Section outline

  • COLONIAL REFORMS AND
    THEIR CONSEQUENCES ON

    AFRICAN SOCIETIES

    Key unit competence: Evaluate political, economic and
     sociocultural colonial reforms and their consequences on African

    societies.

    Introductory Activity 2.1

    Use internet or the library, to carry out research on the
    reforms introduced by the European colonialists and their
    Consequences on African Societies. Thereafter, prepare a
    report to submit to the teacher and present the results of your

    research to the class.

    Introduction

    Just after their coming to Africa, Europeans introduced the
    different reforms which would help them to colonise and exploit
    African economic resources and Africans themselves. Africans were
    exploited through the taxation system and forced labour. Africa’s
    resources were exploited especially through the massive extraction
    of minerals.

    Such reforms had both negative and positive effects on African
    societies. Where Africans provided free labor to Europeans or
    were forced to pay taxes, Europeans benefited. However, African

    benefited from colonial education. 

    2.1. Colonial reforms introduced in Africa by Europeans
    Learning Activity 2.1
    Discuss the reforms introduced by the European colonialists

    in Africa. 

    After scrambling for Africa, partitioning and imposing colonial rule
    on the continent, the Europeans introduced colonial reforms, which

    helped them to effectively exploit Africa. 

    Political reforms

    During the colonial period, different political reforms were
    introduced. Most of them aimed at weakening the power of African
    leaders. New laws were made to respond to this necessity. In
    Rwanda, for instance, the Belgian colonial government carried out

    the reforms as discussed below.

    In 1923, Belgians introduced a law by which Mwami Musinga was
    prohibited from appointing or dismissing chiefs and notables
    without the permission of the resident representative of the
    Belgian Government. In the same way, the heads of provinces also
    could neither appoint nor dismiss their subordinates without prior

    agreement of the resident. 

    Other changes introduced by the colonial governments are, for
    example, the suppression of local armies and the introduction of a

    colonial police and army, and the application of European political

    and judicial systems. In preparation for independence, Britain set
    up the parliamentary and government system in her colonies. In so
    doing, the British formed councils of government and parliament
    to engaged the nationals in administration and to train them to
    work in the European democratic system. In addition, the electoral
    system was also adopted and African political parties were formed

    in order to implement these reforms.

    Economic reforms

    Taxation 

    Taxation was the main method of generating revenue needed to
    run colonial administration. The commonest taxes were the hut
    and gun taxes. The methods of collection were brutal and harsh,
    consequently making taxation a cause for African resistance and

    wars. An example was the hut tax war of 1898 in Sierra Leone. 

    Africans were forced either to grow cash crops or to work on
    European farms in order to get money for paying taxes. In some
    areas like the Congo Free State and Angola, taxes were paid in form
    of agricultural products and animals. Failure to pay taxes in these
    areas would result in the confiscation of property and sometimes

    mutilation. 

    Forced cash crop growing 

    To achieve the economic exploitation of Africa, cash crop growing
    had to be boosted. Some crops such as pyrethrum were grown by
    whites while others like coffee and cotton were grown by Africans
    under the supervision of Europeans. These cash crops were
    important forth supply of raw materials to industries in Europe

    where the industrial revolution had reached its climax by 1880. 

    However, there were no attempts made by Europeans to encourage
    the production of food, hence forced labour undermined the

    production of food crops. This led to famine in African societies 

    which traditionally had been self sufficient in terms of food. African
    economies were developed as producers of raw materials in the
    form of cash crops, and minerals, and consumers of European
    manufactured goods. For instance, in Rwanda vast spaces had to
    be used to grow cash crops at the expense of food crops. New cash
    crops such as coffee, tea, cotton and pyrethrum were introduced.
    Coffee was a colonial crop because it was meant for export and the
    colonial power promoted it seriously. It was in this context that in
    1931, the cultivation of coffee was made compulsory in Rwanda.
    Each peasant farmer had to possess at least 54 trees of coffee, 

    subchiefs 250 and chiefs 1000 trees. 

    The introduction of cash crops was one way of building an import
    and export economy. This new type of economy started with the
    coming of colonial agents in Africa. Africans who previously practiced
    subsistence farming for home consumption changed and started
    producing what they could not eat like coffee, and consumed what
    they could not produce like sugar which they had to buy. This led to

    the exploitation of Africans. 

    Land alienation 

    This was the most evil form of African exploitation in colonial Africa.
    Africans in settler colonies like Kenya, South Africa, Rhodesia, Algeria,
    Angola and Mozambique were hit hardest by land alienation this
    practice. In some areas of Africa, Africans were forced to settle in

    reserve camps, leaving their fertile land to Europeans. 

    Note that this policy was one of the causes of African resistance
    in many areas of Africa because the Africans would not allow

    Europeans to occupy their fertile lands. 

    Development of legitimate trade

    After realising the benefits the slave trade and its abolition, the

    Europeans did not want to leave Africa. Instead they developed 

    another kind of trade known as “legitimate trade”. This new trade is
    said to have brought peace and stability as it eliminated the raids
    and the accompanying miseries of slave trade. However, this trade
    was monopolized by Europeans who transferred all the profits to

    their mother countries. 

    Legitimate trade was characterised by unfairness in terms of
    exchange. Europeans paid low prices for African exports while
    they sold their exports to Africa at high prices, hence unfavourable
    terms of trade and subsequent underdevelopment in Africa. Worse
    still, legitimate trade involved the exchange of high valued African
    products like gold, copper, diamonds, cotton, coffee, rubber, and
    palm oil for less valuable European products like beads, used

    clothes, bangles, spices and glassware.

    Discouraging of industrialization

     To ensure the monopoly of raw material sources and market for
    their manufactured goods, Europeans discouraged the setting
    up of manufacturing industries in Africa. For instance, in Egypt,
    Lord Cromer established processing plants for cotton raw material
    while the production of cotton cloth remained a monopoly of
    metropolitan Britain. He imposed tariffs on locally manufactured
    goods and on imported coal. He also set up heavy fines on smokers

    to kill the tobacco industry. 

    In Senegal, the French never set up any processing industries to the
    extent that even the groundnuts produced were exported in shells.
    The only industries set up were primary processing industries which

    were aimed at reducing bulky raw materials. 

    Development of road and railway transport

    For the development of legitimate trade, the establishment of road
    and railway transport network became important. This network

    linked African colonies to the coast. 

    The roads were mainly established in resource rich areas where
    colonialists had direct control and their main purpose was to
    facilitate the effective exploitation of African raw resources. For
    example, in Togo, Germany constructed railway lines and named
    them according to the produce they were meant to carry such as

    cacao nut line, cotton line, palm oil line and iron ore line. 

    Massive exploitation of minerals 

    The explorers located places with minerals and fertile soils. This led
    to the coming of many white settlers who embarked on excessive
    exploitation of these resources. Examples of excessive exploitation
    were in Kilembe mines in Western Uganda, Witwatersrand and
    Transvaal in South Africa, in Congo and Togo. As a result minerals

    were exhausted in many parts of Africa. 

    In Rwanda, mining started in 1923. The main minerals were tin,
    colombo-tantalite or coltan, niobium, tungsten, gold, wolfram,
    and other minerals associated with tin. The mines were located in
    Gatumba, Musha, Rwamagana, Rwinkwavu, Rutongo, Nyungwe,

    Gifurwe, and other areas. 

    Socio-cultural reforms

    Promotion of education 

    The colonial education system was largely left to Christian
    missionaries. In the colonial schools, Africans were trained in skills
    to serve as lower cadres or “colonial auxiliaries”. The main products
    of these schools best suited the posts of clerks. They did not train

    engineers, doctors and other high ranking professionals. 

    This education system trained people in European ways of life, and
    as a result they became of colonial agents of exploitation.

    In Rwanda, the priority in education services was offered to the
    sons of chiefs. In French, Portuguese and Italian colonies, education

    served the policy of assimilation. 

    Social subjects such as psychology, political science, literature and
    history were neglected in order to keep Africans away from forming
    revolutionary movements against exploitative, oppressive and
    suppressive policies of the colonialists. To colonialists, the subjects
    best fit for Africans were Bible study, and literacy in European

    languages. 

    Promotion of medical services

    During the colonial period, the modern medical system was
    introduced to replace the traditional one. Hospitals, health centres
    and dispensaries were built and campaigns of vaccination against
    killer diseases like polio, measles, pneumonia, and others were

    launched. 

    Application Activity 2.1

    1. Point out some political reforms introduced by the
    colonial governments in their African colonies.
    2. Define land alienation under colonial rule.
    3. Describe how forced cash crop growing was applied in
    Rwanda under colonial rule
    4. Describe how the education system was promoted in
    colonies.
    5. Describe how the medical system was promoted in

    colonies.

    2.2. Consequences of colonial reforms on African societies

    Learning Activity 2.2

    Analyse the economic, social and cultural consequences
    resulting from these reforms in African societies. Then prepare

    a written report to present to the class.

    Political consequences

    African leaders who resisted colonialism were exiled or banned and
    replaced by others deemed to be more loyal. For instance, Mwami
    Musinga was first dismissed from his post and replaced by his son
    Rudahigwa before being exiled at Moba in the Democratic Republic
    of Congo. Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda and Omukama Kabalega of

    Bunyoro, were exiled to Kismayu and later to the Seychelles.

    As a result of colonial reforms some societies or individual leaders
    picked up arms to fight to the colonialists.

    Another effect of colonial reforms in Africa was the growth of African
    nationalism which culminated in the recovery of independence in

    the 1960s.

    Economic consequences

    Resettlement of Africans 

    Africans were forced by colonial governments to move from their
    areas with fertile soils to allow construction of economic facilities
    and social infrastructure. As result, many Africans were resettled
    in other areas, most of them infertile. For instance, the Nama and
    Herero were forced into the Kalahari Desert, the Kikuyu in Kenya
    were moved from their fertile highlands and settled in other regions
    of their country so as to enable British farmers to establish vast

    plantations. 

    Another cause of resettlement was the creation of new job
    opportunities. People preferred to migrate to areas where wages
    were paid to workers. For example, some Rwandans migrated to
    Uganda, which was under British control, where they could find
    a job with a salary or wages. In other cases, people could leave
    their former region of residence because of the colonial obligation
    of working in mines. This policy was adopted by the Belgians in
    Rwanda, where some Rwandans were taken to the Democratic

    Republic of Congo in mineral regions like Katanga, and Kasai. 

    Over exploitation of Africans

    Many methods which were used in the implementation of colonial
    economic policies resulted in over exploitation of Africans. Such
    methods included; for example, the taxation system and forced

    labour.

    Dependence of African economies on Europe

    The colonialists made African economies dependent on Europe.
    The Europeans did not build industries in Africa; they even
    destroyed local African factories. The African economy was reduced
    to a market for European goods in order to gain more commercial
    profits. Europeans got the raw materials at low prices while their

    manufactured goods were sold at high prices in Africa. 

    Modernisation of agriculture

    African agriculture was modernised through the introduction of
    new modern techniques of farming such as planting selected seeds
    of food crops, crop rotation, and application of organic manure.
    Besides, schools teaching modern agriculture were introduced.
    Particularly in Rwanda, the colonial administration put a lot of
    attention on anti-erosion activities by encouraging the digging of
    ditches and planting and maintenance of trees. The colonial power
    also put in place agricultural research stations with the aim of

    selection and experimentation.

    Socio-cultural consequences

    Westernised African elites

    Europeans constructed schools through which they started
    initiating and educating Africans in European “civilisation”. This
    colonial education had an aim of training Africans to be colonial
    collaborators. Africans were taught to write, read and count in

    European languages. 

    In addition, a new class of assimilated Africans emerged. In
    French colonies and in other African countries under Belgian and
    Portuguese colonial rule, this class enjoyed more privileges than
    their compatriots. For instance, they could live in or visit European

    places, and study in schools for European children.

    The conditions required to become assimilated were not easy in
    French colonies. In order to be assimilated, Africans would learn
    to speak and write French, be converted to the Roman Catholic
    faith, use French, observed administrative laws, and adopt French

    dressing habits. 

    Application Activity 2.2

    Explain the consequences of reforms introduced by the

    European colonialists in Africa. 

    Unit summary

    During the colonial period, Europeans introduced and implemented
    reforms that would enable them to exploit Africans and their
    resources. This was after gaining territories and being successful
    in the implementation of colonial administrative systems. These
    reforms included economic reforms like taxation, land alienation,

    and forced labour, among others. 

    Colonial reforms had both negative and positive consequences
    on African societies. This was due to the exploitation of the African
    economy by Europeans in order to enhance their economies.
    However, these reforms had positive effects such as the introduction

    of formal education.

    Glossary

    Alienation: (law) the voluntary and absolute transfer of title and
    possession of real property from one person to another
    Harsh: unkind, cruel or uncivil
    Metropolis: a large and densely populated urban area; may include
    several independent administrative districts
    Metropolitan: relating to or characteristic of a metropolis
    Mutilation: an injury that causes disfigurement or that deprives
    you of a limb or other important body part

    Undermine: destroy property or hinder normal operations

    End of Unit Assessment

    1. Examine the different economic reforms introduced in
    Africa by colonial masters.
    2. Analyse the social reforms undertaken by Europeans in
    Africa.
    3. Assess the effects of colonial reforms on African

    societies.