History and Citizenship

Key unit competence:

Carry out research on collaboration and resistance. Then discuss the
African response to colonial rule.
7.1. Forms of African responses towards European colonial conquest

1. Make a discussion on the meaning of the following words:
2. Make presentation of your findings to the entire class
Different African societies reacted differently towards colonial rule. The
reactions depended on the circumstances that existed in such societies.
African response can be grouped into two main ways. These are:
7.1.1 Collaboration

In this case, African states and societies cooperated with the Europeans.
They even assisted them in the process of establishing colonial rule in
Africa. In other words, such African states welcomed Europeans and even

allowed them to settle in their societies.

The following were some of the African leaders who collaborated with
Europeans:

• Kabaka Mutesa I of Buganda
• Semei Kakungulu of Uganda
• King Lewanika of Lozi Empire (in present day Zambia)
• Jaja of Opobo (in present day Nigeria)
• Jaja of Opobo (in present day Nigeria)
• Gerere of Dahomey (in present day Benin)
• Merere of Nyamwezi (in present day Tanzania)Career collaboration. This concerned the people who were not traditional
political leaders but ordinary men who were more opportunists. They
chose to collaborate for political, prestigious and social reasons only.
Here, we can give an example of Ekinyajwi of Kenya, Nuwa Mbangula,
Appollo Kaggwa, Kakungulu in Uganda, etc.

Mercenary collaboration. This was the way where legitimate African
chiefs used work hand in hand with the foreign infiltrators in their
society. They gave the imperialists much of the necessary assistance
like military protection, land and food. For example, we can mention
Kasagama of Toro, Mwanga and Cwa of Buganda, Merere of Maraangu
and chiefs Lewanika and Lenana of Masai in Kenya.
 How Africans collaborated with European colonialists

Africans collaborated with Europeans in the following ways:

a) Signing treaties

The most common way of African collaboration was by signing treaties. All
these treaties were signed in favour and protection of European interests,
for example, giving them authority over land. For example, the Lochner

Treaty between Lewanika and British South Africa Company.

b) Provision of labour
Africans also collaborated by providing labour on European farms and
construction projects. Africans went ahead to mobilise fellow Africans to

work on European farms.

c) Provision of accommodation

Africans also collaborated by providing accommodation to the Europeans.
They also guided them through the areas which they did not know,

especially places that were not easy to locate.

d) Spread Christianity
Africans helped the Europeans to preach Christianity to fellow Africans.

Christianity softened their hearts, thus attracting more collaborators.

e) Helping in interpretation
African collaborators also served as interpreters to the European
colonialists. Some active collaborators were taught the European
languages. They went ahead to interpret to their counterparts who could

not understand the languages.

 Reasons for African collaboration

(a) Need for assistance against enemies.

African societies collaborated in order to get support from Europeans
against their enemies. They expected to get military assistance from the
Europeans, for example, Buganda against Bunyoro, and the Fante against
the Asante in present day Ghana. The Shona collaborated with the British

so as to use them against the Ndebele in Zimbabwe

(b) Weak military
Some other African societies were militarily weak. They realised that
Europeans had better weapons and methods of fighting. They also feared
to resist European rule since their resistance would not be successful. They
therefore decided to collaborate. Some communities chose friendship
as a way of protecting their social, economic and political organisation.
Examples include Mutesa I of Buganda, Maasai under Lenana, Rumanyika
of Karagwe and Tukolor of the Lozi.

(c) Natural calamities

Natural calamities such as drought, famine and diseases also forced
some African societies to collaborate. This is because they expected that
collaboration with Europeans would be a solution to their problems. For
instance, the Maasai had been weakened by smallpox, rinderpest and
internal conflict. On the other hand, the Banyankole were affected by
jiggers and rinderpest. They also feared more attacks from Rwanda and
Bunyoro. Such societies were too weak to fight the British. They chose to
collaborate to solve their problems.


(d) Personal interest

Some Africans collaborated because of personal interests and gains. They
were opportunists and excepted rewards from the colonial governments.
Others wanted to acquire wealth. They admired European goods such
as clothes, beads, guns, mirrors and wine. On the other hand, others
collaborated because they hoped to loot property after defeat of African
resisters. An example is Luo support against the Nandi. They wanted high
administrative posts. An example of such persons was Semei Kakungulu
of Buganda.
(e) Benefit from European openings

Other Africans collaborated because they wanted to benefit from
European trade (legitimate trade). They intended to acquire European
manufactured goods such as guns, clothes and glasses. An example of
such Africans was Jaja of Opobo. He collaborated with the French because
of trade benefits at the coast of West Africa.

(f) Influence of missionaries
Another reason was the influence of missionaries. The missionaries had
softened the hearts of Africans through their preaching. They used to
say, “We were all created in God’s image. Love one another as you love
yourself.” By the time European colonialists came, the Africans were ready
to practise Christianity.

(g) Ignorance

Africans collaborated due to ignorance of the real intentions of colonialists.
They believed that the Europeans were visitors who were in Africa for a

short while. Little did they know that they had come to stay.

Lack of African nationalism
Lack of African nationalism was also a reason. Some Africans did not have
nationalistic feelings. They therefore collaborated so as to fight fellow
Africans whom they considered their enemies.
(i) Effects of slave trade
There was also the issue of effects of slave trade. African societies that were
affected by slave trade collaborated because they wanted the Europeans
to stop the trade.(j) Desire for western civilisation
Some Africans collaborated with Europeans because they admired the
Western culture and civilisation.

(k) Succession disputes
There were also some succession disputes. Some kings collaborated
with Europeans in order to defeat their competitors. An example is King
Lenana of Maasai who collaborated with the British in order to defeat his

brother Sendeyo.

7.1.2 Resistance
Resistance refers to the situation where Africans opposed the
establishment of colonial rule in their societies. This implies that:
• Africans rejected the presence of foreigners in their societies and
fought against them.

• Africans refused to cooperate with Europeans as they (Europeans)

tried to impose their rule on their (Africans) societies.

Causes of resistance

• African societies resisted because some of their traditional enemies
 had collaborated with the Europeans. Therefore, they could not
 join their rivals. For example, the Asante resisted because the
 Fante collaborated. Bunyoro also resisted because Buganda had

 collaborated.

• Some African societies felt that they were militarily strong and could
therefore defeat the Europeans. For example, King Kabalega of
Bunyoro did not imagine that there was any force that could defeat

his own army.

• Other African communities had the desire to protect their trade
monopolies and commercial prosperity. They wanted to protect
their commercial benefits that they had gained from earlier trades.
Examples of such communities are the Hehe and the Ngoni who
had big influence in the long distance trade.
• Africans wanted to protect their cultural practices and customs.
They felt that Europeans were going to interfere with their culture
and customs such as polygamy. The Europeans considered such
practices primitive and barbaric.• Bad economic policies of Europeans such as forced labour, taxation
and land alienation annoyed Africans. These policies made Africans
to suffer, forcing them to resist.• Some African leaders were enlightened enough to realise the tri
and plans of Europeans in advance. This made them to resist straight
away.
For example, Menelik II of Ethiopia demanded writing of the treaty in two
languages.

• Africans resisted because they wanted to preserve political
independence of their territories. The African leaders feared to lose

their positions and power to the Europeans.

• The influence of African traditional religion also contributed to the
spirit of resistance in Africa. African traditional leaders preached to
the people against the Europeans. They said that their gods were not
happy because of the presence of foreigners on the African land. They
also said that occurrence of natural calamities such as prolonged
drought and diseases were caused by the whites.
• Some African societies resisted because they were economically
strong and required no assistance from the Europeans. For example,
Samori Toure had built a strong economy for Mandika Empire
through trade. This made him feel that he did not need any support
from the Europeans.

• Nationalism was also another reason for resistance. Africans resisted
because of a high spirit of nationalism for their societies and people.
This forced them to fight foreigners who occupied their land.

• Other Africans resisted because they were bandits and feared to
be punished by colonial governments. For example, the Nandi had
stolen materials for construction of the railway. They feared that they
would be punished by the British in case they found. They opted to
resist.



1. To understand the meaning of each form of collaboration,
your teacher will provide you with two stories of leaders who
collaborated. One will be of mercenery collaboration and the other
of career collaboration.With reasons, identify each type of collaboration the leaders in the
story were.2. Between resistance and collaboration, which one would you have
preferred if you lived in the 19th Century? Give reasons for your

choice. Make a presentation in class

7.2. Types and methods of resistances

1. Give the meaning of resistance as discussed in previous notes.

2. Discuss the methods that can be used to resist. 

Types of Resistance
Resistance can be divided into two types. These are:
• Active resistance

• Passive resistance

a) Active resistance

It is also called armed resistance. It involved the use of arms against the
colonisers. Examples of African leaders who actively resisted were:
(i) Samori Toure of Mandika
(ii) Menelik II of Ethiopia
(iii) Kabalega of Bunyoro

(iv) Kinjikitile Ngwale who led the Maji Maji rebellion.

b) Passive resistance

It refers to deliberate refusal by the Africans to cooperate with the
colonisers. For example, the Pogoro of Tanzania refused to pick cotton.
Some African communities resisted by refusing to pay taxes.

Passive resistance is also known as unarmed resistance or non cooperation.

Resistance can also be divided into two forms. These are:

- Primary resistance

This was direct confrontation by African communities at the invasion
of Europeans into their land. They used force to expel the Europeans
before they gained access to their land. A number of examples of primary
resistance can be cited where African reaction immediately followed the

arrival of Europeans.

- Secondary resistance
This was a way used by Africans by initially accepting the imperialists
to operate within their territories but later to rise against them after
understanding their intentions e.g Mwanga of Buganda and Nandi from
North Rift of Kenya

Methods of resistance

(a) Use of armed resistance
Some Africans took up arms against the colonialist. They faced the
colonialists in battlefields. Examples of those who used armed resistance
against colonialists are Maji Maji in Tanganyika, Nama-Herero in Namibia

and Shona-Ndebele in Zimbabwe.

(b) Strikes

Africans in different countries demonstrated against colonialists due to
colonial exploitation and harsh rule. Strikes included both peaceful and
violent ones in places such as mines and plantations.

(c) Boycotts

Africans boycotted in the following manners:

(i) Refusing to buy European goods
(ii) Failing to attend European schools, churches and hospitals
The aim of the boycotts was to ensure that Europeans made losses in their
businesses. This was one way of forcing them to grant independence to

Africans.

(d) Formation political parties

Several African elites formed political parties such as African National
Congress by Nelson Mandela in South Africa. Dr Kwame Nkrumah of
Ghana formed Conventional People’s Party. All acted as uniting factor for

Africans to fight against colonial rule.

(e) Forming African Independent churches

Africans also formed independent African churches such as Ethiopian,
Messianic and Zionist churches. The churches cited exploitation in
European led churches. They cited the following cases:
(i) High baptism dues
(ii) Forced tithing.

(iii) Lack of promotion to high position of priest hood

(f) Use of diplomacy

This was a non-violent approach. Africans negotiated with Europeans for
fairness in administration. They also wrote letters to colonial governments
to grant Africans independence. A good example of a country which used

diplomacy is Ghana.

(g) Formation of trade unions
These were labour organisations formed to help workers get fair pay and
good treatment at work. Trade unions later acted as political parties and
demanded for political independence. Formation of Pan-Africanism
This was an organisation that was formed by Africans in Africa and Africans
in the Diaspora. It was formed by Dr Marcus Garvey and W.E.B Dubois.
It called for speeding up the process for independence and agitated for

‘Africa for Africans’

(i) Liberation wars

There were also guerrilla movements started by Africans such as Jonas
Savimbi of Angola, initially member of MPLA (Popular Movement for
Liberation of Angola) before forming UNITA(Union Nationale pour
l’Independence Totale de l’Angola/ the National Union for the Total
Independence of Angola) and Eduardo Mondlane founded FRELIMO
(Front for Liberation of Mozambique) in Mozambique. All this pressurised

colonial masters.

1. Research about forms of resistances and give examples for each.
2. By using a table, identify the reasons for collaboration and the
reasons for resistance.

Present the findings in class.

7.3. Consequences of African resistances

Discuss the effects of any resistance.
Note: Generally, all African resistance cases ended up to a failure (except
in Ethiopia). Several factors contributed much to the occurrence of
this phenomenon.

The effects of Africa resistance can be divided into both negative and

positive as discussed below:

  Negative effects of African resistance

• Loss of lives: many people died while fighting or from diseases
brought by colonialists such as smallpox.

• Depopulation: caused by the loss of lives due to the fighting because
where Africans tried to resist, Europeans reacted by killing them
massively. It was also due to displacement of people who were flying
from the battlefield.

• Destruction of property: due to the fighting between Africans and
Europeans, there was destruction of properties such as houses, crops
and villages, etc.

• Famine: because of insecurity and instability, economic activities
were disrupted, and people could not provide themselves with foods
and essential items. In some cases, this famine was also caused by
military tactics like “scorched earth policy” used by the Germans in
Tanganyika.

• Spread of diseases and other epidemics: This was due to the
presences unburied bodies and by the fact that people were living in

forests because their houses had been destroyed. 

African submission to colonial policies: Some native people accepted
to go and work for the Whites on their roads, farms and railways

construction and other projects.

• Increase of European settlements in Africa: after defeating African
resistances, Africa was secured, and this encouraged other European
to come massively to settle in peaceful African regions.

• Land alienation: Because of the end of the war of resistance, many
Europeans settled in Africa which increased the confiscation of the
land of the Africans. For instance, Zimbabwe still has a very large
population of Whites.

• African culture and customs were disrupted by the European culture
through the educational system and spread of Christianity.

• There was a division of African culture. Rivals were united while
kinship and family members were split because of the artificial

boundaries. This caused a great amount of tension within regions.

Positive effects of African resistance

• As a result of African resistance, European colonialists put efforts to
improve colonies and resulted in improved sanitation and education.
Hospitals, schools, and factories were built creating more jobs for the
people of Africa and also the conditions of work improved because
forced labour was abolished in some colonies like in Tanganyika after
Maji Maji.
The amount of local warfare was reduced greatly due to control of
the African government by Europeans. This brought political stability
in many African states.

• Order and peace were brought to the colonies because the Europeans
intensified security in their colonies after recognising that Africans
had the potential to resist their rule.

The average life expectancy increased as a result of combined factors
like improved health facilities, peace and order that were intensified after
African resistance

• Literacy rates rose because in very many African resistances, the
Africans lost the battle and therefore had to succumb to the European
civilisation including religion and education.

• Rise of African nationalism: the rebellion provided a lesson to the
Africans because the patriotic and national consciousness was
implanted in these people who participated in the revolt and later
used as base for future nationalist.

• Spread of Christianity: Traditional religion lost its credibility among
the Africans because of its defeat after the execution of its leaders. 
Thus, this opened chance for the spread of Christianity.


Group the effects of resistance into positive and negative effects using
a table. 
7. 4: Samori Toure’s resistance.

Make research on internet or use textbooks and answer the following
questions.

Make a presentation in class.

Samori Toure was born in 1830 in Manyambaladugu, a village southeast
of Kankan in present-day Guinea. Samori was a great warrior who
fought imperialism in the 19th Century. He refused to submit to French

colonisation. He chose to fight.

Toure became a well known leader, training and commanding a growing
and disciplined army. He expanded his conquests, building a united
empire called Mandika. By 1874, he declared himself Faama (monarch).
He established the capital of his kingdom at Bisandugu in present-day
Gambia in the 1880s. The empire covered Bamako, Sierra Leone, the Ivory

Coast and Liberia.

On 1st May 1898, the French seized the town of Sikasso. Toure and his

army took up positions in the Liberian forests to resist.

The causes of Samore Toure’s resistance

- Samori Toure defended Mandika independence from being
colonized by the French.

- Defense of Islam since the French colonialists were Christians while
the Mandika were Muslims. Consequently, resisting them was a
purposeful action to defend Islamic state against infidels.

The French colonial administration was very oppressive and
repressive as it was in Algeria and Senegal.- Samori Toure defended the land from the French settlers because
they were looking for the fertile soils which were under the ownership
of the Malinke people. Samori Toure wanted to conclude an alliance
with the British because he had shown the willingness to hand over
his empire to the British protection other than the French.

- Samori Toure defended Mandika culture which the French were
set to destroy and replace it with the French culture through their
policy of Assimilation. attack and when Toure
found out he dissolved the treaty he had concluded with Sikasso
and attacked them before it was too late. Unfortunately, Samori
Toure was defeated.

- False foreign support because Samori Toure had been falsely
encouraged by the military support had expected from the British,
Creoles of Sierra Leone and Tokolor against the French. However,
they had betrayed him when they left him alone in the battleground.

- Samori Toure defended trade because the French domination
would monopolize the trade in the empire by out competing the

Mandika merchants.

Europeans were exploitative in nature; they subjected Africans to
forced labor, over taxation and its brutal collection like the hut tax
in Sierra Leone. Aware of this nature of Europeans, Samori Toure of

Mandika had to resist.

Why did Samori Toure resist the French for long?

He used good methods of fighting which included guerrilla warfare
and scorched earth policy. His army destroyed crops, granaries of
food, houses and poisoned water before retreating. This made the
French lack supplies. He also used guerrilla warfare to avoid direct

battles with the French.

He had a very powerful army. It was large, well equipped and well

trained. His army consisted of 30,000-35,000 soldiers.

He had strong weapons and large in number. He also had his own
workshops where his skilled blacksmith produced weapons such as
shields, arrows and spears. He also acquired guns from the coastal
traders and the British.• Strong unity and support of his citizens and conquered states enabled
him to resist for long. The Mandinka and people from conquered

states supplied him with food and joined his army against the French.

Islam also played a very important role. All the Mandika people
were Muslims and religion acted as a uniting factor. This unity of the

Mandika enabled them to support Toure against the French.

He used diplomacy too. For example, he allied with the British in
Sierra Leon who continued supplying him with weapons that he
used to fight the French. His relationship with the British scared the

French.

Geographical factors also favoured him. The Mandinka were fighting
on a home ground that they understood very well. On the other hand,
the French were fighting on a foreign land and became challenged.

• He had a reliable spy network. Toure had a spy network system
composed of Dyulla traders, his old-time friends. The spies provided
him with information concerning French advances to his empire.
This helped him prepare in advance before the French attacks.

• The personality and character of Samori Toure played a role. He was a
military genius and personally commanded his army. He was a brave
soldier. This made him to challenge the French troops for long in the

Mandinka Empire.

Conduct research to find out more about reasons that led to the conflict
between Samori Toure and the French

Prepare a report for presentation in class.

7.5. The Maji Maji Rebellion in Tanzania

Do research to find out.
1. The meaning of the Maji Maji

2. The different tribes that join Maji Maji rebellion

Maji is a Swahili word which means water. It came from the prophecy
of a traditional religious leader called Kinjikitile Ngwale. Kinjikitile mixed
some water with millet and sorghum flour then sprinkled on African
soldiers. He believed that the magic water would protect Africans from
bullets of the Germans. This was a reaction of Africans living in southeast
Tanganyika against the German colonial masters. Many tribes joined
this rebellion. The tribes included the Mbuga, Wangindo, Ngoni, Bena,

Zaramo, Mafumbi, Makonde, Ngindo and Urugulu.

Causes of the Maji Maji rebellion
(a) Rise of nationalism among Africans.
The societies of southern Tanganyika developed too much hatred for
the Germans and their rule because of their brutality, forced labour and
disrespect of African culture among others. They decided that the only
way to have independence was through a rebellion.
(b) Heavy taxation.
The German administration introduced taxation as a way of forcing the
Africans to work on European farms. Africans (Ngoni, Ngindo, Zaramo,
Matumbi, Pogoro, Lungura, Ndendeule, Mpunga and Bena) rebelled
as a way of saving themselves from the heavy taxes that were imposed
on them by the Germans. Not only were the taxes heavy but even the

methods of collection were harsh and brutal.

(c) Loss of land to Germans.

The Germans had grabbed the fertile land belonging to Africans, for
example, within the rift valley and Mahenge plateau. In those two areas,
the Germans established plantations. This compelled Africans to rebel so

as to regain their land.

(d) Forced labour policies.

Africans were forced to work on German construction projects such as
railways and roads. They were also forced to work in the cotton plantations.
Africans were made to work for long hours and were given small wages.
Sometimes they would work with no pay. This annoyed Africans and they

decided to fight the Germans.

(e) The oppressive German rule.

The Germans employed Arab-Swahili as headmen (Jumbes) and chiefs
(Akidas) to assist in the administration. These Akidas and Jumbes were
very harsh to the African communities. They had no respect for the African
traditional rulers, and they flogged them in public. Germans used Akidas
and Jumbes who were unpopular among the African societies. They were
unpopular because they had mistreated people before. They were harsh
in the implementation of German rule. They had no respect for the African

traditional rulers and at times flogged them in public.

(f) Need to revenge on the Germans.
Some African societies like the Ngoni joined the Maji Maji so as to revenge
the Boma massacres of 1897. In this incident, Ngoni leaders were tricked
by the German officials into entering a ‘boma’ or fort. Once inside, the
Germans tried to arrest them and in the ensuing struggle, many people

died.

(g) Role of Kinjikitile Ngwale.

Kinjiketile Ngwale mobilised people in 1904. He sent messengers to the
surrounding country to train people. He spread the power of ‘magic
water’ from River Rufiji which inspired many people to join the rebellion.
The water, they believed, had powers of turning bullets into water. People
did not have any fear for the German bullets. The belief in the water gave
the warriors courage to face the Germans despite the fact that the latter

were better armed.

Need to preserve the African culture.
Africans wanted to retain their culture as the German administration
had disrupted the way of life of the African people. Germans also had no
respect for African culture and customs. They and their servants raped
Ngindo women, an offence that was punishable by death. They also burnt

African shrines. This annoyed the Africans.

(i) Outbreak of natural calamities.
There was an outbreak of natural calamities such as famine in 1905 in the
southeast Tanganyika states. The famine led to resentment among the
locals. Such calamities caused Africans to suffer. They were attributed to
the presence of Germans on their land.(j) Overthrowal of native leaders.
Due to the German colonial policy of direct rule, many native African
leaders lost their power to German administrators. African leaders such
as Mkwawa and Mifambo were replaced with Akidas and Jumbes. These
Akidas and Jumbes were harsh to the African communities whom they
considered backward and illiterate. Many Africans were not happy.

 They therefore joined the rebellion as a way of restoring their leaders.

• Analyse the effects of the Maji Maji rebellion.

• Prepare a report for presentation in class discussion

7.6. Buganda collaboration: Kabaka Mutesa

Research on reasons that pushed King Kabaka Mutesa to collaborate.

Present in class.

Buganda was one of the largest, best organised and most powerful
kingdoms in Eastern Africa in the 19th Century. The reaction of Buganda
leaders to the establishment of colonial rule varied. Some resisted
at one time, but others collaborated at another time depending on

circumstances.

Kabaka Mutesa collaborated with the Europeans. He collaborated with
the Europeans for the following reasons:

1. Explain, with examples, how Africans responded to European
colonialism.
2. Explain the causes of African resistance to colonial rule.
3. Define the term collaboration.

4. Describe how Africans collaborated with European colonialists.