History

Religious life of Christians in medieval and modern times

Christians in the medieval and modern times have been greatly influenced by the teachings of the founder of the religion, Jesus Christ. In between, other cultural influences have equally impacted on Christianity.Early Christians shared a common faith in the teachings of Christ. They also had a common way of worship. Gradually the communities organised a structured church.Jesus of Nazareth was a historical person unlike mythic heroes who were said to have founded the other religions e.g., the Egyptian Osiris or the Greek Cybele.

Later, Jesus’ followers called him “Christos” or Messiah.Around, 26 C.E, Christ was introduced to the teachings of John the Baptist. The same year, Pontius Pilate was appointed governor of Judaea. The following years saw Christ get many followers who believed he was the son of God and the long awaited Messiah, as he claimed to be. He followed the Jewish traditions and law where it did not conflict with his conscience. On the law, he differed with the traditional rabbis by following the spirit than the letter of the Jewish law.

This was further compounded by Jesus’ insistence that although he was a messiah, his, was a heavenly kingdom rather than the earthly one expected by most Jews.Jesus’ message revolved around faith in God, hope in his mercy to secure salvation and love of one’s fellow human beings.The Gospels (Good News) of Mathew, Mark, Luke and John, the four evangelists, were the original foundations of Christianity.

These books were written and collected in the late first century C.E along with the letters of Paul which had been written to the communities he had founded in the eastern Mediterranean. Paul’s letters incorporated Greek philosophy – ideas of Plato, Stoics and other Greek thinkers – something which made them be popular with the educated Romans. These joined to the poor, humble and oppressed persons who had found Christianity’s teaching appealing. By the second century, a written New Testament had appeared that was accepted by all Christians.

This largely superseded the Old Testament which had formed the core of the Jewish religious practices. Apart from the gospels, and the other books in the New Testament the writings of Bishops, such as Augustine of Hippo (North Africa) and Ambrose of Milan, formed the secondary foundation of the Christian faith. The gospels, of course were the primary one.

For example, Augustine’s “confessions” and “The city of God” have been the most important repositories of Christian teaching after the Gospels.By the early fifth century, Christianity was quite influential in the declining Roman Empire.

It provided the land with a new system of morality and ethics that challenged the previously widely held view in the empire. After Theodosius’s reign (378-395), the Imperial government became a Christian entity. The faith thus controlled the earthly kingdom as it equally laid claim to the heavenly one. This brought a blending between the Christian and pagan world views. Roman influences were thus to find their way into Christianity.

Generally, the Early Christian church had the following hallmarks:

Patterns of life and worship

For one to be a Christian, he or she had to renounce evil in the rite of baptism. This is what is referred to by Christians today as ‘being born again’. Early Christians, like today, believed that by undergoing baptism, their sins were forgiven by the grace of God. All Christians viewed themselves as equal, and addressed one another as ‘brother’ or ‘sister’.

Christians gathered each Sunday for a ceremony of giving thanks to God. Those who had undergone through baptism ate bread and drank wine in a sacred meal called the Eucharist. This was done in memory of Jesus, whose last supper was described in the gospels. Such practices made many educated Romans, who still could not bring themselves to adopt the new faith, to regard it as a mixture of superstition and cannibalism (the host, or Eucharist).

Role of women

Christianity taught equality of the sexes. This made many women to find it attractive. The church teemed with women who had been attracted by its teaching of that in it. According to Christianity teachings, all people whether male or female are equal in the eyes of God.

As a consequent, women served in the church as teachers and administrators. Later they were barred from carrying out any official role in the church. Within its first two centuries, the church restricted membership in the clergy to men. This did not discourage women from helping in the expansion of the church.

Structure of the church

Each Christian community had its own priests who in turn were under the authority of a bishop who controlled a diocese. At this early time, only men were allowed to become members of the Christian clergy. Out of the many bishops, with time, those of the big cities (such as Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem and Constantinople), gained greater authority. This made them to get the honorary title of patriarch. They exercised authority over other bishops in their area even though all the bishops traced spiritual authority from the apostles, and ultimately to Jesus himself.

Belief system

Christians believed that Jesus was the Messiah they had been promised by prophets in the Old Testament. They also believed that upon crucifixion, the “son of God” as they called him, resurrected. This strengthened their belief in life after death. Christianity was thus seen as a ticket to eternal life. Many people wanted this life. People could get salvation or be saved from sin and allowed to enter heaven where they would join God in everlasting life.

There was a strong faith in Jesus among the early Christians. This made them to begin to understand God in a new way. Like other Jews, Christians believed in the God of Israel and studied the Hebrew Bible. Unlike the Jews, Christians believed that God existed in three persons: Father, son and Holy Spirit. This is what today is known in the Church as the Holy Trinity. Further, Christians, unlike the other religions with the exception of Judaism, believed in the existence of one God. This was in sharp contrast to what was in practice in Rome, where an emperor was considered to be god and therefore could be worshipped.

Christians, like Jews, could not accept this. Christians also refused to serve in the army or hold public office. This was to the annoyance of the Roman authorities. Added to the Christians’ criticisms of Roman festivals and games, the Romans saw them as traitors who should be punished. Their call of each other as “brother” and “sister” was interpreted as a sign of sexual pervasion. This is what opened the floodgates to their persecution from 64 A.D by the Roman government during the reign of Emperor Nero. Christianity was banned and many of its followers were killed.Undeterred, many Christians accepted to die due to their faith. People who give themselves to be persecuted or die for their faith are called martyrs.

The martyrs swelled in numbers day in, day out. As if this was not enough, in Rome, the authorities forced them to bury their dead in catacombs (underground burial places). The faith still spread in spite of all these hardships. As a result, after A D 250, many Romans grew tired of war and feared the end of their empire. They began to admire the faith and courage of Christians. Interestingly, many Christians equally began to accept the empire. It was in this background that Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity in A. D 312.

Use of icons by Christians

The division of the Roman Empire into East and West also affected the Christian community. Each side saw the development of the church differently. The empire in the east was known as the Byzantine. In 700s AD, a major dispute divided the church. This was brought by the use of icons. The icons in dispute were pictures or images of Jesus, Mary (mother of Jesus), and the saints, or Christian holy people. Many in the eastern empire honoured icons. These were used in covering the walls of churches. A few important icons were even believed to work miracles. To some people in the Christian community in the east, icons were a form of idol worship.

They needed to be expunged from the church as Christianity had no room for such worship. There was thus two opposing camps. To the supporters of icons, they were symbols of God’s presence in their daily life. They also argued that the icons helped explain Christianity to the people. To the other side, they were a form of idol worship – something unacceptable in Christianity.

The issue of icons in the church sucked in even the Roman authorities. Emperor Leo III was against the use of icons in the church. He banned them in A D 726. Many people in his eastern empire, church leaders and even the pope and patriarch of Constantinople did not approveof the development. It affected the relationship between the churches in Rome and Constantinople. Use of icons in the church only became acceptable throughout the Christian community over the next 100 years after A.D 726.

Emergence of monasteries and convents

Monasteries emerged in the eastern Roman Empire in AD 300s. Men called monks stayed together in religious communities called monasteries. Some of these developed near cities while others sprung in isolated places.

Monks led a spiritual life detached from the temptations of the world. Many also tried to do good deeds and be examples of Christian living. Women soon followed the example of monks and formed communities of their own called convents. Women who lived in convents are known as nuns. Some even built churches and hospitals as they spread the faith in different parts. Monks and nuns were a feature of Christianity in both the western and eastern empires. Those living in the monasteries and converts gave up their belongings, lived simply and spent their time in prayer and work. They also began to play important roles in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox life. Many ran hospitals, and schools and even helped the poor. Other than these responsibilities, one of their important duties was to serve as missionaries. This led them into helping to spread the faith.

Changes brought by Christianity

Activity 7.2

Split yourselves into two groups;

1. In your groups discuss the changes brought about by christianity.

2. Write down your findings.

3. Present them in class followed by questios and answer sessions.

Christianity visited many changes in peoples’ lives from the medieval period to the present. Some fundamental ones include:

• Belief in one God.

• Belief in the Trinity – God the father, the son and the Holy Spirit.

• Loving God and your neighbor (i.e. others) the way one loves the self.

• Belief in salvation and eternal life to those who accept the faith.

• Forgiveness to ones’ enemies.

• Observation of justice in an individual’s life.

• Following a morally upright life and ending wickedness.

• Belief in life after death.

• Belief in punishment for those who fail to repent and death for sinners.

• Leading a humble life i.e. humility.

• Equality of humanity.

• Promotion of social justice by providing a combination of spiritual food, education and medicine to people.

Origin, spread and effects of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world

Activity 7.3

Using the Internet and textbooks;

1. Research on the origin, spread and effects of christianity in Europe and the rest of the world.

2. Summarise your points and write them down in a notebook.

3. Share them in a class discussion.

Origin of Christianity

Christianity was founded by Jesus Christ of Nazareth over 2,000 years ago. Jesus was a Jew who was born in Bethlehem. Upon attaining 30 years of age, he began his public life which involved preaching about the way God wanted human beings to act towards one another. He made many followers who believed in his teachings and actions. He was the Son of God but born through Mary and Joseph. Jesus was born at about 4 BC at almost the same time Rome took over the Jewish Kingdom. He was thus both a Jew and a Roman subject.

He was born during the reign of Emperor Augustus. Information on him is found in the four Gospel books in the Bible, which are; Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.According to the gospels, Jesus grew up in the village of Nazareth in northern Palestine. It is said that each year he went with his parents, Joseph and Mary, to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. This is a Jewish ceremony which commemorated the Israelites’ exodus from slavery in Egypt. During the visits, Jesus displayed an amazing knowledge of religious matters which impressed Jewish scholars of the time.

Jesus began to attract large crowds through his teachings, especially when word went round that he performed miracles of healing. This made his followers to equate him with the legendary Messiah or anointed King sent by God to lead the Jewish people to freedom. They even said that before conception, an angel called Gabriel told Jesus’ mother that she would give birth to the Messiah. “He will be great,” said the Angel, “and will be called the Son of the Most High God.”

Mary’s pregnancy was believed to have been supernatural. She did not conceive with Joseph because she was a virgin.Paul of Tarsus, a Jew and a Roman citizen did much to spread Christianity in the Roman Empire. He travelled extensively in Eastern Mediterranean spreading the faith. The letters he wrote constitute the earliest Christian writings. His interpretation of Christ’s teachings, which divorced it from following the Jewish traditions, enabledit to spread widely in the non Jewish communities. He argued that Christ had brought the one detailed in the Hebrew Bible.Christianity was further buoyed by Emperor Constantine’s conversion to the faith.

The emperor made efforts to see the faith embedded in the Roman Empire e.g. through the Edict of Milan, all forms of religious worship were legalized in the empire. Constantine reached the decision with his co-ruler, Licinius. The Edict made the faith be granted imperial recognition in the Roman world. Many Roman emperors took to Christianity after the end of Constantine’s’ reign. The faith thus received official support, and spread in most parts of the empire – Europe included.

Spread of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world

The support Christianity get from the Roman emperors greatly contributed to its spread in areas under Roman Ruler. Most of these lands were in Europe and to some extent Asia and parts of Africa. Christianity with the political backing from the Roman rulers grew rapidly with time. It was the religion of choice of people in various parts of the world.When Christ died, the Church was thrown into a moderate inactivity. But the news of the resurrected Christ and then the Pentecost event, transformed disciples into bold evangelists.

The disciples gave the church the solid foundation upon which later, apostles like Paul were to spread it beyond the Jewish lands. The church penetrated deeply into Europe, Asia and Africa, only those land masses and Islands which could not be reached easily by sailing ships could not be reached by Christian missionaries.The history of Christianity can be divided into three periods – expansion, persecution and consolidation.

Expansion (30 - 65 AD)

This period witnessed spread of Christianity from Jerusalem to other parts of the world starting with Rome. They took a threefold approach at this time: Kerygma(proclamation of gospel message),did ache (further teaching and explanation of Christianity to new converts who had accepted the Kerygma) and finally, the worship and liturgical activity of the early communities gathered together especially to celebrate the supper of the Lord.

Persecution (AD 65 -90)

The first period of expansion ended in 65 AD. By 70 AD persecution of Christians commenced. Life for Jews and Christians alike become unbearable in the Roman Empire. Inspite of this, Christians were buoyed by the belief in Christ. They soldiered on.

A host of Roman emperors led in Persecution of Christians. It began with emperor Nero (54 -68 AD) then came Decius (250 -251 AD), Galerius (who was in charge of the Eastern part of the Roman empire during the reign of emperor Diocletian (284- 305 AD). There were equally those emperors who supported Christianity. The most notable one was Constantine (312 -337 AD). Others were Valerian (251-260 AD) Diocletian (284 -305 AD) and lastly Theodosius I.

The emperors who supported Christianity greatly contributed to its spread in the Roman Empire which strode Europe and some parts of Asia and Africa.During the period of persecution, the Christians were outlawed and hunted down like criminals. Many were killed due to their faith. Many Christians were undeterred by the persecutions and they remained steadfast in their spread of the faith. They produced written gospel literature during this time. The presence of eyewitnesses and the excellent uncluttered memories of those times were sufficient enough.

The recording of the teachings of Christ was partly necessitated by the disappearance of the eyewitnesses due to persecution of Christians thus making them disappear at an alarming rate. Peter and Paul, who were some of the disciples of Jesus Christ, were killed in Rome for their faith and another disciple by the name of James was killed in Jerusalem. Apart from the killing, Christianity was also under the threat from new ideas and heresies. All this made recording of the story and teachings of Christ very important. It would provide a fixed, written definitive account, which would be available for the increasing number of converts.

The Gospel of Mark opened the floor to others. Mark was the disciple and interpreter of Peter. He thus recorded Peter’s preaching. Luke was also to do the same for Paul. The Gospel of Luke and Mathew were written towards the end of A.D 96. Mathew had a Jewish audience in mind while Mark, had a Roman one. Luke on the other hand had a Gentile world in mind. He sought to put straight on Christianity amidst the hostility, false accusations and misunderstanding which Christians aroused.

Consolidation (AD 90 on wards)

The early Church survived the first persecutions and now settled down to the long centuries of consolidation and development. During this period, the church was growing rapidly.By the mid-second century, it had reached the north coast of Africa at least as far as Carthage. This was a time for deeper reflection on the meaning of the Gospel as is recorded in John’s Gospel.

It was also time for concern about matters of order and discipline for correcting irregularities, both of belief and of conduct in the church.After the fall of Jerusalem, the Jewish Rabbis (scholars and teachers of law) established a school for intensive study of the Torah or Jewish religious laws and doctrines at Jamnia about ten miles south of Joppa. At this time Christians were excluded from the Jewish Synagogues. In addition, there was no fixed Hebrew Canon or list of Old Testament books, already in Palestine there was popular acceptance of 22 or 24 books.

The early Christians who spoke Greek used the Greek translation of the Bible (the Septuagint) which included the Deuteronomical Books (the Apocrypha). The New Testament document began gradually to be collected together and to be accepted as part of scripture with the OldTestamentChristians soon spread and reached far flung areas. Acts 2:9 observes that it was soon in the lands of Parthians and Medes and Elamites and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya belonging to Cyrene and visitors from Rome, both Jews and Prosilyyes, Cretans and Arabians. These were people of diverse cultures but Christianity gained ground in spite of the cultural differences.In the non-Jewish areas the early Christians did not impose Jewish traditions on the new converts. The Christian message was thus quite distinct from its cultural envelope.

Christianity was established from roots in the Roman Empire before it spread to other areas.The empire was vast and quite expansive. It stretched from Spain in the west to Armenia in the East, from Britain in the North to Egypt in the South.Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Persian Empire around 4th Century BC, saw Christianity reach new lands. Pax Romana (Peace brought by Romans) gained a foothold in virtually all the areas where the Roman rule was experienced. They also brought law and order, which enabled harmony and prosperity to be a regular feature in the areas.Jesus Christ’s command to his followers to “Go into the world and preach a Gospel to every creature” has greatly informed the spread of Christianity.

The command has been accomplished through missionary work from the medieval to modern era.Missionary activity became fully established in Asia in the 13th and the 14th centuries. John of Montecorvino (1247 -1328) was among the earliest missionaries to spread Christianity in India and China. He belonged to the order of Franciscans hence strictly followed the teachings of St Francis of Assisi. John took time to spread the faith in the Madras region of India.

Later he travelled to Beijing in China. Through the efforts of Missionaries, the Catholic Church was already establishing a foothold in Japan by the 1500s. The Jesuits (members of a Catholic group called the society of Jesus) were a powerful force in the Missionary work in Asia and New World.In the New World, Spain and Portugal led in missionary activity. Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries had a strong preserve in Latin America. They evangelized to the Maya, Aztecs Inca and other Native American groups.

Like it was later to happen in Africa and in most of Latin America, the flag followed the cross. Christianity was thus intertwined with Imperialism. Through this, the whole of the American continent witnessed the spread of the faith.Europe saw the emergence of Monasteries. These greatly helped in the spread of Christianity in the continent. Monks and nuns (the latter lived in converts) were actively involved in spreading the faith in Europe.

Priests also joined them. The three groups were responsible for the development of the Church after the fall of the Roman Empire. A few examples of personalities who contributed to this area: St. Patrick who set out to convert people in Ireland; Pope Gregory I who in 597 AD decided to send Christianity to England. The English King’s Conversion to Christianity made the subjects to follow suit over the next century, most of England became Christian. Conversion of England owed more to Irish monks. In Eastern Europe, in the 700s and 800s, Roman Catholic monks competed with orthodox missionaries to convert the Slavic. Through the initiation of Kings and rulers, Christianity was spread by missionaries to Bohemia, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Russia and Prussia.

This made the Celtic Germanic and Slavic people.Netherland and Germany saw St Boniface spread the faith in the areas. The people embraced the message of both hope and fear that the Christians brought. This with time made most parts of Europe to adopt the faith. The church divided in 451 AD into oriental Orthodoxy and Chalcedonian Christianity. The latter further divided into the Roman Catholic Church division in 1054.

Later, in the 1500s the protestant Reformation created new Christian communities that saw further division of the Catholic Church into different denominations. The spread of Christianity was greatly facilitated by the explorations which took place from the Renaissance onwards. Crusades which were waged by Europeans enabled the faith to spread to several non-Christian lands, mostly those with Muslims in Europe and beyond.

Effects of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world

Christianity gained a foothold in Europe and later the rest of the world. Originally a Jewish based faith; it was embraced by many non-Jews in Europe, Asia and later other lands. Its effects in Europe include the following:

Emergence of monotheism

Previously communities were polytheists. It was Christianity which brought the belief in one supreme God. It preached against the existence of many gods and goddesses. The Christian God was all-powerful and was believed to have been the creator of everything in the universe and beyond. The God also controlled the world and its inhabitants.

Belief in salvation

Christianity brought individualism in humanity’s relationship with God. An individual was required to receive salvation in order to enter the heavenly kingdom. This was to be seen in ones’ behaviour both to God and secondly, to fellow human beings. Good behaviour thus became a practice in society.

Promotion of justice in society

The pillar of Christ’s teachings was justice. All Christians were expected to be just in all their dealings. As a result, Christians developed a just society where the interests of all were respected.

Promotion of equality in society

Christians did not tolerate discrimination. Discrimination of women slaves, non-Jews and later racism, was not encouraged. People were treated as equals in spite of their differences.

Promotion of social services

Christians strongly believed in serving others. From an early time, Christian monks and nuns traversed different parts of the world spreading spiritual, physiological and mental food. They spearheaded provision of medical, educational and other social services in lands where they spread their faith. In Africa and many parts of Asia, it was the missionaries who opened up services. In both the Middle Ages and later, education became a path for upward mobility and employment. This was first done by Cathedral schools which later developed into universities e.g. University of Paris.

Development of infrastructure

Christianity played a big role in infrastructural development. Roads and buildings were constructed in different parts of the world courtesy of the missionaries. Christians travelled to remote areas which were lacking infrastructure. They helped stimulate the making of such areas accessible. Christianity’s working closely with government from the Roman era into the later years made infrastructural development possible. Christians also pioneered the development of new architectural designs. Some of these were especially noticeable in the church development. For example Gothic architecture in France. This style is noted for vertical height, flying arches and supporting buttresses. There were many Gothic Cathedrals in different parts of Europe.

Promotion of Western culture

Originally, Christianity was Jewish in cultural orientation. This however changed when most of Europe embraced the faith. The western world gave Christianity some aspects of its culture. These came to be part and parcel of the faith. Today, most of these cultural practices have been adopted by Christians in different parts of the world. Christianity equally evolved its unique culture, e.g., it came up with the Eucharist – these involved converts taking the blessed bread and wine. It was a symbol of God’s sacrifice for unity with his people.

Encouragement of trade and urbanisation

During the crusades, Christians evolved commercial relations with the Muslim states they waged the war against. Mostly, the crusades stimulated the demand for luxury goods. Population of towns increased thus leading to rapid urbanization.

Adoption of new ideas

The interaction between the Christians and Muslim groups during the crusades enabled Muslim ideas to find their way in Europe. In an equal measure, western ideas found their way in the areas traversed by the Christian traders, e.g., New translations of texts by Aristotle, texts on astronomy, numerals and paper, made their way across the trade routes.

Apart from the positive consequences, Christianity also visited negative consequences to Europe and the rest of the world. The following were the main ones:

Loss of lives and destruction of property

Christians organized crusades against the non-adherents to the faith. This involved waging wars which brought untold suffering, loss of lives and destruction of property to the victims. The crusades took place in the 11th and 12th centuries. They were holy wars sponsored by the Pope to recover holy land from the Muslims. These crusades grew partially out of long conflicts between Muslims and Christians in Spain. The crusaders believed they would receive spiritual merit and earn a place in paradise.

Discrimination in society

Even though Christianity taught on equality of persons, the Christians discriminated the non-Christians in variously ways. Many non-Christians were excluded from certain privileges. This in itself was discriminative hence encouraging inequality in the society.

Rise in religious fundamentalism

Christianity bred a feeling of fundamentalism in its membership. This partly explained the crusades waged against the non-believers. Christians looked down upon other religions and even went to great lengths to try to wipe them out. This was against the spirit of mutual co-existence that had seen it develop and spread in the Roman Empire.

Souring relations between Christians and Muslims

There was a bitter struggle between the Christians and Muslims. This has survived to date. Persecution of Muslims by the Christians increased. The Christians also came up with literature which dehumanized Islamic faith. In addition, Christianity equally struggled with Judaism. This spoiled the Christian-Jewish relations considerably. Many Christians viewed Jews as inhuman “others” and every crusade witnessed violence meted out on the Jews.

Islam

Activity 7.4

Using information from the Internet and textbooks.

1. Trace the origin, spread and the effects of Islam in Europe and the rest of the World.

2. Summarise your points and write them down in a notebook.

3. Share them in a class discussion.

Origin

Islam sprang up in Palestine alongside Christianity and Judaism. The three religions are interlinked and all worship one God, though with different names. In historical terms, Islam is the youngest of the three. The word Islam means submission to Allah (Arabic word for God). The followers of Islam are known as Muslims (ones who submit).

The birth of Muhammad

Muhammad was born in Mecca around AD. 570. In his youth, he worked as a shepherd among the Bedouin Arabs. Later, he led caravans across the desert and became a successful merchant at the age of 25. He married Khadija, a wealthy widow who ran a prosperous caravan business. Islam developed in two cities – Mecca and Yathrib (Medina). Most people in Arabia at the time were nomads and lived mainly around oases and wells.

These were later to develop into cities and towns. They mainly engaged in trade as they used camel caravans for transport. Mecca became an important commercial and agricultural centre in the 6th and 7th centuries. It was located along the caravan route. The city was also a vital religious centre. It had a religious shrine called Kaaba. This made the dominant tribe in town, Quraysh, to prosper economically.

Muhammad received a series of spiritual revelations from God. These were to form the religious basis of Islam. He met with opposition to the new faith but managed to place it upon firm foundations. The prophet was very religious.He often went to a cave outside Mecca to quietly contemplate spiritual matters. At about the age of 40, he had a spiritual vision. While meditating in the cave, an angel spoke to him. Angel Gabriel was communicating with him. This happened from time to time and Muhammad discussed it with his wife Khadija and close friends.

These people accepted the seriousness and truthfulness of the revelations. They were later written and are today what are contained in the Quran, the Muslim holy book. Muhammad started to convey the content of some of his revelations to a wider public around AD 613. Some people found the message appealing, particularly that a single god was the source of all power and goodness in the world. The message was especially attractive to the poor and those who were not in power. It was attractive because it transcended tribal groupings hence a challenge to the tribal leaders.

Spread of Islam

Islam spread rapidly in Europe, Middle East, other parts of Asia and Africa.Muhammad and his followers spread the faith by conquest and persuasion. The prophet organised his community in Medina into the Umma which means the community of the faithful. He led daily prayers and saw to the economic welfare of the community. Of particular interest in his focus was provision of relief for orphans, widows and the poor.It was at Medina that the tenets of the faith were more fully articulated.

The community organised raids on merchant caravans on their way to Mecca.After the sojourn in Medina, the prophet and his followers returned to Mecca in 630 CE. They attacked and conquered the city. As a result, they forced its inhabitants to embrace Islam. All the pagan shrines were destroyed and replaced with mosques, except for the Ka’ba. The Ka’ba was retained as a symbol of greatness of Mecca and a place for yearly pilgrimage for Muslims.

They denied the Ka’ba housed a deity as the pagans had believed. By 632, Arabia fell into the hands of the Muslim. Prophet Muhammad died in the same year.After the death of Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, took the mantle of leadership. He was not a prophet but the head of state and chief judge, religious leader, and military commander. Bakr led fierce battles on the groups which renounced Islam after the death of the prophet. This made the faith to spread rapidly into even new lands. His armies conquered the Byzantium and Sassanid empires, both of which had been weakened by fighting one another.Upon Abu Bakr’s death, a new caliph took over.

This one and two others followed in the mould of Abu Bakr. They expanded the territory under Islamic control as they made one success after the other in their quest for expansion. The period of the first four caliphs lasted from 632-661 CE. In 636 CE Arab armies conquered Syria, took Jerusalem in 638 CE and by 646 CE had overrun most of Egypt. Iraq fell from the Sassanid Empire in 651 thus officially bringing to a close the 400-year-old Sassanid Empire.

The Islamic forces were not contended with the gains they had made upto 651. In 711 CE, they took the Hindu kingdom of Sind. Between 711 and 718 CE, Islamic forces moved into Iberia (Spain). They conquered the Peninsular and had their eyes focused on Gaul (France). All the conquered territories were ruled with efficiency and flexibility from a central location. Converts were numerous and came from diverse backgrounds. To get revenue, the Islamic rulers imposed a head tax on non-Muslims. The tax was called the “Jizya”. Jews and Christians were tolerated in the Islamic empire but were taxed.

Later divisions over leadership rocked the Islamic community. The main one came in the acceptance of the caliphs. A group recognized all caliphs regardless of their descent from prophet Muhammad while the other refused to accept (recognize) the caliphs without blood relations to prophet Muhammad. The former became known as Sunni Muslims while the latter were Shi’a. The Sunni were the majority. These internal divisions weakened the Muslims that by early 11th Century, they were vulnerable to Turkish peoples’ attacks from central Asia. The Turks brought to an end the Islamic Abbasid dynasty. They embraced Islam but took control of some of the lands which previously had fallen into the hands of the Muslims.

Factors that led to the rapid spread of Islam

There were various factors that contributed to the rapid spread of Islam. The main ones were:

(i) Prophet Muhammad’s military expeditions:The prophet was a good military organiser. He led his army from Medina to many successful excursions in Mecca and other areas, for example at Badr in 624 AD, the battle of Uhad in 625 AD and Ditch in 627AD. These victories made Muhammad to gain prestige and trust of many in the region. Many tribes entered into agreement with him. Such groups had no alternative but to accept Islam. Other than Mecca, the Arab armies easily conquered the Middle East and imposed their religion on these areas.

(ii) Signing of treaty between Muhammad and Mecca AD in 628: He signed a treaty with the Meccans which brought the status of his community at par with Mecca. This was further helped by his taking control of Mecca by AD 630, with little resistance from its inhabitants.

(iii) Role of merchants: Muslim merchants spread their religion during their commercial activities in other areas. Islam thus easily spread along the busy trade routes of western Arabia.

(iv) The Hajj ceremonies: Every Muslim, as we have already learnt, was expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. This ceremony brought Muslims from various places together. It bound them and made them to put all efforts at spreading the faith.

(v) Establishment of a federation of Arab tribes: Muhammad managed to create a federation of Arab tribes before he died. This federation strengthened the tribe and enabled them to defeat the Eastern Roman Empire and later the Persian Empire. With time, it controlled the lands between Libya and Persia. The federation transformed itself into the Arab empire which was instrumental in spreading the faith to the whole region.

(vi) Organisation of the Arab empire: The empire was structured in such a way that it had a successor who took over from Prophet Muhammad. This person was known as Caliph. The individual was the Caliph of the prophet of Allah, Muhammad. During the prophet’s lifetime, people close to him and ready to protect him (known as companions) were the ones who upon his death, held the office of the Caliph. The first was Sayyidina Abu Bakr who was regularly asked by the prophet to lead the prayers in the Grand Mosque whenever he was unable to do so.

He thus assumed leadership upon the prophet’s death. Caliphs were behind the successful defences and offensive raids to those perceived to be enemies of Islam after the death of Prophet Muhammad. For example, Caliph Abu Bakr was said to have sent expeditions against rebellious tribes where the tribes were warned before hand to abandon the rebellious and embrace Islam and only those who refused were attacked.He assigned the task of attacking the enemies of Islam to able military commanders who managed to bring Islam to Persia, Syria, Yemen and Iraq.

By the time he died in AD 634, he had tried to bring the whole of the Arabian Peninsula to Islam’s fold. This fete was later achieved by his successor, Sayyidina Umar. These leaders ran a bureaucratic system with well-defined offices. There were officers managing all vital sectors including treasury, military and administration.

(vii) Decline of the Eastern Roman and Persian empires: The fall of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) and Persian Empire created a power vacuum which was easily filled by Islam.The Islam caliphs used bases from these empires to spread further into territories that were formerly under their control. Through this, they controlled Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Afghanistan, France, Spain and Pakistan among others. In each of these areas, serious efforts were made to convert the inhabitants to Islam by all means. The two empires were said to have registered weak resistance because their armies were exhausted by the time the Arab army faced them. Many inhabitants of these empires welcomed the Arabs as liberators from the harsh Byzantine or Persian rule.

(viii) Use of a mixture of force and diplomacy to win converts: Muslims used jihads and diplomacy to spread the faith. Minorities in the conquered territories readily embraced Islam. Force which involved using jihads was employed on large un-cooperative groups. The Muslim traders used diplomacy to spread Islam. The merchants spread Islam to West and East Africa, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines. There were numerous instances where people from these areas were impressed by the apparent complexity and excellence of the Islamic culture thereby getting attracted to the religion.

(ix) Intermarriages between Muslims and non-Muslims: Muslims easily married non-Muslims. The latter were required to accept the Islamic faith. Those who married Muslims were nonetheless not required to abandon their customs instantly. The converts were allowed a slow Islamisation that took several generations to develop to universal Islamic standards. Intermarriages thus helped to spread the Islamic faith.

(x) Teachings of the Quran: The teachings of the Quran also contributed to the rapid spread of Islam. Arabs were passionate in their new faith. This was strengthened by the teachings of the Quran which held that wars fought for God were just. A warrior killed in a jihad or holy war, was promised immediate entry into paradise. With this belief, Muslims rushed fearlessly into battle hence crushing the enemy forces in battle. Islam thus closely knit its followers together regardless of inter-tribal or other inherent differences among the members. Added to the simple and direct message, it had no religious hierarchy or class of priests. In principle, it vouched for equality of all believers regardless of sex, race, class or wealth. This was appealing to many people.

(xi) The nature of the Arabian Peninsula: The arid Arabian Peninsula was densely populated in the AD 600s. Arab armies were full of warriors eager to move into less populated lands. As new converts accepted Islam, their numbers swelled making them register easy victories against their enemies.

(xii) Good military tactics and equipment: Comparatively, Arab armies were bold and used efficient fighting methods. They were also well-equipped.The Bedouin camel and horse cavalry mounted aggressive and mobile offensives which overwhelmed many armies in the region. There were, however, some areas where Islam was met with resistance. It was unable to establish a strong foothold in India, while in Europe, it withered after some time.

Effects of Islam in Europe and the rest of the world

Islam like Christianity had both positive and negative consequences in Europe and the rest of the world. Some of these consequences were identical while others were unique to Islam. The main ones were as follows:

Liberation of women

In Arabia women had rights not enjoyed in all the other lands. They could legally inherit property, divorce husbands, and engage in business ventures.The prophet outlawed female infanticide which was common prior to entrenchment of the faith in Arabia and the conquered lands. Dowries went to women not men. Women were also seen as equal before Allah and recognized as having own needs and rights. This was in spite of the fact that men were allowed to marry upto four wives and that when Islam moved in to the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, they adopted the veiling of women- a practice still practiced among Muslims today.

Division of muslims

At first Islam had uniform adherents. But due to interpretation of the faith vis-à-vis leadership, divisions occurred. This led to the emergence of the Sunni and Shi’a. Each has interpreted the teachings of the prophet differently.

Formation of dynastic rule

Islam was responsible for the emergence of various dynasities in areas controlled by the religion. Both the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasities came and emerged as strong dynasties after the death of Prophet Muhammad. The two dynasties brought centralization of authority in areas where they exercised control.

Urbanisation

Muslims equally contributed to emergence of urban centres in areas under their control. Populations increased at the same time with business opportunities. This directly led to emergence of urban centres. Old centres were also expanded e.g. Bagdad during the Abbasid dynasty was a symbol of authority, wealth and power. The Abbasid rulers in the city, adopted traditional, ancient style of Persian court with a high degree of luxury.

Belief in monotheism

Muslims believed in only one God – Allah and his prophet was (is) Muhamad. People reached Allah through prayers. Islam also brought to an end paganism in areas it controlled.

Loss of life and destruction of property

This issued from the Jihads. It involved waging a physical struggle against non-believers who threatened Islam. The wars led to massive loss of lives and destruction of property.

Change in dietary habits

Islam brought some dietary regulations on its adherants. Acceptable foods were (and are) called ‘Halal’ while forbidden ones are called “Haraam”. Muslims have since stuck to these dietary regulations.

Religious life of Muslims in medieval and modern times

The teachings of Islam