Course: History and Citizenship

Topic outline

General
UNIT 1: THE 1789 FRENCH REVOLUTION
Key unit competence To be able to explain the causes and
consequences of the 1789 French Revolution
Introductory Activity 1.1
Using the internet or the library research on the 1789 French
Revolution and describe the characteristics of the Ancient regime
before 1789.
Introduction
The French Revolution was a major transformation of the social and political
system of France, from 1789 to 1799. This revolution transformed
France from an absolute monarchy, where the king monopolized
power, to a republic of free and equal citizens. The effects of the French
Revolution were widespread, both inside and outside of France, and
the revolution ranks as one of the most important events in the
history of Europe.
During the ten years of the revolution, France dismantled the
old political and social system, and replaced it with a series of different
governments. Although none of these governments lasted more
than four years, the initiatives they took permanently changed
France’s political system. These initiatives included the drafting of several
bills of rights and constitutions, the establishment of legal equality for
all citizens, introduction of representative democracy, incorporation of the
Church into the state, and the reconstruction of state administration
and the law code. All these have had far reaching effects on the
whole World
1.1. Causes of the 1789 French Revolution
Learning Activity 1.1
Using the internet or the library research on the 1789 French
Revolution and describe the causes of the 1789 French
revolution.
The French Revolution of 1789 refers to social, economic, political and
religious changes that took place in France. The changes included
the removal of the ancient regime and the establishment of a new
social order that was based on liberty, equality, and fraternity. The
causes of the revolution are discussed below.
Unfair political system of ancient regime
The ancient regime in France was led by despotic kings. The
administration was characterised by dictatorship, nepotism and
abuse of human rights. The King’s powers were absolute and could not
be questioned. He was the law and the law was himself, and that is
why he once boasted “the thing is legal because I wish it to be”, “the
state is myself!”
There was no written constitution, no democracy, and no fair
representation in the parliament. Even the King’s ministers had
unlimited powers through ”lettre-de-cachet” (arrest warrant with
imprisonment without trial), which caused a lot of suffering to the
French people, forcing them to think of change and work towards it.
Social class struggle
French society was divided into three social classes; the clergy, the
nobles and middle class with the peasants.

The clergy and nobles enjoyed a lot of privileges. They owned large
tracts of land, dominated the key government posts, and were
exempted from taxes and military conscription. They were promoted
in the army; were entitled to education and were judged by special
courts. They could collect tributes from the peasants, had the right to
get pensions; the right to enjoy all forms of freedom; to stay in the King’s
palace and the right to move with weapons in public.
The peasants and the middle class were 23 million out of 25 millions,
but were denied all sorts of freedom, subjected to forced labour, to unfair
taxation, were imprisoned without trial, were denied promotion in
the army and higher education.
The middle class (bourgeoisie) was composed of teachers, lawyers,
doctors, scientists and industrialists. Despite their education, they
were excluded from top posts in the government and in the army.
They also had to end money to the government and were not sure
of recovering that money. By 1789, they had read and interpreted the
work of philosophers, which opened the eyes of French people and
forced them to fight against the ancient regime.
Role of the French philosophers
The philosophers were great thinkers who were highly educated in
world affairs and put their ideas in writing, condemning the social,
political and economic situation in France. They attacked and exposed
the wrongs of French society and created the French Revolutionary
spirit among the peasantry and middle classes.
Unfair land ownership
The land was unfairly distributed among the nobles and the clergy
at the expense of the majority peasants. The Church also owned 20
per cent of the land that it rented to the peasants. The peasants lived as
tenants on the estates, landlord’s who also exploited them. This is why
they demanded for reforms in the revolution of 1789.
Unfair taxation system
Before 1789, the taxation system of France was unfair. The poor
peasants were forced to pay a lot of taxes like salt tax, property tax,
road tax, tithe and customs duty; while the rich nobles and the clergy
were exempted from taxation. The peasants were tired of this unfair
taxation system rose up against the regime of the time.
a. People lost confidence in the government and wished that
it could be removed.
b. When the government failed to pay back the money
to the middle class, the people decided to remove the
government.
c. That crisis led to inflation and unemployment which
forced people into the revolution.
d. It forced the King to call the Estates General meeting in
which the revolution started.
Dismissal of the financial reformers
Capable financial controllers, Turgot and Necker, were dismissed. This
worsened the financial crisis in France. They had suggested reforms
such as taxing the wealth of the nobles and the clergy, but the Queen
advised the King to expel them because they criticised the financial
mismanagement at the royal palace. This led to the revolution against
Louis XIV in 1789.
Character of Louis XVI
He was the last King who ruled France from 1774 to 1793. He
contributed to the occurrence of the French Revolution in the
following ways:
Louis was responsible for the financial crisis that hit France due to
corruption, embezzlement and extravagance that characterised his reign.
This created a revolutionary mood among the masses.
He confined himself in the royal palace, which made him unpopular and
he was always asleep or hunting during crucial meetings.
He married a beautiful but less intelligent, arrogant and proud
Marie Antoinette from Austria, a traditional enemy of France.
Besides, she poorly advised the King hence committing blunders
that resulted in the French Revolution.
He signed a free trade treaty with Britain to allow her to sell her goods
in France untaxed. This led to the collapse of local industries and generated
a lot of hatred from the middle class who also joined the revolution
against him.
He lacked firmness and often shed tears during hot debates. He
was inconsistent and that is why he was ill-advised by the Queen. To
Frenchmen, Louis XVI was king in name but not in character.
He involved France in the American War of Independence, which led
to the bankruptcy of his regime and he failed to pay back the money
borrowed from the middle class.
Louis XVI of France was the grandson of king Louis XV and
was married to Marie- Antoinette. Louis was considered
a well intentioned but weak king. A heavy tax burden and court extravagance
led eventually to a popular revolt against him and paved the way for
the French Revolution. Louis was guillotined by the revolutionary
regime in 1793.
Influence of Marie Antoinette
Marie Antoinette was a daughter of an Austrian Empress called
Marie II Thérèse. She was hated by Frenchmen, more especially
among the middle class, because she represented Austria which
had supported Britain in the “Seven Years War” which led to the loss
of French colonies in Canada and India.
She was very insensitive to the problems of the French and that was
why she, at one time, arrogantly told the peasants that: “let them eat
cakes if bread is expensive” which angered the peasants during the
French Revolution.

She was also busy wasting taxpayer’s money on luxurious parties,
giving a lot of gifts, employing about 500 servants and buying four
pairs of shoes per week. This contributed to the financial crisis and
led to the outbreak of the revolution.
Marie Antoinette was the Queen of France who died on the guillotine
in 1793 during the French Revolution. Her lavish life-style made her
unpopular. Paying no attention to her country’s financial crisis, she
refused to make any concessions to hungry mobs who marched
on the palace in Versailles. Instead, she called out troops. Violence
followed, and she and her husband, King Louis XVI, were imprisoned
by revolutionaries and later executed.
Influence of England
England provided an example to French society. By 1750, she had
modernised and had the best parliament, a good constitution and
an independent judiciary as well as freedom of religion. In addition to
a better political environment, England became a reference for
political philosophers who based their arguments on Britain. Many
Frenchmen desired the life of England and this fuelled the 1789
French Revolution.
Effects of American Revolution
France participated in the American War of Independence to
revenge against Britain. The French government, therefore, sent
troops to America to fight the British. In 1776, the Americans defeated
Britain. However, the war worsened the already alarming financial
crisis in France and provided a practical example to the French that “if
success could be obtained by the Americans, it could be obtained by
the French as well”.
Politically, the French soldiers who fought on the side of America came
back with new revolutionary ideas and they were shocked to find
out that the very conditions that America was fighting were present in
France. General Marquis de Lafayette who was the commander of
the French troops in America took the commanding role in the French
Revolution.
Natural calamities
To make matters worse, from 1788 France experienced natural
calamities, which led to the untold misery. In 1788 there was famine
caused by poor harvests, and the poor taxation system, which
prevented easy transportation of food.
In early 1789 severe winter hit Europe leading to the freezing of many
rivers in Europe; hence no fishing, transportation and employment.
On top of that, in 1786 France had signed a free trade treaty with Britain,
which caused suffocation of French industries as cheap goods from
Britain flooded the French market.
As a solution to the problems faced by the French, a revolution was
looked at as an alternative.

The estates General meeting of May 5th, 1789

The above factors created a fertile environment for the revolution. It only
needed an incident to spark off a great revolution. King Louis XVI
decided to call a meeting for all the three classes on Sunday May 5th,
1789 in order to resolve the economic crisis. In attendance were 1,224
delegates, including 308 clergy, and 295 nobles. Jacques Necker
advised the King that the number of the third class members should
be double because they represented the majority. That was why the
third class members were 621.
Trouble came when they failed to agree on the voting procedures
where the King wanted the voting to be on class basis and their
opinion was for one man one vote. The king being very weak, failed
to control the situation and the third class members declared
themselves the National Assembly. This marked the beginning of
the French Revolution.
Application Activity 1.1
1. Referring to the era of enlightenment you studied in
Senior Two, analyse the role of the French great thinkers
to the outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 and
other causes of the French Revolution in general. Write
down the results of your analysis to share with your
classmates.
2. Explain the political; economic and social causes of the
1789 French Revolution?
1.2. Effects of the French Revolution
Learning Activity 1.2
Using the internet or library research, identify and analyse the
positive effects of the French Revolution in France and Europe.
Thereafter, prepare a document to present to the class.
Positive effects
The 1789 French Revolution destroyed the Bastille and this
symbolised the end of despotism on 14th July 1789.
It revived the French parliament (National Assembly or General
meeting on May 5th, 1789) which had last sat 175 years before in 1614.
The revolutionaries succeeded in spreading the French Revolutionary
principles of equality, liberty and fraternity beyond French borders.
The French Revolutionaries passed a radical law known as “civil
constitution of the clergy” which allowed freedom of worship in
France and ended Catholic Church dominance.

The national assembly produced a new constitution in November
1791.
The French Revolution ended feudal privileges on August 4th, 1789 in
the assembly at Versailles. Land that belonged to the Catholic Church
and the nobles was nationalised and given to the landless peasants
at cheaper prices.
It led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the citizen on August
27th, 1789. The document abolished the social class divisionism
which had existed in France during the Bourbon monarchy (ancient
regime). This led to equality among French citizens, as it declared
that all men were equal before the law.
Multiparty politics was achieved in France with various political
parties or clubs like Jacobins, Girondins, Feuillants, Montagnards and
Cordoliers.
The royalist guards were replaced by the national guard after the
storming of the Bastille on July 14th, 1789.

It ended dictatorship/despotism in France after the formulation of a
new constitution.

The revolutionaries introduced reforms in the education system.
Polytechnic schools were built to train and produce skilled labour;
secondary schools were built and old ones rehabilitated. This
promoted efficiency in the education sector.
Negative effects
The French Revolution resulted in loss of lives and destruction of
properties.

The July 1790 the Civil Constitution of the Clergy passed during the
made the Catholic Church and the state enemies.

It damaged the diplomatic relations between France and her
neighbours like Prussia, Austria, Russia and Britain due to the
mistreatment of Louis XVI.

The revolution inspired the outbreak of other revolutions like the 1830
and 1848 revolutions in Europe that left a lot of lives and properties
destroyed.

It led to the disorganization of the map of Europe. This was done by France
in her expansionist policy when it conquered Spain, Naples, German
and the Italian states.
It led to financial collapse and decline due to numerous wars that
France fought with the rest of Europe. The reign of terror also led to
financial collapse.
It led to loss of lives. Many people died, mostly during the reign of
terror as well as during wars between revolutionary France and her
neighbours. People like Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette, and many others
were killed by guillotine.
It forced many people into exile in Austria, Russia, Prussia and Italy where
they came to be known as the émigrés.
Application Activity 1.2
1. Find out three ways to explain how the financial crisis led
to the outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789.

2. The dismissal of the finance ministers led to the outbreak
of the French Revolution. Explain this assertion.
Unit summary
The French Revolution broke out in 1789 against the ancient regime
of King Louis XVI and his wife Marie Antoinette. It lasted about ten
years, ending in 1799 with the rise to power of Napoleon Bonaparte.
This revolution was mainly against the nature of the political regime
under King Louis XVI. The revolutionaries were fed up with the social
injustices under the ancient regime and all kind of unfair policies like
unfair land distribution, unfair taxation, unfair political system, among
others.
The French Revolution of 1789–1799 had both negative and positive
affects on French society, in particular and Europe in general.
Glossary
Bankruptcy: inability to discharge your debts
Blunder: an embarrassing mistake
Conscription: compulsory military service
Dismantle: tear apart into pieces
Guillotine: instrument of execution that consists of a weighted
blade between two vertical poles; used for beheading
people
Lavish: very generous or characterised by extravagance
Tithe: a levy of one tenth of something or an offering of a tenth part of
some personal income
Warrant: summons from a court commanding police to perform
specified acts

End of Unit Assessment

1. Describe the characteristics of the ancient regime in
France before 1789.
2. Analyse the role of the French great thinkers in the
outbreak of the French Revolution of 1789.
3. Describe the social structure of the French society by 1789.
4. Identify and analyse the positive effects brought by the
French revolution to France and Europe.
5. Examine the negative effects caused by the revolution
which broke out in 1789 in the French society.
6. To what extent were economic and financial factors
responsible for the outbreak of the 1789 revolution in
France?
UNIT 2: COLONIAL REFORMS AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES ON AFRICAN SOCIETIES
COLONIAL REFORMS AND
THEIR CONSEQUENCES ON
AFRICAN SOCIETIES
Key unit competence: Evaluate political, economic and
sociocultural colonial reforms and their consequences on African
societies.
Introductory Activity 2.1
Use internet or the library, to carry out research on the
reforms introduced by the European colonialists and their
Consequences on African Societies. Thereafter, prepare a
report to submit to the teacher and present the results of your
research to the class.
Introduction
Just after their coming to Africa, Europeans introduced the
different reforms which would help them to colonise and exploit
African economic resources and Africans themselves. Africans were
exploited through the taxation system and forced labour. Africa’s
resources were exploited especially through the massive extraction
of minerals.

Such reforms had both negative and positive effects on African
societies. Where Africans provided free labor to Europeans or
were forced to pay taxes, Europeans benefited. However, African
benefited from colonial education.
2.1. Colonial reforms introduced in Africa by Europeans
Learning Activity 2.1
Discuss the reforms introduced by the European colonialists
in Africa.
After scrambling for Africa, partitioning and imposing colonial rule
on the continent, the Europeans introduced colonial reforms, which
helped them to effectively exploit Africa.
Political reforms
During the colonial period, different political reforms were
introduced. Most of them aimed at weakening the power of African
leaders. New laws were made to respond to this necessity. In
Rwanda, for instance, the Belgian colonial government carried out
the reforms as discussed below.
In 1923, Belgians introduced a law by which Mwami Musinga was
prohibited from appointing or dismissing chiefs and notables
without the permission of the resident representative of the
Belgian Government. In the same way, the heads of provinces also
could neither appoint nor dismiss their subordinates without prior
agreement of the resident.
Other changes introduced by the colonial governments are, for
example, the suppression of local armies and the introduction of a
colonial police and army, and the application of European political
and judicial systems. In preparation for independence, Britain set
up the parliamentary and government system in her colonies. In so
doing, the British formed councils of government and parliament
to engaged the nationals in administration and to train them to
work in the European democratic system. In addition, the electoral
system was also adopted and African political parties were formed
in order to implement these reforms.
Economic reforms
Taxation
Taxation was the main method of generating revenue needed to
run colonial administration. The commonest taxes were the hut
and gun taxes. The methods of collection were brutal and harsh,
consequently making taxation a cause for African resistance and
wars. An example was the hut tax war of 1898 in Sierra Leone.
Africans were forced either to grow cash crops or to work on
European farms in order to get money for paying taxes. In some
areas like the Congo Free State and Angola, taxes were paid in form
of agricultural products and animals. Failure to pay taxes in these
areas would result in the confiscation of property and sometimes
mutilation.
Forced cash crop growing
To achieve the economic exploitation of Africa, cash crop growing
had to be boosted. Some crops such as pyrethrum were grown by
whites while others like coffee and cotton were grown by Africans
under the supervision of Europeans. These cash crops were
important forth supply of raw materials to industries in Europe
where the industrial revolution had reached its climax by 1880.
However, there were no attempts made by Europeans to encourage
the production of food, hence forced labour undermined the
production of food crops. This led to famine in African societies
which traditionally had been self sufficient in terms of food. African
economies were developed as producers of raw materials in the
form of cash crops, and minerals, and consumers of European
manufactured goods. For instance, in Rwanda vast spaces had to
be used to grow cash crops at the expense of food crops. New cash
crops such as coffee, tea, cotton and pyrethrum were introduced.
Coffee was a colonial crop because it was meant for export and the
colonial power promoted it seriously. It was in this context that in
1931, the cultivation of coffee was made compulsory in Rwanda.
Each peasant farmer had to possess at least 54 trees of coffee,
subchiefs 250 and chiefs 1000 trees.
The introduction of cash crops was one way of building an import
and export economy. This new type of economy started with the
coming of colonial agents in Africa. Africans who previously practiced
subsistence farming for home consumption changed and started
producing what they could not eat like coffee, and consumed what
they could not produce like sugar which they had to buy. This led to
the exploitation of Africans.
Land alienation
This was the most evil form of African exploitation in colonial Africa.
Africans in settler colonies like Kenya, South Africa, Rhodesia, Algeria,
Angola and Mozambique were hit hardest by land alienation this
practice. In some areas of Africa, Africans were forced to settle in
reserve camps, leaving their fertile land to Europeans.
Note that this policy was one of the causes of African resistance
in many areas of Africa because the Africans would not allow
Europeans to occupy their fertile lands.
Development of legitimate trade
After realising the benefits the slave trade and its abolition, the
Europeans did not want to leave Africa. Instead they developed
another kind of trade known as “legitimate trade”. This new trade is
said to have brought peace and stability as it eliminated the raids
and the accompanying miseries of slave trade. However, this trade
was monopolized by Europeans who transferred all the profits to
their mother countries.
Legitimate trade was characterised by unfairness in terms of
exchange. Europeans paid low prices for African exports while
they sold their exports to Africa at high prices, hence unfavourable
terms of trade and subsequent underdevelopment in Africa. Worse
still, legitimate trade involved the exchange of high valued African
products like gold, copper, diamonds, cotton, coffee, rubber, and
palm oil for less valuable European products like beads, used
clothes, bangles, spices and glassware.
Discouraging of industrialization
To ensure the monopoly of raw material sources and market for
their manufactured goods, Europeans discouraged the setting
up of manufacturing industries in Africa. For instance, in Egypt,
Lord Cromer established processing plants for cotton raw material
while the production of cotton cloth remained a monopoly of
metropolitan Britain. He imposed tariffs on locally manufactured
goods and on imported coal. He also set up heavy fines on smokers
to kill the tobacco industry.
In Senegal, the French never set up any processing industries to the
extent that even the groundnuts produced were exported in shells.
The only industries set up were primary processing industries which
were aimed at reducing bulky raw materials.
Development of road and railway transport
For the development of legitimate trade, the establishment of road
and railway transport network became important. This network
linked African colonies to the coast.
The roads were mainly established in resource rich areas where
colonialists had direct control and their main purpose was to
facilitate the effective exploitation of African raw resources. For
example, in Togo, Germany constructed railway lines and named
them according to the produce they were meant to carry such as
cacao nut line, cotton line, palm oil line and iron ore line.
Massive exploitation of minerals
The explorers located places with minerals and fertile soils. This led
to the coming of many white settlers who embarked on excessive
exploitation of these resources. Examples of excessive exploitation
were in Kilembe mines in Western Uganda, Witwatersrand and
Transvaal in South Africa, in Congo and Togo. As a result minerals
were exhausted in many parts of Africa.
In Rwanda, mining started in 1923. The main minerals were tin,
colombo-tantalite or coltan, niobium, tungsten, gold, wolfram,
and other minerals associated with tin. The mines were located in
Gatumba, Musha, Rwamagana, Rwinkwavu, Rutongo, Nyungwe,
Gifurwe, and other areas.
Socio-cultural reforms
Promotion of education
The colonial education system was largely left to Christian
missionaries. In the colonial schools, Africans were trained in skills
to serve as lower cadres or “colonial auxiliaries”. The main products
of these schools best suited the posts of clerks. They did not train
engineers, doctors and other high ranking professionals.
This education system trained people in European ways of life, and
as a result they became of colonial agents of exploitation.

In Rwanda, the priority in education services was offered to the
sons of chiefs. In French, Portuguese and Italian colonies, education
served the policy of assimilation.
Social subjects such as psychology, political science, literature and
history were neglected in order to keep Africans away from forming
revolutionary movements against exploitative, oppressive and
suppressive policies of the colonialists. To colonialists, the subjects
best fit for Africans were Bible study, and literacy in European
languages.
Promotion of medical services
During the colonial period, the modern medical system was
introduced to replace the traditional one. Hospitals, health centres
and dispensaries were built and campaigns of vaccination against
killer diseases like polio, measles, pneumonia, and others were
launched.
Application Activity 2.1
1. Point out some political reforms introduced by the
colonial governments in their African colonies.
2. Define land alienation under colonial rule.
3. Describe how forced cash crop growing was applied in
Rwanda under colonial rule
4. Describe how the education system was promoted in
colonies.
5. Describe how the medical system was promoted in
colonies.
2.2. Consequences of colonial reforms on African societies
Learning Activity 2.2
Analyse the economic, social and cultural consequences
resulting from these reforms in African societies. Then prepare
a written report to present to the class.
Political consequences
African leaders who resisted colonialism were exiled or banned and
replaced by others deemed to be more loyal. For instance, Mwami
Musinga was first dismissed from his post and replaced by his son
Rudahigwa before being exiled at Moba in the Democratic Republic
of Congo. Kabaka Mwanga of Buganda and Omukama Kabalega of
Bunyoro, were exiled to Kismayu and later to the Seychelles.
As a result of colonial reforms some societies or individual leaders
picked up arms to fight to the colonialists.

Another effect of colonial reforms in Africa was the growth of African
nationalism which culminated in the recovery of independence in
the 1960s.
Economic consequences
Resettlement of Africans
Africans were forced by colonial governments to move from their
areas with fertile soils to allow construction of economic facilities
and social infrastructure. As result, many Africans were resettled
in other areas, most of them infertile. For instance, the Nama and
Herero were forced into the Kalahari Desert, the Kikuyu in Kenya
were moved from their fertile highlands and settled in other regions
of their country so as to enable British farmers to establish vast
plantations.
Another cause of resettlement was the creation of new job
opportunities. People preferred to migrate to areas where wages
were paid to workers. For example, some Rwandans migrated to
Uganda, which was under British control, where they could find
a job with a salary or wages. In other cases, people could leave
their former region of residence because of the colonial obligation
of working in mines. This policy was adopted by the Belgians in
Rwanda, where some Rwandans were taken to the Democratic
Republic of Congo in mineral regions like Katanga, and Kasai.
Over exploitation of Africans
Many methods which were used in the implementation of colonial
economic policies resulted in over exploitation of Africans. Such
methods included; for example, the taxation system and forced
labour.
Dependence of African economies on Europe
The colonialists made African economies dependent on Europe.
The Europeans did not build industries in Africa; they even
destroyed local African factories. The African economy was reduced
to a market for European goods in order to gain more commercial
profits. Europeans got the raw materials at low prices while their
manufactured goods were sold at high prices in Africa.
Modernisation of agriculture
African agriculture was modernised through the introduction of
new modern techniques of farming such as planting selected seeds
of food crops, crop rotation, and application of organic manure.
Besides, schools teaching modern agriculture were introduced.
Particularly in Rwanda, the colonial administration put a lot of
attention on anti-erosion activities by encouraging the digging of
ditches and planting and maintenance of trees. The colonial power
also put in place agricultural research stations with the aim of
selection and experimentation.
Socio-cultural consequences
Westernised African elites
Europeans constructed schools through which they started
initiating and educating Africans in European “civilisation”. This
colonial education had an aim of training Africans to be colonial
collaborators. Africans were taught to write, read and count in
European languages.
In addition, a new class of assimilated Africans emerged. In
French colonies and in other African countries under Belgian and
Portuguese colonial rule, this class enjoyed more privileges than
their compatriots. For instance, they could live in or visit European
places, and study in schools for European children.
The conditions required to become assimilated were not easy in
French colonies. In order to be assimilated, Africans would learn
to speak and write French, be converted to the Roman Catholic
faith, use French, observed administrative laws, and adopt French
dressing habits.
Application Activity 2.2
Explain the consequences of reforms introduced by the
European colonialists in Africa.
Unit summary
During the colonial period, Europeans introduced and implemented
reforms that would enable them to exploit Africans and their
resources. This was after gaining territories and being successful
in the implementation of colonial administrative systems. These
reforms included economic reforms like taxation, land alienation,
and forced labour, among others.
Colonial reforms had both negative and positive consequences
on African societies. This was due to the exploitation of the African
economy by Europeans in order to enhance their economies.
However, these reforms had positive effects such as the introduction
of formal education.
Glossary

Alienation: (law) the voluntary and absolute transfer of title and
possession of real property from one person to another
Harsh: unkind, cruel or uncivil
Metropolis: a large and densely populated urban area; may include
several independent administrative districts
Metropolitan: relating to or characteristic of a metropolis
Mutilation: an injury that causes disfigurement or that deprives
you of a limb or other important body part
Undermine: destroy property or hinder normal operations
End of Unit Assessment
1. Examine the different economic reforms introduced in
Africa by colonial masters.
2. Analyse the social reforms undertaken by Europeans in
Africa.
3. Assess the effects of colonial reforms on African
societies.
UNIT 3: CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR (1914–1918)
Key unit competence: To be able to explain the causes and effects
of the First World War.
Introductory Activity 3.1
Examine the causes and effects of the First World War, present
your results to the class
Introduction
For a long time, trouble had been developing in Europe. It was
centred in the Balkans, an area which both Russia and AustriaHungary
wanted to control. A small nation in the Balkans called
Serbia hoped to unite the Slavs in the area and expand its territory. Since
many Slavs lived in Austria-Hungary, Serbia knew that it would have
to defeat Austria-Hungary and hoped to get help from Russia.
The First World War broke out on July 28th, 1914 after the assassination
of the Archduke of Austria-Hungary, Franz Ferdinand with his wife
Sophia, by a Serb student Gavrilo Princip in an incident known as
“Sarajevo double murder”. The First World War was a global war centered
in Europe. African countries got involved in this war by fighting on
behalf of their colonial masters, while countries in other continents
participated directly or indirectly. It has also been regarded as a World
War because its effects were felt world over.
It was predominantly called the World War or the Great War until the
outbreak of a similar World in 1939, when it became known as the
First World War. It involved all the world’s great powers, which were
assembled in two opposing alliances: the Allies (based on the triple
entente: Britain, France and Russia) and the Central Powers (The triple
alliance: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy); but, since Austria–
Hungary had taken the offensive against the agreement, Italy did
not join the war.
The war ended in 1918 with the defeat of the triple alliance
member countries by the allies. This war involved people at home as
well as soldiers at the front and for the first time, weapons of mass
destruction were widely used, including the machine gun, tank,
airplane and submarine.
3.1. Causes of the First World War
Learning Activity 3.1
1. Explain the two concepts “conflict” and “war”.
2. Examine the causes of the First World War Present
your results to the class.
• There was lack of an international peace keeping body because
the Congress System, which would have solved a local affair
between Austria and Serbia had collapsed by 1914.
•There was lack of diplomatic statesmen in the World; for
example, Von Bismarck of Germany. Kaiser William II, who
replaced Bismarck, was an aggressive leader.
• The Alliance System which was initiated by Bismarck was
composed of the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente. They were
formed for defensive purposes but later became hostile to each
other.
• Economic competition among European countries mostly
between Germany, France and Britain, led to situations like the
Moroccan Crises in 1906 and 1911 when Germany lost Morocco
to France. This left the spirit of revenge on the side of Germany.
•The arms race which had been characterised by the growth
of militarism between France and Germany. This led to the
manufacture of the most dangerous weapons in preparation for
war.
• There was growth of nationalism in Italy and Germany which
emerged as strong states, and the great Serbian movement
which resulted in the Sarajevo incident.
•The Franco–Prussian war of 1870–1871 resulted in the defeat
of France. The fear of French revenge, made Bismarck start the
alliance system and arms manufacture.
• The Aggressive character of Kaiser William II of Germany
who started the arms race forced Britain to also join the race,
eventually leading to the war.
•Newspapers like The London Times played a big role not only to
publicize the preparation for war but also to dramatize the war
situation.
• The Sarajevo incident of June 28th, 1914 was the immediate
cause of the First World War. The assassination of Franz
Ferdinand, the heir to the Austrian throne, with his wife Sophia
at Sarajevo by a Serbian student, Gravrilo Princip, forced AustriaHungary
to plan an attack on Serbia because it was believed
that Serbia supported the killers. Germany promised support
to Austria-Hungary; as Russia, Belgium, France and Britain
supported Serbia. On July 28th, Austria-Hungary declared war
on Serbia and World War I began.

Application Activity 3.1
Discuss the immediate causes of the First World War. Do you
think the Sarajevo incident could have triggered off the First
World War? Present your views to the class.
3.2. Consequences of the First World War
Learning Activity 3.2
Make research on the internet or the library on the
consequences of the World War I and thereafter present your
results to the class.
•The First World War led to the loss of lives with an estimated 9.7
million combatants dead. About 21 million were wounded while
7.7 million soldiers went missing. An estimated 6 million
civilians died due to direct military action, and famine, or
diseases.
• Women were employed in factories, shops and public offices
replacing men who were fighting in the war. This contributed to
the emancipation of women.
•The war was partly responsible for the first peasant revolution in
Russia, also known as the 1917 Russian revolution.
• The League of Nations was formed as an international peace
keeping body in 1920.
•The war caused changes of governments in Europe. In Italy a
fascist regime under Mussolini emerged. In Germany, Kaiser
William II fled into exile in Holland and was replaced by the
Weimar Republic under president Hinderburg.
• It contributed to the decline of the German and Ottoman empires.
• Dictators like Benito Mussolini in Italy and Adolf Hitler in Germany
came to power.
• Japan and USA emerged as super powers. Some countries like
Canada, Brazil, Mexico and Argentina experienced growth in their
economies.
• New independent states like Poland, Romania, Yugoslavia and
Czechoslovakia were formed.
• There was massive displacement of people in Europe. Over 21
million people were displaced from their homes and became
refugees or internally displaced persons. After the war these
people were resettled in camps, mainly in Western Europe.
• There was territorial re-adjustment whereby France regained her
territories of Alsace-Lorraine and some African states changed
their colonial masters; for example, Rwanda, Burundi, Togo,
Tanganyika and Cameroon among others.
•It led to the calling of the Paris conference and the signing of the
Versailles Peace Treaty which sowed the seeds of world war II.
•It led to the formation of the League of Nations in 1920 as an
international peace keeping organisation. This was supported by
European statesmen who claimed that the absence of a strong
international body made a strong contribution to the outbreak of
the War.
•The war resulted in economic depression in Europe.

Effects of World War I on Africa
The First World War affected all countries that directly or indirectly
participated in it. The war impacted Africa economically, socially and
politically.
Economic consequences
Firstly, Africa experienced economic hardship, due to the exclusion of
Germany from trade. Germany was regarded as a major trading partner
of Africa before the First World War, and when she was completely
excluded from the continent and her merchandise confiscated by
the victors, there was a decline in African exports to Germany.
Secondly, the War had a general negative impact on the trade and
development of Africa. The prices of all commodities increased, the
economies stalled, and the poverty rate increased.
The armies needed food supplies and African colonies were tasked to
provide the food. This led to food scarcity, starvation, and death.
Africans were recruited to fight in European armies. Others were
recruited to carry heavy weapons and supplies which exhausted
their bodies.
The need to raise troops and carriers and to produce crops for
export reduced the supply for manpower in many areas of Africa. For
example, the recruitment of carriers from Katanga for the campaign
in Eastern Africa led to a decrease in incomes of both the men and women
who were recruited as carriers and food suppliers.
Social and political consequences

The First World War changed in the relationship between Europe and
Africa. Over two million people from Africa made huge sacrifices for the
European Allies. In East Africa 100,000 men died while 65,000 men
from French North Africa and French West Africa also lost their lives
many others were disabled as a result of war.
Through combat experience and social cohesion with the
Europeans, Africans discovered the realities of European society.
This gave confidence to Africans to play a role in the administration of
colonies. In the territories, which had contributed heavily to the war effort,
the population hoped for social and political reforms. In Senegal, for
example, the reforms promised by France to Blaise Diagne (Mayor
of Dakar) were not fulfilled after the war, which made its people to
withdrew their confidence in him.
The First World War marked a clear evolution of the international
opinion with regard to colonialism. Before the war, the colonial
powers did not have to report to anybody. Afterwards, in 1919, the
conference of Versailles examined the colonial past of Germany and
considered it not being in conformity with the new rules of morality,
which were to govern the administration colonies. It is one of the
reasons, that made colonialists to withdrew the colonies from Germany.
The First World War also had consequences in Rwanda. These
included the famine “Rumanura”, the end of German rule and the
beginning of Belgian rule. “Rumanura” famine was felt most in
Bugoyi because throughout the First World War, this region was
the principal theatre of military operations in Rwanda. Bananas
were cut down, and cultivation of sorghum was suspended by the
German command in order to deny cover to the enemy. Moreover,
people had fled their homes and left their land for fear of bombs and
to run away ,and were subjected to carrying war materials. There
was also demolition and vandalism of homesteads by soldiers who
were looking for food and people to help carry the war supplies.
Application Activity 3.2
Discuss the consequences of the World War I.
3.3. The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty
Discuss the reasons why the Versailles Peace Treaty was
signed and make a presentation of your reasons to the class.
At the end of the First World War, the leading statesmen were left with
the task of making peace and creating order out of the chaos.
The postwar peace was made at Versailles near Paris from January to June 1919. The
Versailles Peace Treaty was signed between Germany and the Allied
powers. On June 28th, 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of
Archduke Franz Ferdinand. The other central powers on the German
side of World War I signed within separate treaties.
The Versailles Peace Treaty was a document that was signed in the
hall of mirrors at Versailles between the victorious powers and defeated
Germany. The terms and conditions of the treaty were manipulated
by the Allied Powers against Germany. This made the aim of the treaty
questionable in making peace.
The conference was dominated from the beginning to the end by:
• Georges Clemenceau: “the old tiger,” the Prime Minister of France;
• Lloyd George: Prime Minister of Britain;
• Woodrow Wilson: President of the USA;
• Vittorio Orlando: Italian Prime Minister .
Until March 1919, the most important role for negotiating the
extremely complex and difficult terms of the peace fell to the regular
meetings of the “council of ten”, which comprised the heads of
government and foreign ministers of the five major victors (Britain,
France, the United States, Italy, and Japan). As this unusual body
proved too formal for effective decision-making, Japan and for most of the
remaining conference the foreign ministers left the main meetings,
so that only the “big four” remained. After his territorial claims to Fiume
(today Rijeka) were rejected, Italian Prime Minister, Vittorio Orlando left
the negotiations and only returned to sign in June.
The final conditions were determined by the leaders of the “big three”
nations: British Prime Minister David Lloyd George, French Prime
Minister Georges Clemenceau, and American President Woodrow
Wilson. Even with this smaller group it was difficult to decide on a
common position because their aims conflicted. The result was
called the “unhappy compromise”.
Aims of the Versailles Peace Treaty

The aims of the Versailles Peace Treaty included the following:
• Maintain lasting peace in the world;
• Look for ways to punish Germany and her allies;
• Promote the political integrity of independent states;
• Reduce the production of dangerous weapons;
• Redraw the map of Europe;
• Set up a body to maintain international peace.
Terms of the Versailles Peace Treaty

The document containing the terms of the Treaty of Versailles
consisted of15 parts and had about 440 articles.
The parts related to Germany:
• She was entirely blamed as the sole cause of the First World War.
• She was forced to reduce her soldiers from 4,000,000 to
100,000 soldiers.
• She was stopped from having submarines.
• She was forced to pay war reparations of about 6.5 billion pounds.
• She lost her overseas territories like Rwanda, Burundi, Togo,
Cameroon, Tanganyika and Namibia in Africa.
• She lost Alsace-Lorraine to France.
• She was not allowed to have tanks and was restricted to only 6
second-hand battle ships.
Achievements of the Versailles Peace Treaty

The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty ended the First World War and
created relative peace in Europe during the inter-war period from 1919
up to 1939.
It granted independence to some states like Yugoslavia, Serbia,
Montenegro, Poland, and Czechoslovakia.
It made France to regain her territory of Alsace-Lorraine from
Germany.
It destroyed the German arms and reduced her army to 100,000
soldiers so as to check her military aggression.
It came up with a disarmament policy and although it was only
applied on defeated powers, it helped in maintaining world peace for
sometime.
It declared neutrality on international water bodies which reduced the
possibility of conflicts that would cause another war.
It made arrangements for the exchange of war prisoners between the
defeated, especially Germany and victorious powers.

It reduced the strength of Germany by taking away German overseas
territories such as Togo, Cameroon, Tanganyika, Rwanda, Burundi and
Namibia.
Poland, a land locked State, was provided with a corridor of land that
passed through Germany to the part of Danzig on the Baltic Sea.
Serbia was also granted access to the Sea.
The Treaty led to the formation of the League of Nations on January 10th,
1920 which registered some success in political, social and economic
aspects the inter-war period.

However, the Versailles peace treaty was very unrealistic in its
attempt to bring lasting peace as defined through its aims.
Failures of the Versailles Peace Treaty

The terms of the 1919 Versailles peace settlement were unrealistic and
unfair to the defeated powers. In implementing the aims of the Versailles
Peace Treaty, there was a lot of injustice which made it unable to
maintain lasting peace in the world.
This settlement had the following weaknesses:

• It was imposed on Germany without consultation because
Germany was only invited to sign without participating in
negotiations.
• It was too harsh on Germany in terms of disarmament which
encouraged Adolf Hitler to rise up and begin an arms race that
led to the Second World War.
• Germany was forced to pay huge sums of war reparations
in form of physical goods like ships, chemicals, cattle and
agricultural products, plus 6, 600, 000, 000 pounds. This led
to unemployment in Germany and economic depression in
Europe.
•The composition of parties to the treaty was also unfair because
the treaty was written by the Triple Entente members only while
the Triple Alliance members were not invited to participate in
negotiations.
• The selfish interests of the leading diplomats (George Clemenceau
desired to humaliate Germany, Lloyd George wanted German
territories and Vittorio Orlando who also desired territorial
rewards) rendered the viability of the treaty questionable.
• The distribution of the Germans to different states (3 million
to Czechoslovakia, 2. 5 million to Poland and about 2 million
to Yugoslavia) violated the principle of nationalism and made
future trouble inevitable. Hitler used this problem to invade
Poland which led to the Second World War.
• The blaming of Germany as the sole cause of the First World
War by a guilty clause also made the viability of the Versailles
Peace Treaty questionable from its start.
•The confiscation of German territories in Africa was seen as a
way of making victorious powers rich which made Germany
discontented, leading to Second World War.
•Japan invaded Manchuria in 1933 and Italy under Mussolini
invaded Ethiopia in 1935 mainly because they were not fairly
rewarded by the Versailles treaty.
• The treaty led to a very weak foundation for the League of
Nations as an international peace keeping body. But it did not
provide the League of Nations with an army to fight against
future aggressors.
Germany rejected the Versailles peace settlement due to the
following reasons:
• The treaty was simply dictated on Germany which had no chance
for explanation since she was excluded from peace negotiations.
• The treaty only condemned and blamed Germany for the
outbreak of the First World War.
•The war reparations of 6.6 billion pounds was impossible for
Germany to pay alone with her colonies taken by other countries.
•The disarmament policy was also unfair because it was only
Germany to be disarmed while other European powers were
busy manufacturing weapons.
• The loss of territories in Europe and in Africa was rejected by
the Germans because it was their source of raw materials and
markets, hence leading to their economic decline.
•The Germans rejected the Versailles peace treaty because it
was monopolised by three leaders who had intense hatred for
Germany.
•The Versailles Peace Treaty distributed German nationals to
different states of Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. This
violated the principle of nationalism which later encouraged
Hitler to build the German empire by starting from Austria and
Czechostorakia, Poland which led to the outbreak of the Second
World War.
•The venue where the treaty was signed, in the Hall of mirrors
was where the German empire was proclaimed in 1871. For
this reason, the treaty was considered as the French revenge by
most Germans.
• The treaty was signed under the chairmanship of George
Clemenceau of France who had been Germany’s enemy since
the 1870–1871 Franco-Prussian war.
• The treaty was signed on June 28th, 1919 on the exact
anniversary of the Sarajevo double murder. It was a clear
indication that the Versailles diplomats blamed Germany for the
assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia
3.4. Effects of the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty on Germany

The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty signed on June 28th, 1919 in the
Hall of Mirrors at Paris politically, socially and economically affected
Germany in the following ways:
•The 1919 Versailles peace diplomats forced Germany to
denounce the war and accept defeat unconditionally which
made the Weimar Republic unpopular among the Germans.
• Germany was obliged to pay the heavy war indemnity of about
6. 6 billion pounds and this left her economy shattered and
gave rise to severe unemployment, inflation and abject poverty in
Germany.
•The landlocked Poland was granted a corridor to Port Danzig in
the Baltic sea through Germany.
• The Germans who were greatly inspired by Adolf Hitler attacked
and opposed the Weimar Republic leaders for having accepted
the treaty whose terms were unfair and harsh.
• It demilitarized the region of the Rhine lands and all the
fortifications that Germany had already made on the banks of
the Rhine were destroyed beyond repair.
•The treaty forced the defeated Germany to give back Schleswig
to Denmark, and Alsace-Lorraine to France.
•The 1919 Versailles peace treaty forced Germany to cancel the
treaty of Bucharest signed with Romania and the Brest-Litovsk
treaty signed with Russia under which Russia had surrendered
Poland, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania to Germany.
Application Activity 3.3
1. Write in your exercises book or elsewhere the objectives
of the versailles peace treaty. Present your findings to
the class.
2. With the help of the internet discuss the achievements
of the Versailles Peace Treaty. Make a presentation to
the class
3. Identify the failures/weaknesses of the Versailles Peace
Treaty. Present your findings to the class
4. Discuss the consequences of the 1919 Versailles Peace
Treaty on Germany. Do you think this treaty was fair
towards Germany? Present your discussion to the class
3.4. The League of Nations
Origin of the League of Nations
Learning Activity 3.4
Using internet or library research, identify the origin and
objectives of the League of Nations. Present your findings to
the class.
The League of Nations (LON) was an international peace keeping
body formed after the First World War. It officially came into existence
on January 10, 1920 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.
It originated from the famous “Fourteen Points” of Woodrow Wilson,
former President of USA, on how the world could achieve national and
international peace after the First World War. According to those points,
the victorious powers formed an international organisation which
came to be known as the League of Nations (LON).
Objectives of the League of Nations
The League of Nations (LON) was formed for the following social,
political and economic objectives:
•To preserve, maintain and promote international peace which
had been destroyed by the 1914–1918 World War by resolving
international conflicts peacefully;
• To prevent aggression;
• To defend and promote territorial integrity and independence
of the League member states against aggression of any kind;
•To enforce disarmament of both victorious and defeated
countries and limit the production of disastrous weapons;
•To defend and protect the achievements of the 1919 Versailles
Peace Treaty and put them into practice;
•To resolve the refugee problem by resettling the people displaced
in the First World War;
• To promote the social welfare of member states by solving
problems created by the First World War;
•To ensure efficient administration of the mandate territories like
Rwanda, Burundi, Cameroon, Togo, Tanganyika and Namibia.

Organs of the League of Nations

The LON had 48 member states at the beginning and 55 by 1925. It
was composed of permanent members–France, Britain, Italy, Japan,
and later Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR)–
and several non-permanent members elected by the assembly. Its
main organs were the following:
General Assembly
This was a council of all member states that annually met to
consider political disputes, reduction of armaments and to decide on
the general policy. Each member state had one vote.
Council of the League
This consisted of four permanent members: Britain, France, Italy and
Japan, at the beginning. The USA was to be a permanent member
but refused because of her isolationist policy.

There were four other members elected by the assembly for a
periods of three years, but the number increased from four to nine by
1926. It was the council’s task to deal with specific political disputes
as they emerged.
Secretariat
This was in charge of all the paperwork, preparing agendas and
writing resolutions and reports for carrying out the decisions of the League.
Permanent Court of International Justice
This consisted of 15 judges of different nationalities and it was based
at the Hague in Holland. It dealt with legal disputes between states as
opposed to political ones.
Commissions and committees
The main commissions handled the mandates, military affairs,
minority groups and disarmament. There were also committees for
international labour, health, economic and financial organisation,
child welfare, drug problems and women’s rights.
Achievements of the League of Nations
The League of Nations (LON) registered political, social and
economic achievements as discussed below.
In 1925 the Larcano conference was held and the Larcano treaty
signed by Germany, Britain, Belgium, Italy and France. By this treaty,
Germany was admitted to the LON in 1926 and this restored world peace.

The international court of justice was set up at the Hague and by
1939 had mediated the signing of about 400 agreements and settled
70 cases of international concern.

The LON succeeded in preparing Iran, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Hungary,
Romania and Czechoslovakia, among others, for independence by
1932.

It established the International Labour Organisation (ILO) which
improved the general living conditions of employees in several
countries.
In 1926 the LON solved border conflicts between Greece and Bulgaria
by asking the Greeks to withdraw and pay compensation.

The LON settled the First World War refugees and the internally
displaced people by providing various forms of assistance to them.

In 1924 the LON set up a slavery commission that declared slave trade
and slavery illegal and antisocial internationally.

The health organisation of the LON organised for medical assistance and
the distribution of vaccines to combat epidemics like syphilis, cholera,
dysentery, and malaria which had swept Europe.

The LON set up a mandate commission for effective administration of
the former German colonies in Africa.

The League member states set up a committee responsible for
monitoring and discouraging the production, transportation, selling
and consumption of harmful drugs like opium, marijuana and cocaine.
Weaknesses of the LON
After scoring many achievements, the first LON also registered the
following failures:

•It failed to ensure world disarmament when it was unable to
disarm victorious powers like France, Britain, USA and Russia
but only disarmed Germany, a defeated power.
•It failed to form a joint international army that would be used in
checking the activities of dictators and aggressors.
•It failed to prevent the 1931 Manchuria crisis whereby Japan
invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria and went
unpunished.
• It failed to prevent the economic depression of 1929–1935
which had many negative effects like inflation, unemployment,
famine, etc in many countries.
•It failed to win USA membership and the absence of USA in the
LON weakened the organisation economically and militarily.
•It failed to establish a strong organisation with clear membership
principles and thus, a state would join and leave the LON with a
lot of ease i.e. Italy, Japan, Germany and Russia had left by 1936.

• It failed to follow up the payment of the war indemnity imposed
on Germany which Hitler stopped paying immediately after
rising to power in 1933.
• It failed to establish financial sources of its own and depended
on handouts from its member states which sometimes delayed
consequently delaying its activities and interventions.
•It failed to stop Italy’s invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Italy under
Mussolini invaded and occupied Ethiopia but the LON never
took steps to punish Italy.
•The invasion of Poland by Hitler from Germany that resulted in
the outbreak of 1939–1945 World War was mainly due to the
weakness and the failure of the LON which was not able to stop it
and negotiate peaceful solutions.
Because of its weaknesses, the League of Nations also failed to
preserve peace during the inter-war period of 1920–1939 due to the
following reasons:
• It was linked to the unpopular 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty.
• It lacked an international army that would have been used to
fight dictators like Mussolini and Hitler.
•The USA refused to join the LON although its foundation was
proposed and supported by the US president.
• The great economic depression of 1929–1935 made it difficult
for most of the member states to meet their financial obligations to
the League.
•It lacked enough finances of its own which made it hard to
execute its duties properly and impartially.
•It had a weak administrative set up. For example, the secretary
general had limited power.
•It was very slow in decision making.
• It had no mechanism to control the entry and exit of the state
members.
•Its member states promoted national rather than international
interests.
•The appeasement policy of France and Britain from 1935 which
allowed Adolf Hitler to expand German territory undermined the
league’s operations and made it impossible to succeed.
Application Activity 3.4

1. Research on the organs of the League of Nations.
Present them to the class.
2. Identify the achievements of the League of Nations. Compare
your work with that of classmates.
3. In your view, what were the weaknesses of the League
of Nations? Present your findings to the class.

Use the internet to get information about the reasons which
made the League of Nations fail to preserve peace during the
inter-war period of 1920–1939. Make a presentation to the class
Unit summary
The First World War started on July 28th,1914 after the assassination
of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir of the Austria throne with his
wife Sophia and ended on November 11th,1918. It started in Europe
and spread afterwards to involve many countries all over the world.
The causes of this World War included lack of an international peace
keeping body, lack of peaceful statesmen, the growth of nationalism,
economic imperialism among European countries. It led to negative
consequences like loss of lives, and destruction of property and
infrastructure.

The African soldiers participated in this war; the Tirailleurs Sénégalais
helped the French and the Kings African Rifles the British. The
Indugaruga helped the Germans to fight against the Belgians in
Rwanda during the First World War. The war also had negative effects
in Africa. For Rwanda, it led to a famine called Rumanurimbaba.

Glossary
Armistice: a state of peace agreed to between opponents so they can
discuss peace terms
Belligerent:Someone who fights (or is fighting)
Ceasefire: a state of no fighting agreed to between opponents so
they can discuss peace terms
Drag on: last unnecessarily long or proceed for an extended period
of time
Ultimatum:a final demand or statement of terms, the rejection of
which causes a breakdown in a relationship

End of Unit Assessment
1. The First World War (1914–1918) was fought between
two camps (blocs); name them?
2. Examine the main causes of the First World War.
3. What were the economic consequences of the First World
War in Europe?
4. Discuss the objectives of the Versailles Peace Treaty in
Europe.
5. Assess the achievements of the League of Nations.
UNIT: 4 BETWEEN TWO WARS
Key unit competence: To be able to explain the causes and effects
of the 1929 economic crisis and the rise of totalitarian regimes in
Europe: Fascism and Nazism
Introductory Activity 4.1
Using internet or library explain the World between the Two
Wars
Introduction
Events during the period between two wars led to the Second World
War. During this period, the world witnessed a heavy economic
crisis in 1929, which was a result of the destruction of industries,
communication lines, airports and cities during the First World War.

Measures were taken to overcome the effects of this crisis, the major
one being the “new deal programme” by the new American President
Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1932. However, the effects were serious
and this led to the rise of totalitarian regimes like Fascism under
Benito Mussolini and Nazism under Adolf Hitler.
4.1. World Economic Depression (1929–1935)
Learning Activity 4.1
State the causes and effects of the economic depression or
crisis of 1929. Thereafter, present your results to the class.
The world economic depression was an economic stagnation which
was experienced globally from 1929 to 1935. It was characterised by
total breakdown in the production processes, unemployment, low
incomes, and general lack of effective demand, low prices, low investment
and low economic activities in general.

It began from the Canadian agricultural sector but the most
disastrous period started from the USA after the “Wall Street crash”
or stock market crash, on October 24th, 1929 and spread to Europe
and the whole world.
Causes of the great world economic depression

The consequences of the First World War: These include
destruction of industries, communication lines, airports and cities and
loss of lives, which had a negative effect on production and the ability to
purchase goods, hence leading to the depression.
The Rise of economic nationalism and isolationist/protectionist
policy led by USA: This policy was used by USA to protect infant
industries at home and it was adopted by other countries mainly in
Europe. This eventually worsened the international trade situation, leading
to the economic depression.

General reduction in the level of international trade during and after
the First World War: The world trade remained low because nations
were unable to import in large quantities. This was due to the low
level of consumption and that was why the depression started in
America whose manufactured goods could not be brought.
Payment of the war indemnity by Germany: This was imposed by
the victorious powers during the signing of the 1919 Versailles
Peace Treaty and it greatly affected the German economy; they
printed many bank notes leading to inflation. This contributed to the
outbreak of the economic depression.
Overproduction mainly in the agricultural sector: This was
experienced by various capitalists during the inter-war period in USA,
Britain and Canada. However, when international trade was paralyzed
and there was “no buying and no selling” this resulted in the economic
depression.
System of high taxation in order to escape from “after war
situation”: This policy was adopted by many countries to help their
economy recover from the after effects of the First World War. However,
these heavy taxation policies were too harsh and distracted investment
which also led to the increase of unemployment, low circulation of
money and inflation, leading to economic depression.

Poor trading policy adopted after the First World War: The
defeated powers were not allowed to export to victorious powers and,
worse still, the victorious powers started selective trade as punishment
to defeated ones which led to the economic depression.
Unfair income distribution: This existed especially in USA where
between 1923 and 1926 big companies were owned by a few
capitalists. They provided employment to the few people who
also earned low salary. This led to low purchasing power and lack
of effective demand which contributed to the world economic
depression.
Gold standard system operating in world economies by 1929:
Under this system each economy was supposed to have money in
circulation that was equal to the total value of gold in its reserves. This
system limited money supply for some countries that had small
gold reserves and caused low aggregate demand, leading to the
world economic depression.
The Crash of the world stock exchange in USA, October 24, 1929 (Black
Thursday): This led to the closure of 4,200 banks and people who had
kept their money in these banks suffered great losses. The industries
could no longer secure loans, yet their products could not sell and
eventually they also closed down. This led to huge unemployment,
surplus products, low purchasing power and, consequently to the
world economic depression.
Measures to overcome the world economic depression

After the occurrence of the economic depression, different countries started
to look for various measures to control and fight it.

Germany, on her part, attempted to solve the economic depression by
violating the 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty terms when she stopped
paying the war indemnity and also started serious industrialization.
USA fought the economic depression by using the “New Deal”
programme introduced by President Franklin Delano Roosevelt
in 1932. By this programme, new laws were made to regulate the
stock market and protect bank depositors’ savings. Other steps
included creation/establishment of programmes which created jobs
for the unemployed like the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), and
construction of schools and hospitals. The USA also set up a social
security system and depreciated the value of her dollar so as to
increase the purchasing power of the Americans.
Basically, Roosevelt had three aims:

• Relief: To give direct help to the poverty-stricken millions who
were without food and homes
• Recovery: To reduce unemployment, stimulate the demand for
goods and get the economy moving again
• Reform: To take whatever measures necessary to prevent a
repeat of economic disaster
The gold standard system was stopped since this played a role in the
outbreak of the world economic depression.

A world economic conference was held at Geneva in 1933, Switzerland
and was attended by 66 countries that worked out different solutions
to end the economic depression. These solutions included removing
obstacles to free trade, and implementing a uniform tax on imports
and exports.
World powers attempted to solve the economic depression by
invading weak states so as to solve the problem of lack of raw
materials and markets for their goods. For example, in 1935 Italy
invaded Ethiopia, in 1936 Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and in
1939, Poland.
Different countries formed regional economic integration as a
solution to end the economic depression. The Scandinavians formed
the Oslo Block, USA and South American states also formed an
economic block.
Unemployment relief schemes were adopted by various countries
such as USA, Britain and France to benefit the unemployed citizens
above 18 years.
Most European countries made efforts to improve on their agricultural and
industrial sectors in order to increase the level of production as a way of
addressing the problem of low supply and inflation.
Dictatorship was resorted to by most of the European leaders to
suppress demonstrations and strikes.

Some countries restricted borrowing and lending of money on
grounds that the money borrowed for investment ended up being
consumed. This reduced on the debt burden in various countries.
Effects of the world economic depression Content

• The world economic depression led to human suffering due to
unemployment, low incomes, and lack of basic facilities.
• The economic depression led to the rise of dictators in Europe
such as Adolf Hitler in Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy and
General Franco in Spain.
• The economic depression contributed to the weakness of the
League of Nations as various member states could not meet the
financial obligations of the League.
• The economic depression led to international aggression by
powerful countries against the weak ones as a way to solve
their economic problems; For example Japan and China, Italy
and Ethiopia and Germany and Austria.
• The economic depression led to the decline in world trade as the
affected countries started trade protectionism; for example, USA.
• The economic depression led to the formation of regional
economic integration as a way of promoting trade among the
different countries.
•The economic depression led to the end of the use of the gold
standard system.
•The economic depression caused a severe fall in the standards of
living of people as the cost of living became higher after the closure
of many businesses and this affected production levels.
The economic depression increased the popularity of some
economists such as John Maynard Keynes who introduced
an economic theory popularly known as “Keynesian theory of
unemployment” after analyzing the causes of the economic
depression.
The economic depression led to the outbreak of the Second World
War because of the rise of dictators, and weaknesses of the League of
Nations which failed to check aggression.
Effects of the Economic Depression in Africa Between 1929 and
1932

The Economic Depression of 1929 had greatly impacted African
continent. For example, the world prices for sisal, coffee, maize and
hides fell by 70 per cent while cotton prices fell by over 60 per cent.In addition, to some extent the region benefited from efforts elsewhere to
counter the depression. From 1932, the British Empire provided shelter
to the producers of coffee and sisal. The abandonment of the gold
standard by Britain in 1931 and by the USA in 1933 caused the price
of gold to rise by two-thirds between 1931 and 1935. This stimulated
the exploitation of East Africa’s scattered deposits and by 1938 gold
was the second largest export from both Kenya and Tanganyika.
Meanwhile, some imports became cheaper. Despite imperial
preference, East Africa was prevented by the Congo Basin treaties
from discriminating against cheap Japanese manufactured goods,
and these became available in large quantities.
In the course of the 1930s, Japan captured much of the East African
market for cotton and silk goods, and for the great mass of consumers
this was clear gain. Government revenues, between 1929 and 1932, fell
on average by 15 per cent but they too had fixed debt charges to pay,
such as pensions. So there were cut-backs in administration and social
services. On reduced incomes, most Africans had to pay as much
tax as before, while most European farmers had large debts to service.
Financial constraints reinforced the political arguments against any
comprehensive scheme for closer union in East Africa.
In East Africa, Tanganyika suffered most from the depression.
Between1929 and 1931 exports slumped from £3.8m to
£1.7111, and government revenue fell by a quarter from 1925 to 1929).
The government already spent one-quarter of its revenue on debt
charges, but it had to borrow heavily in 1932 from the British Treasury,
which enforced stringent policies.
At the same time, the railway lost its share of the Katanga copper
traffic (which in 1930 supplied half its freight earnings) to the new
Benguela railway. In 1930 the Tanganyika Sisal Growers Association
was formed, mainly to reduce wages; its president was the unofficial
leader in the legislative council, and in 1937 British settlers dominated
a government commission on labour. In 1932 the government
launched a ‘plant more crops’ campaign, but it was chiefly directed
at those areas in the north and north- west where export crop-
production was already established. The persistent decline in coffee
prices aggravated tensions between chiefs and other farmers.
Application Activity 4.1
1. Explain two causes of the world economic depression
2. How was the economic depression controlled or
solved?
4.2. Totalitarian regimes in Europe
Learning Activity 4.2
In your exercise book do the following activities:
1. Define a totalitarian regime
2. Name the totalitarian regimes in Europe between the
two World Wars.
Most western countries were governed by elected representatives.
From the 1900s some people began to feel that a government made up
of such a large body of people spent too much time debating and
wondered if was not better to have one strong leader who could
make decisions for them. A single leader could act quickly to solve a
country’s economic problems during world economic depression.
These regimes were known as “totalitarian regimes”. In Italy it
developed under Benito Mussolini and was known as Fascism. In
Germany it developed under Adolf Hitler and was known as Nazism.
Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a political system where the state
recognises no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every
aspect of public and private life wherever feasible. Totalitarian regimes
stay in political power through an all-encompassing propaganda
campaign, which is disseminated through the state- controlled
mass media, a single party that is often marked by political repression,
personality cultism, control over the economy, regulation and restriction
of speech, mass surveillance, and widespread use of terror. It is not
synonymous with dictatorship, as authoritarian regimes also exhibit
dictatorial features, but do not create an ‘all-controlling, all-politicised’
society.
Characteristics of Nazism and Fascism
Two totalitarian regimes, Nazism and Fascism, developed in different
countries and were led by different leaders but had the same and
common characteristics or principles such as:
•Extreme nationalism i.e. emphasis on rebirth of the nation after
a period of decline with an implication that one’s own state is
superior to all.
•Dislike of the importance of Human Rights (abuse of Human
Rights).
• Identification of enemies or scapegoats as a unifying cause in
order to divert the people’s attention from other problems.
•Supremacy of the military or avid militarism because the ruling
elites were always identified closely with the military and the
industrial infrastructure that supported it.
•Rampant / extensive sexism where males dominated and these
regimes inevitably viewed women as second class citizens
•Over-control of mass media through the control of licensing and
access to resources, economic pressure, appeal to patriotism,
and implied threats.
•Obsession with national security, that was under direct control
of the ruling elite. It was usually an instrument of oppression,
operating in secret and beyond any constraints.
•Defence and protection of religion because fascist regimes
attached themselves to the predominant religion of the country
and wanted to be considered as militant defenders of the religion.
•Suppression of intellectuals and artists because intellectual
and academic freedom were considered subversive to national
security and the patriotic ideal. To these regimes, art and
literature should either serve the national interest or they had
no right to exist.
• Fraudulent elections in form of plebiscites or public opinion
polls which were usually bogus. When elections with actual
candidates were held, they would usually be perverted by the
elite to get the desired result.

Rise of Fascism and Mussolini in Italy

The term Fascism is derived from the latin word fasces. The fasces,
were a bundle of rods tied around an axe, as a symbol of a magistrate’s
authority in ancient Rome. They were carried by his agents and could
be used for corporal and capital punishment at his command. The word
fascismo also relates to political organisations in Italy known as fasci,
groups similar to guilds or syndicates.

The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a
single rod is easily broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.
Background of Mussolini
Benito Mussolini: was an Italian politician who led the national fascist
party, ruling the country from 1922 to his ousting in 1943, and is credited
with being one of the key figures in the creation of Fascism.

Mussolini was born in a small town of Romaginia in Italy on July 29th,
1883. His father was a blacksmith and a socialist, while his mother was
a devout Catholic schoolteacher. Owing to his father’s political leanings,
Mussolini was named Benito after Mexican reformist President Benito
Juárez, while his middle names were from Italian socialists. Mussolini was
the eldest of his parents’ three children.

At the age of 9, Mussolini began his education and graduated as a
teacher with a diploma in education in 1907. He later abandoned
his education career and joined journalism as a newspaper editor.
Mussolini fought for Italy in the First World War and was wounded.
In March 1919, at Milan city in Italy, he formed a political movement
called the fasci italiani di combattimento (Italian combat leagues
or squad) whose members became known as fascists. It was
composed of frustrated jobless youth, industrial capitalists and the
middle class.
In 1922, Italy witnessed a successful fascist revolution that led to the
rise of Mussolini supported by the black shirts or army guards.
On October 28th, 1922 he organised a “March to Rome” and when King
Victor Emmanuel III was convinced by the parliament to suppress
the marchers and he refused, the cabinet under Prime Minister Luigi
Facta resigned without firing a shot.
King Victor Emmanuel then handed over power to Mussolini by
inviting him to form a new government on October 28th, 1922 and
the fascist party took control of Italy. Mussolini was supported by the
military, the business class, and the liberal right-wing.
Factors for the rise of Mussolini and Fascism in Italy
Mussolini rose to power due to strong support from the Italian
peasants by exploiting the bad social and economic conditions of
the time. Through his speeches to the Italians, he promised them
better conditions and employment for all; and as a result, the majority of
Italians supported him as a promising leader.

Mussolini had a strong personality and it was very instrumental in
his rise to power. He was a good orator who spent most of his time
broadcasting his ideas to the Italians. This made his fascist party
attractive to many sections of the Italians like the middle class, the
unemployed, ex-soldiers and industrialist capitalists.
The influence of the communists and socialists in Italy forced the
middle class and industrialist capitalists to support Mussolini who was
anti-communist. With this support, he overthrew the government
of Victor Emmanuel III.
World War I had weakened the Italian economy and the King failed to
carry out the necessary socio-economic reforms. Mussolini used this
to denounce the government and mobilised a lot of support that
helped him to rise to power.
Corruption and embezzlement of public funds by the officials in the
democratic government of Victor Emmanuel III also paved the way
for Mussolini’s rise to power in 1922 because these officials were not
interested in solving the problems of the time.
King Victor Emmanuel III was very weak in maintaining order in
Italy and this assisted Mussolini to come to power. When he used
violence as a means to end the political chaos he was supported by
the young people.
The formation of a Fascist terrorist group known as “Black Shirts”
helped Mussolini to attain power. This group used a lot of violence
throughout Italy and killed many people who opposed Mussolini and
the king failed to control the situation. To avoid prolonged violence
Italians supported Benito Mussolini to overthrow the government
of Victor Emmanuel III.

The parliamentary elections in May 1921 increased the number of
fascist MPs from 2 to 35. They increased propaganda against the
regime of Victor Emmanuel III.
The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty, which unfairly rewarded Italy made
the democratic government of Victor Emmanuel II unpopular and this
contributed to the rise of Mussolini to power.

The king was politicaly inefficient and refused to use force against
Mussolini. Handed over power to him in 1922.

Mussolini’s internal policy and his methods to consolidate himself in power

After Benito Mussolini rose to power on October 28th, 1922; his regime
from 1922–1943 was built on the principles of Fascism that centred on
extreme nationalism and totalitarianism. Mussolini did not believe in any
form of democracy.
In order to consolidate his power in Italy Mussolini used the following
methods:
He employed force and violence to get rid of any form of opposition. The
socialist newspaper offices were attacked and closed down. Hundreds
of anti-fascist elements were arrested and killed on his orders and
others were sent exile on Lipali islands in the Mediterranean Sea.
Strict censorship of the press was imposed from 1925 onwards for
the purpose of controlling public opinion.
Mussolini banned all political parties and this left the fascist party
unchallenged. He put an end to free election rights in Italy in order to
maintain the fascist party’s domination in parliament.
He created the fascist army, spies and “ovra” or secret police and
encouraged the Black Shirts to terrorise and control the opposition
leaders.
Mussolini entered an agreement known as Lateran pact in 1929
with Pope Pius XI. His target was to solve the long term problems
between the Catholic church and the state. By this treaty, the
prisoners of the Vatican were set free and Catholicism was recognised
as the state religion. The Vatican became an independent state
within Italy and in return the Papacy recognised the Italian state and
the fascist government of Mussolini.
He abolished intellectual freedom, institutions were to teach
according to fascist ideologies and teachers and university
professors had to swear that they would never teach materials not
in line with the fascist government. Whoever disobeyed his principles
was dismissed automatically. This system of intimidating especially
the university professors ensured minimal opposition to the fascist
government.
Mussolini undertook public programmes, which created jobs for
the unemployed. This was propaganda to prove that the fascist
government was providing employment to all, thus capturing
majority support from the Italians.
Mussolini went ahead to form an all-inclusive government by
including members of the opposition in his government. He did
this to make it easy to eliminate them and their influence. This in a way
eased the tension from the opposition and led to the success of Benito
Mussolini and his fascist regime.
In 1923 Mussolini acquired the town of Fiume from Yugoslavia with
the signing of the treaty of Rome which made the Italians happy
and in turn increased support for Mussolini’s regime.
Mussolini carried out fundamental reforms in the industrial sector
whereby old industries were rehabilitated and new ones were built.
These included FIAT (Fabrication Italienne Automobile à Turin)
company, oil refineries, and iron and steel industries which increased
Mussolini’s fame.
Failures of Benito Mussolini
Mussolini established the fascist state in Italy based on dictatorship and
leadership by decree. This inflicted a lot of suffering on the Italian
masses. He denied Italians their democratic rights. Leadership
through elections came to an end with his coming to power and
referendums were introduced.
He made Fascism the only political system. Political pluralism was
suffocated and in 1925 the party system was abolished. This was
brought about by repressive measures on communist supporters
many of whom were imprisoned.
Mussolini denied Italians all freedom. There was censorship of the
press, no freedom of speech, association and worship, among others.
Injustice was widespread and majority of Italians lived like prisoners.
Mussolini failed to control malpractices within the government.
There was rampant corruption and embezzlement of government
funds. By 1930, the Italian economy had deteriorated by all standards.
He failed to stabilize the exchange rate and he devalued the Italian currency.
Italian wages and standards of living were the lowest in Europe at the
time.
Discrimination was rampant in all sectors of the society. Even social
services were not extended to the poor in the rural areas.
He promoted anti-semitism, which was the negative attitude, hatred and
segregation against the Jews. The union between Mussolini and
Hitler and their ideology were hated throughout Europe and this
forced European communities to unite and fight against them and
eradicate their ideologies of Nazism and Fascism.
Mussolini followed aggressive policies when he involved Italians in
hostilities and military confrontation with other Europeans, leading
to the outbreak of the Second World War. He was therefore responsible
for the disastrous war between 1939 and 1945.
Rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in Germany
Background of Adolf Hitler and Nazism
Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) was an Austrian-born German politician
and the leader of the National Socialist German workers party,
commonly referred to as the Nazi Party. He was Chancellor of
Germany from 1933 to 1945 and dictator of Nazi Germany from 1934
to 1945. Hitler was at the centre of the founding of Nazism, the start of
Second World War, and the holocaust.
Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Austria-Hungary. He was
the fourth of six children. When Hitler was three, the family moved to
Passau in Germany.
After his father’s sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler’s
performance at school deteriorated. His mother allowed him to quit
in autumn 1905.
From 1905, Hitler lived a casual life in Vienna, financed by orphan’s
benefits and support from his mother. He worked as a casual
labourer and eventually as a painter, selling watercolors.
In May 1913, Hitler moved to Munich in Germany and at the outbreak
of the First World War, Hitler was a resident of Munich and volunteered
to serve in the Bavarian army as an Austrian citizen.
After the First World War Hitler returned to Munich. Having no formal
education and career plans or prospects, he tried to remain in the
army for as long as possible. In July 1919, he was appointed intelligence
agent to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German workers’
party. While monitoring the activities of the Germany Workers’ Party, Hitler
became attracted to the founder Anton Drexler’s anti-semitic, nationalist,
anti-capitalist, and anti-marxist ideas.
To increase its appeal, the Germany Workers’ Party changed its
name to the National socialist German workers party, known as
NAZI. Hitler designed the party’s banner of a swastika in a white circle
with a red background.
Like Mussolini, Hitler organised his supporters into fighting squads,
the Nazi storm troopers who battled in the streets against communism
and others they saw as enemies. On November 8th, 1923, Adolf Hitler
attempted a coup d’état against the Bavarian government, but the
police foiled it.
Hitler was arrested on April 1st, and sentenced to five years’
imprisonment.
While in prison, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf
(My Struggle). The book, was an autobiography and an exposition
of his ideology. The book laid out Hitler’s plans for transforming
German society into one based on race.
Mein Kampf reflects Hitler’s obsessions, extreme nationalism through
the concept of lebensraum (living space), racism and anti-semitism.
He said that the Germans belonged to a superior “master race” of
Aryans or light-skinned Europeans, whose greatest enemies were the
Jews.
The Bavarian supreme court issued a pardon and he was released
from jail on December 20th, 1924. Hitler had served just over one year
in prison. Thereafter, he became the “principle leader” of the Nazi
party.

By 1933, the strength and the threat of Hitler’s Nazi party forced
the president to appoint him as a chancellor, which favoured his rise to power.
When President Hindenburg died on August 2th, 1934 Hitler became
führer (leader and chancellor) and supreme commander of the armed
forces.
Factors for the rise of Adolf Hitler to power in Germany
In order to achieve his goal of building Germany and uniting all
Germans in one great nation, Hitler realised that Germany needed a
strong and able leader or führer. He was determined to become that
leader. The following factors helped him to rise to power:
Weakness of the Weimar Republic: This republic was unpopular
as it failed to secure better terms from European powers in the 1919
Versailles treaty. It lacked able leadership that could suppress violence
which Hitler exploited to rise to power.
Effects of World War I and unfair terms of the 1919 Versailles
settlement over Germany: The First World War left Germany
economically weak and the Versailles settlement imposed heavy war
reparations that caused socio-economic problems to the Germans.
Hitler based his ideas on this to blame the government, promising to
liberate the Germans from such misery through Nazi leadership.
This attracted the middle class, the jobless, and industrialists making
his party strong by 1933.
Effects of the world economic depression of 1929: During this
economic depression the Nazi party became popular with more
followers as Hitler emphasized that problems like unemployment
with 6 000 000 unemployed Germans was due to the Versailles
settlement; and Germans looked at Hitler as their saviour.
Role of the Nazi Storm Troopers: This Nazi terrorist squad was
organised by Hitler’s supporters. In the 1932 parliamentary elections
their presence at polling stations intimidated many voters who
ended up by voting for Nazi representatives. The Storm Troopers also
threatened President Hindenburg that he either appoints Hitler as
a Chancellor or risks countrywide violence. And then Hindenburg
resigned in 1933 which helped Hitler to rise to power.
Hitler’s personal talent: Hitler was a gifted demagogue with rare
skills; a propagandist and a man who knew what he wanted and
had the ability to know how to get it. He was a great orator and many
people supported him.
Hitler’s own writings and the Nazi 25 manifesto: While in prison in 1923,
he wrote his book Mein Kampf in which he set out his ideas about
the future Nazi party, thus convincing the middle class and the jobless
to support the Nazi party. By their 25 point-programmes, the Nazi party
called for German nationalism, elimination of Jews and improving the
social life conditions of the poor, which attracted massive support to the
Nazi party;
Role of the Nazi party: The Nazi members accused the Jews of
betraying Germany in the First World War. The Nazi also defeated
communism. As a result, the majority of Germans, especially middle
class, industrialists and large landowners, supported Hitler.
Traditions of Germans: The Germans had no respect for
democratically elected governments like the Weimar republic. They had
a strong tradition for authoritarian governments led by powerful army
officers like Otto Von Bismarck, who gave them security and military
glory more than political freedom and democracy.
Unpopulality of communists and socialist in Germany: This forced the
middle class and industrial capitalists to support Adolf Hitler who
was anti-communism.
Death of President Hindenburg: This created a fertile ground for
Hitler’s rise to president by making the post of president vacant
which Hitler added to himself as the new German ruler.
Consolidation of Adolf Hitler in power in Germany from 1933 up to 1945
Adolf Hitler became Chancellor of Germany on January 30th, 1933 and
assumed full authority after the death of Hindenburg on August 2nd, 1934.
To retain or consolidate his power, Hitler took a number of steps as
discussed below.
He imposed a strict ban on all other political parties. He dissolved the
Socialist Democratic party on May 22nd, 1933, the Communist Party
on May 26th, 1933 and the Catholic Democratic and Nationalist
party in June 1933. The last political party to be dissolved was the
People’s Party on July 4th, 1933. Hitler declared those political parties
unconstitutional and only promoted the Nazi party.
On March 23rd, 1933 the Nazi Grand Council passed an “enabling
act” in the German parliament, transferring law-making powers from
the parliament to cabinet, thereby suspending the parliamentary
Government.
He centralised all powers and changed the administrative structures in
Germany. He passed the special laws of April, June and July 1934 by
which the Jews and socialists were removed from the civil services.
He created new ministries for propaganda, culture, agriculture and
labour. He rewarded the Nazis with white collar employment and
dissolved the trade union movement in June 1933.
He used suppressive policies like Geheime Staatspolizei/ the Secret state
police (Gestapo) and special spies to eliminate his political enemies.
During the night of the long knives alone, the regime executed at
least 85 people for political reasons.
He suppressed the press, broadcasting, literature, drama, music,
painting, public films and only publications reflecting Hitler’s tastes were
allowed in Germany. This was intended to keep the masses ignorant
of his failures. All books which had anti-Nazi ideas were collected and
burnt in a huge fire in Berlin in 1935.
The clergy and professional teachers had to sign an oath promising
never to teach materials that were against the Nazi Party. He
controlled the Catholic Church through the concordat of 1933 with the
Pope.
He built a strong army that was used against internal and external
enemies. He transformed the Storm Troopers into a highly
disciplined and equipped army.
Hitler overcame the pre-1933 economic problems, which earned
him more support from Germans and no one would think of fighting or
opposing him.
He created a system of the youth movements of boys and girls of
14 years called the “Hitler youth” and “league of German maids”
respectively who were taught that Hitler was ever right and were also told
to report their parents if they were anti-Nazi to the secret police.
He violated the Versailles Treaty and used an aggressive foreign and
revenge policy, re-armed Germany, withdrew Germany from the
League of Nations ,and expanded Germany by attacking Austria,
Czechoslovakia and Poland. This earned Hitler more support from the
Germans, although it contributed to his downfall in 1945.
Factors for the downfall of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in 1945

Adolf Hitler eventually met his downfall largely because of World War
II which we will study in Unit 7. In addition he had other problems
as discussed on the next page:
Dictatorship coupled with excessive oppression like the banning
of political parties, and harassing and killing of his political opponents,
caused Germans to turn against him.
The size and heterogeneous nature of the German Empire
which by 1942 included Germans, Austrians, Poles, Dutch and
Czechoslovakians, became too big and diverse for Adolf Hitler to
control.
Hitler had a poor political agenda and weak principles. He allowed the
radical ex-service men of the First World War who were not politically
informed to dominate the Nazi Party.
Hitler’s withdrawal of Germany from the League of Nations isolated him
from global affairs, making him unpopular.
The aggressive foreign policy of Hitler especially in Austria,
Czechoslovakia and Poland contributed to the outbreak of the
Second World War that eventually led to his downfall.
The decline of the Germany economy due to the bombardment of
factories and industries by the allied forces of Britain, France and USA
during the Second World War harmed Hitler’s popularity.
As we will see later, the Germans were eventually defeated in Second
World War and Hitler committed suicide in Berlin as his enemies
advanced on him. It is necessary to note that before Hitler committed
suicide, senior army officers had made several attempts on his life
Application Activity 4.2
1. Determine the common characteristics of Nazism and
Fascism in European affairs
2. Discuss the factors for the rise of Benito Mussolini in
Italy in 1929
Unit summary
The period between the two wars was marked by; the 1929 economic
depression and the rise of totalitarian regimes like Fascism of Benito
Mussolini and Nazism of Adolf Hitler. The rise of Fascism in Italy and
Nazism in Germany compromised peace in Europe due to the effects
the 1929 economic crisis. This situation led to the outbreak of the
Second World War which lasted for five years.
Glossary

Banner: Symbol or emblem of an organisation.
Censorship: the suppression or prohibition of any parts of books,
films, news that are considered a threat to security or unacceptable.
Demagogue: a political leader who seeks support by appealing to
popular passions and prejudices
Disdain: lack of respect accompanied by a feeling of intense dislike
Fraudulent: intended to deceive
Indemnity: a sum of money paid in compensation for loss or injury
Inflict: cause of something unpleasant or painful to be suffered by
someone
Ousting: the act of ejecting someone or forcing them out
Pervert: distortion or corruption of what was first intended
Plebiscite: a vote by the electorate determining public opinion on
a question of national importance
Rampant: unrestrained or unchecked
Subversive: a radical supporter of political or social revolution or in
opposition to a civil authority or government
Suicide: the act of killing oneself
End of Unit Assessment
1. What does “world economic depression” mean?
2. Explain the causes of the world economic depression of
1929
3. Identify the consequences of the economic crash on
USA and world economies?
4. Examine the factors for the rise of Benito Mussolini in Italy.
5. Account for the rise and fall of Adolf Hitler and Nazism in
Germany.
UNIT: 5 CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR (1939–1945)
Key unit competence: To be able to explain the causes and effects
of the Second World War.
Introductory Activity 5.1
Based on the causes and effects of the First World War, make
a research on the internet or in the library about the causes
and the effects of the Second World War.
Introduction

The Second Great War, also known as Second World War, took place
from 1939 up to 1945 and many countries of the World participated.
The two sides that fought were the Allied Powers including Britain,
France, USA and later Russia, against the Axis Powers including
Germany, Italy, and Russia.

This Second World War period witnessed intensification of military
conflicts all over the World. It also witnessed the use of dangerous
weapons and ended with weapons of mass destruction such as
atomic bombs. Modern technology was applied during the war and
it was also during this war that the World experienced the untold
catastrophe of Genocide which claimed the lives of about 6 million
Jews under the so-called “Final Solution” of the Nazis under Adolf
Hitler of Germany.
5.1. Causes of the Second World War
Learning Activity 5.1
1. Identify the causes of the Second World War.
2. How was the First World War is different from the Second
World War? Present the results findings to the class.
The Second World War was caused by a combination of the
following factors:

• The weaknesses of the Versailles Peace Treaty: The peacemakers
at Versailles were unrealistic and instead of creating peace they
prepared the ground for outbreak of the Second World War as
already explained.
• The Alliance System or military alliances: These were the three
Axis Powers (Italy, Germany and Japan) and Allied Democratic
Powers formed by Britain, France, USA and later Russia among
others. The Alliance System divided the World into two hostile
camps which created enmity, fear, mistrust, and suspicion
leading to the war.
•The appeasement policy: This was adopted by France and Britain
in order to appease Hitler when he occupied the Rhineland
and Czechoslovakia. This encouraged Hitler to invade Poland
and when he refused to withdraw as demanded by Britain and
France war broke out.
The weaknesses of the League of Nations: It failed to effect
peace since its formation. It failed to put an economic embargo
on the countries which violated peace. It also failed to condemn and
react against the aggressors of the time, hence resulting in war.
•The effects of the World economic depression of 1929–1933:
The dictators became aggressive by attacking other countries
partly as a solution to the economic depression. For instance,
the invasion of Poland by Germany.
•The rise of the dictators: The period between wars saw the
rise of dictators such as Mussolini in Italy, Hitler in Germany,
Franco in Spain and Hirohito in Japan. The dictators formed
the Axis Alliance and started an aggressive foreign policy
•The Spanish war of 1931–1939: This was a civil war between
the members of the Republican Government supported by
Britain, Russia and France and General Franco supported by
Italy and Germany. After his victory, Franco established a fascist
regime in Spain. The war created enmity between Allied and
Axis powers, increased prestige for Italy and Germany and gave
confidence to Hitler to attack Poland.
•Germany’s invasion of Poland on September 1st, 1939: After
the invasion, Britain and France gave Germany an ultimatum
of 48 hours to withdraw from Poland Hitler neglected the
ultimatum, leading to the outbreak of the war.
Responsibility for the outbreak of World War II

The blame for the outbreak of the Second World War can be
apportioned to Germany, USA, Italy, Poland and the Versailles Peace
Treaty.
Germany’s responsibility
• Germany started the arms race in order to challenge the
disarmament policy of the Versailles Peace Treaty, which created
hostility, fear and mistrust.
•Hitler created the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis to oppose and
destroy the influence of Western powers, which also created the
opposing Democratic Alliance.
•Germany under Hitler withdrew from the League of Nations.
This weakened the League of Nations, making it fail to prevent
the Second World War.
•Hitler misinterpreted the appeasement policy as a sign of
weakness of the Allied powers and became aggressive. He
invaded Poland which was the immediate cause of the World
war.
• Germany rejected the ultimatum of 48 hours to withdraw from
Poland and the Allied powers intervened.
Responsibility of Britain

• The British appeasement policy towards Germany was a great
mistake. Hitler regarded it as a sign of weakness which made
him aggressive.
•Britain was a champion of the Allied powers which conflicted
with the Axis powers in the Spanish war.
•Britain was behind the unfair settlement of Versailles that forced
Hitler to become so aggressive and finally invading Poland.
•Britain was also involved in arms manufacture. This encouraged
Hitler to also join the arms race, creating a war atmosphere.
Responsibility of France
•France supported Neville Chamberlain’s policy of appeasement
that encouraged Hitler’s aggressive policy.
• France, under George Clemenceau, played a big role in the
designing of the unfair Versailles Peace Treaty which was one of
causes of the Second World War.
•France was involved in the arms race and the military alliance
system.
• France collaborated with Britain to declare war on Germany on
September 3rd, 1939.
Responsibility of USA
• USA refused to be a member of the League of Nations, although
the idea of forming this was initiated by US President Woodrow
Wilson. This contributed much to the weakness of the League.
• USA’s policy of isolation and protectionism caused the World
Economic Depression which caused enmity, fear and suspicion
among countries. This led to the rise of dictators who caused
the war.
• USA was involved in the arms race, and manufactured weapons
like atomic bombs that were finally used to defeat Japan during
Second World War.
Responsibility of the Versailles Peace Treaty
• It was signed in the Hall of Mirrors where the German Empire
had been proclaimed in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War.
This was a humiliation to Germany.
• It was signed in a vengeful mood on the part of the Allied powers
against Germany, and it was unfair to Germany.
• It was a dictated treaty on Germany which had no chance to
negotiate.
•It entirely blamed Germany for causing the First World War.
• It only disarmed Germany and not the Allies.
•It imposed unfair penalties on Germany in the reparations.
• It denied Germany her territories in Europe and in Africa, which
caused economic hardships in Germany.
• It created weak states around Germany that became vulnerable
to German aggression.
• It gave rise at a weak League of Nations which could not keep
world peace.
• It neglected the neutral and other small states like Armenia
which were left to the mercy of Turkey.
Application Activity 5.1
1. Explain three causes of the Second World War
2. Summarise the responsibility of each country involved
in the Second World War. Then, name the first country to
cause the Second World War. Present your result to the
class.
5.2. Consequences of World War II
Learning Activity 5.2
Do the following activities:
• Compare the consequences of the First World War
with those of the Second World War.
•Make research on the best way to prevent war and human
suffering. Thereafter, present your findings to class.
•Loss of lives. It was estimated that 62 million to 76 million
people died, 45 million people were wounded and about 21
million people were displaced from their homes
• Massive destruction of infrastructure, especially in France and in
Japan due to heavy bombing of major cities
•Influx of homeless refugees. Most refugees were in camps of
Western Europe. Many of them were the Jews who were running
away from Adolf Hitler
• Formation of the United Nations Organisation in 1945 to replace
the League of Nations
•The production of nuclear weapons which up to the present day
have disorganised World politics
•The defeat and downfall of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler
who committed suicide on April 30th, 1945 and Benito Mussolini
who was killed by his own forces on April 28th, 1945
•Balance of power in the World changed because of the rise of
new super powers, USA and USSR
•The rise and growth of nationalism in the Middle East and in
Africa leading to the decolonisation process
• It led to the partition of Germany into two zones till 1989;
East Germany, known as Democratic Republic of Germany was
controlled by Russia; and West Germany, known as Federal
Republic of Germany, controlled by USA, Britain and France.
•Outbreak of the “Cold War” which was a non-violent
confrontation between the western capitalists led by USA and
eastern communists led by USSR.

Role of Africans in the Second World War
• During the Second World War some 375,000 men and
women from African countries served in the Allied forces. They
took part in campaigns in the Middle East, North Africa, East
Africa, Italy and the Far East. In Asia, they fought in the Burma
Campaign, in the Pacific theatre against Japanese forces, in
the East African Campaign against Italy, and in the Battle of
Madagascar against the French Vichy Government soldiers.
•The Burma Campaign was the longest land campaign fought
by the British in the war. The British lost Rangoon (current day
Yangon) in March 1942 to the advancing Japanese forces. They
were forced to retreat and regroup. The fighting ensued, and
Japan eventually surrendered in 1945, but their surrender would
not have happened without reinforcements from the British
Commonwealth, largely comprised of Indians and the African
soldiers. The British did not have the numbers to go at it
alone, and the outcome of many war theaters would have been
different in the absence of African soldiers.
•In the British army, Africans made up about 100,000 of the
conscripted soldiers in the Burma Campaign alone. Most of
them were from Nigeria and Ghana, but some were also from
Sierra Leone, Gambia and other British controlled African lands.
• The British conscripted African soldiers from different parts
of Africa for the East Africa Campaign against Italy and the
German Motorised Company in the horn of Africa, and against
the French Vichy in the Battle of Madagascar.
• British West African forces played a major role in the East African
Campaign: It was the motorized. Nigerian brigade of 11th African
Division that captured and occupied Mogadishu, the capital of
Italian Somaliland. Mussolini’s Italian forces had no defense,
as they had previously suffered heavy blows from South African
forces. The Nigerian forces easily defeated the Italians.

•While the British did most of the conscripting of African
soldiers during the Second World War, they were not alone.
Italy conscripted Africans too. Collectively, there were more
Ethiopians, Somalis, and Eritreans. The French also conscripted
soldiers from their African colonies.

•The role of Africa in the Second World War was also observed
in the manufacturing of Atomic bombs used by Americans in
Japan. Most of the uranium necessary for the production of the
bomb came from the Shinkolobwe mine in region of Belgian
Congo.
Consequences of the Second World War on Africa
•The Second World War helped in the rise of African nationalism
which led to the decolonization of Africa. The legacy of African
World War Veterans was evident and important in the winning
of independence in different parts of Africa.
The returning ex soldiers brought awareness and consciousness.
During the war,
Africans worked alongside the Europeans, and found them little
difference from them. They had fought and killed Europeans in
the name of freedom and democracy. They had observed poverty
in Europe and savagery in warfare. Thus, their return added more
momentum to the growth of nationalism.
• The Second World War also helped in the changing of attitudes
of Europeans themselves towards their colonies. Allied forces,
especially France, were aware of its indebtedness to Africa during
the war. In order to ensure continuing African support, European
administrators were obliged to promise the social, political and
economic reforms in their African colonies after the allied victory
in the war. At a free French conference held in Brazzaville in
1944, De Gaulle promised a new deal for the subjects of the
French African territories. Some European countries became
reluctant to implement their promises. Thus, there was rise of
intensive nationalism.
•The Second World War also contributed to the rise of African
elites who played a big role in organising and mobilising Africans
for large scale nationalism campaign. In British West Africa, the
war years saw the posting of the educated in high administrative
positions and election to local councils. British colonial
administrators began to contemplate a time in the distant future
when Africans would be allowed some degree of self-governance.
Few ex-service men played a significant role in the leadership of
the ensuing independence movements.
• Europena nations experienced economic hardships after the war.
Most of their economies were so badly ruined that they were not
able to continue running vast overseas colonies in Africa and
Asia. They began preparing them for self-determination.
•The Second World War led to intensive exploitation or large
scale colonisation of Africa. Most of the European countries
wanted to revamp their ruined economies by increasing
qualitative and quantitative production in the peripheries. For
instance, new taxes were introduced, land alienation policy
increased, forced cropping in west Africa was practised, and
“grow more” campaign in Tanganyika intensified. All these
practices of exploitation awakened the Africans to fight for their
independence.
•During the Second World War, some African soldiers lost their
lives. For instance, out of a population of 42 million in African
colonies of the British Commonwealth, 372,000 served in the
Allied cause and 3,387 of these were killed or reported missing
while 5,549 were wounded.
• It can be concluded that African participation in the Second
World War was very important. Africans produced vast
quantities of food and strategic materials for the Allied
war effort. The impact of the war on the lives of ordinary
people throughout the African continent was, therefore,
unquestionably profound. The uncompromising Allies’
demand for manpower and raw materials introduced new
products and methods of production, altered labour relations,
inspired anti-colonial nationalism, challenged established
gender norms, and accelerated environmental change on an
unprecedented scale.
Application Activity 5.2
1. Why did Adolf Hitler attack Russia in 1941?
2. With the attack on Pearl Harbour which region did
Japan manage to control?
Unit summary
The Second World War broke out only 27 years after the end of the
First World War. It opposed two blocks: Allied powers against the Axis
powers. This War was the most terrible event that humanity had
experienced because of the use of weapons of mass destruction such
as atomic bombs. It was also during this war that the Holocaust or
the Genocide against Jews was applied and claimed about 6 million
lives. The war ended on September 2nd, 1945 with 76 million people
dead.
This unit analyses the causes, the course and the responsibility of each
country in the outbreak of the Second World War. Besides, it examines
the consequences of the Second World War.
Finally, this unit ends by exposing the role played by Africans in
the Second World War and its impact on their continent, the most
important being the rise of nationalism that led to the demand for
decolonisation and independence of their countries.
Glossary

Ambush: the act of concealing oneself and lying in wait to attack
someone by surprise
Appeasement: political policy of trying to pacify a hostile country,
e.g. by granting concessions
Mercy: leniency and compassion shown toward offenders by a
person or agency charged with administering justice or a disposition to
be kind and forgiving
Pledge: promise solemnly and formally or Pay (an amount of money)
as a contribution to a charity or service, especially at regular intervals
Prestige: a high standing achieved through success, influence or
wealth etc.
Raking: scratching or scraping with a long sweeping movement
Rubble: the remains of something that has been destroyed or
broken up
Straddling: sit or stand astride of or range or extend over; occupy a
certain area
Tap: Strike lightly
End of Unit Assessment
1. Discuss the causes of the Second World War?
2. Explain the reasons why the Axis powers were defeated.
3. Identify the consequences of the Second World War?
UNIT6: CAUSES OF DECOLONISATION IN AFRICA WITH CASE STUDIES OF GHANA AND KENYA
Key unit competence
By the end of this unit, you should be able to examine the causes of
decolonisation in Africa with two case studies of Ghana and Kenya.
Introductory Activity 6.1
Using the internet or the library carry out a research on
the decolonization of Africa. Then, examine causes and
consequences of decolonization of Ghana and Kenya.
Introduction
This Unit 3 puts emphasis on the definition of the term
“decolonisation” and analyses different factors that helped African
countries to recover their independence.
The causes of decolonisation in Africa are various. They include
effects of the Second World War; the demystification of the
colonizers; the role played by the African elite; continuous
opposition to the colonial system and to exploitation; creation of
United of Nations Organization (UNO) in 1945 and its; activities
anti-colonialist attitude of the superpowers — USSR and the USA;
rise of independent Churches in Africa, role of Christian Churches;
oppressive and exploitative colonial policies of colonialists;
development of mass media; formation of political parties; activities
of the Organization of African unity (OAU) as a continental body to
promote African nationalism; western education; independence of
Asian countries, and others.
After the examination of the different causes of the decolonisation of
Africa, attention will be placed on the various steps that were taken by
two African countries, Ghana and Kenya, in the process of achieving
their sovereignty.
6.1. Causes of decolonisation of Africa
Learning Activity 6.1
Explain any four factors that led to the decolonisation of Africa..
Definition of decolonisation
Decolonisation is the act of withdrawal of colonialists, granting
independence to a colony. Decolonisation was a mass movement for
emancipation of the colonised people which characterised the history
of the world in the second half of the 20th century.
Causes of decolonisation in Africa
A combination of factors contributed to the decolonisation in Asia and
Africa, and to the rise and growth of African nationalism. These factors are
discussed below.
Continuous opposition to the colonial system and to exploitation
The colonised people started and continued to oppose colonial
policies. This was manifested in passive resistance which was
expressed through different ways. These included the refusal to be
subjected to the laws of whites and to pay taxes, the refusal to work
as porters; orders, declining to give information or giving misleading
information; fleeing, or indifference.
The growth of African nationalism
African nationalism was characterised by the strong desire for
self-determination and desire for political, economic and cultural
independence by Africans in Africa supported by Africans in the
diaspora. It was influenced by independent African states like
Ethiopia and Liberia as well as colonial exploitation.
To prepare the African elite, colonial masters awarded scholarships to
Africans to study abroad and these students came into contact with
the white liberals and socialists who were against colonisation. They also
witnessed democracy at work in European countries and America,
and wondered why such democracy was denied to Africans. On
returning to Africa, the elites demanded for democratic governments
and an end to colonisation.
The African elite played a paramount role in the growth of
nationalism. The elite seriously engaged in the decolonisation
process, especially after the Second World War. They founded trade
unions and political parties locally or in European and American
universities and became privileged cadres with writings and
associations. The elites started the negritude movement that glorified
Africa. The glorification of Africa through negritude was nothing else
but a violent rejection of European imperialism.
Effects of the Second World War
Africans who participated in the Second World War witnessed the
weakness of Europeans, sometimes as cowards, retreating and
dying during battles. They also learnt that Europeans were not as
special as they believed them to be, since they could also die of
bullets like Africans. When they returned to Africa, they organised and
trained their fellow Africans to fight against colonisation.
The 1941 Atlantic charter

The 1941 Atlantic Charter was a document signed by American
President Franklin Roosevelt and the British Prime Minister Winston
Churchill. It stated that all people of the world had a right to choose a
form of government best suited to them and all people under colonial
rule were to be given to self-rule. This charter later inspired Africans to
demand for self government.
Effects of the creation of UNO in 1945

The United Nations Organisation (UNO) was formed in 1945 after
World War II. This was a new international peace keeping body
that replaced the League of Nations. UNO set up a Decolonisation
Committee charged with the responsibility of granting political
freedom to all colonised people. The UN Trusteeship Council partly
prepared African countries to get their independence. UNO was
based on the principle of equality and the right of the people to
decide for themselves.
The UNO became the spokesperson for colonised people and put
pressure on former colonial masters to grant them self rule. It also
organised conferences where sensitisation on the need for self rule was
done.
The anti-colonialist attitude of the super powers
The two super powers of the world were United States of America
(USA) and Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). They both had
anti-colonial attitude. The Americans were aware of negative impact
of colonisation. For the Soviets, colonisation meant exploitation of
colonies by powers. Besides, the socialist Revolution of 1917 in Russia
aimed at combating all forms of exploitation, especially labour. With
such a background, the two super powers exerted pressure on the
colonial masters to decolonise. They also provided both military
and financial assistance to African nationalists to enable them fight
for self-rule.
The 1935 invasion of Ethiopia by Italy
Ethiopia had survived the 19th century European colonisation only to
be attacked by Mussolini in 1935. This made Africans mobilise funds,
soldiers and weapons to liberate Ethiopia from Italian colonialism.
Africans learnt that armed resistance was the only way to push
colonialism out of Africa.
The pan-African movement
Pan-Africanism is a worldwide intellectual movement that aims
to encourage and strengthen solidarity between all people of
African descent. The movement has support among Africans in the
Caribbean, Latin America and the United States. It is based on the belief
that unity is vital economic, social, and political progress and aims to unify
and uplift people of African descent. The ideology asserts that the fate of
all African peoples and countries are intertwined. Pan-Africanism is “a
belief that African peoples, both on the continent and in the diaspora,
share not merely a common history, but a common destiny”.
The founders were Marcus Garvey, who was a proponent of Black
Nationalism in Jamaica and the United States; William Edward
Burghardt “W. E. B.” Du Bois, an American sociologist, historian, civil
rights activist, Pan-Africanist, author, writer and editor; and George
Padmore, from Trinidad who was a leading Pan-Africanist, journalist,
and author.
The movement contributed to the sensitization of Africans against
colonialism, and the formation of a united voice of Africans to
pressurize UNO to speed up the process of decolonisation.
PanAfricanism stressed that “Africa is for Africans”.
Some leaders of Pan-Africanism

The formation of Organisation of African Unity (OAU) in 1963
The Organisation of African Unity was a continental body that aimed
at promoting African unity. It set up a Liberation Committee based in
Dar-es- Salaam. Through the Liberation Committe, OAU provided
military, financial and moral assistance to liberation movements
in Angola, Algeria, Mozambique, apartheid in South Africa; and
elsewhere to fight against colonialism. This increased the pace of
decolonisation.
Independence of Asian countries
African leaders that it was possible to win independence for their
respective countries.

After of regaining their independence, the new Asian nations
identified with countries which were still under colonial rule.

The “AfroAsiatic movement” was born in 1947 during the conference in New Delhi.
The movement was based on the refusal to be affiliated to any ideological
bloc; fighting against imperialism; support to national movements;
and the search for economic renewal.

This movement was strengthened during the famous Afro-Asiatic
conference which met in Bandung, Indonesia from April 18th to 24th, 1955.
It was considered as the birth of the third world. It brought together
representatives from 28 Asian and African states who condemned
colonialism.
Formation of political parties

African elites formed politcal parties in their respective countres. These
political parties included African National Congress (ANC) in South
Africa, Convention Peoples Party (CPP) in Ghana, and Tanzanian
African National Union (TANU) in Tanzania. All these helped in
mobilising fellow Africans to struggle against colonial rule. They also
petitioned the United Nations and super powers about the need to
decolonise Africa.
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