UNIT 8: GERMAN AND BELGIAN COLONISATION (1897-1962)
Key unit competence: By the end of this unit,the learner should be able to explain the causesand impact of German and Belgian colonisation
1. Find out the meaning of the word “colonization” from the
Internet and the dictionary. Write the meaning in your notebook.
2. Identify the nationalist of first Europeans to come in Rwanda.
3. Copy the following map in your notebook then answer the
following questions:
i. Identify the current names of the countries on the map.
ii. Write down the countries that colonised the ones you identified
in question (i) above.
iii. Estimate the period under which colonial administration in each
of the shown countries ended.iv. Present your findings in class for further discussion.
Introduction
German colonisation of Rwanda began with the coming of European
explorers to Africa. This was around 1880, when Africa experienced an
increase in European explorers. One of the factors that drove explorers
to Africa was the desire to discover the source of the river Nile. From 1856,
the Geographical Society of London had started to organise regular
exploration missions to discover the source of that river. Some of the
explorers who visited Rwanda include Sir Henry Morton who reached
Akagera River in 1875, Dr Oscar Baumann who arrived in southern Rwanda
on the 11th of September 1892. and Comte Gustav Adolf von Götzen who
entered Rwanda after crossing Akagera River above Rusumo Falls. Von
Götzen was guided by Prince Sharangabo, the son of King Rwabugiri. He
was later received by King Kigeli IV Rwabugiri on May 25th,1894 at Kageyo
in Kingogo in present day Ngororero Distric, western province.
Von Götzen was followed by a second German mission led by Captain
Ramsay who arrived in Rwanda on March 20th,
1897 during the reign of King
Yuhi V Musinga. During this visit, Captain Ramsay gave King Musinga the
Germany flag as a symbol of German authority. From then, the German
occupation of Rwanda became a reality. Rwanda-Urundi became a
region with the capital in Usumbura (Bujumbura). This region was placed
under the control of Captain Bethe who arrived in Rwanda in March 1898 atthe royal residence of Gitwiko in the present day Kamonyi District
8.1. Causes of German and Belgian colonization in Rwanda
The following are some of the factors that made Germans and Belgians
move into Rwanda:• Industrial revolution in Europe• Investment of surplus capital• Rwanda as a source of raw materials• Need for market.Discuss how each factor led to colonisation of Rwanda. Make notes forpresentation in a class discussion.
The main causes of German and Belgian colonization are:
a) The industrial revolution in Europe.
The industrial revolution begun in Britain in the second half of the 18th
Century and thereafter spread in other countries such France, Germany,
Belgium among others. It led to an increase in demand for raw materials
needed by the industries for further production. As production increased,
so was the need for an expanded market for the manufactured products.
European countries had to look up to Africa to provide the much-neededraw materials and market.
b) Rivalry among European countries.
Rivalry between European countries also contributed to colonisation
of African countries. Competition to produce more and supply more
contributed to the rivalry among European powers such as Britain and
Germany. Both had to protect their overseas territories because theterritories supported the entire industrialisation process.
Continued production and supply of manufactured goods led to massive
profits to bourgeoisies who owned the factories. These wealthy people
wanted to invest their surplus income outside their countries because of
competition and reduced investment opportunities their countries offered.This factor pushed them to look for opportunities as far as into Africa.
c) A source of raw materials and cheap labour.
European colonies were able to acquire raw materials (cassiterite,
wolfram and cash crops) for use in their home industries and cheap labour.
The labour was also used in neighbouring colonies to the benefit of the
colonisers. For example, Belgians acquired cheaper labour from Rwanda for
use in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Africans helped in the collection
of ivory and rubber and extraction of minerals in the upper Congo basin
for sale elsewhere in world. In addition, several major Belgian investment
companies pushed the Belgian government to take over the Congo and
develop the mining sector. This sector required local labour which wasregionally acquired.
d) Prestige and geostrategic interest.
Some European nations competed to assert themselves as major
superpowers. For example, the newly formed nations of Germany and
Italy wanted to catch up with England, France and other established
colonial powers. More colonies for these countries were a sign of a nation’s
strength. In addition, European countries which had already established
themselves in some African countries felt that it was necessary for themto acquire more countries for geostrategic reasons.
e) Need to spread Christianity.
The colonisation of Rwanda was a way to spread Christianity by European
missionaries. The missionaries were mainly Roman Catholics andAnglicans. They later established their churches and missions in Rwanda.
f) Need to promote western civilization.
The Germans and Belgians considered Rwanda to be backward and
therefore had a strong desire to civilise it socially, economically andpolitically.
g) The role of the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference.
During this time, African countries were distributed among European
countries where Rwanda was given to Germany. This accelerated andcontributed to the colonisation of Rwanda.
Write an essay on the causes of German and Belgian colonization in
Rwanda. Present your findings in class.
8.2. German administration and its impact in Rwanda.
1. Draw a sketch of map of Rwanda and show its boarders by 1910.
2. Explain the causes of revolts against Musinga during the German
rule.
3. Identify regions which revolted against Musinga and the attitude of
the Germans towards these revolts.
4. Explain the characteristics of the system of administration practiced
by the Germans.5. Discuss the impact of those revolts on Rwanda.
8.2.1 German administration in Rwanda
In Rwanda, Germans used indirect rule. This form of administration
used traditional leaders to administer on behalf of the Germans. It also
respected and maintained local culture. The implementation of the
German rule was to be attained through the Military Phase and Civil
Administration Phase.
a) Military Phase (1897-1907).
This phase was characterised by occupation of Rwanda between 1897
and 1907. At the same time, the German government gave support to
the local leaders to stop several revolts. Therefore, the military post at
Shangi and Gisenyi were only meant to bring people in those areas
under German rule and under the local Rwandan regime headed byKing Musinga.
b) Civil Administration Phase (1907-1916).
The administrative services were transferred from Usumbura to Kigali
and Richard Kandt was made the first Resident of Rwanda. Kandt was
given the responsibility of establishing the civilian rule, conducting census,
collecting taxes and creating a police force. Kigali was founded as the
imperial residence. In addition to that, the German government provided
military support to the local authorities to stop several uprisings like those
staged by Ndungutse and his allies, Rukara and Basebya. Ndungutse,
whose real name was Birasisenge, wanted to declare himself a legitimate
king after pretending to be the descendant of Mibambwe IV Rutarindwaand Muserekande nicknamed “Nyiragahumuza.’
The following were the causes of rebellions in northern Rwanda:1. There was need to recover lost glory by the people which had beentaken over by the royal court of Rwanda.2. They were also subjected to forced labour introduced by theGermans during the fixing of frontiers in 1910. To them, this wasunfair, and therefore made them revolt.3. The Germans forced people to supply them with food. This annoyedthem, causing a revolt not only against the German rule, but also tothe central authority headed by the king.Basebya was one of the rebellion leaders. He was a son to Nyirantwari of
Rugezi and a member of the Abashakamba militias of Kigeli IV Rwabugiri.
With his group of warriors known as Ibijabura, Basebya conquered Buberuka,the whole of Bukonya (Gakenke District) Kibali (Gicumbi District).
With three conquered regions, Musinga’s power was seriously challenged.
Following the expedition of Ndungutse in Bumbogo and Buberuka, the
acting Resident representative Lieutenant Godivius, nicknamed Bwana
Lazima, decided to fight against the opposition. Ndungutse and Rukara
were killed a few days later. Rukara was hanged. Basebya, who wasarrested by chief Rwubusisi, suffered the same fate on May 5th, 1912.
Another major event that took place during this phase was the
demarcation of Rwanda’s borders. This was done on 8th February 1910
during a conference held in Brussels between Belgium, Germany and
Britain. Rwanda was limited in the northern and western frontiers. The
redrawing of the borders was done on a map.
In this exercise of re-fixing its borders, Rwanda lost one half of its actual
size as follows: Ijwi Island, Bwishya and Gishari were annexed to Belgian
Congo while Bufumbira was annexed to Uganda. Unfortunately, thefixations did not put into account the structure of the local population.
The coming of missionaries
Christian missionaries came just after the coming of German administrators
to Rwanda. The first religious groups to emerge during the German rule.
Was the Catholic Church, Islam and Lutheran Protestantism. More religious
groups came in during the Belgian rule, for example, the Adventists in1919, Anglicans in 1918, Pentecosts in 1941 and Methodists in 1943.
i) Roman Catholic missionaries.
The White Fathers introduced Roman Catholicism in Rwanda. They were
led by the Apostolic Vicar of Southern Nyanza (Tanzania), Bishop Joseph
Hirth. They were part of the Société des Missionaires d’Afrique,” foundedin 1868 by Archbishop of Algiers, Cardinal Charles Lavigerie.
He came to Rwanda from Shangi. Later, he arrived at the royal court
in Nyanza on February 2nd,1900, accompanied by Father Brard and
Father Paul Bartholomew, and Brother Anselme. At the royal court, the
missionaries requested for land to settle, and their request was accepted.
The land given to them was at Save in Bwanamukali today in Gisagara
District, Southern Province where they founded their first mission onFebruary 8th, 1900.
In the following years, they established the following other missions:
ii) Protestant missionaries
Protestantism was introduced in Rwanda by the missionaries of the
Bethel Society. The first pastor to arrive in Rwanda was Emmanuel
Johanssen who came from Bukoba in Tanzania. As for German Protestant
missionaries, they were received at the royal court in Nyanza on 29th July
1907. They founded their first missions at Remera-Rukoma in 1912, Kilindain 1907 and Rubengera in 1909 among others.
There was also the first Seventh Adventist Church that was established at
Gitwe by Pastor Meunier in 1919. In the years that followed, other missions were
established at Murambi in Buganza today in Gatsibo District, Eastern Provinceand Rwankeri in Buhoma today in Nyabihu District, Western province.
iii. The First World War in Rwanda
The First World War that occured between 1914 and 1918 was mainly fought
among European nations. However, its impact was indirectly felt in othercontinents including America, Asia and Africa.
In Rwanda, the Germans fought with Belgians who had colonised Congo
(DRC). The war was intense in Bugoyi in present day Rubavu district in
the northwest region and Cyangugu in present day Rusizi District in the
southwest region in western province. The Germans were the first to begin
the war by attacking Belgian Congo’s Ijwi Island in September 1914. This made
the Belgians to respond by fighting back. Belgians were supported by Britishtroops. The troops were deployed in two directions: Shangi and Gisenyi.
Kigali was finally captured on 6th May 1916 then Nyanza on 19th May 1916.
Later, the Belgians moved on with the war through the Rwandan territory
towards Burundi.During the war, Rwanda did all she could to support Germany. This
support ranged from providing armed warriors called Indugaruga as well assupplying food.
8.2.2. Impact of German colonization in Rwanda.
Their reign was short-lived, from 1897 to 1916. This was hampered by their
defeat in the First World War in Europe and Rwanda respectively in 1916.They made a little impact as discussed below:
a) Demarcation of Rwandan border.
On 14th May 1910, the European Convention of Brussels fixed the borders
of Uganda, Congo and German East Africa. This included Tanganyika and
Rwanda-Urundi. It is until 1918, under the Treaty of Versailles, that the former
German colony of Rwanda-Urundi was made a Belgian protectorate by
League of Nations. This led to demarcation of Rwanda’s borders. The fixing
was done using a map. Rwanda lost parts equal to one and half of its actualsize.
b) Support to King Musinga (Mwami).
The Germans settled and helped the Mwami (King Musinga) gain
greater nominal control over Rwandan affairs. They fought rebellions and
defended his rule. The Germans used indirect rule in Rwanda that gavepower to the king and local authorities.
c) Opening of Rwanda to outside world.
Dr Oscar Baumann came to Rwanda in September 1892. He was followed
by Von Götzen in 1894. The latter led an expedition to claim the interior
of Tanganyika colony. Thereafter, German colonialists and, missionaries
arrived in Rwanda. Therefore, the initial visits of Baumann and Von Götzen
is seen as the beginning of the opening up of Rwanda to the outsideworld.
d) Integration of Rwanda in world economy.
German colonisation of Rwanda led to the export of large quantities
of hides and livestock. The exportation was mainly oriented towards
European countries. This initiated a market economy in Rwanda.
e) Introduction of money.Money was introduced in Rwanda during the German colonisation of
Rwanda. People used coin money, heller and rupees. Many Rwandans saw
money as a replacement for barter trade in terms of economic prosperity
and social standing.f) Introduction of head tax.
German colonisation of Rwanda led to the introduction of the head tax on
male adult Rwandans.
g) Coming of European missionaries.
The German colonisation of Rwanda led to the coming of European
missionaries in Rwanda. Roman Catholic missionaries, led by the White
Fathers, came to Rwanda in 1900. They were followed by the Presbyterianmissionaries in 1907. This promoted Christianity in Rwanda.
Make an essay on the impacts of German colonisation in Rwanda.Present the results.
8.3. Reforms introduced by Belgians.
Using textbooks, internet or other resources,1. Assess the transformations introduced by Belgians in
Rwanda then present your results to the class.
2. Explain the reasons for the deportation of King Musinga in1931. Thereafter, compile an essay for the teacher to mark.
During the First World War I, Germans fought with Belgians in Rwanda.
This led to the defeat of Germans in May 1916. Belgians then officially
took over control of Rwanda from Germans. The Belgian administration
in Rwanda led to a total change in Rwanda’s political, social, economic,cultural and religious sectors.
It is important to distinguish the reforms introduced by Belgians in
Rwanda into three stages of the entire Belgian rule. These are:i) Reforms introduced during the Military Administration (1916-1924)8.3.1: Reforms introduced during the Military Administration (1916 - 1924)
ii) Reforms introduced during the Belgian Mandate (1926-1946)iii) Reforms introduced during the Trusteeship (1946-1962)
After the conquest of Ruanda-Urundi in 1916, German colonialists were
replaced by the Belgian occupational troops. The troops were responsible
for managing the country. The Belgian Military High Commander in
charge was J.P Malfeyt. He was the first Belgian Royal High Commissionerin Rwanda. His residence was at Kigoma in Tanzania.
He was tasked to maintain order and public safety over all the territoires in
Ruanda-Urundi. He was in charge of Belgian troops in the occupation of
Rwanda. He played this role until the end of the First World War.
After the War, Rwanda once again fell under military regime, and was
divided into military sectors. These were Gisenyi, Ruhengeri, Cyangugu and Nyanza.
The military sectors were later transformed into territoires, namely:i. The western territory (Rubengera territory capital)Major De Clerk later was named as Resident in 1917. Later, he was replaced
ii. Northern territory (Ruhengeri territory capital)
iii. The territory of Nyanza (Nyanza territory capital)iv. The Eastern territory (Kigali territory capital)
by F.van De Eede in 1919.
The following are some of the reforms introduced in Rwanda duringthe military administration:
a) Systematic disintegration of the monarchyEach of these reforms has been explained below in detail:
b) Undermining the Mwami’s (king’s) legal power
c) Reduction of the Mwami’s (king’s) political power
d) Abolition of Ubwiru and Umuganura
e) Declaration of religious freedom
f) Abolition of imponoke and indabukirano
a) Systematic disintegration of the monarchy.The relationships of the occupying authorities with the court of the king
were very bad. For example, on 25th March 1917, the General Auditor of
Kigoma was ordered to arrest the king. It is at this time that the RoyalCommissioner, General Malfeyt, decided to send De Clerk as the Resident.
Under De Clerk, the residence of Rwanda was divided into Northern,
Nyanza, Western and Eastern territories. The division was to facilitate
implementation of military orders, food requisition and recruitment of
carriers for the Belgian colonialists. Furthermore, in 1922, the decision
by Belgians that the Resident at Nyanza would assist the Mwami (King
Musinga) in his legal prerogatives was meant to undermine the king’s
legal power.
b) Undermining the Mwami’s (king’s) legal power.The king, before the Belgian occupation, had authority to pass ‘life or
death’ sentence over his subjects. The king was stripped off this right to
determine whether a person would live or be killed because of a crime
committed. Crimes that warranted the death sentence from the king
included murder, fighting with fellow subjects or treason. Without such
authority, the king’s title was reduced to being just but honorary. This,among other reasons, humiliated the king greatly.
c) Reduction of the Mwami’s (king’s) political power.King Musinga was stopped from appointing and dismissing any of his
subordinates without permission of the Belgian High Commissioner or
Resident. Chiefs and Governors of provinces too did not have the right
to dismiss those who worked under them. With time, the final source of
authority became the Belgian administration. Chiefs and their deputies
therefore were required to report to the Belgian administration and notKing Musinga as was the case initially.
Traditional authorities were charged with the following responsibilities:
a) Collecting taxes
b) Mobilising porters and workers on local roads and tracks
d) Abolition of ubwiru and umuganura.
Abiru were officials in Rwandan Kingdom who were in charge of ubwiru
(amabanga y’imitegekere y’igihugu). The traditional institution of ubwiru
played very important roles in the Rwandan Kingdom and to the mwami
(king).
Umuganura (umunsi mukuru wo kwishimira no gushima Imana kubera
umusaruro wabonetse mu mwaka) was meant to thank God for the harvest.
It was also to strategise for the next season, so as to ensure that the harvest
is good. It was celebrated by Rwandans after harvest of sorghum. It was a
very big event in the kingdom as Rwandans celebrated their achievements
in terms of harvest both at the kingdom and family level.
Belgians abolished both the ubwiru and umuganura in a systematic way
to curtail the king’s powers. Eventually, in 1925, the chief of ubwiru who was
called Gashamura was exiled in Burundi. The Resident communicated to
King Musinga that umuganura had been abolished.
e) Declaration of religious freedom.In traditional Rwanda, the king was not only an administrative leader but
also a religious leader who was an intermediate between God (Imana) and
Rwandans. This made Rwandans to consider their King as God and would
refer to him as Nyagasani (meaning God). However, with the influence of
the Catholic Church and the administration of the Belgians in 1917, KingMusinga was forced to sign a law accepting freedom of worship.
From then, the King had no option but to allow religious freedom that
would favour the Catholics. Therefore, the royal power was separated with
religion because the King had just been forced to forego his religiouspowers.
f) Abolition of imponoke and indabukirano.
Indabukirano were gifts given to the chief after being nominated and
coronated to the position. The gifts included items like cows and beers
(indabukirano). Such was meant to show loyalty to him by his subjects. It
was also to enable the new chief to cope with the new lifestyle, to showhappiness and to congratulate the new chief.
Imponoke was a sign of compensation to the chief usually after a heavy
loss of cows, especially due to diseases or being struck by lightening. This
was a sign of active bystandership to the chief by his subjects. Generally,
to the chief, it was a way of compensating him for the loss of cows and to
enable him to continue living within the lifestyle he was used to before the
loss. It was one of the ways Rwandans used to show concern for others inthe society.
The practice of imponoke and indabukirano were abolished by the Belgians
when they took over the administration of Rwanda. This was aimed at
weakening the influence of the king over his subjects. It was also to help
the Belgians remain with monopoly of power. The expected end result
was to reduce the belief in traditional practices where Rwandese haddeep attachment.
A mandated territory is a country or territory that is governed by another8.3.1: Reforms introduced during the Belgian Mandate (1926-1946)
country based on the authority given by the League of Nations. The
mandate may imply different forms of government varying from directadministration by the other country to being self governing.
1. Political reforms (1926-1931)
Mandated territories were introduced in 1919. In 1922, the League of Nations
gave Belgium a mandate over the territory of Ruanda-Urundi. Belgium
was to administer and control the territory while respecting the freedom
of religion and stopping slavery. The mandates were divided into three
classes, A, B and C, according to the presumed development of their
population. Rwanda was put under the mandate B with Belgium as amandatory power.
This mandate was approved on 20th October 1924 by the Belgian parliament.
For this reason, from 1916 – 1924, Rwanda was called “a territory under
occupation.” However, it was officially known as a “territory under mandate
B.” Other countries in this category were Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Togoand Cameroon.
The administrative reforms initiated by Belgian authorities started in
1926 and brought with it a number of changes where Rwanda-Burundi
was joined to Belgian Congo in terms of administration. This meant that
Congolese colonial laws were applied to both countries.The following were the other reforms in administration:
1.1. Mortehan reforms (1926-1931)
Between 1926 and 1932, the Resident of Rwanda called Georges Mortehan
introduced a reform in the administrative structure of Rwanda. This reform
was essentially aimed at new distribution of powers. Therefore, Rwanda
which was originally governed under 20 districts (ibiti) and pastoral fiefs
(ibikingi) was transformed into a system of territories,
chiefdoms and subchiefdoms. By 1931, Rwanda consisted of 10 territories
instead of 20 districts, 52
chiefdoms (chefferies) corresponding more or less to historical traditional
regions and 544 sub-chiefdoms (sous- chefferies) equivalent to former
pastoral fiefs. The functions of the land chief (umutware w’ubutaka), the
cattle chief (umutware w’umukenke) and the military chief (umutware
w’ingabo) were abolished. Chiefs now resided in their administrative placesand not at the royal court as it was before.
Unfortunately, the administrative responsibilities in the new structure
were unfairly done. It excluded the Hutu, Twa and Tutsi with a moderate
background in favour of the Tutsi from well to do families. The chiefs were
in turn replaced by their sons who completed from the school reserved for
sons of chiefs. This is because they were seen as being able to rule in amodern way.
In addition, with the Mortehan reform the traditional chiefs lost their power
because they now accomplished their duties under pressure of being
dismissed when they performed poorly. They became pure and simple
agents of the Belgian colonial administration. They no longer representedthe King or their subjects.
1.2. Deposition of King Yuhi V Musinga in 1931.
At the beginning of the colonial rule, King Musinga collaborated with the
German administrators and in return they helped him defeat the northern
rebellions. However, the relationships between the King Musinga and
the Catholic missionaries were not good because King Musinga was
accused of being opposed to the missionary activities. This situation
worsened with the coming of the Belgians who collaborated with theCatholic Church’s authorities.
In 1931, the report of the Vice Governor General Voisin accused King
Musinga of being opposed to moral, social and economic activities of the
colonial administration. The King was at the same time accused of being
hostile to the work of the Catholic missionaries. These attitudes brought
conflicts between the King and the colonial administration, the catholic
missionaries as well as Rwandan collaborators spearheaded by Kayondo,his brother-in-law.
These were the reasons which, after a lot of hesitation, forced the Belgians
to take the decision to overthrow King Musinga and replace him with his
son RUDAHIGWA who was then the chief of Nduga-Marangara. On 12th
November 1931, Governor General Voisin announced the deposition of
King Yuhi V Musinga. The king was asked to leave Nyanza royal court to
Kamembe in Kinyaga. Musinga left for Kamembe on 14th November 1931.
On that very date, Rudahigwa, the son of the chief of Nduga-Marangara,
was proclaimed King by Vice-Governor General Voisin under the royalname of Mutara III.
King Musinga was moved from Kamembe to Moba in Democratic Republic
of Congo (D.R.C.) in 1940. He spent the last bitter years of his life here,eventually dying on October 25th, 1944.
2. Socio-cultural reforms.
a) Education.
With the coming of the colonialists, itorero and other forms of traditional
education in Rwanda were abolished. They were replaced with secular
and religious education under the control of the missionaries. The most
important skills acquired from these formal schools were reading, writing
and arithmetic. This new form of education also enabled learners to
acquire skills necessary to work for Belgians. Unfortunately, this did not
benefit the local populace, especially the younger generation, which losttouch with their history and ancestry.
Contrary from what was expected, the shift from traditional education to
the modern education did not serve to address national needs at that time.
It instead provided avenues of climbing to a higher social status. Those who
went through formal education came to be perceived as being of a better
status than those who did not have this type of education. This divided thesociety rather than unite it as traditional education had done.
This type of education introduced was a monopoly of Christian
missionaries and the main courses taught at the begining were religion,
arithmetic, reading and writing (Kiswahili, Germany and later French withthe Belgians). Then after, programmes have been improved.
In 1925, the colonial administration had committed itself to financing
education under certain conditions (subsidized education system):
acceptance of administrative inspection and employing qualified teachers.
From that time, primary education which was limited to a lower level was
expanded. For instance, in 1925, the number of pupils was 20,000, in 1935
was 88, 000 pupils and in 1945 the number had risen to 100, 000 pupils in
primary schools. Secondary schools started in 1912 with the creation of the
minor seminary of Kansi which in 1913 was shifted to Kabgayi. In 1929, with
the establishment of the Groupe Scolaire d’Astrida, secondary educationgrew and increased.
In 1933, the pupils of the former school for the sons of chiefs who lived at
Nyanza were enrolled. Apart from Groupe Scolaire d’Astrida, there were
other secondary schools which include the following:
Teacher Training School in Save which was started and managed
by the Marist Brothers.
Teacher Training School in Zaza by Brothers of Charity.
Teacher Training School in Ruhengeri by Brothers of Christian
Instruction.
Teacher Training School for girls at Save managed by White Sisters.
Teacher Training School in Kigali for girls ran by the Benedictine
Sisters while their auxiliary laymen ran other Training College at
Muramba and Byimana.
Teacher Training School College in Shyogwe by the Alliance ofProtestants
b) Introduction of identity cards
Before the colonial form of identification, a Rwandan was first identified by
his clan. Being Hutu, Twa or Tutsi was a mere social category. The identity
cards which were introduced by the Belgians in 1935 classified Rwandans
as belonging to Tutsi, Hutu and Twa. Each Rwandan had an ethnic identity
card in the years that followed later. To ascertain where one belonged,
those who owned ten cows or more were classified as being Tutsi. Those
with less cows were classified as Hutu while Batwa were considered thoseRwandan who survived on pottery activities.
Unfortunately, there were cases where some of the children belonging to
the same parent could be classified both as Hutu and Tutsi. For instance,
one who had cows was regarded as a Tutsi and another one without cowswas regarded as Hutu, yet the two shared same biological parents.
c) Health centres.
Before the coming of colonialists in Rwanda, Rwandans used natural
herbs (imiti gakondo) to cure various diseases such as malaria and
headaches. However, colonialists phased out of local herbs and replaced
them with western drugs and medicines. In collaboration with the Christian
missionaries, the health sector was transformed by constructing various
hospitals in different parts of the country. The medical sector was left in the
hands of the Christian Missions. By 1932, the colonial administration had 2hospitals including Kigali hospital and Astrida as well as 29 dispensaries.
From 1933, the colonial administration introduced a new policy of replacing
all dispensaries with mobile “assistance camps”. All this is aimed at
providing health care to the local populace in order to solve the problem of
insufficient medical infrastructure. The private hospitals were put in place
in Kigeme and Shyira by the Anglican Church and some others by Mining
companies like hospital of Rutongo by SOMUKI and Rwinkwavu Hospital
by GEORWANDA. Other hospitals set up by Christian Missionaries in
different parts of the country among others included the following set upthe following:
• Kabgayi and Mibilizi by the Catholic missionariesIn an attempt to increase the medical staff, a section of training of medical
• Kilinda by the Presbyterians
• Gahini by the Anglicans• Ngoma-Mugonero by the Adventists.
assistants was opened in Groupe Scolaire of Astrida and medical auxiliaries
also opened at Astrida and 2 schools for Assistant Nurses at Kabgayi and
in Kigali. As a result, by the end of Belgium mandate, 4 rural hospitals andmore than 10 dispensaries had been built by the colonial administration.
d) Religion (Christianity).
Before the coming of the colonialists, the king was not only the head
of the monarchy, but also a spiritual leader. He was considered divine
and therefore held religious rituals regularly. He was thought to be a link
between his people and the ancestors. Colonial agents worked against
traditional religion as they considered it pagan and backward. In fact,they considered the African way of life to be that of uncivilised people.
They used this as an excuse to introduce and support Christianity overtraditional religion.
Important to note is that the spread of Christianity and Christian culture
benefited a lot from the 1926 colonial administrative reforms. These
reforms required that to be a chief or sub-chief, one was to have at least
some western education acquired from the colonial schools in Rwanda.
Catholicism was the most dominant religion among other denominations
like the Presbyterian, Anglican and Adventists. Churches were built across
the county in places such as Zaza, Nyundo, Rwaza, Kabgyayi, Kilinda,Gahini and Gitwe.
3. Economic reforms.
Rwanda experienced a lot of transformation during the Belgian Mandate.
Such had both negative and positive effects on Rwandans. Some of the
economic reforms introduced in Rwanda during the Belgian Mandate
include the following:
i) Forced labour policy.
During the Belgium rule, some members of a family were required to offer
free compulsory labour. This was to accomplish some projects started
by the colonial government in a system called the akazi. This labour to
the government was to be offered for two days in a week of seven days.
Worse still, the forced labour was given amidst cruelty and brutality from
the administrators. The introduction of akazi made people feel that theywere being punished.
The local people underwent suffering while constructing roads, churches
and hospitals. This included transporting construction materials from
different areas to Kabgayi Catholic Church and growing and cultivating
various crops like cassava, sweet potatoes and coffee far from their homes.
Locals were also required to transport European goods to places they
were asked to. Sometimes, people were obliged to travel long distance to
cultivate the food crops(shiku) such as cassava, sweet potatoes and cash
crops like coffee. These were cultivated a way from their homes, often
near the roads where colonial officials could usually pass so as to creategood impression.
Due to the forced labour policy, the locals could not get enough time to
work on their farms. They instead concentrated on working on coffee
farms, with little or no pay. This led to a shortage in food supply. As a result,
a number of famines were experienced, such as Rumanura (between 1917
and 1918), Gakwege (between 1928 and 1929) and Ruzagayura (between
1943 and 1944). These famines affected people more often than before the
coming of the colonialists. It too resulted into fleeing of many Rwandeseto neighbouring countries like Congo and Uganda to look for paid labour.
ii) Agriculture and animal husbandry.
The Belgians introduced cash crops such as coffee, pyrethrum, cotton and
tea. Unfortunately, this was done through forced labour where labourers
worked for long hours. They established agricultural research centres in
various parts of the country to ensure the best harvests. These included
Rubona (Southern Province), Rwerere (Western Pronvince), and Karama
(Eastern Province).The Rubona agriculture research station was to deal with agricultural
problems affecting average attitude land, Rwerere station in Gisenyi
dealt with those affecting higher attitude while Karama station was for low
attitude areas. Overemphasis on these crops meant that food crops were
not considered as important. The result was frequent food shortages and
famines. The Belgians countered food shortages by introducing cassava,
maize, soya beans and Irish potatoes to try to improve food production for
subsistence farmers. This was important especially because of the two
droughts and subsequent famines of Rwakayihura/Rwakayondo and
Ruzagayura between 1928-29 and 1943-44 respectively.
Hybrid cattle breeds were also introduced to boost the production of hides
and skins for export. To support animal husbandry, research centers were
set up at Nyamiyaga-Songa in the southern region, Cyeru in the northern
region and Nyagatare in the eastern region. Animal health centres were
built and veterinary clinics established in rural areas to improve the local
breeds by cross breeding them with exotic ones. This was to develop moreproductive and resistant breeds.
iii) Mining activities.
Mining activities started from 1923 with two main companies:
RwandaUrundi Tin Mines Company (MINETAIN: Société des Mines d’Etain du
Ruanda-Urundi) and Muhinga-Kigali Mining Company (SOMUKI: Société
Minière de Muhinga-Kigali) in1934. Some other mining companies such
as GEORWANDA were established in 1945 while Compagne de Recherche
et d’Exploitation Minière (COREM) was established in 1948. The major
minerals extracted by the mining companies were gold, cassiterite,
wolfram, tin, colombotantalite and mixed minerals. These mines not
only increased the volume of exports but also provided local people withemployment opportunities.
iv) Taxation policy.
In a bid to increase tax revenue to finance their administration and projects,
Belgians introduced poll tax in 1917. This was compulsory for all adult
male Rwandans. This was to be paid in form of money. Unfortunately,
the methods of collection were brutal. Tax defaulters were flogged while
others were imprisoned, which made many people who were unemployedto run to the Belgians to look for jobs so as to pay taxes.
v) Trade and commerce.
In pre-colonial times, Rwanda’s socio-economic activities revolved around
cattle rearing, crop cultivation, ironwork, art and crafts and hunting. These
activities provided the local population with products for subsistence
consumption. However, surplus products were used for trade with the
neighbouring communities. Like many countries in Africa, trade of goods
and services was carried out in Rwanda through a barter trade where goodswere exchanged for other goods.
During the colonial period, Congo, Rwanda and Burundi were placed
under common Belgian protectorate from 1916 to the early 1960s. The
introduction of head-tax and use of money as a medium of exchange
by the Germans and Belgians respectively changed the society’s socioeconomic
perception of wealth. Over time, trading centres started to
develop. People could find agricultural products as well as crafts fromsuch centres.
Colonial administrators established commercial centres where local and
foreign traders like Europeans and Asians could trade. Others who took part
in the trade were the Belgians, Portuguese, Indians, Greeks, the Omani’s
and Pakistanis who operated licensed businesses. Generally, the business
environment has been expanding since then, to include cross-border andinternational trade.
vi) Infrastructural development.
In the 1920s and 1930s, Belgians constructed roads to facilitate trade and
effectively administer the colony. The first vehicle arrived in Rwanda in 1927,
which led to the construction of the following three international roads:• Bujumbura-Bugarama-Astrida-Kigali-Rwamagana-GatsiboNyagatare- KagitumbaHowever, European administrators generally overlooked the abuses of the
• Bujumbura-Cyangugu-Bukavu
• Bukavu-Cyangugu-Astrida
officials who embezzled the taxes that were collected. They also oversaw
forced labour during the construction of roads, in various mining activities
and during the planting of coffee. There was also the setting up of hydroelectric
power stations to produce electricity. These stations were set up
as from late 1950’s to supply power to developing industries. Those that
were constructed include Mururu (on River Rusizi) and Ntaruka (betweenlakes Burera and Ruhondo).
3.1. Reforms introduced during the Trusteeship (1946-1962)
After World War II in 1945, the victorious nations created the United Nations
Organisation (UNO) which replaced the League of Nations. This is because
the League of Nations had failed to promote world peace. The principal
mission of the UNO was to maintain peace and security in the world. By
this time, Rwanda’s mandate regime was replaced by the trusteeshipregime, although they were all under the Belgian authority.
On 13th December 1946, the UNO and Belgium signed a Trusteeship
Agreement on Rwanda. On April 29th, 1946, the Belgian Parliament
approved it. The UNO’s mission was to help prepare Rwanda to reach
autonomy before its independence. Later on, the UNO began to visit
every two years. The purpose of these missions was to hold consultations,
examine together with the state holding trusteeship any petition arising
from the administrated population and to assess the political situation ofthe countries under the trusteeship. Such missions in Rwanda were in 1948,
1951, 1954, 1957 and 1960. The UNO requested Belgium to assist her colonies
for the political evolution. The trusteeship had the following general
objectives:• To maintain international peace and security.When UN mission visited Rwanda in 1948, they found that Belgians had
• To help in political, economic, social and cultural development
of the inhabitants of the territories under trusteeship.
• To ensure progress towards either autonomous leadership or
independence.
• To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
for all irrespective of the race, gender, language and religion.
• To ensure equal treatment in all social, economic and financial
problems to all the members of the UN.
done nothing to enable Rwanda to reach the political evolution expected.
The UN left after requesting Belgium to prepare Rwandans to reach
autonomy that was desired for political independence. Belgium, instead
of acting as requested by the UN, introduced the Ten-Year Plan. This
was aimed at achieving social and economic development than politicaldevelopment as requested by the UNO.
1. Economic reforms.
The first mission of the UNO in 1948 realised that the Belgian government
had not done much in socio-economic development and recommended
that more social and economic reforms be promoted. In reaction to this
recommendation, the Belgian government elaborated a Ten Year socialand economic development plan for Rwanda-Urundi in 1951.
i) The Ten-Year Development Plan.
The Belgian-led administration in Rwanda put in place a Ten-Year
Development Plan, which was meant to bring about political, economic
and social development in Rwanda. It also focused on providing significant
financial support in public health, agriculture and education. However,
this Plan had several weaknesses. These include:• It was projected over a long period of time.• Since the Belgian administrators who were in charge of the plan
• Not all the people of Rwanda were involved in its formulation. Only
the leaders were told about it while the rest of the population wasignored.
could be moved from one country to another, it was difficult for it to
be effectively implemented.
The Ten-Year Development Plan resulted to notable changes in Rwanda,
even if these changes were slow despite its full implementation. Under
this Plan, the following was achieved:
• There was an improved access to education, although most of the
learners continued to receive basic education. Numbers decreased
as learners continued to advance into higher classes.
• It had a range of strategies aimed at preventing famine.
• The increasing monetarisation of the Rwandan economy enabled
more people, apart from the elites, to realise the advantages and
opportunities associated with business activities.
• Access to medical care also became more equitable, widely available,
effective and affordable – independent of sub-group identity.
• Several projects were financed under this Plan, like the construction
of schools, hospitals, dispensaries, roads and the development of
marshlands and the plantation of forests. Financing of the Ten-Year
Plan was in two forms, that is:
• External financing, which the Belgians achieved by creating a ‘‘Fonds
du Bien-Etre Indigène’’ with two million francs. Belgium was also
committed to annual financial aid which increased from 150 million
per annum in 1950 – 1951 to 560 million in 1961.
• Financing local projects was done through increasing tax rates on cattle,
subjecting polygamy taxation as well as taxing exports.ii) Abolition of Ubuhake.
On land authorities, there were considerable socio-economic reforms
which were done. Among the most notable ones, there was the abolition
of the socio-economic dependence system based on the cow or ubuhake
by the royal decree of the King Mutara III Rudahigwa on 1st April 1954. The
abolition of ubuhake was as a result of the decision of the king in agreement
with the indigenous Rwandan Superior Council. The traditional patronclient
relationship of ubuhake was a highly personalised relationship
between two individuals of unequal social status. The king further argued
that the clientship was an obstacle to economic development that could
create disorder among the people if not stopped. This abolition had two
objectives:
• To liberate the pastoral clients (abagaragu) who used to spend much
of their time working for their patron (shebuja)
• To encourage private initiatives and to force cattle keepers to reducethe number of cows to manageable and profitable size.
2. Political reforms.
During the reign of the Belgian Trusteeship, there were two political
reforms brought by the Belgian administrators: the establishment andcreation of councils.
Establishment of councils.
The first reform of its kind was introduced on May 4th, 1947. It was the
creation of a Conseil du Governement du Ruanda-Urundi. The
Council comprised of 22 members, 5 of whom were Belgians including
the Governor, 2 Resident Representatives and 2 Belgian state agents. The
other 13 members were said to represent other foreigners living in RuandaUrundi.
From 1949, the Kings of Ruanda-Urundi became members of the
Conseil du Governement. This Council was majorly meant for consultation.
On March 26th, 1949, it was abolished by a Belgian royal decree andreplaced with the Conseil Général du Ruanda-Urundi.
Conseil Général du Ruanda-Urundi was composed of 50 members. 9 of these
were high level personalities and automatic members, who included the
Governor, 2 Residents, 2 kings and 4 high level Belgian functionaries.
Apart from these, there were seats reserved for 4 representatives chosen
by the Haut Conseil du Ruanda-Urundi from among its members, 18representatives of expatriates and 14 members appointed by the Governor.
Another political reform initiated by the Belgians in Rwanda was because
of the Decree of 14th July 1952. This was in response to the critical reports of
the United National Trusteeship missions in Rwanda in 1948 and 1951. The
decree led to the establishment of councils at local and country levels.
They included Conseil de sous-chefferie (sub-chief councils), Conseil de
chefferie (the council of chiefs), Conseil de territoire (the council of territory)and Conseil Superieur du Pays (the superior council of the country
The Councils established served for consultation purposes only. They did
not have any power in decision making. The composition of each councilwas as follows:
(a) Conseil de sous-chefferie (the Council of sub-chiefs): It was made
up of a sub-chief who presided over it and 5 to 9 elected members.
(b) Conseil de chefferie (the Council of chiefs): This was composed of
the chief himself who was its chairperson and 10 to 18 members
of whom 5 were sub-chiefs elected by their peers. Others were
notables elected from members of a college made up of 3 notablesfrom sub- chiefdoms.
(c) Conseil du territoire (the territorial council): This was made up of
the head of the territory and chiefs from that territory as well as
a number of sub-chiefs which had to be equal to the number of
chiefs. The sub- chiefs who sat on this council were chosen by their
fellow sub-chiefs from their ranks. There were also notables on the
council whose number was equal to that of chiefs and sub-chiefs.
The notables were elected from an electoral college composed
of 3 people elected by each conseil du territoire from among itsmembers
(d) Conseil Superieur du Pays (the high council of the state): This was
presided over by the king. It was made up of representatives of
the councils of the 9 territories (Cyangugu, Astrida, Nyanza, Kigali,
Kibungo, Byumba, Ruhengeri, Gisenyi and Kibuye), 6 chiefs elected
by their peers, a representative elected by each council of the
territory from the members who sat on it, 4 people chosen because
of their understanding of the problems of the country and 4 peoplechosen based on their level of assimilation towards western culture.
The councils were created mainly because the trusteeship terms provided
that the Belgian administration was to increase the participation of
Rwandans in the administration of their country. Thus, the powers of the
local government were increased although they were to be supervised
by the trusteeship administration. However, the elections to the councilswere to be indirect, and the chiefs were tasked to determine the outcome.
The decree also had the following effects:
• It empowered the king to make regulations in the administration of
the kingdom.
• The king was also authorised to make arrangements for social and
economic services and to impose communal labour in 60 days.
• The chiefs had authority to implement the decrees of the king
especially communal labour and labour services for the chiefs.The right to vote was introduced in 1954. Nevertheless, the system could
hardly be described as democratic. For example, notables responsible for
electing the sub-chiefdom councils – that is, the lowest level of councils
– would themselves now be elected rather than nominated. Each council
would thereafter vote on the membership of the superior council of the
country council as previously done. Very important to note was that only
nationals were allowed to be members of these councils and they served
for a period of three renewable years. The administrative structure ofRwanda after establishment of these councils by 1952 was as follows:
Suggestion: territorial administration could be under the UMWAMI, and eachcouncil would correspond or be on the same level as the administarive leader.
4. Decolonisation of Rwanda.
The Belgians applied the divide and rule system of administration. In
Rwanda, they took advantage of the historic division of labour between
the Hutu, Twa and Tutsi. They went ahead to incorporate the Tutsi into
the ruling class. Generally, the Belgian rule was characterised by social
favouritism towards the Tutsi. From the conseil supérieur du pays, amemorandum called Mise au point was made on 22nd February 1957.
This was mainly addressed to the UN Trusteeship mission to Rwanda and
to the Belgian colonial administration. This document strongly questioned
the colonial power. It criticised discrimination based on colour, questioned
monopoly of the missionary-led education which compromised its quality
and finally demanded for increased representation of Rwandans in thepolitical administration of their country.
More so, the Mise au point made the Belgian authorities to mobilise Hutu
intellectual group (former seminalists) to write another memorandum
as a counterattack which they called Le Manifeste des Bahutu (Hutu
manifesto) or note sur l’aspect social du problème racial indigène
au Rwanda. It was produced on 23rd March 1957. The signatories of this
memorandum included Grégoire Kayibanda, Joseph Habyarimana Gitera,
Calliope Murindahabi, Maximillian Niyonzima, Munyambonera Silvestre,
Ndahayo Claver, Sentama Godefroid and Sibomana Joseph among others.They were majorly opposed to a memorandum called Mise au point.
In such a situation, the colonial power had successfully created a HutuTutsi conflict,
which had never been there before. Later, it became a barrier
to the unity of Rwandans. This prompted King Mutara III Rudahigwa to
establish a committee to study the “Muhutu-Mututsi social problem” on
30th March 1958. In June 1958, the conseil supérieur du pays produced
a reaction on the report established by the committee. They pointed
out that there was no Hutu– Tutsi problem that existed but a socialpolitical
problem on the level of political administration. This problem,
they concluded that, was not ethnic in nature. The conseil supérieur du
pays members moved on to demand the removal of the ethnic mention
in the identity cards. The situation intensified with the creation of politicalparties in Rwanda competing for power. These political parties included:
• Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR).
The Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR), or Rwanda National Union Party,
was officially formed on 3rd September 1959. Its President was François
Rukeba. Its other leaders were Michel Rwagasana, Michel Kayihura, Pierre
Mungarurire and Chrisostome Rwangombwa among others. The party
was basically a nationalist, monarchist, anti-colonialist and reformist
party. It was formed to demand for immediate independence of Rwanda.
• Rassemblement Démocratique du Rwanda (RADER).
Rassemblement Démocratique du Rwanda (RADER) or Rwanda
Democratic Assembly, had the following members: Bwanakweli Prosper,
Ndazaro Lazarus, Priest Bushayija Stanslas and Etienne Rwigemera. This
Party was quite close to the colonial administration and the Catholic
Church. It was also democratic and advocated for constitutional monarchy.
Parti du Mouvement pour l’Emancipation Hutu
(PARMEHUTU).Parti du Mouvement pour l’Emancipation Hutu (Movement for the
Emancipation of the Hutu) was formed in October 1959. It was officially
launched as a Party on 18th October 1959 with Grégoire Kayibanda as
its President. Other prominent members were Niyonzima Maximillien,
Ndahayo Claver, Murindahabi Calliope, Makuza Anastase, Rwasibo Jean
Baptiste and Dominique Mbonyumutwa. In the beginning, it seemed to
advocate for constitutional monarchy. However, later on, it advocated for
a republican state. On May 8th, 1960, while in its meeting at Gitarama, the
abbreviation of MDR (Mouvement Démocratique Républicain) was adoptedto PARMEHUTU.
Association pour la Promotion Social de la Masse(APROSOMA).
APROSOMA stands for Association pour la Promotion Sociale
de la Masse (Association for Social Promotion of the Masses). It was
established on 1st November 1957 by Joseph Habyarimana Gitera. It
was launched officially as a political party on February 15th, 1959. Its
other influential members were Munyangaju Aloys, Gasigwa Germain
and Nizeyimana Isidore. The day-to-day activities of APROSOMA were
not far different from that of PARMEHUTU.
Besides the above national political parties, there existed other localpolitical clubs. Some of these were:
AREDETWA: This stands for Association pour le Relèvement Démocratique
de Batwa (Association for Democratic Elevation of Batwa). It was founded
by Laurent Munyankuge from Gitarama. This party was later absorbed
by PARMEHUTU.
APADEC: This stands for Association du Parti Démocratique
Chrétien (Association of Christian Democratic Party). Its founder was
called Augustin Rugiramasasu.
UMUR: This stands for Union des Masses Rwandaises.
UNINTERCOKI: This stands for Union des Intêréts Communs du Kinyaga.
ABAKI: This stands for for Alliance des Bakiga.
MEMOR: This stands for Mouvement Monarchiste Rwandais.
MUR: This stands for Mouvement pour l’Union Rwandaise.
The formation of these political parties led to severel public political
gatherings. These gatherings were followed by violence. It explains the
subsequent violence that occurred in the years that followed. From 1st to
7th November 1959, violence broke out in Gitarama against the Tutsi and
the members of UNAR. This was started by the members of PARMEHUTU
and APROSOMA from Byimana in Marangara. Soon, it spread to Ndiza,Gisenyi and Ruhengeri.
The origin of this violence was believed to be the attack of Dominique
Mbonyumutwa, a member of PARMEHUTU, (who was the chief of
Ndiza at that time). He was attacked by young UNAR members as he
was leaving Catholic Church service on November 1st, 1959 (All Saints Day)
at Byimana Parish, in the former prefecture of Gitarama in the present
day Ruhango District. Between 7thand 10th November 1959, there was
a counterattack prepared by the members of UNAR against the major
leaders of PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA. These attacks had beenhindered due to intervention of the Force Publique.
During that period, the resident representative Preud’homme had put
Rwanda under a military occupation regime. Colonel Guy Logiest was
dispatched from Stanleyville (Kisangani in Belgian Congo) and appointed
commander of the military forces which were operating in Rwanda at thetime on the 11th, November 1959.
This violence had various effects, which included:a) Houses belonging to the Hutu and Tutsi were destroyed systematically.
b) Many Tutsi were killed, internally displaced and became refugees
in neighbouring countries like in Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and
Belgian Congo.
c) There were arbitrary arrests, imprisonments and assassinations.
d) The twenty chiefs were dismissed, and 150 sub-chiefs replaced by
the The General Governor changed the title and became General
Resident
e) The sectors or sub-chiefdoms were reduced from 544 to 229. They
were renamed Communes headed by Bourgmestres thencommunal
elections were prepared.
f) The 10 Territoires become Prefectures headed by the Préfets whowere appointed.
g) The High Councils of the state was dissolved and replaced by a
Special Provisional Council comprising 8 members from 4 political
Parties namely RADER, PARMEHUTU, UNAR and APROSOMA. This
Special Provisional Council was formed on 4th February 1960 at
Kigali. King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa could not hide his hostility forthat council because it actually substituted his powers.
h) The chiefdoms or Districts were abolished.
From 26th to 30th July 1960, there were communal elections. The
following results were realised: PARMEHUTU obtained 70.4% equivalent
to 2,390 Communal Councilors, APROSOMA obtained 7.4% equivalent
to 233 Communal Councilors, RADER obtained 6.6% equivalent to 206
Communal Councilors and UNAR got 1.8% which was equivalent to 56
Communal Councilors. From these elections, PARMEHUTU got 166
Bourgmasters from which 21 were from APROSOMA, 18 from APROSOMAPARMEHUTU,
7 from RADER and 17 from different political parties.
In reference to these results, PARMEHUTU was declared the winner. In
the meantime, UNAR protested against these results and so did King
Kigeli V Ndahindurwa. For this reason, King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa on July
1960 was forced to go to Congo Belgian to meet the UN Secretary General
and as well as to attend Congo’s independence celebration. After these
elections, the Belgian Minister in charge of Ruanda-Urundi issued ordersstopping King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa from returning to Rwanda.
.This made the Resident General put in place a Provisional Government on
26th October 1960. This was made up of 10 Rwanda Ministers and 9 Belgian
State Secretaries. A few months later, on 28th January 1961, there a coup
at Gitarama, famously known as Coup d’Etat de Gitarama. During this time,
a meeting took place in a marketplace in Gitarama in which about 2,900
Councilors and Bourgmestres who had been elected from PARMEHUTU
and APROSOMA political parties participated.With full support of the Belgian government, the following resolutions
were reached:
• The monarchy was abolished.• The Kingdom emblem and the royal drum (Kalinga) was also abolished.
The Ubwiru institution was also abolished.
• Rwanda was officially declared a Republic.
• Mbonyumutwa Dominique was elected as the first President of the
Republic.
• There was the formation of a government made up of 11 ministers
with Grégoire Kayibanda as Prime Minister.
• There was to be a constitution and a judiciary based on the newstate.
In February 1961, the Belgian Trusteeship confirmed that regime and
transferred the power of autonomy to them. A new tri-colour flag of Red,
yellow and Green was exhibited on 26th February 1961. On September
25th, 1961, legislative elections and a referendum were organised and were
won by PARMEHUTU.It was declared that many voters voted ‘‘No’’ against
the monarchy and the candidature of King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa.On 2nd October 1961, the legislative assembly was put in place. Grégoire
Kayibanda was elected the President of the Republic by the Legislative
Assembly headed by Joseph Habyarimana Gitera. On 1st July 1962, Rwanda
recovered its independence, and the Belgian flag was replaced by the
Rwandan flag. On 31st December 2001 a new Rwandan flag was launched.
Application Activity 8.31. Discuss the objectives of abolition of Ubuhake by King Mutara8.4. Effects of Belgian colonization in Rwanda
III Rudahigwa
2. Describe the colonial exploitation mechanisms Present thefindings in class.
Assess the reforms made by Belgian colonial administrators between
Learning Activity 8.4.1916-1962. Thereafter, make a presentation in class
1. Political effects.a) Change in the traditional administration