka, the acting Resident representative Lieutenant Godivius, nicknamed Bwana Lazima, decided to fight against the opposition. Ndungutse and Rukara were killed a few days later. Rukara was hanged. Basebya, who was arrested by chief Rwabukwisi, suffered the same fate on May 5th 1912. Another major event that took place during this phase was the demarcation of Rwanda’s borders. This was done on 8th February 1910 during a conference held in Brussels between Belgium, Germany and Britain. Rwanda was limited in the northern and western frontiers. The redrawing of the borders was done on a map. In this exercise of re-fixing its borders, Rwanda lost one half of its actual size as follows: Ijwi Island, Bwishya and Gishari were annexed to Belgian Congo while Bufumbira was given to Uganda. Unfortunately, the fixations did not put into account the structure of the local population.
Activity 2.4
Write an essay on the importance of religions in Rwanda. Present your findings in class.
The coming of missionaries
Christian missionaries came just after the coming of German administrators to Rwanda. The first religious groups to emerge during the German rule
was the Catholic Church, Islam and Lutheran Protestantism. More religious groups came in during the Belgian rule, for example, the Adventists in 1919, Anglicans in 1918, Pentecosts in 1941 and Methodists in 1943.
i) Roman Catholic missionaries
The White Fathers introduced Roman Catholicism in Rwanda. They were led by the Apostolic Vicar of Southern Nyanza (Tanzania), Bishop Joseph Hirth. They were part of the Société des Missionaires d’Afrique,” founded in 1868 by Archbishop of Algiers, Cardinal Charles Lavigerie. He came to Rwanda from Shangi where Captain Bethe was putting up. Later, he arrived at the royal court in Nyanza on February 2nd 1900, accompanied by Father Brard and Father Paul Bartholomew, and Brother Anselme. They were received by the regent Mpamarugamba as the king, because Musinga was still a teenager. Later, in July, the Europeans would see King Musinga for the first time. At the royal court, the missionaries requested for land to settle and their request was accepted. The land given to them was at Save in Bwanamukali where they founded their first mission on February 8th 1900.
In the following years, they established the following missions:
There was also the White Sisters who arrived in Rwanda in 1909. In 1912, Rwanda became an independent Vicariate under Bishop Joseph Hirth. The first Rwandan priests were ordained on the 7th October 1917. Among those ordained were Donat Reberaho and Balthazar Gafuku.
The first Rwandan bishop was called Aloys Bigirumwami, who was ordained on the 1st June 1952 at Kabgayi by Bishop Laurent Deprimoz.
Activity 2.5
Find out from textbooks the impact of religion in the social-cultural setup of Africa. Share your findings with the rest of the class.
ii) Protestant missionaries
Protestantism was introduced in Rwanda by the missionaries of the Bethel Society. The first pastor to arrive in Rwanda was Emmanuel Johanssen who came from Bukoba in Tanzania. As for German Protestant missionaries, they were received at the royal court in Nyanza on 29th July 1907. They founded their first missions at Remera-Rukoma in 1912, Kilinda in 1907 and Rubengera in 1909 among others. Protestants later left Rwanda after the defeat of Germany by the Belgians during the First World War in 1916. Their former missionary stations were occupied by Société Missionaire Belge.
There was also the first Seventh Adventist Church that was established at Gitwe by Pastor Meunier in 1919. In the years that followed, other missions were established at Murambi in Buganza and Rwankeri in Buhoma.
The First World War in Rwanda
The First World War that occured between 1914 and 1918 was mainly fought among European nations. However, its impact was indirectly felt in other continents including America, Asia and Africa. In Rwanda, the Germans fought with Belgians who had colonised Congo (DRC). The war was intense in Bugoyi in the north west region and Cyangugu in the south west region. It was the Germans who began the war by attacking Belgian Congo’s Ijwi Island in September 1914. This made the Belgians to respond by fighting back. Belgians were supported by British troops. The troops were deployed in two directions. On the side of Gisenyi, Colonel Molitor (a Belgian) crossed the volcanoes through Uganda and proceeded from Gasabo to Kigali which was finally captured on 6th May 1916. Nyanza collapsed on 19th May 1916. Later, the Belgians moved on with the war through the Rwandan territory towards Burundi. During the war, Rwanda did all she could to support Germany. This support ranged from providing armed warriors called Indugaruga as well as supplying food. For that reason therefore, there was an agreement and collaboration between King Musinga and on the side of Dr Kandt and Captain Max Wingtens. Bwana Tembasi commanded German troops in Rwanda between 1914 and 1916.
2.2 Impact of German colonisation
Activity 2.6
Make a research in addition to the following text and summarise the achievements of German colonial masters in Rwanda. Thereafter, submit your findings to the teacher for assessment.
In the beginning, Germans had little control in the region. They were completely dependent on the indigenous government. They did not encourage modernisation and centralisation of the regime. Their reign was short-lived, from 1897 to 1916. This was hampered by their defeat in the First World War in Europe and Rwanda respectively in 1916. They made a little impact as discussed below:
a) Demarcation of Rwandan border
On 14th May 1910, the European Convention of Brussels fixed the borders of Uganda, Congo and East Africa. This included Tanganyika and Rwanda-Urundi. It is until 1918, under the Treaty of Versailles, that the former German colony of Rwanda-Urundi was made a League of Nations protectorate. This led to demarcation of Rwanda’s borders by cutting off some parts. The fixing was done using a map. Rwanda lost parts equal to one and half of its actual size.
Fig 2.5: Map of Rwanda during demarcation of boarders by 1918
Activity 2.7
1. Use a dictionary to find out the meaning of demarcation.
2. Copy the map shown in Fig 2.5. On it, draw the boundaries separating countries that presently exist. 3. Name each country on the map.
b) Support to King Musinga (Mwami)
The Germans settled and helped the Mwami (King Musinga) gain greater nominal control over Rwandan affairs. They fought rebellions and defended his rule. The Germans used indirect rule in Rwanda that gave power to the king and local authorities.
Fig 2.6: King Musinga
c) Opening of the country to outside world
Dr Oscar Baumann came to Rwanda in September 1892. He was followed by Von Götzen in 1894. The latter led an expedition to claim the interior of Tanganyika colony. In 1897, German colonialists and missionaries arrived in Rwanda. Therefore, the initial visits of Baumann and Von Götzen is seen as the beginning of the opening up of Rwanda to the outside world.
d) Integration of Rwanda in world economy
German colonisation of Rwanda led to the export of large quantities of hides and skins and livestock. The exportation was mainly to European countries. This initiated a market economy in Rwanda.
e) Introduction of money Money
was introduced in Rwanda during the German colonisation of Rwanda. People used coin money, heller and rupees. Many Rwandans saw money as a replacement for barter trade in terms of economic prosperity and social standing.
f) Introduction of head tax
German colonisation of Rwanda led to the introduction of the head tax on male adult Rwandans.
g) Coming of European missionaries
The German colonisation of Rwanda led to the coming of European missionaries in Rwanda. Roman Catholic missionaries, led by the White Fathers, came to Rwanda in 1900. They were followed by the Presbyterian missionaries in 1907. This promoted Christianity in Rwanda.
2.3 Reforms introduced by Belgians
During the First World War I, Germans fought with Belgians in Rwanda. This led to the defeat of Germans in May 1916. Belgians then officially took over control of Rwanda from Germans. The Belgian administration in Rwanda led to a total change in Rwanda’s political, social, economic, cultural and religious sectors. It is important to distinguish the reforms introduced by Belgians in Rwanda into three stages of the entire Belgian rule. These are:
I. Reforms introduced during the Military Administration (1916-1924)
ii. Reforms introduced during the Belgian Mandate (1926-1946)
iii. Reforms introduced during the Trusteeship (1946-1962)
iv. Reforms introduced during the Military Administration (1916 - 1924)
Activity 2.8
Assess the transformations introduced by Germans then present your results to the class.
After the conquest of Ruanda-Urundi in 1916, German colonialists were replaced by the Belgian occupational troops. The troops were responsible for managing the country. The Belgian Military High Commander in charge was J. P Malfeyt. He was the first Belgian Royal High Commissioner in Rwanda. His residence was at Kigoma. He was tasked to maintain order and public safety over all the territoires in Ruanda-Urundi. He was in charge of Belgian troops in the occupation of Rwanda. He played this role until the end of the First World War. After the War, Rwanda once again fell under military regime, and was divided into military sectors. These were Gisenyi, Ruhengeri, Cyangugu and Nyanza. The military sectors were later transformed into territoires, namely:
• The western territory (Rubengera territory capital)
• Northern territory (Ruhengeri territory capital)
• The territory of Nyanza (Nyanza territory capital)
• The Eastern territory (Kigali territory capital) Major De Clerk later was named as Resident in 1917. Later, he was replaced by F. Van De Eede in 1919.
The following are some of the reforms introduced in Rwanda during the military administration:
a) Systematic disintegration of the monarchy
b) Undermining the Mwami’s (king’s) legal power
c) Reduction of the Mwami’s (king’s) political power
d) Abolition of Ubwiru and Umuganura
e) Declaration of religious freedom
f) Abolition of imponoke and indabukirano
Each of these reforms has been explained below in detail:
a) Systematic disintegration of the monarchy
The relationships of the occupying authorities with the court of the king were very bad. For example, on 25th March 1917, the General Auditor of Kigoma was ordered to arrest the king. It is at this time that the Royal Commissioner, General Malfeyt, decided to send De Clerk as the Resident. Under De Clerk, the residence of Rwanda was divided into Northern, Nyanza, Western and Eastern territories. The division was to facilitate implementation of military orders, food requisition and recruitment of carriers for the Belgian colonialists. Furthermore, in 1922, the decision by Belgians that the Resident at Nyanza would assist the Mwami (King Musinga) in his legal prerogatives was meant to undermine the king’s legal power.
b) Undermining the Mwami’s (king’s) legal power
The king, before the Belgian occupation, had authority to pass ‘life or death’ sentence over his subjects. The king was stripped off this right to determine whether a person would live or be killed because of a crime committed. Crimes that warranted the death sentence from the king included murder, fighting with fellow subjects or treason. Without such authority, the king’s title was reduced to being just but honorary. This, among other reasons, humiliated the king greatly.
c) Reduction of the Mwami’s (king’s) political power
King Musinga was stopped from appointing and dismissing any of his subordinates without permission of the Belgian High Commissioner or Resident. Chiefs and Governors of provinces too did not have the right to dismiss those who worked under them. With time, the final source of authority became the Belgian administration. Chiefs and their deputies therefore were required to report to the Belgian administration and not King Musinga as was the case initially. Traditional authorities were charged with the following responsibilities:
a) Collecting taxes
b) Mobilising porters and workers on local roads and tracks
d) Abolition of ubwiru and umuganura
Abiru were officials in Rwandan Kingdom who were in charge of ubwiru. The traditional institution of ubwiru played very important roles in the Rwandan Kingdom and to the mwami (king). Among others, abiru played the following roles:
• The abiru were guardians of tradition.
• They kept royal secrets of the kingdom.
• They also advised and counselled the king.
• They named the next successor by Umwiru Mukuru, the chief of abiru.
• Abiru played an important role in the kingdom of Rwanda by coronating the new king.
• They also conducted rites of the kingdom like imihigo y’umuganura.
Umuganura was meant to thank God for the harvest. It was also to strategise for the next season, so as to ensure that the harvest is good. It was celebrated by Rwandans after harvest of sorghum. It was a very big event in the kingdom as Rwandans celebrated their achievements in terms of harvest both at the kingdom and family level. Belgians abolished both the ubwiru and umuganura in a systematic way to curtail the king’s powers. Eventually, in 1925, the chief of ubwiru who was called Gashamura was exiled in Burundi. The Resident communicated to King Musinga that umuganura had been abolished.
e) Declaration of religious freedom
In traditional Rwanda, the king was not only an administrative leader but also a religious leader who was an intermediate between God (Imana) and Rwandans. This made Rwandans to consider their King as God and would refer to him as Nyagasani (meaning God). However, with the influence of the Catholic Church and the administration of the Belgians in 1917, King Musinga was forced to sign a law accepting freedom of worship. From then, the King had no option but to allow religious freedom that would favour the Catholics. Therefore, the royal power was separated with religion because the King had just been forced to forego his religious powers.
f) Abolition of imponoke and indabukirano
Indabukirano were gifts given to the chief after being nominated and coronated to the position. The gifts included items like cows and beer (indabukirano). Such was meant to show loyalty to him by his subjects. It was also to enable the new chief cope with the new lifestyle, to show happiness and to congratulate the new chief. Imponoke was a sign of compensation to the chief usually after a heavy loss of cows, especially due to diseases or being struck by lightening. This was a sign of active bystandership to the chief by his subjects. Generally, to the chief, it was a way of compensating him for the loss of cows and to enable him continue living within the lifestyle he was used to before the loss. It was one of the ways Rwandans used to show concern for others in the society. Both imponoke and indabukirano were important because:
• They were ways of demonstrating loyalty and humility to the chief.
• They were meant to show love and respect for the chieftaincy.
• They enabled the chief to rule his subjects happily.
• They helped to improve the status of the chief (to make him different from ordinary people).
• They enabled the chief to solve some of the problems that befell his subjects such as famine.
• They were ways of ensuring sufficient food supply to him and his family.
• They were ways of showing happiness and congratulating the king.
The practice of imponoke and indabukirano were abolished by the Belgians when they took over the administration of Rwanda. This was aimed at weakening the influence of the king over his subjects. It was also to help the Belgians remain with monopoly of power. The expected end result was to reduce the belief in traditional practices where Rwandese had deep attachment.
Gisaka affairs and the Orts-Milner Convention of 1919
Activity 2.9
Carry out a research to find out what could have been the impact of the Orts-Milner Convention of 1919 on Rwanda.
Share the findings with the rest of the class in a discussion.
Towards the signing of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty, Belgium accepted to have negotiations with Britain over the distribution of former German colonies in East Africa. This enabled Belgium to sign an agreement known as the Orts-Milner Convetion on 30th May 1919.
With this agreement, Belgium accepted to advance to Britain the territories of Gisaka, a part of Ndorwa, a part of Buganza and a part of Mutara from Rwanda. They also gave out Bugufi from Burundi unwillingly. In return, Great Britain accepted to support the Belgian demand for an agreement of the tracing of frontiers of its colonies all the way to the mouth of Congo River. With the receiving of Gisaka and other territories, it gave Britain a position to realise its project of building a railway line from Cape to Cairo. This, according to their wish, would pass entirely in an area joining together the whole of its colonial empire in Africa.
However, with the abandoning of the British ambitious project of building this railway, Gisaka Convention lost its economic and political value. The dual abolished the Orts-Milner Convention and informed the League of Nations. The League of Nations took note of this and on 31st August 1923, it confirmed the repossession of the colony by Rwanda. Britain was later evacuated on 31st December 1923.
ii. Reforms introduced during the Belgian Mandate (1926-1946)
A mandated territory is a country or territory that is governed by another country based on the authority given by the League of Nations. The mandate may imply different forms of government varying from direct administration by the other country to being self governing.
Rwanda under the Belgian Mandate 1926-1946
Activity 2.10
Explain the administrative reforms made by the Belgians since 1926 to 1932. Compile your findings for discussion in class.
Reforms in administration 1926-1931
Mandated territories were introduced in 1919 . In 1922, the League of Nations gave Belgium a mandate over the territory of Ruanda-Urundi. Belgium was to administer and control the territory while respecting the freedom of religion and stopping slavery. The mandates were divided into three classes, A, B and C, according to the presumed development of their population. Rwanda was put under the mandate B with Belgium as a mandatory power. This mandate was approved on 20th October 1924 by the Belgian parliament. For this reason, from 1916 – 1924, Rwanda was called “a territory under occupation.” However, it was officially known as a “territory under mandate B.” Other countries in this category were Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Togo and Cameroon.
The administrative reforms initiated by Belgian authorities started in 1926 and brought with it a number of changes where Rwanda-Burundi was joined to Belgian Congo in terms of administration. This meant that Congolese colonial laws were applied to both countries.
The following were the other reforms in administration:
1. Political reforms
In the ancient Rwanda Kingdom, the day-to-day administration was done by the mwami (king), umugabekazi (the queen mother), abatware (chiefs) and abiru (officials in the kingdom).
The mwami (king)
He was the head of political, social and political units of the kingdom. He also acted as a spiritual leader who mediated between God and his subjects. This made his subjects to love and respect him so much. It was for this reason that he was referred to as Nyagasani. His word was final. He also had powers over life and death. He could appoint and dismiss his officials without question.
The umugabekazi (queen mother)
The queen mother was the mother of the king. She was the advisor to the king. In fact, the queen mother was an influential person to the king. The queen mother advised the king on administrative issues of the kingdom.
Abatware b’Intebe
These were mostly chiefs to the king (ibisonga). They lived at the king’s palace. Before the coming of the colonialists, Rwanda was divided into districts known as ibiti. The districts were divided into ibikingi. The administration at igikingi level was done by three chiefs. These were the land chief (umutware w’ubutaka), cattle chief (umutware w’umukenke) and the army chief (umutware w’ingabo). The land chief (umutware w’ubutaka) ruled over farmers and received tributes (ikoro) in form of foodstuffs. Umutware w’ubutaka collected millet, peas, bananas, sorghum among others and sent them to the palace. He also distributed land to the landless and solved land disputes. Umutware w’umukenke was concerned with cattle issues (ubworozi). He was also responsible for giving grazing land (inzuri) to the farmers as well as solving conflicts arising between people concerned with pastoralism. Umutware w’ingabo worked along the above two chiefs. He was responsible for offering defence and promoting peace in the kingdom, recruiting and training the army, ensuring expansion of the kingdom frontiers as well as protecting the kingdom. Army chiefs also worked to preserve cultural values of the society. The army chief was the most important of all chief mentioned above in Rwanda kingdom.
Mortehan reforms (1926-1931)
Between 1926 and 1932, the Resident of Rwanda called Georges Mortehan introduced reforms in the administrative structure of Rwanda. These reforms marked the end of the three-tier leadership in their various regions. The kingdom was divided into districts (ibikingi), whose leader had to be a chief (chef de cheferie), appointed by the Resident himself. The administration at igikingi level changed. The three former chiefs were replaced with Tutsi chiefs and sub-chiefs who were also appointed Mortehan (Resident). The functions of the chiefs were no longer seen in the administrative system of the country. Their responsibilities were given to the territorial administrators and chiefs of districts. The king no longer had powers to appoint or dismiss chiefs. Unfortunately, the administrative responsibilities in the new structure was unfairly done. It excluded the Hutu, Twa and Tutsi with a moderate background in favour of the Tutsi from well to do families. The chiefs were in turn replaced by their sons who completed from the school reserved for sons of chiefs. This is because they were seen as being able to rule in a modern way.
Deposition of King Yuhi V Musinga in 1931
Activity 2.11
Describe the reasons for the deportation of King Musinga in 1931. Thereafter, compile an essay for the teacher to mark.
It is important to note that King Musinga first collaborated with the German administrators during German colonialism. The colonialists in return supported him to defeat the northern rebellions. However, Mwami Musinga was opposed to the missionary activities, especially those of the Catholic Church. He considered Christianity as one way for weakening his position. The situation worsened with the coming of the Belgians who collaborated with the Catholic Churchs’ authorities. It is because of this state of affairs that made King Musinga to refuse to be baptised. According to the report of the Vice Governor General Voisin in 1931, he stated, “King Musinga had been accused of being opposed to moral, social and economic activities of the colonial administration. He is at the same time accused of being hostile to the work of the missionaries.” It is this that soured the relationship between the King and the colonial administration, the Catholic missionaries as well as Rwandan collaborators all of whom were Belgians.
On 12th July 1931, Governor General Voisin announced the deposition of King Yuhi V Musinga. The king was asked to leave Nyanza royal court to Kamembe in Kinyaga. Musinga left for Kamembe on 14th July 1931. On that very date, Rudahigwa, the son of the chief of Nduga-Marangara, was proclaimed King by Vice-Governor General Voisin under the royal name of Mutara III. King Musinga was moved from Kamembe to Moba near Bukavu in Democratic Republic of Congo (D.R.C.) in 1940. He spent the last bitter years of his life here, eventually dying on October 25th 1944.
2. Socio-cultural reforms
Activity 2.12
I. Identify some of the cultural ceremonies and festivals practised in Rwanda today.
2. Explain the significance of each ceremony you have mentioned. Present your findings in class for further discussion.
a) Traditional education
Traditionally, education was informal and it was delivered through the family. The family taught boys and girls differently. Girls got their education from their mothers and aunties through urubohero. Boys training was delivered through Itorero. The education offered to the youth in Itorero included military and leadership skills, iron smelting, pottery and basket making. This is because the youth were expected to take over the mantle of leadership and participate in nation building in the future. Itorero training was also meant to instil patriotism and boost self esteem among the granduants.
However, with the coming of the colonialists, itorero and other forms of traditional education in Rwanda were abolished. They were replaced with secular and religious education. The most important skills acquired from these formal schools were reading, writing and arithmetic. This new form of education also enabled learners to acquire skills necessary to work for Belgians. Unfortunately, this did not benefit the local populace, especially the younger generation, which lost touch with their history and ancestry. Contrary from what was expected, the shift from traditional (informal) education to the formal (colonial) type of education did not serve to address national needs at that time. It instead provided avenues of climbing to a higher social status. Those who went through formal education came to be perceived as being of a better status than those who did not have this type of education. This divided the society rather than unite it as traditional education had done. Since then, primary education which was limited to a lower level was expanded. For instance, between 1925 and 1935, the number of pupils increased. By 1945, the numbers had reached 100,000 pupils in primary schools. Secondary schools started in 1912 with the creation of the minor seminary of Kansi which in 1913 was shifted to Kabgayi. In 1929, with the establishment of the Groupe Scolaire d’Astrida, secondary education grew and increased. In 1933, the pupils of the former school for the sons of chiefs who lived at Nyanza were enrolled. Apart from Groupe scolaire d’Astrida, there were other secondary schools which include the following;
• Teacher Training School in Save which was started and managed by the Marist Brothers.
• Teacher Training School in Zaza by Brothers of Charity.
• Teacher Training School in Ruhengeri by Brothers of Christian Instruction.
• Teacher Training School for girls at Save managed by White Sisters.
• Teacher Training School in Kigali for girls ran by the Benedictine Sisters while their auxiliary laymen ran other Training College at Muramba and Byimana.
• Teacher Training School College in Shyogwe by the Alliance of Protestants.
b) Introduction of identity cards
Before the colonial form of identification, a Rwandan was first identified by his clan. Being Hutu, Twa or Tutsi was a mere social category. The identity cards which were introduced by the Belgians in 1935 classified Rwandans as belonging to Tutsi, Hutu and Twa. Each Rwandan had an ethnic identity card in the years that followed later.
To ascertain where one belonged, those who owned ten cows or more were classified as being Tutsi. Those with less cows were classified as Hutu while Batwa were considered not only as those without but also as the pygmies and as those who survived on pottery activities.
Unfortunately, there were cases where some of the children belonging to the same parent could be classified both as Hutu and Tutsi. For instance, one who had cows was regarded as a Tutsi and another one without cows was regarded as Hutu, yet the two shared same biological parents.
c) Health centres
Before the coming of colonialists in Rwanda, Rwandans used natural herbs (imiti gakondo) to cure various diseases such as malaria and headaches. However, colonialists phased out of local herbs and replaced them with western drugs and medicines. In collaboration with the Christian missionaries, the health sector was transformed by constructing various hospitals in different parts of the country. The medical sector was left in the hands of the Christian Missions. By 1932, the colonial administration had 2 hospitals including Kigali hospital and Astrida as well as 29 dispensaries. From 1933, the colonial administration introduced a new policy of replacing all dispensaries with mobile “assistance camps.” All this aimed at providing health care to the local populace in order to solve the problem of insufficient medical infrastructure. The private hospitals were put in place in Kigeme and Shyira by the Anglican Church and some others by Mining companies like hospital of Rutongo by SOMUKI and Rwinkwavu Hospital by GEORWANDA. Other hospitals set up by Christian Missionaries in different parts of the country among others included the following set up the following:
• Kabgayi and Mibilizi by the Catholic missionaries
• Kilinda by the Presbyterians
• Gahini by the Anglicans
• Ngoma-Mugonero by the Adventists In an attempt to increase the medical staff, a section of training of medical assistants was opened in Groupe Scolaire of Astrida and medical auxiliaries also opened at Astrida and 2 schools for Assistant Nurses at Kabgayi and in Kigali. As a result by the end of Belgium mandate, 4 rural hospitals and more than 10 dispensaries had been built by the Colonial administration.
d) Religion (Christianity)
Before the coming of the colonialists, the king was not only the head of the monarchy, but also a spiritual leader. He was considered divine and therefore held religious rituals regularly. He was thought to be a link between his people and the ancestors. Colonial agents worked against traditional religion as they considered it pagan and backward. In fact, they considered the African way of life to be that of uncivilised people. They used this as an excuse to introduce and support Christianity over traditional religion.
Important to note is that the spread of Christianity and Christian culture benefited a lot from the 1926 colonial administrative reforms. These reforms required that to be a chief or sub-chief, one was to have at least some western education acquired from the colonial schools in Rwanda.
Catholicism was the most dominant religion among other denominations like the Presbyterian, Anglican and Adventists. Churches were built across the county in places such as Zaza, Nyundo, Rwaza, Kabgyayi, Kilinda, Gahini and Gitwe.
Fig 2.7: Kabgayi Catholic Church
Activity 2.13
1. Research about other socio-cultural reforms that may have taken place in Rwanda during the Belgium Mandate. Write a brief explanation from your findings.
2. Besides the Catholic Church, identify other Christian denominations in Rwanda.
3. Apart from Christianity, mention other religions in Rwanda.
3. Economic reforms Rwanda experienced a lot transformation during the Belgian Mandate. Such had both negative and positive effects on Rwandans.
Activity 2.14
Using textbooks and internet, find out the economic reforms made during the Belgian Mandate. Afterwards, make a report from your findings to be presented in class.
Some of the economic reforms introduced in Rwanda during the Belgian Mandate include the following:
i) Forced labour policy
During the Belgium rule, some members of a family were required to offer free compulsory labour. This was to accomplish some projects started by the colonial government in a system called the akazi. This labour to the government was to be offered for two days in a week of seven days. Worse still, the forced labour was given amidst cruelty and brutality from the administrators. The introduction of akazi made people feel that they were being punished. The local people underwent suffering while constructing roads, churches and hospitals. This included transporting construction materials from different areas to Kabgayi Catholic Church and growing and cultivating various crops like cassava, sweet potatoes and coffee far from their homes. Locals were also required to transport European goods to places they were asked to. Sometimes, people could fail to harvest what they cultivated due to the long distance from their homes. At times, the farms were intentionally picked near the roads where colonial officials could usually pass so as to create good impression. Due to the forced labour policy, the locals could not get enough time to work on their farms. They instead concentrated on working on coffee farms, with little or no pay. This led to a shortage in food supply. As a result, a number of famines were experienced, such as Rumanura (between 1917 and 1918), Gakwege (between 1928 and 1929) and Ruzagayura (between 1943 and 1944). These famines affected people more often than before the coming of the colonialists. It too resulted into fleeing of many Rwandese to neighbouring countries like Congo and Uganda to look for paid labour.
ii) Agriculture and animal husbandry
The Belgians introduced cash crops such as coffee, pyrethrum, cotton and tea. Unfortunately, this was done through forced labour where labourers worked for long hours. They established agricultural research centres in various parts of the country to ensure the best harvests. These included Rubona (Southern Province), Rwerere (Western Pronvince), and Karama (Eastern Province). The Rubona adriculture research station was to deal with agricultural problems affecting average attitude land, Rwerere station in Gisenyi dealt with those affecting higher attitude while Karama station was for low attitude areas. Overemphasis on these crops meant that food crops were not considered as important. The result was frequent food shortages and famines.
The Belgians countered food shortages by introducing cassava, maize, soya beans and Irish potatoes to try to improve food production for subsistence farmers. This was important especially because of the two droughts and subsequent famines of Rwakayihura/Rwakayondo and Rudakangwimishanana between 1928-29 and 1943-44 respectively. Hybrid cattle breeds were also introduced to boost the production of hides and skins for export.
To support animal husbandry, research centers were set up at Nyamiyaga-Songa in the southern region, Cyeru in the northern region and Nyagatare in the eastern region. Animal health centres were built and veterinary clinics established in rural areas to improve the local breeds by crossbreeding them with exotic ones. This was to develop more productive and resistant breeds.
iii) Mining activities
Mining activities started from 1923 with two main companies: RwandaUrundi Tin Mines Company (MINETAIN: Société des Mines d’Etain du Ruanda-Urundi) and Muhinga-Kigali Mining Company (SOMUKI: Société Minière de Muhinga-Kigali) in1934. Some other mining companies such as GEORWANDA was established in 1945 while Compagne de Recherche et d’Exploitation Minière (COREM) was established in 1948. The major minerals extracted by the mining companies were gold, cassiterite, wolfram, tin, colombotantalite and mixed minerals. These mines not only increased the volume of exports but also provided local people with employment opportunities.
iv) Taxation policy
In a bid to increase tax revenue to finance their administration and projects, Belgians introduced poll tax in 1917. This was compulsory for all adult male Rwandans. This was to be paid in form of money. Unfortunately, the methods of collection were brutal. Tax defaulters were flogged while others were imprisoned, which made many people who were unemployed to run to the Belgians to look for jobs so as to pay taxes.
v) Trade and commerce
In pre-colonial times, Rwanda’s socio-economic activities revolved around cattle rearing, crop cultivation, ironwork, art and crafts and hunting. These activities provided the local population with products for subsistence consumption. However, surplus products were used for trade with the neighbouring communities. Like many countries in Africa, trade of goods and services was carried out in Rwanda through a barter trade where goods were exchanged for other goods. During the colonial period, Congo, Rwanda and Burundi were placed under common Belgian protectorate from 1916 to the early 1960s. The introduction of head-tax and use of money as a medium of exchange by the Germans and Belgians respectively changed the society’s socio-economic perception of wealth. Over time, trading centres started to develop. People could find agricultural products as well as crafts from such centres. Colonial administrators established commercial centres where local and foreign traders like Europeans and Asians could trade. Others who took part in the trade were the Belgians, Portuguese, Indians, Greeks, the Omani’s and Pakistanis who
operated licensed businesses. Generally, the business environment has been expanding since then, to include cross-border and international trade.
vi) Infrastructural development
In the 1920s and 1930s, Belgians constructed roads to facilitate trade and effectively administer the colony. The first vehicle arrived in Rwanda in 1927, which led to the construction of the following three international roads:
• Bujumbura-Bugarama-Astrida-Kigali-Rwamagana-Gatsibo-NyagatareKagitumba
• Bujumbura-Cyangugu-Bukavu
• Bukavu-Cyangugu-Astrida
However, European administrators generally overlooked the abuses of the officials who embezzled the taxes that were collected. They also oversaw forced labour during the construction roads, in various mining activities and during the planting of coffee. There was also the setting up of hydro-electric power stations to produce electricity. These stations were set up as from late 1950’s to supply power to developing industries. Those that were constructed include Mururu (on River Rusizi) and Ntaruka (between lakes Burera and Ruhondo).
Activity 2.15
Research on economic activities currently carried out in Rwanda and present your findings in class
iii) Reforms introduced during the Trusteeship (1946-1962)
Activity 2.16
Using the Internet and textbooks, research about what the Belgian colonialist should have done in different sectors to enable Rwanda gain autonomy and be prepared for political independence. Thereafter, compile an essay for marking by the teacher.
After World War II in 1945, the victorious nations created the United Nations Organisation (UNO) which replaced the League of Nations. This is because the League of Nations had failed to promote world peace. The principle mission of the UNO was to maintain peace and security in the world. By this time, Rwanda’s mandate regime was replaced by the trusteeship regime, although they were all under the Belgian authority. On 13th December 1946, the UNO and Belgium signed a Trusteeship Agreement on Rwanda. On April 29th 1946, the Belgian Parliament approved it. The UNO’s mission was to help prepare Rwanda to reach autonomy before its independence. Later on, the UNO began to have visits every after two years. The purpose of these missions was to hold consultations, examine together with the state holding trusteeship any petition arising from the administrated population and to assess the political situation of the countries under the trusteeship. Such missions in Rwanda were in 1948, 1951, 1954, 1957 and 1960. The UNO requested Belgium to assist her colonies for the political evolution.
The trusteeship had the following general objectives:
• To maintain international peace and security.
• To help in political, economic, social and cultural development of the inhabitants of the territories under trusteeship.
• To ensure progress towards either autonomous leadership or independence.
• To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms for all irrespective of the race, gender, language and religion.
• To ensure equal treatment in all social, economic and financial problems to all the members of the UN.
When UN mission visited Rwanda in 1948, they found that Belgians had done nothing to enable Rwanda reach the political evolution expected. The UN left after requesting Belgium to prepare Rwandans to reach autonomy that was desired for political independence. Belgium, instead of acting as requested by the UN, introduced the Ten Year Plan. This was aimed at achieving social and economic development than political development as requested by the UNO.
Economic reforms
The first mission of the UNO in 1948 realised that the Belgian government had not done much in socio-economic development and recommended that more social and economic reforms be promoted. In reaction to this recommendation, the Belgian government elaborated a Ten Year social and economic development plan for Rwanda-Urundi in 1951.
a) The Ten Year Plan
The Belgian-led administration in Rwanda put in place a Ten Year Plan, which was meant to bring about political, economic and social development in Rwanda. It also focused on providing significant financial support in public health, agriculture and education. However, this Plan had several weaknesses. These include:
• It was projected over a long period of time.
• Not all the people of Rwanda were involved in its formulation. Only the leaders were told about it while the rest of the population was ignored.
• Since the Belgian administrators who were in charge of the plan could be moved from one country to another, it was difficult for it to be effectively implemented.
The Ten Year Plan resulted to notable changes in Rwanda, even if these changes were slow despite its full implementation. Under this Plan, the following was achieved:
a) There was an improved access to education, although the majority of the learners continued to receive basic education. Numbers decreased as learners continued to advance into higher classes.
b) It had a range of strategies aimed at preventing famine.
c) The increasing monetarisation of the Rwandan economy enabled more people, apart from the elites, to realise the advantages and opportunities associated with business activities.
d) Access to medical care also became more equitable, widely available, effective and affordable – independent of sub-group identity. Several projects were financed under this Plan, like the construction of schools, hospitals, dispensaries, roads and the development of marshlands and the plantation of forests. Financing of the Ten Year Plan was in two forms, that is:
• External financing, which the Belgians achieved by creating a ‘‘Fonds du Bien-Etre Indigène’’ with two million francs. Belgium was also committed to annual financial aid which increased from 150 million per annum in 1950 – 1951 to 560 million in 1961.
• Financing local projects was done through increasing tax rates on cattle, subjecting polygamy taxation as well as taxing exports.
b) Abolition of Ubuhake
On land authorities, there were considerable socio-economic reforms which were done. Among the most notable ones, there was the abolition of the socio-economic dependence system based on the cow or ubuhake by the royal decree of the King Mutara III Rudahigwa on 1st April 1954. The abolition of ubuhake was as a result of the decision of the king in agreement with the indigenous Rwandan Superior Council. The traditional patron-client relationship of ubuhake was a highly personalised relationship between two individuals of unequal social status. The king further argued that the clientship was an obstacle to economic development that could create disorder among the people if not stopped. This abolition had two objectives:
• To liberate the pastoral clients (abagaragu) who used to spend much of their time working for their patron (shebuja)
• To encourage private initiatives and to force cattle keepers to reduce the number of cows to manageable and profitable size.
Political reforms
During the reign of the Belgian Trusteeship, there were two political reforms brought by the Belgian administrators: the establishment and creation of councils.
Establishment of councils
The first reform of its kind was introduced on May 4th 1947. It was the creation of a Conseil du Governement du Ruanda-Urundi. The Council comprised of 22 members, 5 of whom were Belgians including the Governor, 2 Resident Representatives and 2 Belgian state agents. The other 13 members were said to represent other foreigners living in Ruanda-Urundi. From 1949, the Kings of Ruanda-Urundi became members of the Conseil du Governement. This Council was majorly meant for consultation. On March 26th 1949, it was abolished by a Belgian royal decree and replaced with the Conseil Général du Ruanda-Urundi. Conseil Général du Ruanda-Urundi was composed of 50 members. 9 of these were high level personalities and automatic members, who included the Governor, 2 Residents, 2 kings and 4 high level Belgian functionaries. Apart from these, there were seats reserved for 4 representatives chosen by the Haut Conseil du Ruanda-Urundi from among its members, 18 representatives of expatriates and 14 members appointed by the Governor. Another political reform initiated by the Belgians in Rwanda was as a result of the Decree of 14th July, 1952. This was in response to the critical reports of the United National Trusteeship missions in Rwanda in 1948 and 1951. The decree led to the establishment of councils at local and country levels. They included Conseil de sous-chefferie (sub-chief councils), Conseil de chefferie (the council of chiefs), Conseil de territoire (the council of territory) and Conseil Superieur du Pays (the superior council of the country). The Councils established served for consultation purposes only. They did not have any power in decision making. The composition of each council was as follows:
(a) Conseil de sous-chefferie (the Council of sub-chief): It was made up of a sub-chief who presided over it and 5 to 9 elected members.
(b) Conseil de chefferie (the Council of Chiefs): This was composed of the chief himself who was its chairperson and 10 to 18 members of whom 5 were sub-chiefs elected by their peers. Others were notables elected from members of a college made up of 3 notables from sub-districts.
(c) Conseil du territoire (the territorial council): This was made up of the head of the territory and chiefs from that territory as well as a number of sub-chiefs which had to be equal to the number of chiefs. The subchiefs who sat on this council were chosen by their fellow sub-chiefs from their ranks. There were also notables on the council whose number was equal to that of chiefs and sub-chiefs. The notables were elected from an electoral college composed of 3 people elected by each conseil du territoire from among its members.
(d) Conseil Superieur du Pays (the high council of the state): This was presided over by the king. It was made up of representatives of the councils of the 9 territories (Cyangugu, Astrida, Nyanza, Kigali, Kibungo, Byumba, Ruhengeri, Gisenyi and Kibuye), 6 chiefs elected by their peers, a representative elected by each council of the territory from the members who sat on it, 4 people chosen because of their understanding of the problems of the country and 4 people chosen based on their level of assimilation towards western culture.
The councils were created mainly because the trusteeship terms provided that the Belgian administration was to increase the participation of Rwandans in the administration of their country. Thus, the powers of the local government were increased although they were to be supervised by the trusteeship administration. However, the elections to the councils were to be indirect, and the chiefs were tasked to determine the outcome.
The decree also had the following effects:
• It empowered the king to make regulations in the administration of the kingdom.
• The king was also authorised to make arrangements for social and economic services and to impose communal labour in 60 days.
• The chiefs had authority to implement the decrees of the king especially communal labour and labour services for the chiefs. The right to vote was introduced in 1954. Nevertheless, the system could hardly be described as democratic. For example, notables responsible for electing the sub-chiefdom councils – that is, the lowest level of councils – would themselves now be elected rather than nominated. Each council would thereafter vote on the membership of the superior council of the country council as previously done. Very important to note was that only nationals were allowed to be members of these councils and they served for a period of three renewable years. The administrative structure of Rwanda after establishment of these councils by 1952 was as follows:
Fig 2.8: Administrative structure of Rwanda by 1952
Activity 2.17
With the help of a resource person, listen to stories of how Rwanda got independence amidst difficulties. Find out more from textbooks other difficulties that Rwanda faced in attaining self-rule. Make a report and present to the teacher for assessment.
The Belgians used the divide and rule system of administration. In Rwanda, they took advantage of the historic division of labour between the Hutu and Tutsi. They went ahead to incorporate the Tutsi into the ruling class. Generally, the Belgian rule was characterised by social favouritism towards the Tutsi.
From the conseil supérieur du pays, a memorandum called Mise au point was made on 22nd February 1957. This was mainly addressed to the UN Trusteeship mission to Rwanda and to the Belgian colonial administration. This document strongly questioned the colonial power. It criticised discrimination based on colour, questioned monopoly of the missionary-led education which compromised its quality and finally demanded for increased representation of Rwandans in the political administration of their country. More so, the Mise au point made the Belgian authorities to mobilise an intellectual group of the Hutu to write another memorandum as a counter attack which they called Le Manifeste des Bahutu (Hutu manifesto) or Note sur l’aspect social du problème racial indigène au Rwanda. It was produced on 23rd March 1957. The signatories of this memorandum included Grégoire Kayibanda, Joseph Habyarimana Gitera, Calliope Murindahabi, Maximillian Niyonzima, Munyambonera Silvastre, Ndahayo Claver, Sentama Godefroid and Sibomana Joseph among others. They were majorly opposed to the power by the Tutsi.
In such a state of affairs, the colonial power had successfully created a HutuTutsi conflict which had never been there before. Later on, it became a barrier to the unity of Rwandans. This prompted King Mutara III Rudahigwa to establish a committee to study the “Muhutu-Mututsi social problem” on 30th March 1958. In June 1958, the conseil supérieur du pays produced a reaction on the report established by the committee. They pointed out that there was no Hutu– Mututsi problem that existed but a social-political problem on the level of political administration. This problem, they concluded, was not ethnic in nature. The conseil supérieur du pays members moved on to demand the removal of the ethnic mention in the identity cards. The situation intensified with the creation of political parties in Rwanda competing for power.
These political parties included:
Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR)
The Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR), or Rwanda National Union Party, was officially formed on 3rd September 1959. Its President was Francis Rukeba. Its other leaders were Michel Rwagasana, Michel Kayihura, Pierre Mungarurire and Chrisostome Rwangombwa among others. The party was basically a nationalist, monarchist, anti-colonialist and reformist party. It was formed to demand for immediate independence of Rwanda.
Rassemblement Démocratique du Rwanda (RADER)
Rassemblement Démocratique du Rwanda (RADER) or Rwanda Democratic Assembly, had the following members: Bwanakweli Prosper, Ndazaro Lazarus, Priest Bushayija Stanslas and Steven Rwigemera. This Party was quite close to the colonial administration and the Catholic Church. It was also democratic and advocated for constitutional monarchy.
Parti du Mouvement pour l’Emancipation Hutu (PARMEHUTU)
Parti du Mouvement pour l’Emancipation Hutu or Movement for the Emancipation of the Hutu was formed in October 1959. It was officially launched as a Party on 18th October 1959 with Grégoire Kayibanda as its President. Other prominent members were Niyonzima Maximillien, Ndahayo Claver, Murindahabi Calliope, Makuza Anastase, Rwasibo Jean Baptiste and Dominique Mbonyumutwa.
PARMEHUTU advocated for privatisation of property especially land and codification of customs. In the beginning, it seemed to advocate for constitutional monarchy. However, later on, it advocated for a republican state. On May 8th 1960, while in its meeting at Gitarama, the abbreviation of MDR (Mouvement Démocratique Républicain) was adopted to PARMEHUTU.
Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la Masse (APROSOMA)
APROSOMA stands for Association for Social Promotion of the Masses. It was established on 1st November 1957 by Joseph Habyarimana Gitera. It was launched officially as a political party on February 15th 1959. Its other influential members were Munyangaju Aloys, Gasigwa Germain and Nizeyimana Isidore. The day-to-day activities of APROSOMA were not far different from that of PARMEHUTU. Besides the above national political parties, there existed other local political clubs. Some of these were:
• AREDETWA: This stands for Association pour le Relèvement Démocratique de Batwa or Association for Democratic Elevation of Batwa. It was founded by Laurent Munyankuge from Gitarama. This party was later absorbed by PARMEHUTU.
• APADEC: This stands for Association du Parti Démocratique Chrétien or Association of Christian Democratic Party. Its founder was called Augustin Rugiramasasu.
• UMUR: This stands for Union des Masses Rwandaises.
• UNINTERCOKI: This stands for Union des Intêréts Communs du Kinyaga.
• ABAKI: This stands for for Alliance des Bakiga.
• MEMOR: This stands for Mouvement Monarchiste Rwandais.
• MUR: This stands for Mouvement pour l’Union Rwandaise. The formation of these political parties set the ball rolling for intense mobilisation of their strongholds through public political gatherings. These gatherings were followed by violence. It explains the subsequent violence that occurred in the years that followed, beginning 1959. From 1st to 7th November 1959, violence broke out in Gitarama against the Tutsi and the members of UNAR. This was started by the members of PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA from Byimana in Marangara. Soon, it spread to Ndiza, Gisenyi and Ruhengeri. The origin of this violence was believed to be the attack of Dominic Mbonyumutwa, a member of PARMEHUTU, (who was the chief of Ndiza at that time).
He was attacked by young Tutsis as he was leaving Catholic Church service at Byimana Parish, in the former prefecture of Gitarama in the present day Ruhango District. Between 7thand 10th November 1959, there was a counter attack prepared by the members of UNAR against the major leaders of PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA. These attacks had been hindered due to intervention of the Force Publique. During that period, the resident representative Preud’homme had put Rwanda under a military occupation regime. Colonel Guy Logiest was dispatched from Stanleyville (Kisangani in Belgian Congo) and appointed commander of the military forces which were operating in Rwanda at the time on the 11th November 1959. This violence had various effects, which included:
a) Houses belonging to the Hutus and Tutsis were destroyed systematically.
b) Many Tutsis were killed, internally displaced and became refugees in neighbouring countries like in Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and Belgian Congo.
c) There were arbitrary arrests, imprisonments and assassinations.
d) The twenty chiefs were dismissed and 150 sub-chiefs replaced by the members of PARMEHUTU, with the assistance of Colonel Guy Logiest. Following the above, in November 25th 1960, the following administrative reforms were introduced:
• The General Governor changed the title and became General Resident
• The sectors or sub-chiefdoms were reduced from 544 to 229. They were renamed Communes then commune elections were prepared.
• The 10 Territoires become Prefectures headed by the Préfets who were appointed.
• The High Councils of the state was dissolved and replaced by as a Special Provisional Council comprising 8 members from 4 political Parties namely RADER, PARMEHUTU, UNAR and APROSOMA. This Special Provisional Council was formed on 4th February 1960 at Kigali. King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa could not hide his hostility for that council because it actually substituted his powers.
• The chiefdoms or Districts were abolished. From 26th to 30th July 1960, there were communal elections. The following results were realised: PARMEHUTU obtained 70.4% equivalent to 2,390 Communal Councilors, APROSOMA obtained 7.4% equivalent to 233 Communal Councilors, RADER obtained 6.6% equivalent to 206 Communal
Councilors and UNAR got 1.8% which was equivalent to 56 Communal Councilors. From these elections, PARMEHUTU got 166 Bourgmasters from which 21 were from APROSOMA, 18 from APROSOMA-PARMEHUTU, 7 from RADER and 17 from different political parties. In reference to these results, PARMEHUTU was declared the winner. In the meantime, UNAR protested against these results and so did King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa. For this reason, King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa on July, 1960 was forced to go to Congo Belgian to meet the UN Secretary General and as well as to attend Congo’s independence celebration. After these elections, the Belgian Minister in charge of Ruanda-Urundi issued orders stopping King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa from returning to Rwanda.
Fig 2.9: Kigeli V Ndahindurwa
This made the Resident General to put in place a Provisional Government on 26th October 1960. This was made up of 10 Rwanda Ministers and 9 Belgian State Secretaries. A few months later, on 28th January 1961, there a coup at Gitarama, famously known as Coup d’Etat de Gitarama. During this time, a meeting took place in a market place in Gitarama in which about 2,900 Councilors and Bourgmasters who had been elected from PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA political parties participated. With full support of the Belgian government, the following resolutions were reached:
• The monarchy was to be abolished.
• The Kingdom emblem and the royal drum (Kalinga) was also to be abolished.
• The Ubwiru institution was also to be abolished.
• Rwanda was to be officially declared a Republic.
• Mbonyumutwa Dominique was to be elected as the first President of the Republic.
• There was to be the formation of a Government made up of 11 ministers with Grégoire Kayibanda as Prime Minister.
• The was to be a constitution and a judiciary based on the new state.
In February 1961, the Belgian Trusteeship confirmed that regime and transferred the power of autonomy to them. A new tri-colour flag of Red, yellow and Green was exhibited on 26th February 1961. On September 25th 1961, legislative elections and a referendum were organised and were won by PARMEHUTU. It was declared that majority of voters voted ‘‘No’’ against the monarchy and the candidature of King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa. On 2nd October 1961, the legislative assembly was put in place. Grégoire Kayibanda was elected the President of the Republic by the Legislative Assembly headed by Joseph Habyarimana Gitera. On 1st July 1962, Rwanda got independence, and the Belgian flag was replaced by the Rwandan flag.
Fig 2.10: The flag of Rwanda at independence
2.4 Effects of Belgian colonisation
Activity 2.18
Assess the reforms made by Belgian colonial administrators between 1916-1962. Thereafter, make a presentation in class.
Political effects
a) Change in the traditional administration
Belgians used indirect rule as their administrative method. With this, they stripped off the traditional powers of the Mwami (king) and reduced his position to being ceremonial.
They rejected the ancient administration of Rwanda that was based on the functions of the three chiefs at igikingi level. The former cattle, land and army chiefs were abolished and replaced with one chief. They reduced the powers of the king including barring him from appointing or dismissing his chiefs. Finally, King Yuhi V Musinga was deposed in 1931. This meant that the entire administration rested in the hands of Belgian administrators.
b)Formation of councils
During the Belgian administration, there was formation of councils. These were mainly to prepare Rwandans for autonomy that was to enable them gain total independence. c) Formation of political parties Belgian colonial rule led to the formation of political parties like PARMEHUTU, UNAR and RADER. These were to compete for power during the transition to democracy. However, this was not achieved at all.
Economic effects
i) Improvement in agriculture
There was transformation in crop cultivation as well as animal husbandry. For instance, they introduced new food and cash crops like cassava and coffee to solve famine and increase the volume of exports respectively. The growing of cash crops was compulsory so as to improve Belgian economy. This was followed by introduction of research centres and animal breeding centres in places such as Karama, Songa and Rubona. These centres were meant to produce better quality seeds in food and cash crops, fast growing and drought resistant varieties as well as quality animal breeds. However, they used forced labour (shiku) where people provided free labour on European gardens as well as plant coffee on their farms by law. Other cash crops introduced included cotton, tea and pyrethrum.
ii) Generation of electricity
In the field of energy, from 1958, the dams were constructed to produce hydro-electric power. These included Mururu on Rusizi River and Ntaruka HEP stations.
iii) Establishment of industries
Belgians were instrumental in the setting up of industries in Rwanda. Examples of such industries include BRALIRWA, a beer manufacturing company. After establishment, it officially started operating in 1959. In addition, the management of the Breweries of Congo and Burundi, then under the management of Brasseries de Leopoldville (Brewery of Kinshasa), decided to build a brewery in the eastern region of Rwanda (in Gisenyi) on the northern shores of Lake Kivu.
Fig 2.11: A section of Brarilwa Factory
iv) Introduction of commercial mining
Mining activities started in 1930 with two main companies: Rwanda-Urundi Tin Mines Company (MINETAIN: Société des Mines d’étain du RuandaUrundi) and Muhinga-Kigali mining company (SOMUKI: Société Minière de Muhinga-Kigali) in 1934. Some other mining companies that were established include GEORWANDA and COREM.
v) Construction of roads
In the 1920s and 1930s, Belgians constructed various roads to facilitate trade. However, European administrators generally overlooked the abuses of those officials who embezzled funds collected as taxes, road construction and human abuses in plantation farming.
vi) Introduction of taxes
Belgians also introduced the collection of taxes. The introduction of cash taxes instead of agricultural produce was intended to increase cultivation of coffee as a cash crop in their favour. This was very unfair for the majority were not employed and could not pay cash taxes.
vii) The traditional manufacturing sector was discouraged
Imported substitutes were encouraged hence replacing the locally produced products since they were of better quality than locally made products. The imported goods included clothes, salt, knives and hoes. This led to poverty and suffering to local entrepreneurs.
viii) Introduction of forced labour
Many economic reforms that were introduced were implemented using the forced labour policy. However, this destroyed their aims because instead of solving the economic problems, they led to famines where the energetic people fled to the neighbouring countries to engage in paid labour.
Social effects
a) Abolishment of traditional education
The Belgian colonialists abolished traditional education through itorero and replaced it with colonial education. The Belgian colonial government in collaboration with missionaries established schools like GS Astrida, teacher training schools and seminaries.
b) Establishment of health centres
Belgians also set up health centres to take care of the people. The government hospitals established during the Belgian rule included the hospitals at Kigali, Butare, Nyanza, Kibuye, Gisenyi, Ruhengeri, Byumba, Kibungo and Rwamagana. Gishari Tuberculosis Centre was established by the Belgian colonial government in 1955.
c) Construction of churches
They also constructed churches in different parts of the country like in Kabgayi, Ngoma-Mugonero and Gahini. This was to facilitate the spread of Christianity.
Activity 2.19
Write an essay on the impact of German and Belgian colonisation of Rwanda. With reasons, explain briefly the impact that was worse than all.
Revision questions
1. Discuss the causes of German and Belgian colonisation of Rwanda.
2. Examine the impact of German colonisation of Rwanda.
3. Give the reforms that were introduced by the Belgian colonisation of Rwanda from 1916 - 1962.
4. Explain the effects of Belgian colonisation of Rwanda.