Course: History and Citizenship

Topic outline

General
UNIT 1: KINGDOMS OF EAST AND CENTRAL AFRICA: BUGANDA AND KONGO KINGDOMS
Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learner should be able
to describe the factors that led to the rise and
decline of kingdoms in East and Central Africa:
Case study of Buganda and Kongo kingdoms.
Using textbooks or internet, draw the map showing the kingdoms
of East and Central Africa and answer the questions asked in groups
of five students.
1. Identify and locate those kingdoms on the map of Africa.
2. Discuss on the main reasons for the rise of East and central
African Kingdom
3. Identify the reasons for the gradual breaks up of Eastern and
central African Kingdoms.
There were many kingdoms in the east and central African region
before the colonial era. Among the most established kingdoms
were the Buganda and the Kongo kingdoms. This unit explores the
origin, rise of each of these two kingdoms. It concludes by studying
the reasons for the decline of these two kingdoms.
 Buganda Kingdom
Introduction
This was one of the most developed and highly centralized states in the
interlacustrine region in the middle of 19th Century. It covered the area
between Lake Kyoga and Lake Victoria in the north and south respectively.
To the west she was boarded by Bunyoro and extended as far as River Nile
to the east.

There are two theories that explain the origin of the Buganda Kingdom.
The first theory is based on traditions in Buganda. These traditions
suggest that the founder of Buganda was Kintu. Kintu was an immigrant
from Mount Elgon region. He is believed to have organised the Buganda
clans in one centralised organisation with himself on top of administrative
hierarchy. This theory is popular among the Baganda and is believed by
about thirteen clans.

The other theory that explains the origin of Buganda is the Kimera theory.
Traditions in Bunyoro assert that Buganda Kingdom was formed by a sub
dynasty of Babito. They argue that after the Chwezi Empire disintegrated,
different provinces founded their own kingdoms. Traditions say that
the founder of Buganda kingdom was Kato Kirema, a twin brother of
Isingoma Rukidi Mpuga. Isingoma Rukidi was the founder of Babito
Dynasty in Bunyoro Kingdom. What is important is that by the middle of
the 16th Century, a kingdom emerged in the area north of Lake Victoria.
The kingdom later expanded in all directions.
1.1. Factors for the rise and growth of Buganda Kingdom.
1. State any two factors that led to the rise of Buganda Kindom.
2. By the 19th century, Buganda was at the peak of its greatness. Let
us now discuss some of the factors for its rise and growth.

a) Strong and ambitious leaders.
Around the 14th and 15th centuries, the small Buganda Kingdom
experienced rapid growth and expansion. Initially, the kingdom was made
up of smaller kingdoms of Busiro, Kyadondo and Mawokota. This growth
came about as a result of powerful and ambitious kings of Buganda at
that time. Such kings captured new areas towards the end of the 16th
century. They added them to the existing Buganda Kingdom. At the same
time, it can rightly be argued that the kingdom had weaker neighbours
such as Bunyoro Kingdom.

Examples of such strong leaders are Kabaka Kateregga, who raided
Bunyoro and conquered Ggomba, part of Butambala, southern Ssingo
and part of Busunju. This was around the 16th and 17th centuries.
However, Kabaka Kyabaggu made raids into Busoga but was later forced
to withdraw.

Another successful and ambitious leader was Kabaka Jjunju, who
annexed Buddu, Kooki, parts of Kiziba and Karagwe from Bunyoro in the
18th Century. He also made Buhaya pay tribute to the larger Buganda
Kingdom. Kabaka Ssemakokiro, in the last quarter of the 18th Century,
got Buwekula and Bulemezi. He also forced Busoga to pay tribute to
Buganda. Kabaka Mawanda, in the 18th Century, got Karagwe, which lay
to the northeast of Bulemezi and northwest of Singo.
b) Centralised administration.

Buganda was a highly centralised state under a king known as Kabaka.
He ruled with the help of the traditional parliament called Lukiiko. Apart
from the Lukiiko, the king was also assisted by three important officials:
the prime minister (Katikiro), the treasurer (Omuwanika) and chief
justice (Omulamuzi). The king was a source of power from the head of
the administrative unit to the bottom level. Important to note is that
a decision by the Lukiiko as well as Kabaka’s word was final in settling
disputes and initiating development projects.
c) Smooth succession of leaders.

Succession of leadership in the kingdom was well laid out. Before the
kabaka died, he had to name his successor. If he did not, the katikiro and
the clan heads would be responsible for choosing the capable kabaka.
This reduced conflict that could arise out of succession. In general, this
promoted stability and peace in the kingdom.
d) Trade.

Buganda Kingdom participated in trade with its neighbours such as
Ankole, Bunyoro, Karagwe and Rwanda. It traded in bark cloth and iron.
Generally, the trade boosted its economic progress. The kingdom also
participated in Long Distance Trade that was being carried out between
the East African Coast and Central Africa. The Arabs from the coast brought
guns in exchange for slaves and ivory. The kingdom used these guns to
conquer her neighbours and further expand her territory.
e) Strategic location.
Buganda Kingdom was strategically positioned with natural features.
For instance, Lake Victoria on the south, Lake Kyoga on the north and
River Nile on the east. These natural features provided defense against
her neighbours.
f) Fertile soils and favourable climate.
The kingdom supported agriculture. This is because it lay on land that was
fertile. Together with favourable climate that it experienced; it produced
good harvest that supported the population. Matoke was their staple
food. They also kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats.
g) Strong army.
The kingdom had an army equipped with iron weapons such as spears,
bowls and iron arrows. There also existed royal bodyguards that maintained
the Kabaka’s court and constantly protected it. The army defended the
kingdom and protected its boundaries. Every able- bodied male adult
had a responsibility to protect it. The army was well organized, trained
and disciplined.
h) Unifying language, religion, ancestry and culture.
The Kingdom of Buganda had several unifying factors. Among these was
their language, others being their traditional religion, a common ancestry
and similar culture. All these factors led to the kingdom’s rise, growth
and expansion. For instance, the Buganda Kingdom was a homogenous
society with the Bantu whose language was Luganda.
This made communication easy and swift throughout the kingdom.
The Kabaka among the Baganda on the other hand was not only an
administrative leader, but also a spiritual leader. He was believed to be the
overall mediator between his people and their god, Lubaale. Their culture
also emphasised respect for authority and elders. This minimised cases of
disobedience and internal revolts.
i) Began as a small state.

At first, the Kingdom of Buganda was small. This made it possible to be
easily administrated and controlled. Communication throughout the
kingdom was also fast and effective.
1. Discuss the factors that led the rise and growth of Buganda
kingdom.
2. Present the findings.

1.2. Factors for the decline of Buganda Kingdom

Read the following passage and answer the questions that follow:
Contrary to what many think, leadership is about ‘carrying’ other people’s
load. It requires patience, tolerance, wisdom, fairness and dedication.
In some cases, a leader must be strict, even if other people will oppose him
or her. The most important thing is that the strictness should be based on
fairness and service to all.
A good leader should always be ready to attend to the needs of the people
he or she leads. While doing so, he or she must prioritise the needs. That is
to say that some needs may require urgent attention than others.
If leadership is left to weak, undecided, immoral and corrupt leaders,
a state fails. Many states have collapsed due to leadership wrangles or
incitement. In some cases, tribalism has led to collapse of regimes and
deaths of innocent citizens.
1. According to the passage, explain what leadership entails.
2. Identify some of the factors that can lead to collapse of a
regime as mentioned in the passage.
a) The coming of Europeans.
The location of the kingdom made it open to foreign interference.
For example, it was located along the trade routes which were used
by Europeans. These Europeans consisted of explorers, missionaries,
chartered companies and, later on, colonialists. They signed treaties with
the Kabaka and chiefs and stopped slave trade and slavery. They also
abolished traditional religion, introduced Christianity and reduced the
powers of the Kabaka. This led to the decline of the kingdom.
b) Big size of the kingdom.
The kingdom expanded to its great height to annex Busoga and
Bukedi and other vassal states. The big size due to expansion came
with administrative loopholes, rebellions and inefficiency in control. For
instance, distant administrative areas like Busoga broke away, weakening
the kingdom as well as reducing its size.
c) Religious conflicts.

The coming of Christian missionaries in Buganda brought some negative
effects. For instance, there were some religious conflicts among Catholics,
Protestants and Muslims. These religious conflicts divided people along
religious lines.
d) Weak military.
The large areas that the kingdom occupied made it difficult for it to
maintain a large enough army to protect it. With further expansion,
the kingdom’s military system weakened. It also had no standing army
to defend the kingdom on a daily basis except the royal guards that
maintained the king’s security. This led to its decline. With the coming of
the Europeans, the Buganda army was unable to protect the kingdom.
This was because they had less powerful guns from Arabs as compared to
those of the colonialists.
e) Succession disputes.
In the early 19th century, a man called Mutebi tried to become the kabaka
of Buganda. He had the backing of a number of chiefs for the throne. This
was disputed by his brother, Kamanya, who had similar interests. What
followed was a bitter succession war between these two brothers. The
dispute caused the death of Mutebi in the hands of his brother, Kamanya.
Kamanya was so paranoid he even killed his own sons.
Another succession dispute was witnessed between Apolo Kaggwa,
supporting Daudi Chwa and Daudi Mwanga. The dispute started shortly
after Mwanga’s father had been forced out of his kingdom and into exile
in the Seychelles Islands. The dispute lasted between 1888 and 1892,
culminating in the Battle of Mengo. Apollo Kaggwa defeated a Muslim
supported Daudi Mwanga and saw the installation of a Christian backed
one-year-old Daudi Chwa. Kaggwa ended up being one of the three of
kabaka’s regents.
f) Decline of trade.

Trade in Buganda kingdom declined or collapsed especially with the
coming of Europeans. The Europeans stopped long distance trade with
its main item, slaves. This led to a reduction of the kingdom’s revenue,
consequently leading to its downfall.
g) Death of strong leaders.
The kingdom of Buganda lost capable, brave and strong leaders such
as Kabaka Mwanga and Kabaka Mutesa. These leaders had special and
natural skills of administration. This brought a gap in the kingdom in
terms of re-organization hence leading its decline.
h) External attacks.
Buganda Kingdom kept on declining and became less feared by its
neighbours. This caused the neighbouring kingdoms that were assumed
to be weak, before to attack it. Such an attack was mounted by the
Bunyoro Kingdom. From such attacks, Buganda experienced damages
and losses.
i) Disunity.
The kingdom became disunited because of religious conflicts and
divisions. The subjects started hating and fighting themselves. This led to
the kingdom’s decline.
j) Political instabilities.
The coming of the British caused political instability in the Buganda
Kingdom. This is because their interests in the kingdom were mainly
economic. To effectively benefit from this new-found economic entity,
they had to devise a way of disturbing the unity that had kept the kingdom
together. They therefore opted for ‘divide-and-rule’ policy, as a way of
hindering the people’s relations in order to prevent potential political
alliances and uprisings. The people of this former prosperous kingdom
found themselves clustered in regions and tribal communities.
The divide-and-rule policy was so effective that it prevented Africans from
taking part in the national political arena. This in turn suppressed any
form of unity in coming up with political movements that could oppose
their selfish maneuvers.
The British also introduced Christian religion in the kingdom, which
caused serious divisions amongst the people. For instance, when Mutesa
died in 1884, his son Mwanga succeeded him. Mwanga was a young
man when he took the throne. Unfortunately, he lacked the leadership
qualities of his late father. Soon, the kingdom became unstable as a result
of the rivalries between the various religious camps. With the kingdom in
turmoil, the religious groupings effectively became political affiliations.
Each of these affiliations confronted the king militarily. Mwanga was
deposed by the armed converts, forcing him to flee the kingdom in 1888.
In the civil war that ensued, Muslims emerged successful. They proclaimed
an Islamic state and installed Kiwewa, a prince who had converted to Islam,
as king. However, the Christian converts ganged to fight the Muslims
and defeated them. The Christians installed Kalema, a prince who was in
support of their efforts.
Assess factors which led to the decline of Buganda kingdom. Present
them to the class.
Kongo Kingdom.

Introduction.
The Kingdom of Kongo was located in west central Africa. It covered the
present-day northern Angola, Cabinda and the Democratic Republic
of Congo. It stretched to the southern part of Gabon. The kingdom
extended to reach the Atlantic Ocean in the west and to the Cuango
River in the east. Further, it stretched from the Congo River in the north
to the Kwanza River in the south. The kingdom consisted of several core
provinces ruled by the ‘Manikongo’, meaning lord or ruler of the Kongo
Kingdom. However, the Kingdom extended to neighbouring kingdoms
such as Ngoyo, Kakongo, Nsoyo and Matamba.
The Kingdom of Kongo largely existed from 1390-1862 as an independent
state. From 1862-1914, it existed as a vassal state of the Kingdom of
Portugal. In 1914, the titular monarchy was forcibly abolished, following
the Portuguese victory against a Kongo revolt. The remaining territories
of the kingdom were assimilated into colony of Angola (colonized by
Portugeuse), Belgian Kongo (colonized by Belgians) and French colony
of Congo.

About its origin, the kingdom of Kongo was also known as Kongo dya
Ntotila or Wene wa Kongo. According to the kongo traditions, the
kingdom’s origin lies in the very large and not very rich area of Mpemba
Kasi located just South of modern day Matadi in DRC. The founder of
Kongo Kingdom was said to be Lukeni Lua Nimi.
1.3 Factors for the rise of Kongo Kingdom

Learning activity 1.3.
1. Explain 3 factors that led to rise of Kongo kingdom
2. Identify the countries that Kongo trades with.
3. Discuss how agricultural resources of Kongo have helped it to
grow.
Write a report from your findings for class presentation.

The following are the factors that led to the rise of Kongo Kingdom:
a) Presence of River Congo.

The river provided a good fishing ground for the locals. Fish not only
provided food but also served as a commodity for trade with neighbouring
communities.

b) Trade.
Kongo Kingdom practised trade with its locals and the neighbouring
states. The items traded included iron implements, slaves, agricultural
products and handcraft industry products. For instance, people mined
iron and copper for their use and for trade. They also produced pottery
and clothing. They traded in these items and the income was used to
grow and expand the kingdom.
c) Contributions from vassal states.
The centre of the Kongo Kingdom was its capital city, Mbanza. From there,
the Kongo rulers established a highly organised kingdom. The village
was the basic political unit of the kingdom. A group of villages made up
a district. Districts were grouped together into six provinces. The king
required the provinces to pay as tributes to the kingdom. The tributes
were ivory, fish, minerals and meat used to expand the kingdom.
d) Availability of minerals.
The Kingdom of Kongo was rich in minerals such as ivory, copper and iron.
These items were traded with the Portuguese. The kingdom earned a lot
of income from the minerals.
e) Agriculture.
Agriculture was the basis of production in the Kongo Kingdom. The soil
was fertile and favoured growth of crops. People cultivated cassava, maize,
beans and sweet potatoes. The kingdom did not experience serious
famine. In the villages, land was owned communally. The harvests were
divided among families, with some set aside for payment of taxes. Towns
were reliant on forced labour to farm plantations.
f) Art and craft.
Many people in the kingdom had skills in pottery and weaving. They made
pots and pipes and wove fine cloth from barks of some trees. They traded
these items with the people of Atlantic Ocean in exchange for seashells
and salt. This helped the kingdom stabilise and rise.
g) Strong leaders.
Kongo Kingdom had able, strong and brave leaders who organised the
kingdom under effective control. The leaders ensured that there was
peace and prosperity in the kingdom. Some of the notable kings were
King Afonso and King Alvaro I.
h) Strong army.

The kingdom had an army equipped with iron weapons such as spears,
bowls and iron arrows. The army defended the kingdom and protected
its boundaries.
i) Absence of external and internal attacks.
There were little external threats to the kingdom. This was because the
neighboring states were weaker than Kongo. The king also had a strong
army which he commanded. King Alfonso even used the Portuguese
mercenaries and guns to exert direct control over defense, tribute
collections and the long-distance trade.

State at least five factors for the rise of Kongo kingdom. Present your
findings to the class.
1.4 Factors for the decline of Kongo Kingdom

Assess three important factors that led to the decline of Kongo
Kingdom. Afterwards present your findings to the class
a) Internal and external conflicts.
There were significant struggles over succession after Afonso’s death in
1542 and many times after that. Particularly in 1568, as a result of such a
struggle, Kongo was temporary conquered by rival warriors from the east
known as the Jagas. Adding to Kongo’s troubles in the early 1600s was
a general dissatisfaction among the Bakongo with their rulers, some of
whom were greedy and corrupt.
Internal conflicts from time to time became so much common after the
death of King Antonia in October 1665. The king died without the heir
apparent. Many of the men who could have taken his place either died
or were captured, including his seven-year-old son. The ruling house of
Kinlaza and the opposing house of Kimpanzu fought furiously over the
throne. This devastating war ended up weakening the kingdom. It took
40 years to rebuild it.
b) Civil war in the kingdom.
After the death of Afonso, Kongo declined rapidly and suffered major civil
wars. The Portuguese shifted their interest southward to the kingdom of
Ndongo and helped Ndongo defeat Kongo in 1556.
c) Effect of the Jaga Wars.
The Jaga wars, which all but destroyed the Kongo kingdom in 1568,
brought a Portuguese military invasion. This brought with it a new class of
self-reliant traders, adventurers and rogues, who established themselves
in a kingdom which, in their eyes, owed them a debt of gratitude.
d) Death of able leaders.
The Kongo Kingdom had several able leaders who had inspired its growth
and expansion. Death of such leaders caused its decline. Such a leader was
Alvaro II. After his death in 1614, conflicts arose between Kongo and the
Portuguese colony of Angola over land that was agriculturally productive.
Eventually, in 1622, the Portuguese governor of Angola launched an
attack on Kongo. They captured many slaves from the Kongo Kingdom,
weakening it in the long run. This was not the end. Due to the conviction
that there existed silver and gold mines in Kongo, they later launched a
series of invasions against the Kongo Kingdom for the next half century.
e) The Ambuila Battle between 1665 and 1678.
Some neighbouring kingdoms such as Angola, supported by the
Portuguese, invaded southern Kongo in 1622. Continued disputes between
Kongo and Portugal over similar areas in the region led to skirmishes
in the small district of Ambuila, ending up in the Battle of Ambuila on
29th October 1665. This Battle was mainly over areas where copper was
being mined in the Kongo Kingdom. The Portuguese invaders killed King
Antonio I and cut off his hand.
They transported it to Portugal. Most of his nobles, court officials and 5,000
Kongolese troops were also killed. Although Kongo continued to exist,
from this point on, it ceased to function as a unified kingdom. Instead, it
dissolved into small chiefdoms and never recovered.
f) Slave trade.
Slave trade being conducted by the Portuguese was instrumental in
bringing the kingdom to an inglorious end, as it became depopulated
by the growing demands for slaves. The Kongo Kingdom has been since
viewed as being one of the major channels where slaves were picked
from, which lasted about four centuries. This resulted in the relocation of
millions from the hinterland. The slave trade, which undermined the social
structure of Kongo, continued to weaken the authority of the manikong
g) Integration of the kingdom into the Portuguese colony.
In 1641, Manikongo Garcia II allied himself with the Dutch in an attempt
to control Portuguese slave traders. However, in 1665, a Portuguese
force decisively defeated the army of Kongo. From that time onwards,
the manikongo was little more than a vassal of Portugal. The kingdom
disintegrated into a number of small states, all controlled to varying
degrees by the Portuguese. The area of Kongo was incorporated mostly
into Angola and partly into the Independent State of the Congo.
Like any other kingdom in Africa, Kongo did not survive the scramble
and partition of Africa. The Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 decided the
sharing of Kongo Kingdom between three countries. These were France,
Belgium and Portugal. This marked the end of Kongo Kingdom. Much
later on, a revolt against Portuguese rule and complicity of the kings led
by Álvaro Buta between 1913 and 1914 was suppressed. This triggered the
eventual collapse of the Kongo Kingdom by being fully integrated into
the Portuguese colony of Angola.
h) Weak army.
The Kongolese army became so weak because of internal and external
attacks that were constant. The Kongolese army mostly relied on
Portuguese mercenaries who became of little help because of their
personal demand.
i) Big size.
The kingdom of Kongo had become too big to be administered by the
already weak leaders. The army too was not so strong enough to protect
and defend the kingdom from internal and external attacks.

Application Activity 1.4.

Discuss the factors for the decline of Kongo kingdom. Present in class.

End of unit assessment

1. Discuss the factors that led to the rise and growth of Buganda Kingdom.
2. Examine the factors that led to the rise of Kongo Kingdom.
3. Identify the reasons that led to the decline of Kongo Kingdom.
UNIT 2: THE LONG DISTANCE TRADE
Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learner should be able
to explain the rise, effects and decline of the longdistance trade.

Use dictionary, textbooks, internet to answer the following questions:
1. Find out the meaning of the word ‘distance’.
2. From your knowledge of Entrepreneurship, define trade.
3. Now link the two, to explain what long distance trade is.
This trade was conducted over long distances between the interior of
central and East Africa and the East African coast. This trade involved long
distances. In most cases, it entailed travelling thousands of miles from
one region to another through hostile environment. This trade was done
by well prepared traders, usually organised with sophisticated means
of transport. The traders were also armed with firearms for fighting or
defending themselves in case of danger or attacks on the way. It was led
by experienced men who knew the routes and territories where traders
passed.
Long distance traders were both locals and visitors from the coast and
beyond. The locals included the interior African tribes such as the Yao,
Akamba, Nyamwezi, Baganda, Bisa, Banyoro, Ganda and Kikuyu. These
tribes provided commodities and security to the traders. Visitors to the
interior whose aim was to trade were the Arabs and Europeans. They
brought manufactured products. The interior African tribes provided
the following commodities to traders: ivory, gold, slaves, ostrich feathers,
leopard and zebra skins, copper and rubber while The Arabic/foreign
goods included guns, gunpowder, clothes, iron products, knives, beads,
plates, sugar, saucepans and mirrors.
2.1 Factors for the rise of the long-distance trade

Discuss the factors that must have promoted the rise, expansion and
growth of the long-distance trade in the 19th Century.
Present your findings in class.
The following are the reasons for the rise, expansion and growth of
the long-distance trade:

Let us now look at the reasons that led to rise, expansion and growth of
the long-distance trade of the 19th Century.
a) Availability of goods in the interior of both East and Central Africa.
Long Distance Trade thrived because of availability of goods for trade.
The goods included gold, ivory, animal skins, slaves and ostrich feathers.
These goods, especially ivory, were highly demanded in India for making
bangles. In Europe and America, the goods were used for making piano
keys and ornaments.
b) Increased demand for slaves in Europe and America.
Slaves were in high demand in Europe and America. This led various
dealers to intensify their search in the interior for slaves. The ready market
and improved ways of exporting them encouraged the traders involved

c) The vital role played by Indian and other Arab merchants in
Zanzibar.

Most Indians and Arabs were professional traders. This contributed to the
growth and expansion of the professional caravan traders. The traders
were greatly motivated to carry out adventures in the interior of East and
Central Africa.

d) Increased demand for slaves in the French sugar industries.
The French sugar industries on the Islands of Mauritius, Madagascar and
Re-union also played a big role in the expansion of slave trade. It was this
cheap, free labour in combination with Island climate that favoured the
growth of sugarcane. In addition, capturing slaves had been made easier
by the introduction and availability of firearms.
Availability of firearms made it easier for Chokwe, Bisa and Nyamwezi
people to acquire captives.
e) Division of labour.

Specialisation in some interior communities boosted the rise and
development of the long-distance trade. Communities such as Chokwe
and Nyamwezi practised division of labour. After preparing the land for
planting, men would leave the work of harvesting to women. Men would
then travel far off looking for ivory and transacting trade for several months
without coming back home.

f) Introduction of cowrie shells as a medium of exchange.
Initially, long distance trade was conducted on barter system. Later on,
cowrie shells were introduced to act as a medium of exchange. This solved
problems such as cheating, and divisibility of some goods experienced
during barter trade. This led to further growth and expansion of the long distance trade.
g) The hospitality of interior societies.
Some African societies such as the Baganda warmly welcomed the
traders. The Yao guided and offered food and shelter to the traders. Other
tribes such as the Akamba, Nyamwezi and Buganda related well with
coastal people. This good relationship helped the trade to develop.
h) Favourable climate.
The interior of East Africa was characterised by two types of climates, wet
and dry. March to November was a wet season, allowing people to practise
agriculture. December to February was a dry season. During this period,
the interior communities engaged in long distance trade.
i) Increased demand for goods.
The increased demand for goods by the locals and slaves by the traders
promoted trade. The people in the interior needed goods such as guns,
clothes, glasses and saucepans. Coastal traders on the other hand needed
gold, slaves, copper, skins, feathers and agricultural products (including
honey and tobacco) which could only be obtained from the people in the
interior parts of Africa.
j) Political stability in the interior of East Africa.
The East African coast was peaceful and politically stable, creating a
conducive environment for trade. This was characterised by a period
of peace brought about by the rise of powerful African leaders such
as Nyungu ya Mawe, Mirambo, Seyyid Said and Mutesa who provided
security and accommodation to traders. These African leaders organised
trade caravans and provided security to traders. The presence of firearms
also promoted political stability as they were used to provide security to
the traders.
Application Activity 2.1.

Explain some of the reasons that may lead to the rise of trade in your
locality then Compare them with the factors that led to the rise of the
long-distance trade
Make oral presentation.
2.2. Reasons for the decline of the long-distance trade

Ishimwe has been in the business of selling new clothes in Kigali City for
six years now. However, in the recent past, she has been experiencing
low sales.

Discuss some of the reasons that may have led to this situation. Compile
a report for class presentation.
a) The trade became less profitable.
Just like in the case of Ishimwe, there are some factors that negatively
affected long distance trade. For instance, long distance trade attracted
traders which resulted into competition for market. This led to the flooding of
goods forcing traders to lower prices. This reduced their profit, discouraging
them from continuing. This caused their goods to fetch low profits.
b) Constant interstate wars.
Recurrent interstate wars increased insecurity. For example, wars caused
by the Nyamwezi who were using the Ruga Ruga warriors was a threat to
the continuity of this trade. This made many traders to abandon this trade
for fear of being killed.
c) The death of some trade tycoons.
Rich and prominent people in this trade such as Mutesa I and Mirambo
died in 1884. Seyyid Said died in 1846. These kings did not only control but
also financed the organisers of the trade. Their death deprived this trade
of security, hence its downfall.
d) Exhaustion of some vital goods.
The dwindling supply of important goods and commodities such as ivory,
gold, salt, zebra skins, rhino horns and ostrich feathers led to decline of
this trade. These goods were purchased in large quantities due to high
demand. With time, they got depleted due to the increasing demands
for ivory the hunters killed many elephants eventually the number of
elephants reduced, and the supply of ivory declined.
e) The role played by Seyyid Bargash.
He attempted to overthrow Seyyid Said as the leader of Oman at the East
African Coast (Zanzibar). This resulted into fierce fighting between the
supporters of Seyyid Bargash and those of Seyyid Said. This forced Seyyid
Said to close the Zanzibar slave trade market.
f) Abolition of slave trade.

Slaves were at the centre of the long-distance trade. The abolition of slave
trade by Britain and Belgian parliaments caused a sharp decline in the
supply of slaves.

This resulted into reduced slaves in the market. Since many traders
were interested in the slaves, abolition of slave trade culminated into the
collapse of the long-distance trade.
g) Poor means of transport.
Even with experienced traders, roads were poor in the interior. This deterred
the transportation of goods from the interior to the coast and vice versa.
This was partly caused by physical difficulties due to deep valleys, rivers,
lakes and mountains. This provided an obstacle in the transportation of
goods to East African Coast.
h) Overtaxation.
African chiefs such as Mirambo and kings such as Kabaka charged a lot of
taxes because they wanted to get rich in a short time. This led to reduced
profits in the trade and consequently discouraging traders from the trade.
They finally pulled out of the long-distance trade.
i) Scramble for and partition of Africa.
The colonisation of Africa resulted into final collapse of the long-distance
trade. This is because the political, social and economic life of the Africans
was under the control of Europeans. Colonial masters put a stop to long
distance trade. This is because they too required African labour to develop
their colonies.
j) Flooding of European cheap goods in the African market.
The industrial revolution in Europe led to mass production of goods. These
cheap quality products sold more than those traded in during the long distance trade.
This, too, led to the collapse of the trade.

Make oral presentation on the reasons that led to the decline of The
long-distance trade.
2.3. Effects of the long-distance trade

Use textbooks to discuss the effects of the long-distance trade. Present
the findings.
a) Social effects.

i. The trade led to interaction of people from varied backgrounds and
cultures in East and Central Africa. For example, the interaction of
interior people with Arabs at the coast led to the origin of Kiswahili
language and adoption of Islam as a religion.

ii. Long distance trade helped to improve relationship between some
African societies which had been enemies before. For example, the
Akamba and the Nandi tribes in Kenya had to ignore their traditional
differences in order to trade freely.
iii. The trade depopulated many places. It involved, among others,
selling of people as slaves. Many people were killed as they tried to
defend themselves against the slave traders. Others were captured,
enslaved and sold.
iv. As trade expanded in East and Central Africa, the old trading centres
developed into major towns. These towns included Kilwa, Tabora,
Ujiji and Zanzibar.
v. Famine was experienced in some areas. This was as a result of slave
raid which forced people to flee their homes looking for safer areas.
This disorganised the agricultural activities and earlier economic
ventures set up by East and Central African people.
b) Economic effects.
i. It led to the introduction of new commodities in the interior of
East and Central Africa. Such commodities included guns, beads,
porcelain materials and clothes.
ii. The trade revealed how productive the interior of East and Central
Africa was. It had a lot of ivory, copper, gold, tortoise shells and rhino
horns. Europeans developed an interest to control East and Central
African areas for easy exploitation of the unexploited resources.
iii. The use of cowrie shells as a medium of exchange increasingly
became important in East Africa. For example, they were used in
the kingdoms of Buganda and Bunyoro. By the end of 19th Century,
Indian Rupees had spread to Buganda. This greatly undermined the
old system of barter trade.
iv. The trade stimulated the production of local foodstuffs. A lot of
foodstuffs were required to meet the food demands of caravan
traders. The traders did not carry food supplies along with them
during their long journeys. This gave the natives along the various
trade routes in East and Central Africa an opportunity to have an
income from sale of food.
v. The demand and sale of ivory led to the depletion of elephants in
East Africa. Through this trade, there was misuse and exploitation of
African people and animal resources.
vi. It led to emergence of people with skills. People such as Mirambo,
Nyungu ya Mawe and Tippu Tip made names as traders and pioneers
in large economic activities of East Africa.
c) Political effects.
i. The firearms strengthened security in some African communities.
A lot of African societies that were weak before were able to stage
strong resistances against the invading colonialists in the later years.

ii. The Bunyoro, Hehe and the Nandi resisted colonialism during and
after long distance trade.

iii. Long distance trade led to state formation of East Africa. This came
about as a result of individuals who acquired wealth and other
opportunities from the trade. The trade helped leaders such as
Nyugu ya Mawe, Mutesa I, Mirambo and Misri to build lager political
kingdoms.

iv. The trade led to the collapse of some weak African societies. For
example, Ngindo and Tonga of southern Tanganyika declined as a
result of the long-distance trade activities.

v. Communities that were involved in the long-distance trade managed
to establish large armies which were used to expand their territories.
For example, the Nyamwezi had Ruga Ruga, trained army that
protected and defended the kingdom. The Banyoro also built its
army known as Abalusura. Nyungu ya Mawe’s army was called Mviti.
These armies helped their kingdoms to rise and expand.
vi. The trade discouraged the production of local commodities such
as beans, iron implements, salt and bark cloth. This was mainly
because local commodities proved less profitable than slaves and
ivory. Moreso, imported commodities such as clothes, shoes and
saucepans proved quite superior to local ones.

Discuss the effects of the long-distance trade and make an oral
presentation of the results to the class.
1. Explain the meaning of the long-distance trade.
2. Discuss the reasons that led to the rise and growth of the longdistance trade in East and Central Africa.
3. Give reasons that led to the collapse of the long-distance trade
in East and Central Africa.
4. With examples, identify the effects of the long-distance trade in
East and Central Africa.
Unit 3: CAUSES AND IMPACT OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION
Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learner should be able
to explain the causes and impact of the American
Revolution.
1. Discuss the causes of the 1990 liberation war in Rwanda. Use the
knowledge gained from internet, textbooks and other sources of
information in your discussion. Let one of you compile a report
for class presentation.
2. From the causes provided, give the meaning of the American
Revolution.
Introduction.
The American Revolution was a socio –political and economic upheaval
that took place in America between 1765 and 1783. Thirteen American
colonies rejected the British monarchy and dictatorship. They overthrew
the authority of Great Britain and founded the United States of America.
The American Revolution is also known as the American war of
independence.

The thirteen former British American colonies were Virginia, New York,
Massachusetts, Maryland, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire,
Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and
Georgia.

These American colonies had been under British control for a long period
of time. They wanted to be independent.
During the period of colonisation, the colonies united against the British
Empire. They took up arms and started the revolutionary war. This
culminated in the declaration of independence in 1776. The thirteen
states defeated the British in the battlefield in October 1781. They were
led by George Washington as the first American president.
3.1. Causes of the American Revolution

Refer to Introductory Activity, pick out points that you think were the
same causes of the American Revolution. Present your findings in class.
Let us now study the causes of the American Revolution under the
following sub-headings:

(i) Political causes
(ii) Economic causes
(iii) Social causes.
Political causes

• The rise and growth of nationalism among the Americans and
need for independence.
This was promoted by nationalists such as Samuel Adams, George
Washington, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas Jefferson. They argued that if
the British governed themselves, why not Americans? This awakened the
need for self-rule among the Americans hence leading to the revolution.

• The effects of Anglo-French war of 1756-1763.

During this war, France was fighting with Britain over profitable colony of
Canada. The war ended with the defeat of France by Britain and taking
over Canada. The effect of this was that it weakened Britain financially
and encouraged the Americans to revolt against her. Britain also raised
taxes to solve financial crisis at home. Americans protested against the tax
increment.
• The passing of intolerable acts.

These included the Stamp Act whereby revenue stamps were put on
printed materials and commercial documents like news papers. It was
replaced by Townshend Act whereby the British chancellor levied taxes
on lead paper, paint, glasses and tea. These were received with negativity
by Americans making them to begin a war of independence.
The character of King George III of England.
He came to power in 1760. Unlike the former kings, he wanted to bring
American colonies to closer control. In order to achieve this, he introduced
a number of harsh laws. He was also so rigid that he refused to change
the taxation system.
• The oppressive rule of the British government.
The British leaders such as Greenville, Townshend and Rocking were harsh
to the Americans. They did not allow freedoms such as of speech, press
and worship. There were no fair trials in courts of law. All these annoyed
the Americans.
The Boston massacres of 1770.
After the Townshend Act, the Americans started shouting and throwing
snow and ice to the English troops. The troops responded by firing and
killing them at Boston. This is what came to be known as the Boston
massacres. It drove the Americans into a war of independence against
the British.
• Undemocratic nature of the British leadership.
The Americans were not given chance to participate in the politics of
their country. This made them inferior. Only the rich were elected to the
colonial assemblies as opposed to the poor. This was opposed by the
majority hence leading to the revolution.
• Inter-colonial congress at Philadelphia.
In 1774, representatives from all colonies met at Philadelphia. It was there
where they started preparing for war. They chose George Washington as
the leader of the revolution. They trained soldiers known as minutemen
and started seeking assistance from other countries.

Other causes were the unfair judicial system of Britain and the restriction for colonies
to occupy new lands of Ohio and Louisiana.
For a country’s political, social and economic development, peace is a
requirement. For every country to achieve set goals, its youth must work
hand in hand with government agencies to promote peace in our country.
Economic causes.
• Poor economic policy of the British.
The Americans were not allowed to set up their own industries in America.
This was intended to force them to continue buying expensive British
manufactured goods. This was viewed as a move to subject them to
endless poverty. They opposed the policy.
• The Boston Tea Party in 1773.
This was when the Americans dropped boxes of tea from Britain into
water at Port Boston at night. This made the British government furious.
The government decided to close the Boston harbour. It also punished
Americans so as to pay back the tea. This too led to the American
Revolution.
• Trade monopoly by the British.
In America, trade was exclusively done by the British. All European goods
imported to the colonies had to pass through England for taxation.
The British benefitted while the Americans did not. On top of that, the
imports were expensive compared to exports. This exploitation made the
Americans to revolt for their independence.
• The unfair taxation system.
In North America, Britain raised taxes in order to meet her debt expenses
and to solve financial crisis at home. Both direct and indirect taxes such
as like stamp tax, sugar tax and currency tax were introduced. Other
economic causes were:
• Exploitation of American resources
• Inflation
• Forced labour
• Unemployment
Social causes
• The role of political philosophers.

These were intellectuals and great thinkers who exposed the wrongs of
the British government to the Americans. Philosophers such as Thomas
Penn and Patrick Henry inspired and awakened Americans to fight for
their independence. They used newspapers such as New York gazette,
American Mercury and The Boston Newsletter.

• Foreign support.
The Americans got foreign support from other countries such as France,
Germany and Spain. These countries gave Americans military, moral and
financial support. This increased the determination of Americans to fight
for their independence.
• Religious intolerance.
There were religious differences between the Americans and the British.
Americans had many religions which were different from the British
Anglicans. The British forced Americans to adopt their religion against
their will. The protestant religions practised by the Americans included
Lutherans, Puritans, Huguenots and Presbyterians. Americans strongly
opposed it thus leading to the revolution.

Remember: In most cases war has negative effects on social, political
and economic aspects of the society. Therefore, it is very important that
non-violent approaches such as peace talks be used to settle conflicts. The
world needs peace.

America has the most developed economy in the world. This is partly
because she was able to attain her self-rule which led to self-reliance in the
long run. It is therefore important that we cooperate towards defending
our country’s independence. We can only achieve this by working hard to
achieve self-reliance as a tool for economic development.
Application Activity 3.1.
The above reasons justify the causes of American rebellion against British
oppressors from 1776-1803 which finally succeeded. They got independence
with George Washington as the first American president.
Categorise the above factors into two parts; immediate and long term factors.
3.2. Effects of the American Revolution both in America and the
rest of the world

Use different sources such as films, textbooks to give the consequences
of the American Revolution.
Learning Activity 3.2.
The American Revolution had a great impact on today’s world political,
social and economic systems. Let us now look at its effects:

1. The revolution led to loss of lives. Many people including soldiers,
civilians, Americans, the French and the British died in the war.

2. It led to destruction of property such as buildings, roads, bridges
and communication lines.
3. It led to the inclusion of blacks into Americans citizenship, a
privilege which had earlier been denied to them by the British.

4. The monopoly of the protestant church was removed and after the
revolution. There was freedom of worship among the Americans.
It increased religious freedom in all states of America. The citizens
were no longer forced to join Protestantism. Many churches came
up. Other Americans became Muslims.

5. It led to the 1789 French Revolution due to the effects it had on the
French government. For example, there was a financial crisis in
France. There was also the spread of revolutionary ideas by the ex soldiers
of the American Revolution such as General Lafayette.
6. It led to the granting of independence to the American colonies.
At Paris treaty of 1783, the British king recognised the colonies of
America to be free, sovereign and independent. The 13 states were
now free to join together and become the United States of America.

7. There was liberalisation of trade after the American Revolution.
The Americans were free to carry out trade without the British
monopoly. The British limitations on American trade were removed,
allowing the marine merchants to trade freely.

8. It created good diplomatic relationship between France and
America. This was due to the assistance rendered by the French
to the Americans against the British imperialists. France provided
Americans with arms and a combat army to serve under George
Washington. They also sent a navy that prevented the second British
army from escaping from Yorktown in 1871.
9. It increased the status of women and subsequent women
emancipation. Women now took control of the families and catered
for school going children. Men were away fighting for independence.
The revolutionary war affected women by placing them in nontraditional roles.
As men went off to war, women were left to fill jobs
typically fulfilled by men. This in turn changed society by showing
the world that women could do what men can do.
10. The American Revolution increased the status of George Washington
for his role in gearing the struggle for independence. During the
American Revolution, he led the colonial forces to victory over the
British and became a national hero. Its success was attributed to
him. He later became the first president of America.
Application Activity 3.2.

With the help of your teacher, debate on the positive impact of the
American Revolution.

1. Explain what you understand by the term ‘American Revolution’.
2. Account for the outbreak of the American Revolution in 1776.
3. Discuss the consequences of the American Revolution both in
America and Europe.
4. Asses the significance of the American Revolution in world
affairs.
5. Identify the economic causes of the American Revolution.
UNIT 4: THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learner should be
able to explain the causes and consequences of
the industrial revolution, technical inventions and
their inventors.

1. Use a dictionary or Internet to find out the meanings of the
following words:
i. Revolution
ii. Industry
2. Use an atlas to locate England on the map of Europe.
You must have realised that revolution is a change that takes place in a
given society. The change may affect the social, political and economic
aspects of that society. It is also defined as the process that permanently
changes the state of affairs and the way of doing things.

The industrial revolution refers to the changes in the methods of
production where machines replaced human labour. It led to greater
changes in the whole economy of European countries. It began in England
in the 1850s and later spread to other countries. Before the industrial
revolution, Europeans had low standards of life, they were living in rural
areas, poverty, war, plague and poor hygiene resulted in high death rates,
clothing was made locally, they practiced subsistence farming, they used
simple tools, among others.
4.1. Situation in England before the industrial revolution Political,
economic and social
1. Use a dictionary or Internet to find out the meanings of the
following words:
i. Revolution
ii. Politics
iii. Economy
iv. Social
v. Industry
2. Use an atlas to locate England on the map of Europe
Use the dictionary or Internet to find out the meaning of the word
revolution again. What do you notice?

You must have realised that revolution is a change that takes place in a
given society. The change may affect the social, political and economic
aspects of that society. It is also defined as the process that permanently
changes the state of affairs and the way of doing things.

Industrial revolution refers to the changes in the methods of production
where machines replaced human labour. It led to greater changes in the
whole economy of European countries. It began in England in the 1850s
and later spread to other countries.
Before the industrial revolution started, Britain was quite different from
the way it is today. Industrialisation brought with it new types of
roads, trains and many other forms of communication. All these never
existed in Britain prior to industrialization.
Before industrial revolution began, it was very hard to keep in touch
with people in other parts of the country. News was spread by travellers or
through messengers. Goods were distributed largely within the locality in
which they were produced.
In the 1750s, UK Government was a constitutional monarchy
with a parliament. However, only wealthy male landowners were
allowed to vote (about 5% of the total population). The poor had
no representation in the government and were offered little protection
from authorities.
Politics were based on land ownership and military honours won.
Women and ordinary men were given few rights. As a result, life was a
constant battle against famine, wicked landlords, overwork and sheer
bad luck.
Majority of the people lived in the countryside. They depended on
agriculture. Subsistence farming was still very common. A family
would have a small farm which provided for their own needs, and would
sell any surplus produce. Other people would work as labourers on larger
commercial farms.
In the domestic system, Britain relied on cottage industries. An example
of a cottage industry was weaving. Most weavers worked in their own
homes. Weaving was a predominantly male occupation during that
time. Women and girls did the carding and spinning of wool into thread.
The whole family was involved. Everything was powered by hand,
animals, windmills or water-wheels. This system could only produce
goods in small quantities. As manufacture was by hand, with items being
made individually, it was a slow process. With the rapidly growing
population of this period, the domestic system was not able to produce
the amount of goods required.
Most people in preindustrial England lived on a subsistence level, with
little or no savings. Most peasants struggled simply to meet the basic
needs of their families. In England, between the 15th and 18th centuries,
70% to 80% of household income went to buying food.
For centuries, the English diet consisted mostly of bread and porridge,
with very little meat. As a rule, Europeans ate few fruits or vegetables.
They believed that the fruits and vegetables could cause disease,
depression and flatulence. Most people were illiterate and rarely bathed.
Their idea of healthcare was that physical suffering from an illness was
God’s divine way of purifying the soul.
Many children worked in the family farm or business. Others were
trained to either become traders or go into domestic service. If they were
servants, they would normally live in the home of their employer.
Daily life in pre-industrial times changed very little for Europeans. Almost
all people lived and worked in the countryside. Things changed from
1300 to 1750. For the average peasant, people’s work and social life mixed.
Families lived on small plots of land, growing crops mostly for home
consumption. Children learned to milk cows, churn butter and tend to
farm animals. For many years, rural families relied on tools such as wooden
ploughs. They also depended on beasts of burden to pull them.
Transport was mainly on foot, on horseback and in horse drawn
vehicles. People also relied on water transport by 1750. Roads were horrible.
It took over two weeks to travel from the top to the bottom of the UK
by road. People used ships (via the ocean and, later, canals) to move
quickly or to transport goods but still it was slow.
The wealthy had their own horse-drawn carriages. There were also
public coaches, which often carried both mail and passengers. Ordinary
people used them. For local journeys, most people walked several miles
to a town or to visit friends and relatives.
Education was variable. There was no compulsory education in England.
Children of the poor could only get a little elementary education at a charity
school or ‘dame’ school. Many children were taught to read and write
at home. Literate mothers often gave children their first lessons.
Grammar schools educated middle class boys such as the sons of
tradesmen and farmers. Private tutors and governesses sometimes
educated the children of the upper classes at home. Sometimes they
went to boarding schools.
For boys, Latin and Greek were still very important. Latin and Greek were
at the centre of grammar school and boarding school curricula. Girls’
boarding schools often concentrated on fashionable accomplishments
such as music, drawing, embroidery and French. However, some had
more demanding curricula.
Clothing was made locally with animal hides and fur. Nylon had to be
used. Cotton was not imported in large quantities until developments
enabled mass production of goods.
Another clear trend in pre-industrial society was the slow growth
of population from generation to generation. Poverty, war, plague
and poor hygiene resulted in high death rates, especially among young
people. Even in the 1600s, approximately 25% of newborn children died
before their first birthday. Another 25% died before their tenth birthday.

Life was for the bulk of the population, the farmers. By the 18th Century,
the feudal system was long gone. It was replaced with a system in
which the people were as reliant upon each other and their masters as
before.

1. Compare modern Rwanda with England before the industrial
revolution.
2. Discuss in detail each of the following condition that existed in
pre- industrial revolution in England:
i. There was no use of fertilisers.
ii. There was no use of tractors.
iii. There was land fragmentation.
iv. Europeans were using poor tools.
v. Animals such as pigs, goats, cows and sheep were kept together.
vi. Most farmers built their houses far away from farms.
vii. There was no fencing of the land.
viii. There were no low standards of living.
ix. There was scarcity of goods.
x. All Europeans were lazy.

4.2. Factors that led to the industrial revolution.

1. By using the internet or history books in school library, identify
three factors that led to the Industrial Revolution.
2. Discuss the reasons that led to the industrial revolution in
England. Present your findings to the class.
4.2.2. Factors that led to the industrial revolution in Britain.

(a) Lack of internal custom barriers.
Britain had no internal custom barriers that would discourage investors
to invest in industrialisation.
(b) Political stability.
Britain had enjoyed a period of relative peace and stability unlike Germany,
Italy and France. Britain kept off from European conflicts as well.
(c) Presence of a strong naval force.Britain had a strong naval force which protected her from external attacks.
She used her navy to protect her merchants from foreign competition and
to guard her trade routes.
This was something that encouraged foreign investors to invest their
money in the industrial sector.
(d) Improved transport system.
This included roads, railways and water transport which were much
developed. Canals were constructed linking existing rivers and lakes.
During the second half of the 18th century, roads and railways were
constructed to link industrial centres. They were to transport raw materials
and finished products to their destinations as well. It eased connectivity
in terms of sources of raw materials, transportation of workers, industrial
centres and markets.
(e) Favourable government policy.
The government of Britain lowered taxes on profits to support the business
class. This also encouraged industrialisation to take place.
(f) The impact of the 1789 French Revolution and Napoleonic wars.
This discouraged industrialisation in France. On the other hand, it
motivated Britain to industrialise and supply France with industrial goods.
(g) Existence of natural harbours.
Britain had good natural harbours which could not freeze even in winter.
This facilitated the transportation of goods throughout the year.
Good geographical location of Britain.

Britain was located at the centre of less industrialised states that provided
market for her finished goods. She also had navigable rivers such as
Thames. All these were instrumental for the beginning of the industrial
revolution.
(i) Dominant position on over sea trade.

Britain controlled a big part of Europe’s overseas trade mostly in the 18th
Century. This helped her get cheap raw materials to feed her industries.
She also got a market for her finished goods\

1. Identify the factors that led to the industrial revolution in Europe.
2. Listen to your teacher as he/she reads for you some more points
on Industrial Revolution. Point out the key elements which led to
Industrial Revolution .
4.3. Effects of the industrial revolution

1. Discuss the effects resulting from industrial growth.
2. Present the findings.
The following were some of the effects of the industrial revolution:
• New machines which were used led to unemployment of many
people.
• There was expansion of international trade as countries produced
different goods.
• Industrialisation led to the need of market and raw materials from
Africa and subsequent colonisation of Africa.
• It led to the development of modern transport and communication
systems. Many roads, railway lines, bridges and canals were
constructed during this period.
• It led to increased utilisation of idle natural resources that were not in
use before.
• The industrial revolution led to urbanisation, that is, urban centres
developed due industrial activities.
• The industrial revolution increased the demand for services provided
by lodges, hotels, banks, insurance companies and schools.
• It led to the collapse of feudalism in Europe. This was because
landlords sold their land to the members of the middle class.
• It helped the middle class to get political power. This later promoted
democratic rule in Europe. People could now vote for leaders of their
own choice.
• The industrial revolution led to the rise of socialism. People advocated

for state ownership of property to replace private ownership and income
inequality.
• It increased the number of middle classes for these owned factories
and mines. Some started sending their children to upper class
schools.
• It led to rural-urban migration leading to overcrowding and
accommodation in towns.
• The fumes from industrial centres led to environmental degradation.
The industries produced bad smell leading to air pollution.
• It led to the increase in population in Europe. Population in many
European countries tripled due to better living conditions. There was
good shelter as well as improved medical care that reduced diseases
that previously killed people.
• The industrial revolution led to exploitation of workers by industrial
owners. People worked for long hours with low wages. There were
cases of unfair dismissals which contributed to the formation of trade
unions. The trade unions bargained for better working conditions.
• It increased child labour in mines and mills in England. Child labour
was the cheapest labour of all.
• Industrial accidents increased. The infant factories were extremely
unsafe. People worked without safety regulations and with
no protective gears in place. In case of injuries, there was no
compensation.

1. Draw a table with two columns showing both the positive and
negative effects of the industrial revolution from the above points.
Share your work with your classmates.
2. Present your findings to the class.

4.4. Factors for the formation of Trade Unions

Research on the internet the meaning of trade union. Present your
findings.
A trade union, also known as a labor union, is an organized association of
workers in a particular trade, industry, or profession who join together to
promote and protect the rights, welfare, and working conditions of their
members.
The following factors contributed to the emergence of trade unions
during the industrial revolution:

i. Poor working conditions: The rapid industrialization led to harsh
working conditions in factories, including long hours, low wages,
unsafe environments, work accidents, poor accommodation,
absence of holidays, and illegal dismissal. Workers faced exploitation
by factory owners, leading to dissatisfaction and a desire for
collective action to improve their working conditions.

ii. Low wages: Factory workers often received low wages that were
insufficient to meet their basic needs. The economic hardship faced
by workers served as a catalyst for the formation of trade unions to
negotiate for better pay and improved working conditions.
iii. Lack of workers’ rights: There were minimal legal protections for
workers, such as the absence of labor laws, lack of sick leaves, lack
of health insurance, among others. Trade unions emerged as a
response to this lack of protection, advocating for workers’ rights
and legal reforms.
iv. Job insecurity: Industrial workers faced job insecurity. Trade unions
provided a means for workers to collectively address issues of job
security and employment stability.
v. Political and social movements: The emergence of political
and social movements, including socialist and labor movements,
contributed to the formation of trade unions. These movements
advocated for workers’ rights and promoted the idea of collective
action to address economic and social inequalities.
vi. Technological changes: Advances in technology during the
the industrial revolution often resulted in the displacement of
skilled workers by machines. This displacement created a sense
of insecurity among workers, motivating them to organize and
protect their interests collectively.

Research more information about the factors that led to formation of
trade unions.
4.5. Technical inventions and their inventors.

1. Research on the developments made during the Neolithic
revolution. Use internet and other History resources.
2. Relate those developments with technical inventions during the
industrial revolution.

Let us now briefly discuss the following technical inventions and
their inventors:
i. Spinning mule (Crompton’s mule) by Samuel Crompton
ii. Spinning jenny by James Hargreaves
iii. Water frame by Richard Arkwright
iv. Steam engine by James Watt
v. Flying shuttle by John Kay
i) Spinning mule (Crompton’s mule) by Samuel Crompton. Spinning
mule is a machine used to spin cotton and other fibres. It was
invented in 1779 by Samuel Crompton. He combined both the spinning
jenny and the water frame to create this machine. It is also known as
Crompton’s Mule. The machine was widely used between late 18th
Century and 20th Century.
ii) Spinning jenny by James Hargreaves. In 1764, James Hargreaves
invented the Spinning jenny. It was a device which allowed one person
to spin many threads at once. It helped in increasing the amount
of finished cotton that a worker could produce. By turning a single
wheel, one could now spin eight threads at once, a number that was
later increased to eighty. Unfortunately, the thread was usually coarse
and lacked strength. Despite this shortcoming, over 20,000 machines
were in use in Britain by 1778.

iii) Water frame by Richard Arkwright. In 1764, Richard Arkwright
created the Water frame to produce yarn faster. It was initially called
the Spinning frame. It was too large to be operated by hand. After
experimenting with other sources of power, Richard Arkwright
decided to employ the power of a water wheel. His machine came to
be known as the Water frame.
iv) Steam engine by James Watt. In 1769, James Watt improved the
steam engine and in effect created a new source of power. Early model
steam engines were introduced to drain water and raise coal from
the mines. The crucial development was the use of steam for power.
The first steam engine was actually produced by Thomas Newcomen.
James Watt later improved and patented it. The original idea was to
put a vertical piston and a cylinder at the end of a pump handle. The
next step was to put steam in the cylinder and condense it with a spray
of cold water. The vacuum created allowed atmospheric pressure to
push the piston down. Watt made it a reciprocating engine, creating
the true steam engine.
v) Flying shuttle by John Kay. Flying shuttle was a machine used in
weaving. John Kay, a mechanic from Lancashire, patented the flying
shuttle. Using cords attached to a picking peg, a single weaver, using
one hand, could operate the shuttle on the loom. With this invention,
it took four spinners to keep up with one cotton loom, and ten people
to prepare yarn for one weaver. So, while spinners were often busy,
weavers often waited for yarn. As such, the flying shuttle effectively
doubled a weaver’s production of cloth.
Other inventions are:
• Grame discovers in 1869 the Dynamo.
• The American, Samuel Mors, invents the telegraph.
• The American Thomas Edison invents the first lamp.
• The Italian Marconi and the French Branly invent the radio.
• The American Bell invents the telephone in 1876.
• The German Roentgen discover in 1896 the phenomenon which
allows one to see across an opaque body and there was born the
radiography.
• Louis Pasteur discovers that the microbes are small living beings
which are the basis for the fermentation of beer and milk. He
succeeded in manufacturing a vaccine against rabies, cholera.
• The English man, Davy, discovers aspirin.
• The English man, Harroy discovers the circulation of blood.
• The Russian Mendeleev establishes a classification of all chemical
elements Re-covering of roads by John Macadam
• The locomotive was invented by Georges Stephenson
• The railway develops first in England then in the whole of Europe
and in America, hence the transportation of many commodities.
• There was mechanization of agriculture through the use of tractors.
• Chemical fertilizers replace natural fertilizers.
• The postal services begin in 1840 and deal with the transmission of mail.

Remember: Industrialisation is of value to a country’s economy. It enables
people to get employment. It also ensures that there is provision of
affordable products of acceptable standards. The government too
gets taxes. However, the industrial wastes and gases from industries
should be well managed. Good management of the wastes reduces
environmental degradation. We will also have good health.
Research on internet other inventions and their inventors after 19th
century.

1. Define the term ‘the industrial revolution’.
2. Describe the factors that led to the industrial revolution in England.
3. Assess the effects of the industrial revolution.
4. Briefly explain some of the technical inventions and their
inventors during the industrial revolution.
UNIT 5: EXPLORATION OF AFRICA
Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learner should be
able to explain the causes and consequences of
exploration of Africa.

Think of a new place that you recently visited. It should be a place that
you had never visited before.
1. Why did you visit the place?
2. What was the impact of your visit to the place you visited on
you?
Now, get a dictionary to find out the meaning of the word ‘exploration.
From the above activity, it is clear that you visited the place for a reason.
That act of travelling to that place can be referred to as exploration. The
European explorers in Africa had come as visitors. Exploration can be
defined as travelling to a place or through an unfamiliar area in order to
learn about it.
5.1. Different European explorers and their routes

1. Use the map of Africa to identify the main routes used by
different European explorers.
2. Carry out research using different History books in the library
and from the Internet to find out explorers who visited Africa in
the 15th and 19th Centuries.
3. Prepare a comprehensive report for class presentation. Include
a map showing the routes each explorer followed.
4. Let us discuss some of the European explorers and the routes
they followed.
1. Infante Henrique of Portugal, Duke of Viseu (Henry the Navigator).

2. Bartolomeu Dias.

Together with his crew, they reached Kwaaihoek near the mouth of the
Bushman’s River. He wanted to continue to India, but his crew refused to
go further. He was forced to turn back. It was only on the return voyage
that he discovered the Cape of Good Hope in May 1488.
\
On 1st July 1796, he escaped alone with nothing but his horse and a pocket
compass. On 21st July 1796, he reached the long-sought Niger River at
Segu. He thus became the first European to do so. Mungo Park died in
1806 in Bussa, Nigeria.
During this time, he lost touch with Europe. Fearing that he might have
died, Henry Morton Stanley was sent to find him, dead or alive. Stanley
met Livingstone at Ujiji. Livingstone’s meeting with H.M Stanley on
10th November 1871 gave rise to the popular quotation “Dr Livingstone,
I presume?”. They stayed together and even explored Lake Tanganyika.
However, Stanley failed to convince Livingstone to return to Europe. They
parted ways on 14th March 1872.
In August 1872, Livingstone resumed his search for the source of River
Nile. However, he was found dead on 1st May,1873 due to exhaustion and
illness. He was one of the most popular heroes of the late 19th Century in
Victorian Britain. He had a mythical status which operated on a number
of interconnected levels. These were:
• Protestant missionary martyr
• Imperial reformer
• Scientific investigator and an explorer
• Anti-slavery crusader
• Advocate of commercial empire.

8. Sir Richard Francis Burton.

9. Sir Samuel Baker.

10. John Hanning Speke.

11.Sir Henry Morton Stanley.

14. Mary Henrietta Kingsley.

15.Oscar Baumann.

16. Count Gustav Adolf von Gotzen

5.2. Different causes of exploration
Research on the reasons why Europeans were interested in the African
continent in 15th and 19th centuries. Present the findings.
The following are different causes of Exploration:
a) Geostrategic interests.
The desire for respect and prestige attracted many European explorers to
Africa. This was because those who would discover new things were given
titles such as sir and many other rewards. A country with many colonies
was also highly respected, hence the exploration of Africa. For example,
France regarded the acquisition of colonies in Africa as prestigious and
as a way of strengthening her supremacy in Europe. After 1870, European
rivalry spread to Africa, Asia and the Pacific and colonies were increasingly
regarded as symbols of national prestige.

b) To discover more about Africa.
Most of the explorers were scientists and geographers who desired to
research about African societies and their organisation, for example,
Thomas Fowel Buxton. Africa was also long believed to be dark and
undomesticated continent to many Europeans. It was this, among other
reasons, which made the Europeans come to Africa for exploration.

c) Humanitarian reasons.

Some of the explorers had humanitarian reasons and feelings. They
wanted to stop slave trade and cure various diseases such as malaria that
were affecting lives of Africans. The best example in this case was Dr David
Livingstone.
d) To spread Christianity.
Some explorers such as Rebmann were Christian missionaries. They came
partly to spread Christianity to Africa. They believed that Africans were
primitive. They also wanted to counter the influence of Islam in Africa.\
e) Agents of colonialism.
Explorers are also believed to have been sent by their home countries to
prepare Africa for colonisation. This explains why they did the mapping
and tracing minerals and fertile soils.
f) To discover the sources of African rivers.
The source of this longest African river (River Nile) was unknown to all. This
created the need to come and find its source. It influenced the coming
of explorers such as Richard Burton and Speke. Other sources of rivers
discovered by explorers are, River Niger and River Zambezi.
g) Love for adventure.
Some other explorers were full of excitement to travel to new places
beyond their continent, especially Africa. They believed that Africa was
dark and uninhabited.
h) The effects of the industrial revolution.
By 1750s, European changed from agriculture to industrial economy.
This required raw materials and spices such as nutmeg, ginger, cloves,
cinnamon and pepper. It also required and luxury goods such as silk,
gold, silver, jewels, ivory, porcelains and tea from Africa and the East. They
needed a market for their industrial output.
i) To find new trade routes.
The explorers were looking for an alternative safe trade route this was
due to political tensions and frequent fights on the way from European
countries to India (in Asia). Usual path passing through Suez Canal
was clouded with political instabilities and frequent fights. It was also
becoming less and less safe for trade purposes.
j) Improvements in technology.
Europeans began to build stronger and faster sailing ships such as a
caravel. A caravel was a ship with two sails on each side. This was required
for running with the wind and for sailing into the wind. The Europeans
also came up with better navigational instruments which could tell north
and south of the equator by the position of the stars. An example was the
magnetic compass.
Find out on internet other motives for exploration. Present in class
5.3. Consequences of exploration of Africa.

Use textbooks and explain the consequences of exploration of Africa.
Present your findings in class.
The following are some of the consequences of exploration of Africa:
1. Exploration of Africa led to the introduction of Christianity. Some
explorers were missionaries. For example, Dr. Livingstone and
Rebman. This ushered in European missionary activity in Africa and
the final spread of the gospel.

2. The exploration led to the drawing of the map of Africa. Explorers
drew more accurate maps of Africa on paper which eased the
coming of many more Europeans in Africa due to the geographical
discoveries made by their predecessors.

3. It led to the discovery of the sea route to India by Vasco da Gama
(1497- 1499). This increased trade links between Europe and the East.

4. It contributed to the stopping of slave trade. The explorers reported
evils of slave trade in Europe and campaigned against this inhuman
trade. They insisted that slave trade be replaced with legitimate
trade which was more profitable and acceptable in Africa.

5. Exploration opened the interior of Africa to the Europeans. Many
feared to come due to the belief in the Dark Continent theory.
However, with exploration, many got information about the interior
which enticed them to come.

6. Africans adopted a new culture. Aspects of thi his culture included
language, dressing, feeding and religion. This was responsible
for the weakening or disappearing of the traditions among the
communities that interacted with the Europeans.

7. Explorers led to the colonisation of Africa. This was through a number
of activities such as signing misleading treaties with local African
chiefs and cooperating with other colonial agents like missionaries.
Africa was finally colonised by Europe.

8. It made Europeans to increase their political ambitions to create
colonial empires for prestige. For example, Britain was able to
expand her wealth and power.

9. It turned Africa to be a source of raw materials and market for
European manufactured goods such as clothes and guns.

10. Exploration led to the production of a new race of people known
as the Mulattos. These came as a result of intermarriages between
Africans and European explorers.

11. It led to introduction of plantation agriculture and keeping of
exotic breeds of livestock. The Portuguese introduced maize which
was grown in large plantations. Other crops that were introduced
by Europeans were sugarcane, tea, cocoa and tobacco. Livestock
breeds that were introduced were those of among others, pigs,
horses, sheep and cattle.

12. Many trading posts in West Africa and in many other parts of Africa
developed. For example, Timbuktu in Mali, South of the Sahara.
13. Exploration led to the rise of capitalism. Rise of capitalism resulted
from the growth of town and city life and the expansion of trade.
14. It led to the rise of mercantilism. This rose from economic growth
and expanding royal power. Joint stock companies such as the
English East India Company and Dutch East India Company were
formed. It also led to rivalries at sea.

15. Exploration led to introduction of commercial revolution because
it ushered in trade involving Asia, America and Europe. Europe
became the centre of world trade
16. Shifts in population occurred. Europeans migrated to Asia and
America and Africa.

17. Knowledge about the earth increased. This made a significant
impact on Geography. Explorers were able to learn more about areas
in Africa and America. In learning more about such places, explorers
were able to bring knowledge of a larger world back to Europe.

In addition, methods of navigation and mapping also improved as
a result of the travels of people such as Prince Henry the Navigator.
Prior to his expeditions, navigators used traditional charts which
kept them tied to the shoreline. Among the many goals of his
expeditions were to develop a new nautical chart so future sailors
could sail out of sight of land. All in all, the Age of Exploration
served as a steppingstone for geographic knowledge. It allowed
more people to see and study various areas around the world. This
increased geographic study, giving us the basis for much of the
knowledge we have today.

Discuss in groups the economic consequences of exploration of Africa
by Europeans. Make a presentation in class.
5.4. Problems faced by explorers in Africa.

In Activity 5.1, you explained your visit to a place you had never visited
before. Using that information explain the challenges you are likely to
face when you visit a new place.
The explorers faced a number of challenges during the exploration. Some
of them have been discussed below:

a) Poor communication and transport.

Generally, the whole of pre-colonial Africa had no established railways and
water canals. Most rivers and lakes were not navigable. There were also
physical barriers such as forests, mountains and rift valleys. The European
explorers were not familiar with such. They could get lost in forests. This
slowed their work for some time.
b) Harsh climatic conditions.

Africa had different climatic conditions as compared to what the
explorers were used to in Europe. It was sometimes too hot or too cold.
Tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever killed a large number
of European explorers. Due to such conditions, West Africa was regarded
as a white man’s graveyard.
c) Hostility from slave dealers.

Most Europeans explorers claimed to have come to stop slave trade on
African soil. This drew them into hostility with Arab slave dealers who
disliked missionary explorers for attacking their business. This led to
constant attacks and alliances with resistors to frustrate Europeans.
d) Limited manpower.

The explorers lacked enough manpower. This was due to coming in of
few professionals compared to the big tasks they had. Some also died or
were sick and unable to work. Africans were ignorant and had no required
skills. This led to overworking leaving many places unattended.
e) The problem of language barrier.

This was another challenge that was faced by the European explores. They
spoke European languages that were not known in Africa. Europeans
spoke languages such as English, German and French. In Africa, there
was no uniform language because even Swahili was not known to all. This
hampered communication as there were no even interpreters.
hampered communication as there were no even interpreters.

f) The threat of Islam.
Islam had long been introduced in most places of Africa. It spread especially
at the coast of West Africa and East Africa where Arab traders lived. Many
people had embraced Islam, yet missionary explorers wanted to stop it.
They wanted to replace it with Christianity. This led to wars where many
perished, consequently slowing down the work of explorers.
g) Hostile tribes.

This was another challenge that was faced by European explorers in
Africa. Most tribes stopped explorers from passing through their land.
The Turkana, Nandi and Maasai from Kenya were among the hostile
communities that attacked and killed explorers. This was in addition to
tribal wars that affected the work of European explorers in Africa.
h) Presence of wild animals.

These included animals such as lions, reptiles and wild beast in the tropics.
Most explorers passed through forests and national parks due to lack of
geographical maps and compasses. They were later eaten up and killed
by lions, for example, in Tsavo National Park in Kenya. This threatened
their mission in Africa.
i) Lack of home support.

Most explorers lacked enough support from home. This was due to long
geographical separation between Europe and Africa. This led to limited
supplies in form of food, medicine and clothes. It crippled their work
alongside registering a lot of failures. For example, Dr David Livingstone
died before completing his work.

j) Getting lost.

One big problem was faced was that they were lost in Africa due to lack
of geographical maps and compasses. They either relied on local guides
or just gut feelings. This was catastrophic in the sense that if they got lost
nobody could help them.
k) Diseases.

When explorers encountered new people, they exchanged diseases
as well as goods. Diseases such as malaria, dysentery and yellow fever
caused many deaths among ship crews. Some of these, especially yellow
fever, were spread to other ports that the sailors visited. This left most of
them sickly and unable to do the work effectively.!
Touring new places is indeed very important. It enables one to discover,
have fun and be exposed to new areas. However, travelling without
taking precaution is risky. Remember the following:
1. Do not travel alone to places you do not know very well.
2. Avoid walking on foot in national parks for animals can easily kill
you.
3. Travel once in a while but not always to minimise costs and to
avoid bankruptcy.
Discuss the main problems faced by explorers. Present in class.
1. Define the term ‘exploration’.
2. Identify different European explorers who visited the African
continent.
3. Give reasons why European explorers were interested in the
African continent.
4. Discuss the challenges faced by early explorers in Africa.
5. Explain the impact of the European exploration of the African
continent.
UNIT 6: EUROPEAN COLONISATION UNIT 6 OF AFRICA
Key unit competence: By the end of this unit, the learner should be able
to evaluate causes and consequences of European
colonisation of Africa.
Use a dictionary to find out the meaning of the following words:
1. Colony
2. Colonialists
From your answers, we can conclude that colonisation refers to a
situation in which a powerful country rules or controls a weaker one
for its own economic gains.
6.1. Different causes of European colonisation in Africa.

Below is an incomplete table showing the European colonisers and
their colonies. Using textbooks, copy it in your notebooks then use the
example given to complete it.
Africa is a very beautiful continent. It has physical features that people
make people from other continents travel to see. Take Rwanda as an
example. It has beautiful hills, rivers and lakes. It also has mineral resources.
These are some of the causes which made Europeans to come to colonise
Africa.
Let us now discuss them in finer details:

• There was need for raw materials for their home industries. This was
due to exhaustion of raw materials in their home areas due to the
industrial revolution.
• There was need for market for their finished goods because the
European markets were not enough to consume whatever was
being produced by their industries.
• They also wanted cheap labour for their industries and farms in the
New Lands.
• They also wanted areas where they could invest their surplus capital.
This was because investment was not profitable in Europe due to
competition.
• They also wanted land to settle the excess population which had
grown due to population pressure in their countries medical care.
• They wanted to spread Christianity so as to save the Africans from
hell.
• The Europeans also wanted to stop slave trade and slavery, thereby
promoting respect for human rights.
• They also wanted to civilise Africans by teaching them how to read
and write. They also wanted to introduce European cultures for,
example, dressing and eating feeding habits. They believed that
European culture was the best.
NOTE: Ethiopia and Liberia were the only African countries that were
not colonised. Ethiopia was too strong for Italy at the Battle of Adowa
in Ethiopia in 1896. Liberia had just been founded by United States of
America as a home for the freed slaves. This happened after the abolition
of slave trade in the late 19th Century. United States of America could not
allow any European power to colonise Liberia.
Research to find more about other causes of European colonisation
of Africa.
6.2. Methods of colonial conquest in Africa.

Remember the famous saying: There are many ways of killing a rat.
1. What does it mean?
2. Discuss various ways which you can use to make more profit in
your business.
In life, some people will do anything to achieve what they want. Likewise,
the colonialists used various methods to colonise Africa. The methods are
discussed below.
a) Use of explorers.
Explorers drew maps showing fertile areas and rich mineral areas. They
shared information about how rich Africa was. This attracted their home
governments to come and take over African areas.

b) Use of missionaries.
European missionaries encouraged their governments to establish
colonial rule in Africa so that they could put an end to the wars between
African states, stop the slave trade and protect them from attacks by the
locals and Muslims. They also softened African hearts by preaching to
them and persuading them to accept Europeans and support their goals.

c) Use of traders (chartered companies).

Companies such as IBEACo (Imperial British East African Company)
and IGEACo (Imperial German East African company) facilitated the
colonisation of Africa.

The trading companies through their agents signed treaties with the
African rulers. Carl Peters of Imperial Germany East Africa Company
for example, signed treaties with Sultan Sakwa of Kavirondo, William
Mackinnon of Imperial British East Africa Company signed treaties with
various Kenyan chiefs.
d) Use of force.
Africans did not meekly accept the imposition of foreign rule. Many
communities resisted this. In the face of such resistance, the European
powers resorted to military conquest. They used force to subdue the
Africans. This method was mainly used by the French, British and Germans.

e) Treaty signing.

Europeans also signed treaties with African Chiefs to take over African
areas. For example, Moffat Treaty, Rudd Concession and the Buganda
Agreement.

f) Use of gifts and presents.

Some African rulers were lured into accepting Europeans through
presents such as beads, clothes, weapons and intoxicating drinks. Others
were made chiefs while some were promised western education, for
example, Semei Kakungulu of Uganda.

g) Use of tricks.

This is where Europeans deceived African chiefs and took over their areas.
For example, Jaja of Opobo was convinced to board a war ship in 1887 by
Johnston and deported to the West Indies.
h) Divide and rule tactics.

Europeans used the divide and rule tactics by playing off one community
against one another. They encouraged warfare between African
communities and country. Once weak, the European powers occupied it.
This was the case with Nupe against the Fulani, the Baganda against the
Banyoro and the Maasai against the Nandi.
1. With the help of your teacher, watch films or video on European
colonisation of Africa.
2. Write down the lessons that you have learnt.

6.3: Colonial systems of administration

1. Use a dictionary or Internet to find out the meaning of ‘assimilation’.
2. Use textbooks to distinguish direct rule and indirect rule
Learning Activity 6.3
There were several systems of administration used by colonialists after
successfully colonising Africans. These were:
i. Indirect rule by the British
ii. Assimilation by the French
iii. Direct rule by the Germans
iv. Paternalism by Belgians

i) The indirect rule.
It was a system under which the Europeans recognised the existing
African political system and used it to rule over the colonies. In this
system of administration, African local kings and chiefs were allowed to
maintain their positions as administrators. However, they were under the
supervision of the British.

The British made new policies and decisions which were implemented by
African local leaders. It should be noted that under indirect rule, African
political and social institutions were retained by the colonial masters.
Reasons why the British used indirect rule.

1. It was economically cheap. The British wanted to avoid payment
of high salaries to white staff and administrators in their colonies.
In addition to that, the staff and administrators required good
accommodation, troops to provide security.

2. The British lacked enough manpower to administer all their colonies
in Africa. The number of British citizens in Africa was small compared
to their colonies. The British had no alternative but to use African
chiefs.

3. The British feared resistance and hostilities from Africans. The British
wanted to avoid resistances and rebellions that would come after
overthrowing the local African kings from power.

4. There was language barrier. The British did not understand the
languages and customs of Africans. Letting African leaders to rule
was a better choice to solve the language problem.

5. The African kings and chiefs would act as ‘shock absorbers’ in case of
any conflicts and wars. The African kings and chiefs would be blamed
in case the British policies became unpopular among Africans.

6. There was existence of well established centralised system of
administration in Africa. This encouraged the British to rely on such
existing systems of administration to implement their policies.
Indirect system was applied successfully in Buganda, Rwanda and
Northern Nigeria.
7. It was a way of deliberately preparing Africans for self-government.
The British wanted to train future African leaders for their colonies in
Africa.

8. The success of indirect rule in other parts of the world such as India
also encouraged the British to apply it in Africa. This was because
they had seen its good results. This forced the British officers to adopt
it in Northern Nigeria and Uganda.
9. The British used indirect rule because they expected African loyalty.
They expected African leaders to work hard in order to please their
masters. This would bring good results to the British government.

10. Indirect rule was favourable for the exploitation of African resources.
It would create peaceful conditions and give the colonialists enough
time to engage in activities such as mining and trade.
j) The French assimilation policy

The word ‘assimilation’ is derived from the French word ‘assimiler’ which
means cause to resemble or to look alike.

Assimilation was a system of administration in which French colonies were
given a culture and civilisation similar to that of France. It was intended to
make Africans be like the French citizens. That is to say, the Africans were
to substitute their indigenous culture, religion and customs with French
culture, language, laws, religion and civilisation.
NOTE: The Africans were to resemble the French citizens in all spheres of
life except colour. African colonies were to resemble provinces of France.
Reasons why the French adopted assimilation policy.
• The French believed in superiority of their culture and civilisation.
They considered it to be more developed. Therefore, they felt it was
their duty to spread it among people with backward cultures through
assimilation policy.

• The influence of the French revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality
and fraternity also made the French to use assimilation policy. They
had a feeling that all people are equal.

• The French wanted to create a policy that would support France in
future conflicts and international issues. This policy would create
friendship between France and her African colonies.

The French expected this policy to be economically cheap because
the process of assimilating Africans was simple and easy.

• The French regarded their colonies as overseas French territories.
Therefore, assimilation policy was the best alternative system for
changing territories to resemble the French provinces in Europe.

• The French wanted to create a class of African French men who
would help in the administration of their colonies.
The early contacts between the French coastal areas of West Africa
especially Senegal made it easy for assimilation. This is because
Africans had already adopted French cultures and language.

Note that “Association system of administarion” was the second french
policy after the failure of assimilation policy. Association was supposed
to respect the cultural and political values and institutions of Africans
because Africans could not and should not be turned into black French
people.

k) The Germany direct rule.

In this system, indigenous and political administrative institutions
are replaced with those of colonisers. The Germans used direct rule to
administer some of their colonies in Africa (German Southwest Africa
(Namibia) and German East Africa (Tanzania). It involved use of soldiers to
directly control their colonies. They would bring in new chiefs where they
had no chiefs. They replaced the old chiefs with new ones.
had no chiefs. They replaced the old chiefs with new ones.

Why the Germans applied direct rule.

• It was used because the Germans believed that it was the only system
through which they could effectively administer their colonies.

• They also believed the system would enable them to exploit and
benefit from African resources. For example, they believed that they
could raise enough revenue through taxation.

• With direct rule, the Germans would ensure that the Africans grow
enough cash crops to feed their home industries.

• The Germans had used force to take over many parts of Tanganyika.
Soldiers had to be used; otherwise, Africans could revolt at the
slightest opportunity.

• The Germans had suffered early revolts and therefore had to bring in
the harsh leaders to avoid more riots.

• The Germans wanted to promote their superior culture over Africans.
This would involve imposing their culture on them.

• In many societies, there were no chiefs. Where the chiefs existed,
they were not faithful or powerful enough. The Germans therefore
had no one to entrust authority with.

• They opted for this system because they had enough manpower
to man all departments. There was no need of recruiting or using
Africans.

• They feared the expense of training Africans before they could take
over administration. They thought that it could strain their budget.

• Like other powers, the Germans did not want to use a system that
was used by their rivals (British). This would intensify competition
and rivalry among them.

l) iv). Paternalism by Belgians.

Paternalism derived from latin word “pater” meaning “father”. This was a
colonial administrative policy which was mostly used by Belgian colonial
authorities in Congo. Paternalistic tendencies of Belgian colonial rule had
two characteristic features of Leopoldian rule: an irreducible tendency
to treat Africans as children and a firm commitment to political control
and compulsion. Belgian became the final source of authority and were
promoting only their own interests.

In your own opinion, which method of colonial administration
would you prefer? Give reasons for your answer.

6.4. Consequences of European colonization.

Discuss the consequences of European colonisation. Present your
findings in class.
The colonisation of Africa started after 1870 and ended in 1960s when
many African countries got their independence. It had far reached
consequences which were both positive and negative as discussed
below.
Positive consequences.
(i) Colonisation led to creation of bigger African states. This was as a
result of combining small African societies which were combined
by the colonialists.
(ii) European colonisation led to abolition of slavery and slave trade
among African societies. For example, the Europeans stopped the
Yao, Nyamwezi and Akamba who participated in slave trade.
(iii) There was introduction of Western education in the colonies. This
brought new scientific knowledge and new languages such as
English and French into Africa.
There was establishment of communication networks and
infrastructures such as roads and railways in African colonies. A
case in point is the Uganda railway and Tanzania railway.
(iv) Colonisation led to the development of agriculture in Africa
through introduction of new crops. The new crops included coffee,
cotton, cocoa, rubber and sugar cane in addition to plantations
agriculture.
(v) Colonisation led to the spread of Christianity in Africa. Many
Africans dropped their traditional religion and were converted to
Christianity. Today there are many Christians especially in central,
eastern and southern parts of Africa.
(vi) Western cultures such as ways of dressing, dancing, eating and
marriage were introduced in Africa. For example, in Senegal,
Africans who got assimilated dressed and ate like the French.
(vii) Colonisation led to introduction and expansion of legitimate
trade in Africa. Africans acquired European manufactured goods
in exchange for the African raw materials. The materials included
clothes, saucepans and utensils. They were exchanged for gold,
hides and skins
(viii) There was emergence and growth of towns and urban centres
in African during the colonial period. Such towns started as
administrative centres for colonial governments which were
developed into modern towns today.
(ix) Colonisation led to rise of African nationalism where Africans
wanted to rule themselves instead of being ruled by Europeans.
This brought unity of African people against Europeans.
Colonisation opened up parts of African continent to the outside
world. This led to the creation of links between African countries
and the rest of the outside world.

Negative consequences.
(i) Colonisation led to loss of independence for Africa. Many African
societies had been independent for long. Things changed only
when they were colonised by Europeans, for example, some African
chiefs were removed from power.

(ii) Colonisation led to rebellions that resulted from resistance of some
Africans. Some of the rebellions were the Maji Maji in Tanzania,
Shona– Ndebele in Zimbabwe, Mau Mau in Kenya. Many Africans
lost their lives in these wars of rebellion against Europeans.

(iii) Colonisation led to creation of artificial boundaries in Africa which
caused conflict between African modern states. States such as
Uganda and Tanzania, Nigeria and Cameroon, and Ethiopia and
Eritrea were involved in border conflicts.
(iv) The European policy of divide and rule created hatred and disunity
among some African tribes. This has continued up to today.
(v) It led to collapse of African cultures as they were dropped in
favour of the European cultures, for example, cultural dances and
hospitality.
(vi) Colonisation made African countries to remain underdeveloped
and dependent on the colonial masters. This has led to the
dependency syndrome.
It led to over exploitation of African resources such as gold and
fertile soils by the Europeans. They exploited for the resources their
own benefits.

Discuss the negative effects of colonization and make a presentation
in class.

1. Define the term colonisation.
2. Explain different causes of European colonisation of Africa.
3. Identify different methods of colonial conquest of Africa.
4. Describe the consequences of European colonisation of Africa.
Identify different colonial systems of administration.
UNIT 7: AFRICAN RESPONSE TO COLONIAL CONQUEST
Key unit competence:

Carry out research on collaboration and resistance. Then discuss the
African response to colonial rule.
7.1. Forms of African responses towards European colonial conquest

1. Make a discussion on the meaning of the following words:
i. Collaboration
ii. Resistance
2. Make presentation of your findings to the entire class
Different African societies reacted differently towards colonial rule. The
reactions depended on the circumstances that existed in such societies.
African response can be grouped into two main ways. These are:
• Collaboration
• Resistance
7.1.1 Collaboration

In this case, African states and societies cooperated with the Europeans.
They even assisted them in the process of establishing colonial rule in
Africa. In other words, such African states welcomed Europeans and even
allowed them to settle in their societies.

The following were some of the African leaders who collaborated with
Europeans:

• Kabaka Mutesa I of Buganda
• Semei Kakungulu of Uganda
• King Lewanika of Lozi Empire (in present day Zambia)
• Jaja of Opobo (in present day Nigeria)
• Jaja of Opobo (in present day Nigeria)
• Gerere of Dahomey (in present day Benin)
• Merere of Nyamwezi (in present day Tanzania)
Forms of Collaboration
Career collaboration. This concerned the people who were not traditional
political leaders but ordinary men who were more opportunists. They
chose to collaborate for political, prestigious and social reasons only.
Here, we can give an example of Ekinyajwi of Kenya, Nuwa Mbangula,
Appollo Kaggwa, Kakungulu in Uganda, etc.

Mercenary collaboration. This was the way where legitimate African
chiefs used work hand in hand with the foreign infiltrators in their
society. They gave the imperialists much of the necessary assistance
like military protection, land and food. For example, we can mention
Kasagama of Toro, Mwanga and Cwa of Buganda, Merere of Maraangu
and chiefs Lewanika and Lenana of Masai in Kenya.
How Africans collaborated with European colonialists

Africans collaborated with Europeans in the following ways:

a) Signing treaties

The most common way of African collaboration was by signing treaties. All
these treaties were signed in favour and protection of European interests,
for example, giving them authority over land. For example, the Lochner
Treaty between Lewanika and British South Africa Company.
b) Provision of labour
Africans also collaborated by providing labour on European farms and
construction projects. Africans went ahead to mobilise fellow Africans to
work on European farms.
c) Provision of accommodation
Africans also collaborated by providing accommodation to the Europeans.
They also guided them through the areas which they did not know,
especially places that were not easy to locate.
d) Spread Christianity
Africans helped the Europeans to preach Christianity to fellow Africans.
Christianity softened their hearts, thus attracting more collaborators.
e) Helping in interpretation
African collaborators also served as interpreters to the European
colonialists. Some active collaborators were taught the European
languages. They went ahead to interpret to their counterparts who could
not understand the languages.
Reasons for African collaboration
(a) Need for assistance against enemies.
African societies collaborated in order to get support from Europeans
against their enemies. They expected to get military assistance from the
Europeans, for example, Buganda against Bunyoro, and the Fante against
the Asante in present day Ghana. The Shona collaborated with the British
so as to use them against the Ndebele in Zimbabwe
(b) Weak military
Some other African societies were militarily weak. They realised that
Europeans had better weapons and methods of fighting. They also feared
to resist European rule since their resistance would not be successful. They
therefore decided to collaborate. Some communities chose friendship
as a way of protecting their social, economic and political organisation.
Examples include Mutesa I of Buganda, Maasai under Lenana, Rumanyika
of Karagwe and Tukolor of the Lozi.

(c) Natural calamities
Natural calamities such as drought, famine and diseases also forced
some African societies to collaborate. This is because they expected that
collaboration with Europeans would be a solution to their problems. For
instance, the Maasai had been weakened by smallpox, rinderpest and
internal conflict. On the other hand, the Banyankole were affected by
jiggers and rinderpest. They also feared more attacks from Rwanda and
Bunyoro. Such societies were too weak to fight the British. They chose to
collaborate to solve their problems.

(d) Personal interest
Some Africans collaborated because of personal interests and gains. They
were opportunists and excepted rewards from the colonial governments.
Others wanted to acquire wealth. They admired European goods such
as clothes, beads, guns, mirrors and wine. On the other hand, others
collaborated because they hoped to loot property after defeat of African
resisters. An example is Luo support against the Nandi. They wanted high
administrative posts. An example of such persons was Semei Kakungulu
of Buganda.
(e) Benefit from European openings

Other Africans collaborated because they wanted to benefit from
European trade (legitimate trade). They intended to acquire European
manufactured goods such as guns, clothes and glasses. An example of
such Africans was Jaja of Opobo. He collaborated with the French because
of trade benefits at the coast of West Africa.

(f) Influence of missionaries
Another reason was the influence of missionaries. The missionaries had
softened the hearts of Africans through their preaching. They used to
say, “We were all created in God’s image. Love one another as you love
yourself.” By the time European colonialists came, the Africans were ready
to practise Christianity.

(g) Ignorance
Africans collaborated due to ignorance of the real intentions of colonialists.
They believed that the Europeans were visitors who were in Africa for a
short while. Little did they know that they had come to stay.
Lack of African nationalism
Lack of African nationalism was also a reason. Some Africans did not have
nationalistic feelings. They therefore collaborated so as to fight fellow
Africans whom they considered their enemies.
(i) Effects of slave trade
There was also the issue of effects of slave trade. African societies that were
affected by slave trade collaborated because they wanted the Europeans
to stop the trade.
(j) Desire for western civilisation
Some Africans collaborated with Europeans because they admired the
Western culture and civilisation.

(k) Succession disputes
There were also some succession disputes. Some kings collaborated
with Europeans in order to defeat their competitors. An example is King
Lenana of Maasai who collaborated with the British in order to defeat his
brother Sendeyo.
7.1.2 Resistance
Resistance refers to the situation where Africans opposed the
establishment of colonial rule in their societies. This implies that:
• Africans rejected the presence of foreigners in their societies and
fought against them.

• Africans refused to cooperate with Europeans as they (Europeans)
tried to impose their rule on their (Africans) societies.
Causes of resistance
• African societies resisted because some of their traditional enemies
had collaborated with the Europeans. Therefore, they could not
join their rivals. For example, the Asante resisted because the
Fante collaborated. Bunyoro also resisted because Buganda had
collaborated.
• Some African societies felt that they were militarily strong and could
therefore defeat the Europeans. For example, King Kabalega of
Bunyoro did not imagine that there was any force that could defeat
his own army.
• Other African communities had the desire to protect their trade
monopolies and commercial prosperity. They wanted to protect
their commercial benefits that they had gained from earlier trades.
Examples of such communities are the Hehe and the Ngoni who
had big influence in the long distance trade.
• Africans wanted to protect their cultural practices and customs.
They felt that Europeans were going to interfere with their culture
and customs such as polygamy. The Europeans considered such
practices primitive and barbaric.
• Bad economic policies of Europeans such as forced labour, taxation
and land alienation annoyed Africans. These policies made Africans
to suffer, forcing them to resist.
• Some African leaders were enlightened enough to realise the tri
and plans of Europeans in advance. This made them to resist straight
away.
For example, Menelik II of Ethiopia demanded writing of the treaty in two
languages.

• Africans resisted because they wanted to preserve political
independence of their territories. The African leaders feared to lose
their positions and power to the Europeans.
• The influence of African traditional religion also contributed to the
spirit of resistance in Africa. African traditional leaders preached to
the people against the Europeans. They said that their gods were not
happy because of the presence of foreigners on the African land. They
also said that occurrence of natural calamities such as prolonged
drought and diseases were caused by the whites.
• Some African societies resisted because they were economically
strong and required no assistance from the Europeans. For example,
Samori Toure had built a strong economy for Mandika Empire
through trade. This made him feel that he did not need any support
from the Europeans.

• Nationalism was also another reason for resistance. Africans resisted
because of a high spirit of nationalism for their societies and people.
This forced them to fight foreigners who occupied their land.

• Other Africans resisted because they were bandits and feared to
be punished by colonial governments. For example, the Nandi had
stolen materials for construction of the railway. They feared that they
would be punished by the British in case they found. They opted to
resist.

1. To understand the meaning of each form of collaboration,
your teacher will provide you with two stories of leaders who
collaborated. One will be of mercenery collaboration and the other
of career collaboration.
With reasons, identify each type of collaboration the leaders in the
story were.
2. Between resistance and collaboration, which one would you have
preferred if you lived in the 19th Century? Give reasons for your
choice. Make a presentation in class
7.2. Types and methods of resistances

1. Give the meaning of resistance as discussed in previous notes.
2. Discuss the methods that can be used to resist.
Types of Resistance
Resistance can be divided into two types. These are:
• Active resistance
• Passive resistance
a) Active resistance
It is also called armed resistance. It involved the use of arms against the
colonisers. Examples of African leaders who actively resisted were:
(i) Samori Toure of Mandika
(ii) Menelik II of Ethiopia
(iii) Kabalega of Bunyoro
(iv) Kinjikitile Ngwale who led the Maji Maji rebellion.
b) Passive resistance
It refers to deliberate refusal by the Africans to cooperate with the
colonisers. For example, the Pogoro of Tanzania refused to pick cotton.
Some African communities resisted by refusing to pay taxes.
Passive resistance is also known as unarmed resistance or non cooperation.
Resistance can also be divided into two forms. These are:
- Primary resistance
This was direct confrontation by African communities at the invasion
of Europeans into their land. They used force to expel the Europeans
before they gained access to their land. A number of examples of primary
resistance can be cited where African reaction immediately followed the
arrival of Europeans.
- Secondary resistance
This was a way used by Africans by initially accepting the imperialists
to operate within their territories but later to rise against them after
understanding their intentions e.g Mwanga of Buganda and Nandi from
North Rift of Kenya
Methods of resistance
(a) Use of armed resistance
Some Africans took up arms against the colonialist. They faced the
colonialists in battlefields. Examples of those who used armed resistance
against colonialists are Maji Maji in Tanganyika, Nama-Herero in Namibia
and Shona-Ndebele in Zimbabwe.
(b) Strikes
Africans in different countries demonstrated against colonialists due to
colonial exploitation and harsh rule. Strikes included both peaceful and
violent ones in places such as mines and plantations.
(c) Boycotts
Africans boycotted in the following manners:
(i) Refusing to buy European goods
(ii) Failing to attend European schools, churches and hospitals
The aim of the boycotts was to ensure that Europeans made losses in their
businesses. This was one way of forcing them to grant independence to
Africans.
(d) Formation political parties
Several African elites formed political parties such as African National
Congress by Nelson Mandela in South Africa. Dr Kwame Nkrumah of
Ghana formed Conventional People’s Party. All acted as uniting factor for
Africans to fight against colonial rule.

(e) Forming African Independent churches
Africans also formed independent African churches such as Ethiopian,
Messianic and Zionist churches. The churches cited exploitation in
European led churches. They cited the following cases:
(i) High baptism dues
(ii) Forced tithing.
(iii) Lack of promotion to high position of priest hood
(f) Use of diplomacy
This was a non-violent approach. Africans negotiated with Europeans for
fairness in administration. They also wrote letters to colonial governments
to grant Africans independence. A good example of a country which used
diplomacy is Ghana.
(g) Formation of trade unions
These were labour organisations formed to help workers get fair pay and
good treatment at work. Trade unions later acted as political parties and
demanded for political independence.
Formation of Pan-Africanism
This was an organisation that was formed by Africans in Africa and Africans
in the Diaspora. It was formed by Dr Marcus Garvey and W.E.B Dubois.
It called for speeding up the process for independence and agitated for
‘Africa for Africans’
(i) Liberation wars
There were also guerrilla movements started by Africans such as Jonas
Savimbi of Angola, initially member of MPLA (Popular Movement for
Liberation of Angola) before forming UNITA(Union Nationale pour
l’Independence Totale de l’Angola/ the National Union for the Total
Independence of Angola) and Eduardo Mondlane founded FRELIMO
(Front for Liberation of Mozambique) in Mozambique. All this pressurised
colonial masters.

1. Research about forms of resistances and give examples for each.
2. By using a table, identify the reasons for collaboration and the
reasons for resistance.
Present the findings in class.
7.3. Consequences of African resistances

Discuss the effects of any resistance.
Note: Generally, all African resistance cases ended up to a failure (except
in Ethiopia). Several factors contributed much to the occurrence of
this phenomenon.

The effects of Africa resistance can be divided into both negative and
positive as discussed below:
Negative effects of African resistance
• Loss of lives: many people died while fighting or from diseases
brought by colonialists such as smallpox.

• Depopulation: caused by the loss of lives due to the fighting because
where Africans tried to resist, Europeans reacted by killing them
massively. It was also due to displacement of people who were flying
from the battlefield.

• Destruction of property: due to the fighting between Africans and
Europeans, there was destruction of properties such as houses, crops
and villages, etc.

• Famine: because of insecurity and instability, economic activities
were disrupted, and people could not provide themselves with foods
and essential items. In some cases, this famine was also caused by
military tactics like “scorched earth policy” used by the Germans in
Tanganyika.

• Spread of diseases and other epidemics: This was due to the
presences unburied bodies and by the fact that people were living in
forests because their houses had been destroyed.
African submission to colonial policies: Some native people accepted
to go and work for the Whites on their roads, farms and railways
construction and other projects.
• Increase of European settlements in Africa: after defeating African
resistances, Africa was secured, and this encouraged other European
to come massively to settle in peaceful African regions.

• Land alienation: Because of the end of the war of resistance, many
Europeans settled in Africa which increased the confiscation of the
land of the Africans. For instance, Zimbabwe still has a very large
population of Whites.

• African culture and customs were disrupted by the European culture
through the educational system and spread of Christianity.

• There was a division of African culture. Rivals were united while
kinship and family members were split because of the artificial
boundaries. This caused a great amount of tension within regions.
Positive effects of African resistance
• As a result of African resistance, European colonialists put efforts to
improve colonies and resulted in improved sanitation and education.
Hospitals, schools, and factories were built creating more jobs for the
people of Africa and also the conditions of work improved because
forced labour was abolished in some colonies like in Tanganyika after
Maji Maji.
The amount of local warfare was reduced greatly due to control of
the African government by Europeans. This brought political stability
in many African states.

• Order and peace were brought to the colonies because the Europeans
intensified security in their colonies after recognising that Africans
had the potential to resist their rule.

The average life expectancy increased as a result of combined factors
like improved health facilities, peace and order that were intensified after
African resistance

• Literacy rates rose because in very many African resistances, the
Africans lost the battle and therefore had to succumb to the European
civilisation including religion and education.

• Rise of African nationalism: the rebellion provided a lesson to the
Africans because the patriotic and national consciousness was
implanted in these people who participated in the revolt and later
used as base for future nationalist.

• Spread of Christianity: Traditional religion lost its credibility among
the Africans because of its defeat after the execution of its leaders.
Thus, this opened chance for the spread of Christianity.

Group the effects of resistance into positive and negative effects using
a table.
7. 4: Samori Toure’s resistance.

Make research on internet or use textbooks and answer the following
questions.
1. Who was Samori Toure?
2. Reasons that led to the conflict between Samori Toure and the
French colonialists
Make a presentation in class.
Samori Toure was born in 1830 in Manyambaladugu, a village southeast
of Kankan in present-day Guinea. Samori was a great warrior who
fought imperialism in the 19th Century. He refused to submit to French
colonisation. He chose to fight.
Toure became a well known leader, training and commanding a growing
and disciplined army. He expanded his conquests, building a united
empire called Mandika. By 1874, he declared himself Faama (monarch).
He established the capital of his kingdom at Bisandugu in present-day
Gambia in the 1880s. The empire covered Bamako, Sierra Leone, the Ivory
Coast and Liberia.
On 1st May 1898, the French seized the town of Sikasso. Toure and his
army took up positions in the Liberian forests to resist.
The causes of Samore Toure’s resistance
- Samori Toure defended Mandika independence from being
colonized by the French.

- Defense of Islam since the French colonialists were Christians while
the Mandika were Muslims. Consequently, resisting them was a
purposeful action to defend Islamic state against infidels.

The French colonial administration was very oppressive and
repressive as it was in Algeria and Senegal.
- Samori Toure defended the land from the French settlers because
they were looking for the fertile soils which were under the ownership
of the Malinke people. Samori Toure wanted to conclude an alliance
with the British because he had shown the willingness to hand over
his empire to the British protection other than the French.

- Samori Toure defended Mandika culture which the French were
set to destroy and replace it with the French culture through their
policy of Assimilation. attack and when Toure
found out he dissolved the treaty he had concluded with Sikasso
and attacked them before it was too late. Unfortunately, Samori
Toure was defeated.

- False foreign support because Samori Toure had been falsely
encouraged by the military support had expected from the British,
Creoles of Sierra Leone and Tokolor against the French. However,
they had betrayed him when they left him alone in the battleground.

- Samori Toure defended trade because the French domination
would monopolize the trade in the empire by out competing the
Mandika merchants.
Europeans were exploitative in nature; they subjected Africans to
forced labor, over taxation and its brutal collection like the hut tax
in Sierra Leone. Aware of this nature of Europeans, Samori Toure of
Mandika had to resist.
Why did Samori Toure resist the French for long?
He used good methods of fighting which included guerrilla warfare
and scorched earth policy. His army destroyed crops, granaries of
food, houses and poisoned water before retreating. This made the
French lack supplies. He also used guerrilla warfare to avoid direct
battles with the French.
He had a very powerful army. It was large, well equipped and well
trained. His army consisted of 30,000-35,000 soldiers.
He had strong weapons and large in number. He also had his own
workshops where his skilled blacksmith produced weapons such as
shields, arrows and spears. He also acquired guns from the coastal
traders and the British.
• Strong unity and support of his citizens and conquered states enabled
him to resist for long. The Mandinka and people from conquered
states supplied him with food and joined his army against the French.
Islam also played a very important role. All the Mandika people
were Muslims and religion acted as a uniting factor. This unity of the
Mandika enabled them to support Toure against the French.
He used diplomacy too. For example, he allied with the British in
Sierra Leon who continued supplying him with weapons that he
used to fight the French. His relationship with the British scared the
French.
Geographical factors also favoured him. The Mandinka were fighting
on a home ground that they understood very well. On the other hand,
the French were fighting on a foreign land and became challenged.

• He had a reliable spy network. Toure had a spy network system
composed of Dyulla traders, his old-time friends. The spies provided
him with information concerning French advances to his empire.
This helped him prepare in advance before the French attacks.

• The personality and character of Samori Toure played a role. He was a
military genius and personally commanded his army. He was a brave
soldier. This made him to challenge the French troops for long in the
Mandinka Empire.
Conduct research to find out more about reasons that led to the conflict
between Samori Toure and the French
Prepare a report for presentation in class.
7.5. The Maji Maji Rebellion in Tanzania

Do research to find out.
1. The meaning of the Maji Maji
2. The different tribes that join Maji Maji rebellion
Maji is a Swahili word which means water. It came from the prophecy
of a traditional religious leader called Kinjikitile Ngwale. Kinjikitile mixed
some water with millet and sorghum flour then sprinkled on African
soldiers. He believed that the magic water would protect Africans from
bullets of the Germans. This was a reaction of Africans living in southeast
Tanganyika against the German colonial masters. Many tribes joined
this rebellion. The tribes included the Mbuga, Wangindo, Ngoni, Bena,
Zaramo, Mafumbi, Makonde, Ngindo and Urugulu.
Causes of the Maji Maji rebellion
(a) Rise of nationalism among Africans.
The societies of southern Tanganyika developed too much hatred for
the Germans and their rule because of their brutality, forced labour and
disrespect of African culture among others. They decided that the only
way to have independence was through a rebellion.
(b) Heavy taxation.
The German administration introduced taxation as a way of forcing the
Africans to work on European farms. Africans (Ngoni, Ngindo, Zaramo,
Matumbi, Pogoro, Lungura, Ndendeule, Mpunga and Bena) rebelled
as a way of saving themselves from the heavy taxes that were imposed
on them by the Germans. Not only were the taxes heavy but even the
methods of collection were harsh and brutal.
(c) Loss of land to Germans.
The Germans had grabbed the fertile land belonging to Africans, for
example, within the rift valley and Mahenge plateau. In those two areas,
the Germans established plantations. This compelled Africans to rebel so
as to regain their land.
(d) Forced labour policies.
Africans were forced to work on German construction projects such as
railways and roads. They were also forced to work in the cotton plantations.
Africans were made to work for long hours and were given small wages.
Sometimes they would work with no pay. This annoyed Africans and they
decided to fight the Germans.
(e) The oppressive German rule.
The Germans employed Arab-Swahili as headmen (Jumbes) and chiefs
(Akidas) to assist in the administration. These Akidas and Jumbes were
very harsh to the African communities. They had no respect for the African
traditional rulers, and they flogged them in public. Germans used Akidas
and Jumbes who were unpopular among the African societies. They were
unpopular because they had mistreated people before. They were harsh
in the implementation of German rule. They had no respect for the African
traditional rulers and at times flogged them in public.
(f) Need to revenge on the Germans.
Some African societies like the Ngoni joined the Maji Maji so as to revenge
the Boma massacres of 1897. In this incident, Ngoni leaders were tricked
by the German officials into entering a ‘boma’ or fort. Once inside, the
Germans tried to arrest them and in the ensuing struggle, many people
died.
(g) Role of Kinjikitile Ngwale.
Kinjiketile Ngwale mobilised people in 1904. He sent messengers to the
surrounding country to train people. He spread the power of ‘magic
water’ from River Rufiji which inspired many people to join the rebellion.
The water, they believed, had powers of turning bullets into water. People
did not have any fear for the German bullets. The belief in the water gave
the warriors courage to face the Germans despite the fact that the latter
were better armed.
Need to preserve the African culture.
Africans wanted to retain their culture as the German administration
had disrupted the way of life of the African people. Germans also had no
respect for African culture and customs. They and their servants raped
Ngindo women, an offence that was punishable by death. They also burnt
African shrines. This annoyed the Africans.
(i) Outbreak of natural calamities.
There was an outbreak of natural calamities such as famine in 1905 in the
southeast Tanganyika states. The famine led to resentment among the
locals. Such calamities caused Africans to suffer. They were attributed to
the presence of Germans on their land.
(j) Overthrowal of native leaders.
Due to the German colonial policy of direct rule, many native African
leaders lost their power to German administrators. African leaders such
as Mkwawa and Mifambo were replaced with Akidas and Jumbes. These
Akidas and Jumbes were harsh to the African communities whom they
considered backward and illiterate. Many Africans were not happy.
They therefore joined the rebellion as a way of restoring their leaders.
• Analyse the effects of the Maji Maji rebellion.
• Prepare a report for presentation in class discussion
7.6. Buganda collaboration: Kabaka Mutesa

Research on reasons that pushed King Kabaka Mutesa to collaborate.
Present in class.
Buganda was one of the largest, best organised and most powerful
kingdoms in Eastern Africa in the 19th Century. The reaction of Buganda
leaders to the establishment of colonial rule varied. Some resisted
at one time, but others collaborated at another time depending on
circumstances.
Kabaka Mutesa collaborated with the Europeans. He collaborated with
the Europeans for the following reasons:
• He wanted to use the Europeans to reduce the power and influence
of the Muslims. In 1875, he invited European Christian missionaries
to Buganda. They arrived in 1877 and built mission stations at the
Kabaka’s capital. Soon rivalry developed between the Protestant and
Catholic missionaries. Each group tried to have more influence over
the Kabaka.
• Mutesa took advantage of this rivalry by playing one group against
the other. He did this to ensure that none of the groups became
powerful enough to undermine his power.
• Mutesa also wanted to obtain maximum benefit from the Europeans.
They tried to out do one another in the provision of educational and
health facilities and in the supply of firearms to the Kabaka. They also
helped the Kabaka to obtain trade goods from the coast.
1. Explain, with examples, how Africans responded to European
colonialism.
2. Explain the causes of African resistance to colonial rule.
3. Define the term collaboration.
4. Describe how Africans collaborated with European colonialists.
UNIT 8: GERMAN AND BELGIAN COLONISATION (1897-1962)

Key unit competence: By the end of this unit,
the learner should be able to explain the causes
and impact of German and Belgian colonisation

1. Find out the meaning of the word “colonization” from the
Internet and the dictionary. Write the meaning in your notebook.
2. Identify the nationalist of first Europeans to come in Rwanda.
3. Copy the following map in your notebook then answer the
following questions:

i. Identify the current names of the countries on the map.
ii. Write down the countries that colonised the ones you identified
in question (i) above.
iii. Estimate the period under which colonial administration in each
of the shown countries ended.
iv. Present your findings in class for further discussion.
Introduction
German colonisation of Rwanda began with the coming of European
explorers to Africa. This was around 1880, when Africa experienced an
increase in European explorers. One of the factors that drove explorers
to Africa was the desire to discover the source of the river Nile. From 1856,
the Geographical Society of London had started to organise regular
exploration missions to discover the source of that river. Some of the
explorers who visited Rwanda include Sir Henry Morton who reached
Akagera River in 1875, Dr Oscar Baumann who arrived in southern Rwanda
on the 11th of September 1892. and Comte Gustav Adolf von Götzen who
entered Rwanda after crossing Akagera River above Rusumo Falls. Von
Götzen was guided by Prince Sharangabo, the son of King Rwabugiri. He
was later received by King Kigeli IV Rwabugiri on May 25th,1894 at Kageyo
in Kingogo in present day Ngororero Distric, western province.

Von Götzen was followed by a second German mission led by Captain
Ramsay who arrived in Rwanda on March 20th,
1897 during the reign of King
Yuhi V Musinga. During this visit, Captain Ramsay gave King Musinga the
Germany flag as a symbol of German authority. From then, the German
occupation of Rwanda became a reality. Rwanda-Urundi became a
region with the capital in Usumbura (Bujumbura). This region was placed
under the control of Captain Bethe who arrived in Rwanda in March 1898 at
the royal residence of Gitwiko in the present day Kamonyi District

8.1. Causes of German and Belgian colonization in Rwanda

The following are some of the factors that made Germans and Belgians
move into Rwanda:
• Industrial revolution in Europe
• Investment of surplus capital
• Rwanda as a source of raw materials
• Need for market.
Discuss how each factor led to colonisation of Rwanda. Make notes for
presentation in a class discussion.
The main causes of German and Belgian colonization are:
a) The industrial revolution in Europe.
The industrial revolution begun in Britain in the second half of the 18th
Century and thereafter spread in other countries such France, Germany,
Belgium among others. It led to an increase in demand for raw materials
needed by the industries for further production. As production increased,
so was the need for an expanded market for the manufactured products.
European countries had to look up to Africa to provide the much-needed
raw materials and market.
b) Rivalry among European countries.
Rivalry between European countries also contributed to colonisation
of African countries. Competition to produce more and supply more
contributed to the rivalry among European powers such as Britain and
Germany. Both had to protect their overseas territories because the
territories supported the entire industrialisation process.
Continued production and supply of manufactured goods led to massive
profits to bourgeoisies who owned the factories. These wealthy people
wanted to invest their surplus income outside their countries because of
competition and reduced investment opportunities their countries offered.
This factor pushed them to look for opportunities as far as into Africa.
c) A source of raw materials and cheap labour.
European colonies were able to acquire raw materials (cassiterite,
wolfram and cash crops) for use in their home industries and cheap labour.
The labour was also used in neighbouring colonies to the benefit of the
colonisers. For example, Belgians acquired cheaper labour from Rwanda for
use in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Africans helped in the collection
of ivory and rubber and extraction of minerals in the upper Congo basin
for sale elsewhere in world. In addition, several major Belgian investment
companies pushed the Belgian government to take over the Congo and
develop the mining sector. This sector required local labour which was
regionally acquired.
d) Prestige and geostrategic interest.
Some European nations competed to assert themselves as major
superpowers. For example, the newly formed nations of Germany and
Italy wanted to catch up with England, France and other established
colonial powers. More colonies for these countries were a sign of a nation’s
strength. In addition, European countries which had already established
themselves in some African countries felt that it was necessary for them
to acquire more countries for geostrategic reasons.
e) Need to spread Christianity.
The colonisation of Rwanda was a way to spread Christianity by European
missionaries. The missionaries were mainly Roman Catholics and
Anglicans. They later established their churches and missions in Rwanda.
f) Need to promote western civilization.
The Germans and Belgians considered Rwanda to be backward and
therefore had a strong desire to civilise it socially, economically and
politically.
g) The role of the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference.
During this time, African countries were distributed among European
countries where Rwanda was given to Germany. This accelerated and
contributed to the colonisation of Rwanda.

Write an essay on the causes of German and Belgian colonization in
Rwanda. Present your findings in class.
8.2. German administration and its impact in Rwanda.
1. Draw a sketch of map of Rwanda and show its boarders by 1910.
2. Explain the causes of revolts against Musinga during the German
rule.
3. Identify regions which revolted against Musinga and the attitude of
the Germans towards these revolts.
4. Explain the characteristics of the system of administration practiced
by the Germans.
5. Discuss the impact of those revolts on Rwanda.
8.2.1 German administration in Rwanda
In Rwanda, Germans used indirect rule. This form of administration
used traditional leaders to administer on behalf of the Germans. It also
respected and maintained local culture. The implementation of the
German rule was to be attained through the Military Phase and Civil
Administration Phase.
a) Military Phase (1897-1907).
This phase was characterised by occupation of Rwanda between 1897
and 1907. At the same time, the German government gave support to
the local leaders to stop several revolts. Therefore, the military post at
Shangi and Gisenyi were only meant to bring people in those areas
under German rule and under the local Rwandan regime headed by
King Musinga.
b) Civil Administration Phase (1907-1916).
The administrative services were transferred from Usumbura to Kigali
and Richard Kandt was made the first Resident of Rwanda. Kandt was
given the responsibility of establishing the civilian rule, conducting census,
collecting taxes and creating a police force. Kigali was founded as the
imperial residence. In addition to that, the German government provided
military support to the local authorities to stop several uprisings like those
staged by Ndungutse and his allies, Rukara and Basebya. Ndungutse,
whose real name was Birasisenge, wanted to declare himself a legitimate
king after pretending to be the descendant of Mibambwe IV Rutarindwa
and Muserekande nicknamed “Nyiragahumuza.’
The following were the causes of rebellions in northern Rwanda:
1. There was need to recover lost glory by the people which had been
taken over by the royal court of Rwanda.
2. They were also subjected to forced labour introduced by the
Germans during the fixing of frontiers in 1910. To them, this was
unfair, and therefore made them revolt.
3. The Germans forced people to supply them with food. This annoyed
them, causing a revolt not only against the German rule, but also to
the central authority headed by the king.
Basebya was one of the rebellion leaders. He was a son to Nyirantwari of
Rugezi and a member of the Abashakamba militias of Kigeli IV Rwabugiri.
With his group of warriors known as Ibijabura, Basebya conquered Buberuka,
the whole of Bukonya (Gakenke District) Kibali (Gicumbi District).
With three conquered regions, Musinga’s power was seriously challenged.
Following the expedition of Ndungutse in Bumbogo and Buberuka, the
acting Resident representative Lieutenant Godivius, nicknamed Bwana
Lazima, decided to fight against the opposition. Ndungutse and Rukara
were killed a few days later. Rukara was hanged. Basebya, who was
arrested by chief Rwubusisi, suffered the same fate on May 5th, 1912.
Another major event that took place during this phase was the
demarcation of Rwanda’s borders. This was done on 8th February 1910
during a conference held in Brussels between Belgium, Germany and
Britain. Rwanda was limited in the northern and western frontiers. The
redrawing of the borders was done on a map.

In this exercise of re-fixing its borders, Rwanda lost one half of its actual
size as follows: Ijwi Island, Bwishya and Gishari were annexed to Belgian
Congo while Bufumbira was annexed to Uganda. Unfortunately, the
fixations did not put into account the structure of the local population.
The coming of missionaries
Christian missionaries came just after the coming of German administrators
to Rwanda. The first religious groups to emerge during the German rule.
Was the Catholic Church, Islam and Lutheran Protestantism. More religious
groups came in during the Belgian rule, for example, the Adventists in
1919, Anglicans in 1918, Pentecosts in 1941 and Methodists in 1943.
i) Roman Catholic missionaries.
The White Fathers introduced Roman Catholicism in Rwanda. They were
led by the Apostolic Vicar of Southern Nyanza (Tanzania), Bishop Joseph
Hirth. They were part of the Société des Missionaires d’Afrique,” founded
in 1868 by Archbishop of Algiers, Cardinal Charles Lavigerie.
He came to Rwanda from Shangi. Later, he arrived at the royal court
in Nyanza on February 2nd,1900, accompanied by Father Brard and
Father Paul Bartholomew, and Brother Anselme. At the royal court, the
missionaries requested for land to settle, and their request was accepted.
The land given to them was at Save in Bwanamukali today in Gisagara
District, Southern Province where they founded their first mission on
February 8th, 1900.
In the following years, they established the following other missions:

ii) Protestant missionaries
Protestantism was introduced in Rwanda by the missionaries of the
Bethel Society. The first pastor to arrive in Rwanda was Emmanuel
Johanssen who came from Bukoba in Tanzania. As for German Protestant
missionaries, they were received at the royal court in Nyanza on 29th July
1907. They founded their first missions at Remera-Rukoma in 1912, Kilinda
in 1907 and Rubengera in 1909 among others.
There was also the first Seventh Adventist Church that was established at
Gitwe by Pastor Meunier in 1919. In the years that followed, other missions were
established at Murambi in Buganza today in Gatsibo District, Eastern Province
and Rwankeri in Buhoma today in Nyabihu District, Western province.
iii. The First World War in Rwanda
The First World War that occured between 1914 and 1918 was mainly fought
among European nations. However, its impact was indirectly felt in other
continents including America, Asia and Africa.
In Rwanda, the Germans fought with Belgians who had colonised Congo
(DRC). The war was intense in Bugoyi in present day Rubavu district in
the northwest region and Cyangugu in present day Rusizi District in the
southwest region in western province. The Germans were the first to begin
the war by attacking Belgian Congo’s Ijwi Island in September 1914. This made
the Belgians to respond by fighting back. Belgians were supported by British
troops. The troops were deployed in two directions: Shangi and Gisenyi.
Kigali was finally captured on 6th May 1916 then Nyanza on 19th May 1916.
Later, the Belgians moved on with the war through the Rwandan territory
towards Burundi.
During the war, Rwanda did all she could to support Germany. This
support ranged from providing armed warriors called Indugaruga as well as
supplying food.
8.2.2. Impact of German colonization in Rwanda.
Their reign was short-lived, from 1897 to 1916. This was hampered by their
defeat in the First World War in Europe and Rwanda respectively in 1916.
They made a little impact as discussed below:
a) Demarcation of Rwandan border.
On 14th May 1910, the European Convention of Brussels fixed the borders
of Uganda, Congo and German East Africa. This included Tanganyika and
Rwanda-Urundi. It is until 1918, under the Treaty of Versailles, that the former
German colony of Rwanda-Urundi was made a Belgian protectorate by
League of Nations. This led to demarcation of Rwanda’s borders. The fixing
was done using a map. Rwanda lost parts equal to one and half of its actual
size.
b) Support to King Musinga (Mwami).

The Germans settled and helped the Mwami (King Musinga) gain
greater nominal control over Rwandan affairs. They fought rebellions and
defended his rule. The Germans used indirect rule in Rwanda that gave
power to the king and local authorities.
c) Opening of Rwanda to outside world.
Dr Oscar Baumann came to Rwanda in September 1892. He was followed
by Von Götzen in 1894. The latter led an expedition to claim the interior
of Tanganyika colony. Thereafter, German colonialists and, missionaries
arrived in Rwanda. Therefore, the initial visits of Baumann and Von Götzen
is seen as the beginning of the opening up of Rwanda to the outside
world.
d) Integration of Rwanda in world economy.
German colonisation of Rwanda led to the export of large quantities
of hides and livestock. The exportation was mainly oriented towards
European countries. This initiated a market economy in Rwanda.

e) Introduction of money.
Money was introduced in Rwanda during the German colonisation of
Rwanda. People used coin money, heller and rupees. Many Rwandans saw
money as a replacement for barter trade in terms of economic prosperity
and social standing.
f) Introduction of head tax.
German colonisation of Rwanda led to the introduction of the head tax on
male adult Rwandans.

g) Coming of European missionaries.
The German colonisation of Rwanda led to the coming of European
missionaries in Rwanda. Roman Catholic missionaries, led by the White

Fathers, came to Rwanda in 1900. They were followed by the Presbyterian
missionaries in 1907. This promoted Christianity in Rwanda.

Make an essay on the impacts of German colonisation in Rwanda.
Present the results.

8.3. Reforms introduced by Belgians.

Using textbooks, internet or other resources,
1. Assess the transformations introduced by Belgians in
Rwanda then present your results to the class.
2. Explain the reasons for the deportation of King Musinga in
1931. Thereafter, compile an essay for the teacher to mark.

During the First World War I, Germans fought with Belgians in Rwanda.
This led to the defeat of Germans in May 1916. Belgians then officially
took over control of Rwanda from Germans. The Belgian administration
in Rwanda led to a total change in Rwanda’s political, social, economic,
cultural and religious sectors.
It is important to distinguish the reforms introduced by Belgians in
Rwanda into three stages of the entire Belgian rule. These are:
i) Reforms introduced during the Military Administration (1916-1924)
ii) Reforms introduced during the Belgian Mandate (1926-1946)
iii) Reforms introduced during the Trusteeship (1946-1962)
8.3.1: Reforms introduced during the Military Administration (1916 - 1924)

After the conquest of Ruanda-Urundi in 1916, German colonialists were
replaced by the Belgian occupational troops. The troops were responsible
for managing the country. The Belgian Military High Commander in
charge was J.P Malfeyt. He was the first Belgian Royal High Commissioner
in Rwanda. His residence was at Kigoma in Tanzania.
He was tasked to maintain order and public safety over all the territoires in
Ruanda-Urundi. He was in charge of Belgian troops in the occupation of
Rwanda. He played this role until the end of the First World War.
After the War, Rwanda once again fell under military regime, and was
divided into military sectors. These were Gisenyi, Ruhengeri, Cyangugu and Nyanza.
The military sectors were later transformed into territoires, namely:
i. The western territory (Rubengera territory capital)
ii. Northern territory (Ruhengeri territory capital)
iii. The territory of Nyanza (Nyanza territory capital)
iv. The Eastern territory (Kigali territory capital)
Major De Clerk later was named as Resident in 1917. Later, he was replaced
by F.van De Eede in 1919.
The following are some of the reforms introduced in Rwanda during
the military administration:
a) Systematic disintegration of the monarchy
b) Undermining the Mwami’s (king’s) legal power
c) Reduction of the Mwami’s (king’s) political power
d) Abolition of Ubwiru and Umuganura
e) Declaration of religious freedom
f) Abolition of imponoke and indabukirano
Each of these reforms has been explained below in detail:
a) Systematic disintegration of the monarchy.
The relationships of the occupying authorities with the court of the king
were very bad. For example, on 25th March 1917, the General Auditor of
Kigoma was ordered to arrest the king. It is at this time that the Royal
Commissioner, General Malfeyt, decided to send De Clerk as the Resident.

Under De Clerk, the residence of Rwanda was divided into Northern,
Nyanza, Western and Eastern territories. The division was to facilitate
implementation of military orders, food requisition and recruitment of
carriers for the Belgian colonialists. Furthermore, in 1922, the decision
by Belgians that the Resident at Nyanza would assist the Mwami (King
Musinga) in his legal prerogatives was meant to undermine the king’s
legal power.
b) Undermining the Mwami’s (king’s) legal power.
The king, before the Belgian occupation, had authority to pass ‘life or
death’ sentence over his subjects. The king was stripped off this right to
determine whether a person would live or be killed because of a crime
committed. Crimes that warranted the death sentence from the king
included murder, fighting with fellow subjects or treason. Without such
authority, the king’s title was reduced to being just but honorary. This,
among other reasons, humiliated the king greatly.
c) Reduction of the Mwami’s (king’s) political power.
King Musinga was stopped from appointing and dismissing any of his
subordinates without permission of the Belgian High Commissioner or
Resident. Chiefs and Governors of provinces too did not have the right
to dismiss those who worked under them. With time, the final source of
authority became the Belgian administration. Chiefs and their deputies
therefore were required to report to the Belgian administration and not
King Musinga as was the case initially.
Traditional authorities were charged with the following responsibilities:
a) Collecting taxes
b) Mobilising porters and workers on local roads and tracks
d) Abolition of ubwiru and umuganura.
Abiru were officials in Rwandan Kingdom who were in charge of ubwiru
(amabanga y’imitegekere y’igihugu). The traditional institution of ubwiru
played very important roles in the Rwandan Kingdom and to the mwami
(king).

Umuganura (umunsi mukuru wo kwishimira no gushima Imana kubera
umusaruro wabonetse mu mwaka) was meant to thank God for the harvest.
It was also to strategise for the next season, so as to ensure that the harvest
is good. It was celebrated by Rwandans after harvest of sorghum. It was a
very big event in the kingdom as Rwandans celebrated their achievements
in terms of harvest both at the kingdom and family level.

Belgians abolished both the ubwiru and umuganura in a systematic way
to curtail the king’s powers. Eventually, in 1925, the chief of ubwiru who was
called Gashamura was exiled in Burundi. The Resident communicated to
King Musinga that umuganura had been abolished.
e) Declaration of religious freedom.
In traditional Rwanda, the king was not only an administrative leader but
also a religious leader who was an intermediate between God (Imana) and
Rwandans. This made Rwandans to consider their King as God and would
refer to him as Nyagasani (meaning God). However, with the influence of
the Catholic Church and the administration of the Belgians in 1917, King
Musinga was forced to sign a law accepting freedom of worship.
From then, the King had no option but to allow religious freedom that
would favour the Catholics. Therefore, the royal power was separated with
religion because the King had just been forced to forego his religious
powers.
f) Abolition of imponoke and indabukirano.
Indabukirano were gifts given to the chief after being nominated and
coronated to the position. The gifts included items like cows and beers
(indabukirano). Such was meant to show loyalty to him by his subjects. It
was also to enable the new chief to cope with the new lifestyle, to show
happiness and to congratulate the new chief.
Imponoke was a sign of compensation to the chief usually after a heavy
loss of cows, especially due to diseases or being struck by lightening. This
was a sign of active bystandership to the chief by his subjects. Generally,
to the chief, it was a way of compensating him for the loss of cows and to
enable him to continue living within the lifestyle he was used to before the
loss. It was one of the ways Rwandans used to show concern for others in
the society.
The practice of imponoke and indabukirano were abolished by the Belgians
when they took over the administration of Rwanda. This was aimed at
weakening the influence of the king over his subjects. It was also to help
the Belgians remain with monopoly of power. The expected end result
was to reduce the belief in traditional practices where Rwandese had
deep attachment.
8.3.1: Reforms introduced during the Belgian Mandate (1926-1946)
A mandated territory is a country or territory that is governed by another
country based on the authority given by the League of Nations. The
mandate may imply different forms of government varying from direct
administration by the other country to being self governing.
1. Political reforms (1926-1931)

Mandated territories were introduced in 1919. In 1922, the League of Nations
gave Belgium a mandate over the territory of Ruanda-Urundi. Belgium
was to administer and control the territory while respecting the freedom
of religion and stopping slavery. The mandates were divided into three
classes, A, B and C, according to the presumed development of their
population. Rwanda was put under the mandate B with Belgium as a
mandatory power.
This mandate was approved on 20th October 1924 by the Belgian parliament.
For this reason, from 1916 – 1924, Rwanda was called “a territory under
occupation.” However, it was officially known as a “territory under mandate
B.” Other countries in this category were Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Togo
and Cameroon.
The administrative reforms initiated by Belgian authorities started in
1926 and brought with it a number of changes where Rwanda-Burundi
was joined to Belgian Congo in terms of administration. This meant that
Congolese colonial laws were applied to both countries.
The following were the other reforms in administration:
1.1. Mortehan reforms (1926-1931)
Between 1926 and 1932, the Resident of Rwanda called Georges Mortehan
introduced a reform in the administrative structure of Rwanda. This reform
was essentially aimed at new distribution of powers. Therefore, Rwanda
which was originally governed under 20 districts (ibiti) and pastoral fiefs
(ibikingi) was transformed into a system of territories,
chiefdoms and subchiefdoms. By 1931, Rwanda consisted of 10 territories
instead of 20 districts, 52
chiefdoms (chefferies) corresponding more or less to historical traditional
regions and 544 sub-chiefdoms (sous- chefferies) equivalent to former
pastoral fiefs. The functions of the land chief (umutware w’ubutaka), the
cattle chief (umutware w’umukenke) and the military chief (umutware
w’ingabo) were abolished. Chiefs now resided in their administrative places
and not at the royal court as it was before.
Unfortunately, the administrative responsibilities in the new structure
were unfairly done. It excluded the Hutu, Twa and Tutsi with a moderate
background in favour of the Tutsi from well to do families. The chiefs were
in turn replaced by their sons who completed from the school reserved for
sons of chiefs. This is because they were seen as being able to rule in a
modern way.
In addition, with the Mortehan reform the traditional chiefs lost their power
because they now accomplished their duties under pressure of being
dismissed when they performed poorly. They became pure and simple
agents of the Belgian colonial administration. They no longer represented
the King or their subjects.
1.2. Deposition of King Yuhi V Musinga in 1931.
At the beginning of the colonial rule, King Musinga collaborated with the
German administrators and in return they helped him defeat the northern
rebellions. However, the relationships between the King Musinga and
the Catholic missionaries were not good because King Musinga was
accused of being opposed to the missionary activities. This situation
worsened with the coming of the Belgians who collaborated with the
Catholic Church’s authorities.
In 1931, the report of the Vice Governor General Voisin accused King
Musinga of being opposed to moral, social and economic activities of the
colonial administration. The King was at the same time accused of being
hostile to the work of the Catholic missionaries. These attitudes brought
conflicts between the King and the colonial administration, the catholic
missionaries as well as Rwandan collaborators spearheaded by Kayondo,
his brother-in-law.
These were the reasons which, after a lot of hesitation, forced the Belgians
to take the decision to overthrow King Musinga and replace him with his
son RUDAHIGWA who was then the chief of Nduga-Marangara. On 12th
November 1931, Governor General Voisin announced the deposition of
King Yuhi V Musinga. The king was asked to leave Nyanza royal court to
Kamembe in Kinyaga. Musinga left for Kamembe on 14th November 1931.
On that very date, Rudahigwa, the son of the chief of Nduga-Marangara,
was proclaimed King by Vice-Governor General Voisin under the royal
name of Mutara III.
King Musinga was moved from Kamembe to Moba in Democratic Republic
of Congo (D.R.C.) in 1940. He spent the last bitter years of his life here,
eventually dying on October 25th, 1944.
2. Socio-cultural reforms.
a) Education.
With the coming of the colonialists, itorero and other forms of traditional
education in Rwanda were abolished. They were replaced with secular
and religious education under the control of the missionaries. The most
important skills acquired from these formal schools were reading, writing
and arithmetic. This new form of education also enabled learners to
acquire skills necessary to work for Belgians. Unfortunately, this did not
benefit the local populace, especially the younger generation, which lost
touch with their history and ancestry.
Contrary from what was expected, the shift from traditional education to
the modern education did not serve to address national needs at that time.
It instead provided avenues of climbing to a higher social status. Those who
went through formal education came to be perceived as being of a better
status than those who did not have this type of education. This divided the
society rather than unite it as traditional education had done.
This type of education introduced was a monopoly of Christian
missionaries and the main courses taught at the begining were religion,
arithmetic, reading and writing (Kiswahili, Germany and later French with
the Belgians). Then after, programmes have been improved.
In 1925, the colonial administration had committed itself to financing
education under certain conditions (subsidized education system):
acceptance of administrative inspection and employing qualified teachers.
From that time, primary education which was limited to a lower level was
expanded. For instance, in 1925, the number of pupils was 20,000, in 1935
was 88, 000 pupils and in 1945 the number had risen to 100, 000 pupils in
primary schools. Secondary schools started in 1912 with the creation of the
minor seminary of Kansi which in 1913 was shifted to Kabgayi. In 1929, with
the establishment of the Groupe Scolaire d’Astrida, secondary education
grew and increased.
In 1933, the pupils of the former school for the sons of chiefs who lived at
Nyanza were enrolled. Apart from Groupe Scolaire d’Astrida, there were
other secondary schools which include the following:
 Teacher Training School in Save which was started and managed
by the Marist Brothers.
 Teacher Training School in Zaza by Brothers of Charity.
 Teacher Training School in Ruhengeri by Brothers of Christian
Instruction.
 Teacher Training School for girls at Save managed by White Sisters.
 Teacher Training School in Kigali for girls ran by the Benedictine
Sisters while their auxiliary laymen ran other Training College at
Muramba and Byimana.
 Teacher Training School College in Shyogwe by the Alliance of
Protestants
b) Introduction of identity cards
Before the colonial form of identification, a Rwandan was first identified by
his clan. Being Hutu, Twa or Tutsi was a mere social category. The identity
cards which were introduced by the Belgians in 1935 classified Rwandans
as belonging to Tutsi, Hutu and Twa. Each Rwandan had an ethnic identity
card in the years that followed later. To ascertain where one belonged,
those who owned ten cows or more were classified as being Tutsi. Those
with less cows were classified as Hutu while Batwa were considered those
Rwandan who survived on pottery activities.
Unfortunately, there were cases where some of the children belonging to
the same parent could be classified both as Hutu and Tutsi. For instance,
one who had cows was regarded as a Tutsi and another one without cows
was regarded as Hutu, yet the two shared same biological parents.
c) Health centres.
Before the coming of colonialists in Rwanda, Rwandans used natural
herbs (imiti gakondo) to cure various diseases such as malaria and
headaches. However, colonialists phased out of local herbs and replaced
them with western drugs and medicines. In collaboration with the Christian
missionaries, the health sector was transformed by constructing various
hospitals in different parts of the country. The medical sector was left in the
hands of the Christian Missions. By 1932, the colonial administration had 2
hospitals including Kigali hospital and Astrida as well as 29 dispensaries.
From 1933, the colonial administration introduced a new policy of replacing
all dispensaries with mobile “assistance camps”. All this is aimed at
providing health care to the local populace in order to solve the problem of
insufficient medical infrastructure. The private hospitals were put in place
in Kigeme and Shyira by the Anglican Church and some others by Mining
companies like hospital of Rutongo by SOMUKI and Rwinkwavu Hospital
by GEORWANDA. Other hospitals set up by Christian Missionaries in
different parts of the country among others included the following set up
the following:
• Kabgayi and Mibilizi by the Catholic missionaries
• Kilinda by the Presbyterians
• Gahini by the Anglicans
• Ngoma-Mugonero by the Adventists.
In an attempt to increase the medical staff, a section of training of medical
assistants was opened in Groupe Scolaire of Astrida and medical auxiliaries
also opened at Astrida and 2 schools for Assistant Nurses at Kabgayi and
in Kigali. As a result, by the end of Belgium mandate, 4 rural hospitals and
more than 10 dispensaries had been built by the colonial administration.
d) Religion (Christianity).
Before the coming of the colonialists, the king was not only the head
of the monarchy, but also a spiritual leader. He was considered divine
and therefore held religious rituals regularly. He was thought to be a link
between his people and the ancestors. Colonial agents worked against
traditional religion as they considered it pagan and backward. In fact,
they considered the African way of life to be that of uncivilised people.
They used this as an excuse to introduce and support Christianity over
traditional religion.
Important to note is that the spread of Christianity and Christian culture
benefited a lot from the 1926 colonial administrative reforms. These
reforms required that to be a chief or sub-chief, one was to have at least
some western education acquired from the colonial schools in Rwanda.
Catholicism was the most dominant religion among other denominations
like the Presbyterian, Anglican and Adventists. Churches were built across
the county in places such as Zaza, Nyundo, Rwaza, Kabgyayi, Kilinda,
Gahini and Gitwe.

3. Economic reforms.
Rwanda experienced a lot of transformation during the Belgian Mandate.
Such had both negative and positive effects on Rwandans. Some of the
economic reforms introduced in Rwanda during the Belgian Mandate
include the following:
i) Forced labour policy.
During the Belgium rule, some members of a family were required to offer
free compulsory labour. This was to accomplish some projects started
by the colonial government in a system called the akazi. This labour to
the government was to be offered for two days in a week of seven days.
Worse still, the forced labour was given amidst cruelty and brutality from
the administrators. The introduction of akazi made people feel that they
were being punished.
The local people underwent suffering while constructing roads, churches
and hospitals. This included transporting construction materials from
different areas to Kabgayi Catholic Church and growing and cultivating
various crops like cassava, sweet potatoes and coffee far from their homes.
Locals were also required to transport European goods to places they
were asked to. Sometimes, people were obliged to travel long distance to
cultivate the food crops(shiku) such as cassava, sweet potatoes and cash
crops like coffee. These were cultivated a way from their homes, often
near the roads where colonial officials could usually pass so as to create
good impression.
Due to the forced labour policy, the locals could not get enough time to
work on their farms. They instead concentrated on working on coffee
farms, with little or no pay. This led to a shortage in food supply. As a result,
a number of famines were experienced, such as Rumanura (between 1917
and 1918), Gakwege (between 1928 and 1929) and Ruzagayura (between
1943 and 1944). These famines affected people more often than before the
coming of the colonialists. It too resulted into fleeing of many Rwandese
to neighbouring countries like Congo and Uganda to look for paid labour.
ii) Agriculture and animal husbandry.
The Belgians introduced cash crops such as coffee, pyrethrum, cotton and
tea. Unfortunately, this was done through forced labour where labourers
worked for long hours. They established agricultural research centres in
various parts of the country to ensure the best harvests. These included
Rubona (Southern Province), Rwerere (Western Pronvince), and Karama
(Eastern Province).
The Rubona agriculture research station was to deal with agricultural
problems affecting average attitude land, Rwerere station in Gisenyi
dealt with those affecting higher attitude while Karama station was for low
attitude areas. Overemphasis on these crops meant that food crops were
not considered as important. The result was frequent food shortages and
famines. The Belgians countered food shortages by introducing cassava,
maize, soya beans and Irish potatoes to try to improve food production for
subsistence farmers. This was important especially because of the two
droughts and subsequent famines of Rwakayihura/Rwakayondo and
Ruzagayura between 1928-29 and 1943-44 respectively.
Hybrid cattle breeds were also introduced to boost the production of hides
and skins for export. To support animal husbandry, research centers were
set up at Nyamiyaga-Songa in the southern region, Cyeru in the northern
region and Nyagatare in the eastern region. Animal health centres were
built and veterinary clinics established in rural areas to improve the local
breeds by cross breeding them with exotic ones. This was to develop more
productive and resistant breeds.
iii) Mining activities.
Mining activities started from 1923 with two main companies:
RwandaUrundi Tin Mines Company (MINETAIN: Société des Mines d’Etain du
Ruanda-Urundi) and Muhinga-Kigali Mining Company (SOMUKI: Société
Minière de Muhinga-Kigali) in1934. Some other mining companies such
as GEORWANDA were established in 1945 while Compagne de Recherche
et d’Exploitation Minière (COREM) was established in 1948. The major
minerals extracted by the mining companies were gold, cassiterite,
wolfram, tin, colombotantalite and mixed minerals. These mines not
only increased the volume of exports but also provided local people with
employment opportunities.
iv) Taxation policy.
In a bid to increase tax revenue to finance their administration and projects,
Belgians introduced poll tax in 1917. This was compulsory for all adult
male Rwandans. This was to be paid in form of money. Unfortunately,
the methods of collection were brutal. Tax defaulters were flogged while
others were imprisoned, which made many people who were unemployed
to run to the Belgians to look for jobs so as to pay taxes.
v) Trade and commerce.
In pre-colonial times, Rwanda’s socio-economic activities revolved around
cattle rearing, crop cultivation, ironwork, art and crafts and hunting. These
activities provided the local population with products for subsistence
consumption. However, surplus products were used for trade with the
neighbouring communities. Like many countries in Africa, trade of goods
and services was carried out in Rwanda through a barter trade where goods
were exchanged for other goods.
During the colonial period, Congo, Rwanda and Burundi were placed
under common Belgian protectorate from 1916 to the early 1960s. The
introduction of head-tax and use of money as a medium of exchange
by the Germans and Belgians respectively changed the society’s socioeconomic
perception of wealth. Over time, trading centres started to
develop. People could find agricultural products as well as crafts from
such centres.
Colonial administrators established commercial centres where local and
foreign traders like Europeans and Asians could trade. Others who took part
in the trade were the Belgians, Portuguese, Indians, Greeks, the Omani’s
and Pakistanis who operated licensed businesses. Generally, the business
environment has been expanding since then, to include cross-border and
international trade.
vi) Infrastructural development.
In the 1920s and 1930s, Belgians constructed roads to facilitate trade and
effectively administer the colony. The first vehicle arrived in Rwanda in 1927,
which led to the construction of the following three international roads:
• Bujumbura-Bugarama-Astrida-Kigali-Rwamagana-GatsiboNyagatare- Kagitumba
• Bujumbura-Cyangugu-Bukavu
• Bukavu-Cyangugu-Astrida
However, European administrators generally overlooked the abuses of the
officials who embezzled the taxes that were collected. They also oversaw
forced labour during the construction of roads, in various mining activities
and during the planting of coffee. There was also the setting up of hydroelectric
power stations to produce electricity. These stations were set up
as from late 1950’s to supply power to developing industries. Those that
were constructed include Mururu (on River Rusizi) and Ntaruka (between
lakes Burera and Ruhondo).
3.1. Reforms introduced during the Trusteeship (1946-1962)
After World War II in 1945, the victorious nations created the United Nations
Organisation (UNO) which replaced the League of Nations. This is because
the League of Nations had failed to promote world peace. The principal
mission of the UNO was to maintain peace and security in the world. By
this time, Rwanda’s mandate regime was replaced by the trusteeship
regime, although they were all under the Belgian authority.
On 13th December 1946, the UNO and Belgium signed a Trusteeship
Agreement on Rwanda. On April 29th, 1946, the Belgian Parliament
approved it. The UNO’s mission was to help prepare Rwanda to reach
autonomy before its independence. Later on, the UNO began to visit
every two years. The purpose of these missions was to hold consultations,
examine together with the state holding trusteeship any petition arising
from the administrated population and to assess the political situation of
the countries under the trusteeship. Such missions in Rwanda were in 1948,
1951, 1954, 1957 and 1960. The UNO requested Belgium to assist her colonies
for the political evolution. The trusteeship had the following general
objectives:
• To maintain international peace and security.
• To help in political, economic, social and cultural development
of the inhabitants of the territories under trusteeship.
• To ensure progress towards either autonomous leadership or
independence.
• To promote respect for human rights and fundamental freedoms
for all irrespective of the race, gender, language and religion.
• To ensure equal treatment in all social, economic and financial
problems to all the members of the UN.
When UN mission visited Rwanda in 1948, they found that Belgians had
done nothing to enable Rwanda to reach the political evolution expected.
The UN left after requesting Belgium to prepare Rwandans to reach
autonomy that was desired for political independence. Belgium, instead
of acting as requested by the UN, introduced the Ten-Year Plan. This
was aimed at achieving social and economic development than political
development as requested by the UNO.
1. Economic reforms.
The first mission of the UNO in 1948 realised that the Belgian government
had not done much in socio-economic development and recommended
that more social and economic reforms be promoted. In reaction to this
recommendation, the Belgian government elaborated a Ten Year social
and economic development plan for Rwanda-Urundi in 1951.
i) The Ten-Year Development Plan.
The Belgian-led administration in Rwanda put in place a Ten-Year
Development Plan, which was meant to bring about political, economic
and social development in Rwanda. It also focused on providing significant
financial support in public health, agriculture and education. However,
this Plan had several weaknesses. These include:
• It was projected over a long period of time.
• Not all the people of Rwanda were involved in its formulation. Only
the leaders were told about it while the rest of the population was
ignored.
• Since the Belgian administrators who were in charge of the plan
could be moved from one country to another, it was difficult for it to
be effectively implemented.
The Ten-Year Development Plan resulted to notable changes in Rwanda,
even if these changes were slow despite its full implementation. Under
this Plan, the following was achieved:
• There was an improved access to education, although most of the
learners continued to receive basic education. Numbers decreased
as learners continued to advance into higher classes.
• It had a range of strategies aimed at preventing famine.
• The increasing monetarisation of the Rwandan economy enabled
more people, apart from the elites, to realise the advantages and
opportunities associated with business activities.
• Access to medical care also became more equitable, widely available,
effective and affordable – independent of sub-group identity.
• Several projects were financed under this Plan, like the construction
of schools, hospitals, dispensaries, roads and the development of
marshlands and the plantation of forests. Financing of the Ten-Year
Plan was in two forms, that is:
• External financing, which the Belgians achieved by creating a ‘‘Fonds
du Bien-Etre Indigène’’ with two million francs. Belgium was also
committed to annual financial aid which increased from 150 million
per annum in 1950 – 1951 to 560 million in 1961.
• Financing local projects was done through increasing tax rates on cattle,
subjecting polygamy taxation as well as taxing exports.

ii) Abolition of Ubuhake.
On land authorities, there were considerable socio-economic reforms
which were done. Among the most notable ones, there was the abolition
of the socio-economic dependence system based on the cow or ubuhake
by the royal decree of the King Mutara III Rudahigwa on 1st April 1954. The
abolition of ubuhake was as a result of the decision of the king in agreement
with the indigenous Rwandan Superior Council. The traditional patronclient
relationship of ubuhake was a highly personalised relationship
between two individuals of unequal social status. The king further argued
that the clientship was an obstacle to economic development that could
create disorder among the people if not stopped. This abolition had two
objectives:
• To liberate the pastoral clients (abagaragu) who used to spend much
of their time working for their patron (shebuja)
• To encourage private initiatives and to force cattle keepers to reduce
the number of cows to manageable and profitable size.
2. Political reforms.
During the reign of the Belgian Trusteeship, there were two political
reforms brought by the Belgian administrators: the establishment and
creation of councils.
Establishment of councils.
The first reform of its kind was introduced on May 4th, 1947. It was the
creation of a Conseil du Governement du Ruanda-Urundi. The
Council comprised of 22 members, 5 of whom were Belgians including
the Governor, 2 Resident Representatives and 2 Belgian state agents. The
other 13 members were said to represent other foreigners living in RuandaUrundi.
From 1949, the Kings of Ruanda-Urundi became members of the
Conseil du Governement. This Council was majorly meant for consultation.
On March 26th, 1949, it was abolished by a Belgian royal decree and
replaced with the Conseil Général du Ruanda-Urundi.
Conseil Général du Ruanda-Urundi was composed of 50 members. 9 of these
were high level personalities and automatic members, who included the
Governor, 2 Residents, 2 kings and 4 high level Belgian functionaries.
Apart from these, there were seats reserved for 4 representatives chosen
by the Haut Conseil du Ruanda-Urundi from among its members, 18
representatives of expatriates and 14 members appointed by the Governor.
Another political reform initiated by the Belgians in Rwanda was because
of the Decree of 14th July 1952. This was in response to the critical reports of
the United National Trusteeship missions in Rwanda in 1948 and 1951. The
decree led to the establishment of councils at local and country levels.
They included Conseil de sous-chefferie (sub-chief councils), Conseil de
chefferie (the council of chiefs), Conseil de territoire (the council of territory)
and Conseil Superieur du Pays (the superior council of the country
The Councils established served for consultation purposes only. They did
not have any power in decision making. The composition of each council
was as follows:
(a) Conseil de sous-chefferie (the Council of sub-chiefs): It was made
up of a sub-chief who presided over it and 5 to 9 elected members.
(b) Conseil de chefferie (the Council of chiefs): This was composed of
the chief himself who was its chairperson and 10 to 18 members
of whom 5 were sub-chiefs elected by their peers. Others were
notables elected from members of a college made up of 3 notables
from sub- chiefdoms.
(c) Conseil du territoire (the territorial council): This was made up of
the head of the territory and chiefs from that territory as well as
a number of sub-chiefs which had to be equal to the number of
chiefs. The sub- chiefs who sat on this council were chosen by their
fellow sub-chiefs from their ranks. There were also notables on the
council whose number was equal to that of chiefs and sub-chiefs.
The notables were elected from an electoral college composed
of 3 people elected by each conseil du territoire from among its
members
(d) Conseil Superieur du Pays (the high council of the state): This was
presided over by the king. It was made up of representatives of
the councils of the 9 territories (Cyangugu, Astrida, Nyanza, Kigali,
Kibungo, Byumba, Ruhengeri, Gisenyi and Kibuye), 6 chiefs elected
by their peers, a representative elected by each council of the
territory from the members who sat on it, 4 people chosen because
of their understanding of the problems of the country and 4 people
chosen based on their level of assimilation towards western culture.
The councils were created mainly because the trusteeship terms provided
that the Belgian administration was to increase the participation of
Rwandans in the administration of their country. Thus, the powers of the
local government were increased although they were to be supervised
by the trusteeship administration. However, the elections to the councils
were to be indirect, and the chiefs were tasked to determine the outcome.
The decree also had the following effects:
• It empowered the king to make regulations in the administration of
the kingdom.
• The king was also authorised to make arrangements for social and
economic services and to impose communal labour in 60 days.
• The chiefs had authority to implement the decrees of the king
especially communal labour and labour services for the chiefs.

The right to vote was introduced in 1954. Nevertheless, the system could
hardly be described as democratic. For example, notables responsible for
electing the sub-chiefdom councils – that is, the lowest level of councils
– would themselves now be elected rather than nominated. Each council
would thereafter vote on the membership of the superior council of the
country council as previously done. Very important to note was that only
nationals were allowed to be members of these councils and they served
for a period of three renewable years. The administrative structure of
Rwanda after establishment of these councils by 1952 was as follows:
Suggestion: territorial administration could be under the UMWAMI, and each
council would correspond or be on the same level as the administarive leader.
4. Decolonisation of Rwanda.
The Belgians applied the divide and rule system of administration. In
Rwanda, they took advantage of the historic division of labour between
the Hutu, Twa and Tutsi. They went ahead to incorporate the Tutsi into
the ruling class. Generally, the Belgian rule was characterised by social
favouritism towards the Tutsi. From the conseil supérieur du pays, a
memorandum called Mise au point was made on 22nd February 1957.
This was mainly addressed to the UN Trusteeship mission to Rwanda and
to the Belgian colonial administration. This document strongly questioned
the colonial power. It criticised discrimination based on colour, questioned
monopoly of the missionary-led education which compromised its quality
and finally demanded for increased representation of Rwandans in the
political administration of their country.
More so, the Mise au point made the Belgian authorities to mobilise Hutu
intellectual group (former seminalists) to write another memorandum
as a counterattack which they called Le Manifeste des Bahutu (Hutu
manifesto) or note sur l’aspect social du problème racial indigène
au Rwanda. It was produced on 23rd March 1957. The signatories of this
memorandum included Grégoire Kayibanda, Joseph Habyarimana Gitera,
Calliope Murindahabi, Maximillian Niyonzima, Munyambonera Silvestre,
Ndahayo Claver, Sentama Godefroid and Sibomana Joseph among others.
They were majorly opposed to a memorandum called Mise au point.
In such a situation, the colonial power had successfully created a HutuTutsi conflict,
which had never been there before. Later, it became a barrier
to the unity of Rwandans. This prompted King Mutara III Rudahigwa to
establish a committee to study the “Muhutu-Mututsi social problem” on
30th March 1958. In June 1958, the conseil supérieur du pays produced
a reaction on the report established by the committee. They pointed
out that there was no Hutu– Tutsi problem that existed but a socialpolitical
problem on the level of political administration. This problem,
they concluded that, was not ethnic in nature. The conseil supérieur du
pays members moved on to demand the removal of the ethnic mention
in the identity cards. The situation intensified with the creation of political
parties in Rwanda competing for power. These political parties included:
• Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR).
The Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR), or Rwanda National Union Party,
was officially formed on 3rd September 1959. Its President was François
Rukeba. Its other leaders were Michel Rwagasana, Michel Kayihura, Pierre
Mungarurire and Chrisostome Rwangombwa among others. The party
was basically a nationalist, monarchist, anti-colonialist and reformist
party. It was formed to demand for immediate independence of Rwanda.
• Rassemblement Démocratique du Rwanda (RADER).

Rassemblement Démocratique du Rwanda (RADER) or Rwanda
Democratic Assembly, had the following members: Bwanakweli Prosper,
Ndazaro Lazarus, Priest Bushayija Stanslas and Etienne Rwigemera. This
Party was quite close to the colonial administration and the Catholic
Church. It was also democratic and advocated for constitutional monarchy.
Parti du Mouvement pour l’Emancipation Hutu
(PARMEHUTU).
Parti du Mouvement pour l’Emancipation Hutu (Movement for the
Emancipation of the Hutu) was formed in October 1959. It was officially
launched as a Party on 18th October 1959 with Grégoire Kayibanda as
its President. Other prominent members were Niyonzima Maximillien,
Ndahayo Claver, Murindahabi Calliope, Makuza Anastase, Rwasibo Jean
Baptiste and Dominique Mbonyumutwa. In the beginning, it seemed to
advocate for constitutional monarchy. However, later on, it advocated for
a republican state. On May 8th, 1960, while in its meeting at Gitarama, the
abbreviation of MDR (Mouvement Démocratique Républicain) was adopted
to PARMEHUTU.
Association pour la Promotion Social de la Masse
(APROSOMA).
APROSOMA stands for Association pour la Promotion Sociale
de la Masse (Association for Social Promotion of the Masses). It was
established on 1st November 1957 by Joseph Habyarimana Gitera. It
was launched officially as a political party on February 15th, 1959. Its
other influential members were Munyangaju Aloys, Gasigwa Germain
and Nizeyimana Isidore. The day-to-day activities of APROSOMA were
not far different from that of PARMEHUTU.

Besides the above national political parties, there existed other local
political clubs. Some of these were:

 AREDETWA: This stands for Association pour le Relèvement Démocratique
de Batwa (Association for Democratic Elevation of Batwa). It was founded
by Laurent Munyankuge from Gitarama. This party was later absorbed
by PARMEHUTU.
 APADEC: This stands for Association du Parti Démocratique
Chrétien (Association of Christian Democratic Party). Its founder was
called Augustin Rugiramasasu.
 UMUR: This stands for Union des Masses Rwandaises.
 UNINTERCOKI: This stands for Union des Intêréts Communs du Kinyaga.
 ABAKI: This stands for for Alliance des Bakiga.
 MEMOR: This stands for Mouvement Monarchiste Rwandais.
 MUR: This stands for Mouvement pour l’Union Rwandaise.

The formation of these political parties led to severel public political
gatherings. These gatherings were followed by violence. It explains the
subsequent violence that occurred in the years that followed. From 1st to
7th November 1959, violence broke out in Gitarama against the Tutsi and
the members of UNAR. This was started by the members of PARMEHUTU
and APROSOMA from Byimana in Marangara. Soon, it spread to Ndiza,
Gisenyi and Ruhengeri.
The origin of this violence was believed to be the attack of Dominique
Mbonyumutwa, a member of PARMEHUTU, (who was the chief of
Ndiza at that time). He was attacked by young UNAR members as he
was leaving Catholic Church service on November 1st, 1959 (All Saints Day)
at Byimana Parish, in the former prefecture of Gitarama in the present
day Ruhango District. Between 7thand 10th November 1959, there was
a counterattack prepared by the members of UNAR against the major
leaders of PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA. These attacks had been
hindered due to intervention of the Force Publique.
During that period, the resident representative Preud’homme had put
Rwanda under a military occupation regime. Colonel Guy Logiest was
dispatched from Stanleyville (Kisangani in Belgian Congo) and appointed
commander of the military forces which were operating in Rwanda at the
time on the 11th, November 1959.
This violence had various effects, which included:

a) Houses belonging to the Hutu and Tutsi were destroyed systematically.
b) Many Tutsi were killed, internally displaced and became refugees
in neighbouring countries like in Burundi, Uganda, Tanzania and
Belgian Congo.
c) There were arbitrary arrests, imprisonments and assassinations.
d) The twenty chiefs were dismissed, and 150 sub-chiefs replaced by
the The General Governor changed the title and became General
Resident
e) The sectors or sub-chiefdoms were reduced from 544 to 229. They
were renamed Communes headed by Bourgmestres thencommunal
elections were prepared.
f) The 10 Territoires become Prefectures headed by the Préfets who
were appointed.
g) The High Councils of the state was dissolved and replaced by a
Special Provisional Council comprising 8 members from 4 political
Parties namely RADER, PARMEHUTU, UNAR and APROSOMA. This
Special Provisional Council was formed on 4th February 1960 at
Kigali. King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa could not hide his hostility for
that council because it actually substituted his powers.
h) The chiefdoms or Districts were abolished.

From 26th to 30th July 1960, there were communal elections. The
following results were realised: PARMEHUTU obtained 70.4% equivalent
to 2,390 Communal Councilors, APROSOMA obtained 7.4% equivalent
to 233 Communal Councilors, RADER obtained 6.6% equivalent to 206
Communal Councilors and UNAR got 1.8% which was equivalent to 56
Communal Councilors. From these elections, PARMEHUTU got 166
Bourgmasters from which 21 were from APROSOMA, 18 from APROSOMAPARMEHUTU,
7 from RADER and 17 from different political parties.
In reference to these results, PARMEHUTU was declared the winner. In
the meantime, UNAR protested against these results and so did King
Kigeli V Ndahindurwa. For this reason, King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa on July
1960 was forced to go to Congo Belgian to meet the UN Secretary General
and as well as to attend Congo’s independence celebration. After these
elections, the Belgian Minister in charge of Ruanda-Urundi issued orders
stopping King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa from returning to Rwanda.
.This made the Resident General put in place a Provisional Government on
26th October 1960. This was made up of 10 Rwanda Ministers and 9 Belgian
State Secretaries. A few months later, on 28th January 1961, there a coup
at Gitarama, famously known as Coup d’Etat de Gitarama. During this time,
a meeting took place in a marketplace in Gitarama in which about 2,900
Councilors and Bourgmestres who had been elected from PARMEHUTU
and APROSOMA political parties participated.
With full support of the Belgian government, the following resolutions
were reached:
• The monarchy was abolished.
• The Kingdom emblem and the royal drum (Kalinga) was also abolished.
The Ubwiru institution was also abolished.
• Rwanda was officially declared a Republic.
• Mbonyumutwa Dominique was elected as the first President of the
Republic.
• There was the formation of a government made up of 11 ministers
with Grégoire Kayibanda as Prime Minister.
• There was to be a constitution and a judiciary based on the new
state.
In February 1961, the Belgian Trusteeship confirmed that regime and
transferred the power of autonomy to them. A new tri-colour flag of Red,
yellow and Green was exhibited on 26th February 1961. On September
25th, 1961, legislative elections and a referendum were organised and were
won by PARMEHUTU.It was declared that many voters voted ‘‘No’’ against
the monarchy and the candidature of King Kigeli V Ndahindurwa.

On 2nd October 1961, the legislative assembly was put in place. Grégoire
Kayibanda was elected the President of the Republic by the Legislative
Assembly headed by Joseph Habyarimana Gitera. On 1st July 1962, Rwanda
recovered its independence, and the Belgian flag was replaced by the
Rwandan flag. On 31st December 2001 a new Rwandan flag was launched.
Application Activity 8.3
1. Discuss the objectives of abolition of Ubuhake by King Mutara
III Rudahigwa
2. Describe the colonial exploitation mechanisms Present the
findings in class.
8.4. Effects of Belgian colonization in Rwanda
Learning Activity 8.4.
Assess the reforms made by Belgian colonial administrators between
1916-1962. Thereafter, make a presentation in class
1. Political effects.
a) Change in the traditional administration
Topic 9
Topic 10

Topic outline

Economic causes.

Social causes

Table of contents