History

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• Unit 1: The reforms of Belgian rule in Rwanda

  Topic area:  History of Rwanda

  
  

  Sub-topic area: History of ancient, colonial and post-colonial Rwanda

  
  

  Key competence

  
  

  Assess the performance of the Belgian rule and the process of independence in Rwanda.

  
  

  Activity 1.1 Group work

  Look for a wide range of sources such as books, journals and audio-visual documentaries on how the Belgian rule brought reforms to Rwanda. In your various groups, assess how these reforms brought about change. Prepare your findings and present them in class.The Belgian rule influenced both negative and positive change in Rwanda. Discuss.

  
  

  Establishment of Belgian rule in Rwanda

  
  

  When World War I ended, Belgium was given the mandate to govern Rwanda by the League of Nations in 1924. The Rwanda territory under Belgium rule was initially known as Ruanda-Urundi. The Germans were the first ones to arrive in Rwanda. They left the territory in 1916. Belgium ruled Rwanda from then up to 1962. During this period, the Belgians undertook a number of reforms which have been analysed in three stages below.

  
  

  Reforms introduced under Belgian Rule (1916 – 1962)

  
  

  Reforms under the military occupation (1916 – 1924)

  
  

  Political reforms

  
  

  With the colonial experience that was gained in Belgian Congo, the Belgians undertook gradual political measures that undermined the monarchical system in Rwanda. To achieve this, the Belgians introduced the following reforms:

  
  

  • Banning of right over life and death (1917). The Royal Commissioner in agreement with the Belgian Government put a ban on the indigenous sovereigns’ unconditional right over the life and death of their subjects. They only remained with an honorary title.

  
  

  • Political measures. From 1923, measures were put in place to prevent the king from appointing and dismissing chiefs without the permission of the Representative of the Belgium Government.

  
  

  Economic reforms

  
  

  • Fiscal measures of 1924. This involved the abolition of Imponoke that consisted of cows given as gifts to a chief who had lost cows in huge numbers. It also abolished Indabukirano, that consisted of cows that were given to a new chief upon assuming his duties as a new leader in a given area.
  

  
  

  Socio- cultural reforms

  
  

  • Religious reforms (1917). The king was obliged to allow freedom of religion and worship. By doing so, he lost his politico-religious power. Rwandans considered the king as their unique religious leader who communicated with ‘god’ through some sort of magical power. He was a source of life and prosperity for the whole kingdom.

  
  

  Reforms under the Belgian Mandate (1924 – 1946)

  
  

  Rwanda was placed under the Mandate regime ‘B’ after the definitions of the League of Nations’ Pact, paragraph 3, article 22 that defines three types of Mandates (A,B,C). On October 20th, 1924, the Belgian Parliament approved Mandate ‘B’ on Rwanda. From then, Rwanda shifted from ‘an occupational territory’ to officially become ‘a territory under Belgian Mandate’. Rwanda was also placed under Mandate ‘B’ because it had reached a certain degree of development. However, the League of Nations member states felt that it was still incapable of ruling itself. Belgium had the mission to politically emancipate the colony by; ensuring public services were functioning through local authorities, favouring the moral and material well-being of indigenous people, opening the mandate territory to open trade and finally reporting annually to the League of Nations’ Permanent Commission of Mandates.It is after this Belgian approval that a number of reforms followed to meet the League’s terms. Belgium administratively annexed this new territory to her own colony – Belgian Congo. It simply applied on it the Congolese colonial law.

  
  

  Political reforms

  
  

  The political reforms undertaken during this time included the famous Administrative Reforms initiated as from 1926.

  
  

  Administrative reforms (1926 – 1931)

  
  

  These administrative reforms brought about the following transformations:

  
  

  • Restructuring of the administrative entities. Rwanda which was originally ruled under 20 districts (Ibiti) and pastoral fiefs (Ibikingi) was now transformed into a system of chiefferies, sub-chiefferies (Chefferie, Sous-chefferie) and territories. By 1931, Rwanda consisted of 10 territories instead of 20 districts, 52 chiefferies that corresponded to historical traditional regions and 544 sub-chiefferies.

  
  

  • New distribution of power. The functions of the land, cattle and military chiefs were abolished. The nomination of leaders in this reform contributed to the creation of disunity among Rwandans because it excluded the Hutu, Twaand Tutsi from modest backgrounds in favour of the Tutsi from rich families. Old chiefs were replaced by their sons who had graduated from the school reserved for the sons of chiefs. They were considered able to rule in a modern way because they were supposed to have acquired basic western leadership, writing and reading skills to serve as loyal colonial auxiliaries.

  
  

  • The deposition of King Yuhi V Musinga (1931). On November 12th, 1931, the vice governor of Ruanda-Urundi, Charles Voisin proclaimed deposition orders from the throne and hence Musinga’s deportation to Kamembe (today in Rusizi District). Later, he was exiled to Moba in Belgian Congo. On the same day, Rudahigwa was proclaimed King by Vice-Governor Voisin. He was enthroned under the title of Mutara III on November 16th, 1931. King Musinga was accused by the Belgians of opposing moral, social and economic work that was being carried out by the colonial administration. At the same time, Christian missionaries accused him of being hostile to their work.

  
  

  • Introduction of identity cards.By 1930, Belgians had come up with identity cards known as Ibuku which detailed the following; clan identity, marital status, names of parents, area of residence and ethnic group that was given after one’s socio-economic class (Tutsi, Hutu or Twa).

  
  

  Economic reforms

  
  

  The economic performance of Belgian rule in Rwanda between 1924 and 1946 was significant in different economic domains that were agriculture, mining and socio-cultural domains. To implement all the required work in these domains with the main one being agriculture, led to the introduction of compulsory crop cultivation known as “Ishiku” which was added to colonial forced labour “Akazi” by the Resident’s decree No. 49 of 31st December, 1925.

  
  

  Agriculture

  
  

  The Belgian’s main focus on agriculture was on areas such as;Food production to fight against famines and large scale production of cash crops such as coffee.

  
  

  Food production

  
  

  Rwanda was a country that suffered from serious famines. In 1924-1925, when the program of regulating and increasing the production of food crops was being elaborated, the Gakwege famine was on. In 1928-1929, the Rwakayihura famine killed a number of Rwandans. To phase out these famines, Belgians took over vacant lands and some pasture lands and planted drought resistant crops such as cassava, sweet potatoes, beans and Irish potatoes. Since 1925, the imposition of compulsory food crop cultivation known as Ishiku became the order of the day. One family was required to plant at least 10 acres of food crops. Rwandans had to even go and work in fields that were far away from their homes but were near main communication lines. This was to please any passing high ranking colonial authority. However, this compulsory food crop cultivation program did not fight the famines but served as a tool for increasing the merits for the people in charge of the implementation. By 1932, plantations covered 7,600 hectares of the land and it had become so unbearable that people migrated to Uganda in search of free labour.

  
  

  Large scale production of cash crops

  
  

  Cultivation of cash crops such as coffee, on a large scale, was imposed on peasants. The cultivation of cash crops mobilised more people than the cultivation of food crops. This was so because they were for promoting exports which were only limited to cow hides. By 1931, cash crops – mainly coffee were made compulsory and systematic to the extent that a peasant had to possess a plantation of at least 54 coffee trees, a sub-chief a plantation of 250 coffee trees and a chief a plantation of 1000 coffee trees. Coffee production increased from 40,000 kilograms in 1927 to 2,000 tonnes by 1937. An office in charge of the quality of exports was formed: OCIRU (Office du café Industriel du Ruanda-Urundi). The same Akazi that was used in food crop cultivation, was also used in cash crop cultivation.

  
  

  Animal husbandry

  
  

  The Belgian colonial regime paid attention to livestock rearing, especially cattle. They set up selection farms since 1926 in Songa, Cyeru, Gisenyi and Nyagatare. Animal health services and veterinary centres were established in rural areas to cure periodic livestock epidemics such as Muryamo. Muryamo was a mysterious disease that affected cows in Rwanda at the end of the 19th Century. It killed many cows. The other disease that affected the livestock was trypanosomiasis.

  
  

  Fiscal system

  
  

  The Germans had introduced the use of money as a means of exchange in trading by the time they exited Rwanda in 1916. They used a currency known as rupee. When the Belgians took control, they introduced a new currency to replace the rupee.

  
  

  In 1927, they introduced a currency known as “ Franc Congolais”. They did this so as to facilitate exchange and payment of taxes by the locals. Tax was made compulsory as it was needed to finance public service in the colony.

  
  

  Since 1917, taxes were paid by all Rwandan adults to add on to the colonial funds and chiefferies administrations. However, from 1931, this capitation tax was extended to every taxpayer after carrying out a general census of Rwandans. It became compulsory and was only received in cash.

  
  

  A marketing organisation that was known as OCIRU (Office des Cafés Indigènes du Ruanda-Urundi) or Ruanda-Urundi Coffee Bureau was set up to develop a market for the Africans’ coffee produced in indigenous plantations.

  
  

  Mining

  
  

  Rwandans were introduced to mining and running of small scale industries. The mining activities were mainly carried out by Minetain company (Sociétés des Mines d’Etain) at Gatumba (Ngororero District) from 1935, at Musha (Rwamagana District) from 1937. Other mining companies included SOMUKI and GEORWANDA. SOMUKI (Société Minière de Muhinga et de Kigali) opened sites at Rutongo (Rulindo
  

  District) in 1933 and Nyungwe Forest in 1936 for mining gold. GEORWANDA (Compagnie Géologique et Minière du Ruanda) opened sites at Rwinkwavu (Kayonza District) from 1940.

  
  

  Missionaries as another form of colonial agents established semi-industrial enterprises for cigarettes at Rwaza and Gisenyi, milk processing and candle production plants from 1935.Salaries and professional training were introduced by mining companies, mining and farming colonialists, trading companies, public works and religious missions to their labour force. This was done to promote the exchange system since Rwandans were entering the capitalist system.

  
  

  Transport and communication network

  
  

  The development of transport and communications networks brought about the introduction of bicycles and cars from Europe and Asia as from 1927. Moreover, this network joined trading centres that started forming important urban centres such as Kiramuruzi, Kigali, Nyanza, Astrida, Kamembe, Gisenyi and Ruhengeri.

  
  

  Fishery

  
  

  This activity was known and practised in traditional ways on rivers and lakes. The Belgians improved it by introducing new types of fish in 1935. Tilapia niga species were planted in lakes such as Muhazi, Bulera and Ruhondo while tilapia nilotica were planted in Lake Kivu.

  
  

  Forestry

  
  

  Forestry was also encouraged to protect the environment and to control soil erosion in the highland regions of northern and western Rwanda.

  
  

  Forced labour imposed on people (Akazi)

  
  

  Before colonisation, there was Uburetwa that was kept in the sense of many tasks rendered to local chiefs as citizens’ duties. Under Belgian colonial rule, to Uburetwa was added the forced labour in the form of working on white plantations, carrying heavy loads, road constructions, building of churches, schools, hospitals and digging of anti-erosion ditches to exploit the colony. The Belgian colonial administration named it Akazi to differentiate it from the services provided in Uburetwa. The Akazi was not remunerated or was just slightly remunerated. The more this forced labour (Akazi) became so unbearable, the more Rwandan people fled it into neighbouring Uganda, Tanganyika and Belgian Congo in search of free and paid labour especially from coffee and tea plantations. The Akazi persisted alongside the Uburetwa until its abolition in 1949 by King Mutara III Rudahigwa.

  
  

  Socio-cultural reforms

  
  

  • Abolition ofubwiru and umuganura institutions (1925)

  The abolition of these two pillars of the monarchy paved way for the decline of the Rwanda Kingdom.

  
  

  • The new education system (1925). Belgians substituted the informal education provided in Itorero by formal education. They aimed to promote colonial auxiliaries through subsidised and free education. However, formal education remained the monopoly of the Christian missionaries.

  
  

  • The medical program. By 1931, Belgians had established hospitals (of Kigali and Astrida) and many dispensaries throughout the colony to deal with widespread diseases. Vaccination campaigns were also carried out from 1933. The introduction of school curricula, sections of training on medical assistance and medical auxiliaries in specific schools (Astrida, Kabgayi and Kigali) began in 1937. At the end of the Mandate regime (1945 – 1946), Rwanda had sixteen hospitals – both private and public and thirty-four dispensaries.
  

  
  

  • Religious change. Christianity was introduced in Rwanda under the German rule. However, it was not welcomed as it undermined the king’s moral influence on his subjects.It later benefited from the administrative reform of 1926 by which the king was forced to sign a decree proclaiming freedom of worship. However, King Yuhi V Musinga continued to resist and this led to his deposition in 1931. He was replaced by his son Mutara III Rudahigwa who converted to Christianity and consecrated Rwanda to Christ the King on October 27th, 1946 at Nyanza.

  
  

  Reforms under the Belgian Trusteeship (1946 – 1962)

  
  

  At the end of World War II, the Allied powers that concluded the war convened at San Francisco to draft a new international peace keeping body that is the United Nations Organisation (UNO) to replace the defunct League of Nations. The League of Nations was blamed for failing to stop the occurrence of World War II. The charter of the new organisation imposed mandatory powers to lead the nations which were under the Mandate system to self-rule then to independence. This was possible through the Trusteeship Council which was one of the main six organs of UNO which was in charge of peacefully administrating and supervising territories that were not yet independent up to the time they would be independent on behalf of UNO. As a power that had been administrating Rwanda under the League of Nations’ Mandate system, Belgium and UNO concluded an accord placing Rwanda under the Trusteeship regime on December 13th, 1946. This was approved by the Belgian Parliament on April 25th, 1949. Since then, Belgium had therefore to act with the final objective of granting independence to Rwanda. To achieve this objective, Belgium had a good deal of recommendations to respect. Among others, Belgium had to progressively integrate Rwandans into both territorial administration and a system through which they could gain political representation. To meet UNO’s will, as it had availed the mechanisms to ensure its recommendations implementation (UNO missions and annual reports from the administered territory submitted to UNO), Belgians undertook a number of reforms.

  
  

  Political reforms

  
  

  During the Belgian Trusteeship, the most important political reform in Rwanda was The establishment of Consultative Councils (Decree of July 14th, 1952). This was a response to the critical reports of the two UN Trusteeship missions since 1948.

  
  

  The Council of the State (ConseilSupérieur du Pays): It waspresided over by the king and was made up of presidents of nine territorial councils elected out of the king’s proposed list.

  
  

  The Territorial Council (Conseil du Territoire): It was composed of the chief of territory, other territorial chiefs and their sub-chiefs as well as their respective notables.

  
  

  The Council of Chiefferie (Conseil de Chefferie): It was presided over by the chief himself. Its members were sub-chiefs and the notables elected among an electoral college of three representatives by sous-chiefferie.
  

  
  

  Council of Sous-chiefferie (Conseil Sous-chiefferie): It was presided over by the sub-chief and was made up of 5 to 9 members elected by an electoral college chosen by the sub-chief.

  
  

  This reform allowed Rwandans to participate in the elections organised in 1953 and 1956.

  
  

  On 4th May, 1949, a political reform was introduced concerning Ruanda-Urundi, and not solely Ruanda. It meant the creation of a Government Council for Ruanda-Urundi that was made up of 22 members. The council included the Governor, two Resident Representatives and two Belgian state agents. The remaining 17 members were chosen as representatives of other foreigners living in Ruanda-Urundi. This was a reform made for the sake of the colonial administration.

  
  

  Economic reforms

  
  

  • The Ten-Year Economic and Social Development Plan initiated by the Belgians in Ruanda-Urundi in 1951 as a result of the first UN mission of 1948 recommendations.This was meant to empower Rwanda economically in preparation for self-rule and later independence.

  
  

  • The abolition of Ubuhake (clientelism) system based on cows after the decree of King Mutara III Rudahigwa on April 1st, 1954. This forced the cattle keepers to reduce the number of cows to manageable and profitable sizes and liberation of pastoral clients (Abagaragu) for private initiatives.

  
  

  • Land reforms which touched on land use mainly for both food production and cash crop farming for economic gains.

  
  

  • Operations of Akazi which saw Rwandans engaged in forced labour in activities that were for the economic gain and development of Rwanda, e.g working on plantation farms, construction of buildings and roads, etc.

  
  

  Socio-cultural reforms

  
  

  • King Mutara III Rudahigwa’s decree consecrating Rwanda to Christ the King on October 27th, 1946 at Nyanza by which Christianity through the Catholic Church became the state religion. All other traditional religious practices were prohibited (Kubandwa, Guterekera, etc.)

  
  

  • Construction of schools, hospitals and dispensaries, roads, drainage of marshlands and planting of trees termed in the 1951 Ten -Year Economic and Social Development plan. This was for shifting the Rwandan economy and getting more educated and healthy manpower.

  
  

  The causes and effects of the 1959 crisis in Rwanda

  
  

  Introduction

  
  

  Activity 1.2 Group work

  
  

  Split yourselves into two groups.

  
  

  1. Let one group describe the causes and effects of the 1959 crisis in Rwanda.

  2. The second group should discuss the reasons why King Mutara III Rudahigwa broke relations with the Belgian colonial rule in the 1950s.After your various discussions, have a presentation in class followed by a question and answer session among yourselves.

  
  

  The 1959 crisis in Rwanda was a result of the long term bred tension between King Mutara III Rudahigwa and the Rwandan elite on one side and the Belgian administration and the Catholic Church on the other. The tension first occurred in 1954 when the Rwandan elite headed by the king claimed the creation of lay schools to reduce the monopoly of the Catholic Church in teaching and education. The Rwandan elite had also started blaming Belgians for; being reluctant to allow Rwanda to attain self-rule, poor socio-economic development, unfair participation of Rwandans in administration and in making decisions on their country’s future. The reaction was so harsh that the king was treated as a communist. In that same year, the king abolished the Ubuhake without the consent of colonial administration. On February 22nd, 1957, the High Council of the State (Conseil Superieur du Pays) prepared a memorandum known as “Mise au point” to submit to the 1957 UN mission. It severely criticised the Belgian administration and demanded self-rule as soon as possible. The Belgian administration reacted by instigating the publication of “The Manifeste des Bahutu” in which its authors accused the king and the Tutsi elite of having monopolised power and orchestrated a lot of social injustices and inequalities to the masses.

  
  

  From then up to December 21st, 1958, the Belgian administration intensified hatred against the king and his Tutsi elite by declaring her support to the Hutu masses. Later, King Mutara III Rudahigwa died suddenly in Bujumbura on July 25th, 1959. With his death, the Belgian administration got a chance to block all political initiatives of the king and turned things to their favour.
  

  
  

  On October 10th, 1959 Jean-Paul Harroy, the Governor of Ruanda-Urundi, decreed the relocation of three UNAR influential chiefs – Kayihura, Rwangombwa and Mungarurire as a punishment for having participated in the UNAR meeting held in Kigali. This decision ended up in stopping the relationship between UNAR and the colonial authority. Uprisings against this unfair relocation were contained by the Public Force in Kigali. One person was killed and a few others were injured. Many chiefs and sub-chiefs resigned. Due to this situation, the governor suspended the relocation. However, the situation kept on getting worse.

  
  

  From 1st November 1959, a flare-up of violence that some called “a revolution” instigated by the colonial rule through members of PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA broke out against the Tutsi and members of UNAR. The violence first broke out in Gitarama (Muhanga District), then Ruhengeri (Musanze District), Gisenyi (Rubavu District), Byumba (Gicumbi District), Kibuye (Karongi District), Nyanza, Astrida (Huye District), Kigali and Gikongoro (Nyamagabe District). Only Cyangugu (Rusizi and Nyamasheke Districts) and Kibungo (Ngoma District) were safe. It is in this state of unrest that Colonel Guy Logiest was called upon from Stanleyville (Belgian Congo) by Resident J.P Harroy to manage military operations of armed men stationed in Rwanda.

  
  

  He then proceeded by arresting, imprisoning, exiling, assassinating and dismissing about twenty chiefs and a hundred sub-chiefs. He automatically replaced them with the Hutu. He was finally appointed Special Military Resident of Rwanda on November 10th, 1959 to finish up the Belgian plan of installing their protected Hutu regime.

  
  

  Note: This wave of violence targeted most members of UNAR and the Tutsi. Many of them were killed, their houses burnt down while thousands of them were forced to exile in the neighbouring countries of Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Belgian Congo where they underwent so many sufferings in refugee camps.

  
  

  Causes of the 1959 crisis in Rwanda

  
  

  The causes of the 1959 crisis can be attributed to the following:

  
  

  • The ‘divide and rule’ policy commonly used by colonial powers in their respective territories. The Belgians enforced this policy between 1916 and 1962. As soon as they established their rule, the Belgians undertook a series of reforms aiming at transforming the traditional social classes into ethnic groups to confirm that there was nothing common between the Hutu, the Twa and the Tutsi. In traditional Rwanda, the terms ubuhutu, ubututsi and ubutwameant dynamic social identities based on wealth and political levels, that is, a Hutu who acquired wealth could become a Tutsi and a Tutsi who was impoverished could become a Hutu.

  
  

  • The distribution of administrative responsibilities in the new structure was discriminatory. This was because it excluded members of low social backgrounds, mostly the Hutu, in favour of the Tutsi from influential families.

  
  

  • There was antagonism between King Mutara III Rudahigwa and the Belgian Colonial Administration (1954 – 1959) resulting from the king’s opposition to the church’s monopoly in education. The king pushed for more representationof Rwandans in the political administration of the country. This bred hatred towards the Rwandan Tutsi elite by the Belgians.
  

  
  

  • The sudden death of King Mutara III Rudahigwa on 25th, July, 1959 disoriented the fight for independence. The king was a good symbol of unity among Rwandans.
  

  
  

  • Effects of Cold War. Arising from the competition between superpowers (USA and USSR) the Cold War affected the countries which were colonised in Africa. These superpowers wanted to gain political and economic influence (capitalism and communism) throughout the world. Belgians accused the monarchy of preparing independence in form of the communist system. They conspired against the Tutsi elite to support Hutu leaders.

  
  

  Consequences of the 1959 crisis in Rwanda

  
  

  The 1959 crisis in Rwanda resulted in consequences that not only affected Rwanda but also most of the Great Lakes region.

  
  

  • A lot of people lost their lives. Many Tutsi and members of UNAR were killed.

  
  

  • Property was destroyed. These included houses, livestock, crops and businesses.

  
  

  • People were displaced from their homes. They migrated to hostile areas like Nyamata, which was highly infested with tsetse flies.

  
  

  • People migrated to the neighbouring countries and became refugees.
  

  
  

  • Since this crisis, Rwanda inherited the ethnic-based ideology that later resulted into the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. The crisis left behind the leadership based on discrimination and regionalism.

  
  

  • There was perpetuation of the Belgian colonial model of administration. Belgium continued to serve in the new regime as government political advisors, technicians, etc.

  
  

  The process of independence in Rwanda

  
  

  Activity 1.3

  
  

  In groups of five, research by reading various historical materials and browsing the Internet to find out more information about the failures and achievements of the Belgian rule in Rwanda. Analyse the activities that led to attainment of independence in Rwanda. Summarise the findings in your notebooks and later discuss them in class in groups of ten.

  
  

  The United Nations Organisation formed a Trusteeship Council in 1945. The council’s mandate was to oversee the decolonisation of some dependent colonies. Rwanda was one such dependent territory that was put under the UN trusteeship. To monitor the process of decolonisation, the United Nations Trusteeship Council kept sending missions to these colonies.

  
  

  In Rwanda the process was as follows:

  
  

  • From 1948 up to 1960: five missions of the UN visited Rwanda and blamed the Belgians for deliberately delaying the independence of Ruanda-Urundi.

  
  

  • In 1952: the Belgians introduced the statutory order establishing the representative organs held by various councils.

  
  

  • In 1956: the law amendments introduced the universal suffrage at the level of aforementioned organs.

  
  

  • In February 1957: The “Mise au Point” memorandum was prepared by the High Council of the State demanding more representation of Rwandans in political administration of the country. It was addressed to the Belgians and the Trusteeship Council. The Belgians rejected it and instigated a counter memorandum called the Hutu Manifesto (March 23rd, 1957). The memorandum accused the Tutsi of monopolising power and practicing social injustices. It was signed by Gregoire Kayibanda, Joseph Habyarimana alias Gitera, Calliope Murindahabi and Maximillien Niyonzima.

  
  

  • In March 1958: King Mutara III Rudahigwa created a committee that had to analysethe Hutu-Tutsi social problem.

                                             

  
  

  • In June 1958: The reaction of the High Council of the State on the above committee report noted the existence of a socio-political problem on the administration level that was not ethnic in nature. The problem was resolved by the removal of the ethnic mention from the identity cards. However, this attempt failed because some of the political parties that were being formed were ethnic-based e.g PARMEHUTU in 1959.

  
  

  • 1959-1962: A series of events that quickened the declaration of independence took place:

  
  

  > On May 8th, 1959: the statutory order set up political parties, namely UNAR (l’Union Nationale Rwandaise) formed on September 3rd, 1959, APROSOMA (l’Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la Masse) formed on February 15th ,1959, PARMEHUTU (le Parti du Mouvement de l’Emancipation des Bahutu) formed on October 9th, 1959 and RADER (Rassemblement Democratique du Rwanda) formed on September 14th,1959. On July 25th , 1959, King Mutara III Rudahigwa died in mysterious circumstances. He was the great figurehead in the struggle for the independence of Rwanda. He was replaced by his young, inexperienced brother, Kigeli V Ndahindurwa on July 28th, 1959.

  
  

  >From 1st to 7th November, 1959, a spark of violence erupted in Gitarama against the Tutsi and the members of UNAR. The violence was sparked by members of PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA. It spread throughout the country except in Cyangugu and Kibungo.

  
  

  > In June – July 1960, communal elections took place and on 30th July, 1960, PARMEHUTU was declared the winner with 74.4% of the votes. However, UNAR and the king protested against the results.

  
  

  > On October 26th, 1960, a provisionary government was put in place by the Resident Jean-Paul Harroy and Gregoire Kayibanda became the first prime minister.

  
  

    >On January 28th, 1961, The Coup d’état of Gitarama took place. Many decisions were made including the abolition of the monarchy, the proclamation of the republic and nomination of Dominique Mbonyumutwa as the first president while Kayibanda Gregoire remained prime minister.

  
  

                                       

  
  

  > In February 1961, there was the recognition of the new regime by the Belgian Trusteeship.

  
  

  > On September 25th, 1961, legislative elections and a referendum (Kamarampaka) for or against the monarchy regime was conducted. The monarchical system was voted against in favour of the republic regime. On the same day, legislative elections took place and on 2nd October 1961, the legislative assembly that later elected the president of the republic was put in place.

  
  

    >On October 26th , 1961, Kayibanda Gregoire was elected and confirmed as the president of the first Republic of Rwanda.

                                              

  > On July 1st, 1962, independence was given to Rwanda in a mitigating environment.

  
  

  
  

  Role of the Trusteeship Council in Rwanda

  
  

  The UN Trusteeship Council played a great role in Rwanda’s politics from 1945 up to 1962 as follows:

  
  

  • It sent different missions to check on the political, economic and social progress in Rwanda in the following years;1948, 1951, 1954, 1957 and 1960.

  
  

  • It signed a Trusteeship Accord with Belgium proposing reforms for future self-rule, economic and financial systems plans and social assistance programs to be carried out as a result of the 1948 first UN mission to Rwanda.

  
  

  • It blamed the Belgians for anti-democratic attitudes in Rwanda and discrimination in its different recommendations after its visit missions.

  
  

  • It sponsored and supervised a referendum on the monarchy system in Rwanda in 1961.

  
  

  • It urged the Belgians to withdraw their forces led by Colonel Guy Logiest from Rwanda in 1959.

  
  

  • It urged Belgium to respect the terms of the Trusteeship Accord providing total autonomy to Rwanda in December of 1961.

  
  

  However, the UN Trusteeship Council is blamed for not having paid special attention to the 1959 crisis and its aftermath because it left Belgians to recognise the newly instituted regime after the Coup d’etat of Gitarama (28th, January, 1961) in February 1961.

  
  

  
  

  Unit summary

  
  

  This unit deals with the reforms that were introduced by the Belgians to Rwanda.
  

  Belgium was given the mandate to govern Rwanda by the League of Nations in 1924 after World War I. During this time, the Rwanda territory was known as Ruanda-Urundi.

  
  

  Belgian rule in Rwanda was categorised into three periods which are:
  

  
  

  Belgian Military Occupation (1916 – 1925), Belgian Mandate (1924 – 1946) and the Belgian Trusteeship (1946 – 1962).

  
  

  The economic reforms introduced in Rwanda under the Belgian rule focused more on agriculture, mining and forestry.In the period of the Belgian rule in Rwanda, a compulsory order to grow cash crops (ishiku) was imposed.
  

  
  

  In 1927, the Belgians introduced a currency known as “ Franc Congolais”. This was so as to facilitate the exchange of goods and services and the payment of taxes by the locals.
  

  
  

  The Belgians also introduced a type of forced labour which was known as the Akazi.

  
  

  The political reforms introduced under the Belgian Trusteeship period allowed Rwandans to participate in the elections organised in1953 and 1956.The social and cultural reforms introduced by the Belgian rule led to construction of schools, hospitals and dispensaries.

  
  

  The 1959 crisis in Rwanda was majorly caused by the ‘divide and rule’ policy commonly used by the Belgians. They undertook a series of reforms aiming at transforming the traditional social classes into ethnic groups therefore, classifying Rwandans into the Hutu, the Twa and the Tutsi.
  

  
  

  The “Mise au Point” was a memorandum that was prepared by the High Council of the State in February 1957. It demanded more representation of Rwandans in the political administration of the country.
  

  
  

  Rwanda later got her independence from the Belgians on 1st July 1962.

  
  

  Unit assessment

  
  

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to assess the performance of the Belgian rule and analyse the process of independence in Rwanda.

  
  

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. Explain the circumstances under which the Belgian rule was established in Rwanda.

  
  

  2. What were the different stages of the Belgian rule in Rwanda?

  
  

  3. Identify the political, economic and socio-cultural performance of the Belgians in Rwanda.

  
  

  4. Evaluate the effects of the political reforms undertaken by the Belgians in Rwanda.

  
  

  5. The Belgian rule influenced both negative and positive changes in Rwanda. Discuss.

  
  

  6. Identify the causes of the 1959 crisis in Rwanda.7. Describe the effects of the 1959 crisis in Rwanda.

  
  

  8. Why did King Mutara III Rudahigwa break relations with the colonial rule in the 1950s?

  
  

  9. Describe the different steps that led to achievement of independence in Rwanda.

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  File: 1
• Unit 2: Comparison of genocides

  Topic area:  History of Rwanda

  Sub-topic area: History of genocide

  Key unit competence

  Compare different genocides in the 20th Century.
  

  Activity 2.1

  Work in groups of five, using the Internet search for United Nations High Commission for Human Rights and read the whole Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide of 9th, December, 1948.This will help you understand the international legal framework that deals with genocides. Evaluate how this convention has been applied in Rwanda.
  

  Genocide

  The word ‘genocide’ was derived from two words. It originated from a Greek word ‘genos’ meaning origin or species, and a Latin verb ‘caedere’, meaning to kill. It was coined by Raphael Lemkin, a Polish-born American lawyer who taught law at the University of Yale in the 1940s. He used the term for the first time in his book, Axis Rule in Europe, published in 1944. He used this term ‘genocide’ uniquely to make it different from other crimes of mass killings.
  

  A universal definition of genocide is found in Article II of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. This was approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations. It is contained in Resolution 260 A III of December, 1948. It defines genocide as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part a national, ethnic or religious group, by:

  • killing members of the group;

  • causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;

  • deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;

  • imposing measures intended to prevent births on the group;

  • forcibly transferring children of the group to another group

  Different genocides that occurred in the 20th Century

  It is worth noting that the occurrence of genocide is not limited to Rwanda. There have been other cases of genocide in different parts of the world that occurred in different times. Some of the cases of genocide that happened in the 20th Century are as follows:

  Genocide against the Herero in Namibia by the German colonialists (1907)
  

  
  

  The Nama Herero Genocide was not recognised for unknown reasons by the United Nations Organisation. However, many authors and specialists in the study of genocides qualify it as a pure act of genocide committed against the Nama and the Herero in 1907.

  When the Germans arrived in South-West Africa (Namibia) in 1880, they found the area populated by certain groups of people such as the Nama (Namaqua) who were about 20,000 in number by then. Another group of people was the Herero who were about 75,000 in number. Their occupation was cattle herding. These people violently resisted occupation of their land and establishment of the German rule. The German commander who led the conquest, vowed to meet any resistance from the natives with ‘uncompromising brutality’. He vowed to wipe out the natives completely in 15 years time.

  

  The Herero waged war against the Germans in 1904

  – 1908. The Germans took their native land forcefully and planned to build a railway across their territory. The Herero were led by their leader Samuel Maharero. In January 1904, the Herero attacked white-owned farms and murdered 123 German settlers and traders sparing only women, children and missionaries. Later, the commander of German Forces, General Lothar von Trotha organised his ground army and they surrounded the living areas and the livestock pastures of the Herero.

                                                

  They only left a small opening through which the Herero could escape to the Omaheke desert. The Germans attacked and killed 5,000 people and wounded 20,000 others.They captured water sources and forced the survivors to flee to the desert. They followed the survivors to the desert and massacred them. They also poisoned water sources in the desert.

  On 2nd, October of the same year, General Trotha released an extermination order forcing the Herero people to leave the land. The Herero escaped to the desert where the Germans had already poisoned the water wells.

  When the Nama saw what had happened to the Herero, they also fled. Those who remained behind were collected into camps where they were tortured and forced to provide labour. Most of them died of diseases such as small pox and typhoid in the camps. About 80% of the Herero and 50% of the Nama people were wiped out.

  The Holocaust (1939 – 1945)

  
  

  The Holocaust is a genocide that occurred in Germany and its occupied territories. It targeted Jews of whom approximately 6,000,000 were killed by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime.

  Apart from the Jews, non-Jews were also killed including millions of Polish Gentiles, Russians, Ukrainians and prisoners of other nationalities. This has been one of the largest genocides in history. About two-thirds of the Jews who lived in Europe were killed in the Holocaust.

  Laws were passed in Germany that excluded Jews from the civil society, more specifically the Nuremberg Laws of 1935. Concentration camps were established where Jews were murdered in large numbers. Jews were collected from various parts of Germany occupied territories in 1939 and were transported in cargo trains to the famous concentration or extermination camps. Most of them, however, died along the way. Those who survived the journey by train were killed in gas chambers.

                              

  The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda

  Events leading to the planning and execution of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda date back to 1959. The cause of the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi was the history of a long process of violence, hatred, injustice and ethnic divisions in the first and second Republics of Rwanda. Massacre against the Tutsi had happened in 1959 as a result of similar reasons to those ones that caused the 1994 Genocide – manipulated ethnic rivalries between the Hutu and the Tutsi.

  There was an ethnic and political violence which was characterised by a period of violence from 1959 – 1961 targeting the Tutsi and Hutu members of UNAR. This violence saw the country transition from a Belgian colony with a Tutsi monopoly to an independent Hutu dominated republic.

  A Hutu elite group was formed to counter the Tutsi policy and transfer power from the Tutsi to the Hutu. From November 1959, a series of riots by the Hutu took place. The riots entailed arson attacks on Tutsi homes. The violence forced about 336,000 Tutsi to exile in the neighbouring countries where they lived as refugees. The Tutsi exiles organised themselves into an armed group to fight their way back into their country.

  Afterwards, there were no active threats posed by the Tutsi refugees to the Hutu-controlled government in Rwanda. It was until the early 1990s when the Tutsi refugees regrouped again into a strong force and formed the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a movement which they used to force the Rwanda Government into a political negotiation. However the negotiations failed as Hutu extremists were not willing to share the power. Using the death of President Juvenal Habyarimana in an airplane crash on April 6th, 1994 as a pretext, they executed their long term plan of killing the Tutsi in the 1994 Genocide at the end of which more than one million Tutsi were massacred.

  The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi did not take a long time to be recognised by UNO. The Security Council created the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by the Resolution 955 of November 8th, 1994. Based in Arusha, the ICTR was established to deal with the prosecution of the Rwandans responsible for the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi.

  Different phases of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi
  

  
  

  When the airplane that carried President Juvenal Habyarimana and the President of Burundi Cyprien Ntaryamira crashed on the night of April 6th, 1994, the long planned Genocide against the Tutsi started in Kigali City. It was started on thepolitical officials in the opposition namely; Minister Frederick Nzamurambaho, Faustin Rucogoza, Agathe Uwiringiyimana, Landouald Ndasingwa as well as Joseph Kavaruganda (Supreme Court). Killing the persons who could first oppose it was a strategic method used to freely commit the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda. The genocidaires went on to kill the Tutsi all over the country within a very short time. Some state officials in the newly formed ‘Government’ (Guverinoma y’Abatabazi) led by Theodore Sindikubwabo, (then a.i President of the Republic), Jean Kambanda (a.i Prime Minister), the Prefects of the Prefectures, Commune Burgomasters up to the cells leaders sensitised people to kill the Tutsi.

  The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi was possible through the involvement of different actors. They included the following:

  • The Government of Rwanda that did not use its coercive power to stop killings, prohibit or punish the killers. It even provided funds to make the killings possible;

  • Armed forces starting with the Republican guards (Garde Presidentielle), Gendarmes (Police), Militias Interahamwe (MRND), Impuzamugambi (CDR militias) and military commanders at the local level and the Communal police;

  • Local government officials such as prefects of prefecture (as province today), burgomasters (as mayors today), communal coordinators, Conseillers de Secteur (as executive secretaries of sectors) and cell leaders ; Responsible de cellule (as executive secretaries of cells);

  • Individuals such as traders, local leaders of political parties, opinion leaders (intellectuals), faith-based missionaries, observers or bystanders and accomplices to killers etc.All these actors played a major role in killing the Tutsi within a period of three months.The genocide that lasted three months from April up to July 1994 was then stopped by the RPF when they defeated the genocidal forces.

  Activity 2.2

  Do this in pairs.Watch a documentary on the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

  (a)Analyse its causes, its course and its end.

  (b)Write an essay suggesting steps that could have been taken to prevent its occurrence.

  Activity 2.3

  Brainstorm: Having evaluated other genocides that happened in the 20th Century, find out more on how the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi was different from the rest.

  Similarities between the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi and other genocides

  
  

  The above genocides have the following as common features or similarities:

  • Thorough preparation and execution by the concerned governments. They are always a result of bad leadership.

  • Intention of destroying or completely wiping out the targeted group.

  • Involvement of the government that put in place all necessary measures to destroy the targeted group.

  • Large scale killing of the targeted group.

  • Innocent people are killed because they belong to the targeted group.

  • Cruel methods are used to torture the victims before killing them.

  • Negative effects like trauma and poverty are common among the survivors.

  • There are mechanisms of denying the genocide committed.

  • Most of them are generated by internal divisions.

  • They mostly occur during war times.

  Differences between the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi and other genocides

  
  

  • It was executed within a short period of time. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi claimed the life of more than one million people in a period of one hundred days.

  • Many people were involved, killing their fellow citizens, their relatives and their neighbours. Killers and victims shared citizenship and culture.

  • The government agents, church members and security organs were all actively involved in the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

  • The international community did not intervene to stop the genocide in Rwanda. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi was stopped by Rwandans themselves. It came to an end when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) defeated the genocidal forces in July 1994.

  • Cruel and extreme forms of violence were used in the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi e.g. torturing victims before killing them, throwing victims in septic tanks alive, burying them alive in common graves, gathering them in churches and other places and burning them alive using gasoline, raping women before killing them, crushing babies in mortars or smashing them against walls.

  Measures that have been taken to reconstruct the Rwandan society after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi

  
  

  Activity 2.4 Group work

  Split yourselves into two groups:

  Discuss the measures that have been taken to reconstruct Rwanda and to instill a sense of love and respect among all people. After your various discussions, have a presentation in class followed by a question and answer session among yourselves.

  The 1994 Genocide against Tutsi came to an end only after the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) defeated the genocidal forces in July 1994. On July 17th, 1994 the RPF established a Broad Based Government of National Unity (BBGNU) which carried out a number of national reconciliation activities aimed at helping Rwandans to live together in harmony.

  • The Rwandan Government guaranteed security to returning refugees and to all citizens. Security organs were supported in carrying out their activities.

  • It abolished the use of ethnicity (Hutu, Tutsi and Twa) as political identities. The aim was to promote national unity by encouraging people and political groups to forget their past and live together in harmony.

  • It reconstructed government institutions since they had collapsed during the first and second republics.

  • It ensured justice to the victims of the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi. Gacaca Courts provided both justice and reconciliation.

  • It established different commissions to promote national unity and reconciliation e.g the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission and the Human Rights Commission.

  • It established the office of the ombudsman to receive complaints against injustices.

  • It promoted activities of civil societies like non-governmental organisations (NGOs) to help in rebuilding the communities as well as the economy.

  • The National Constitution was reviewed in 2003. It promotes human rights observance and gives the Judiciary independence i.e. the decisions made are respected.

  • The teaching curricula were updated e.g. Curriculum for Political Education.

  • The Government of Rwanda also promoted participative leadership at all levels through equity, meritocracy and accountability.

  • It set up the National Commission for the Fight against Genocide to organise a permanent framework for the exchange of ideas on genocide, its consequences and strategies for its prevention and eradication.

  • It put in place the policy of solidarity trainings camps in places such as Nkumba and Mutobo where Rwandans of different age groups had to shape their mindset through different physical and psychological teachings on Rwandan issues. Also, through the Girinka, Ubudehe, Umuganda and Kuremera programs, the Government of Rwanda revived the spirit of cohesion. Every Rwandan realised the necessity of living together and of patriotism to all Rwandans.

  Unit summary

  This unit explains the genocide concept in depth and identifies the genocides that happened in the 20th Century as well as the circumstances under which they happened. Apart from the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi that occurred in Rwanda, there are other genocides that happened in different places such as the genocide against the Herero in Namibia and the Holocaust that happened in Germany.The Herero were opposed to the invasion of their land by the Germans and their intention of building a railway line across the land that belonged to the Herero.The Holocaust was genocide against the Jews that occurred in Germany and its occupied territories.

  The cause of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi was the history of a long process of violence, hatred, injustice and ethnic divisions among the people of Rwanda. This genocide lasted for three months from April to July 1994. It came to an end when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) defeated the genocidal forces.The post genocide Government of Rwanda put measures in place that ensured reconstruction of the Rwandan society. It ensured justice was served to the victims of the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi. This was done through the establishment of the Gacaca Courts which facilitated conflict resolution and reconciliation.

  Unit assessment

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to compare different genocides in the 20th Century by paying more attention on the specificity of the Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994.He/She will be able to understand well the root-causes of the genocide and suggest ways to prevent the occurrence of the genocide in his/her country again.

  Revision questions

  1. Define the term genocide.

  2. Identify the genocides that occurred in the 20th Century.3. Describe the common features of genocides.

  4. Describe the differences between the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda and other genocides.

  5. Describe the measures that have been taken by the Government of Rwanda to reconstruct the Rwandan society after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

  
  

• Unit 3: Origin, rise, organisation and decline of empires in West and South Africa

  Topic area:  History of Africa
  

  Sub-topic area: History of ancient Africa
  

  Key unit competence

  Describe the origin, rise, organisation and decline of various empires in West and South Africa.
  

  Origin and rise of various empires of West Africa

  
  

  Ancient kingdoms in West Africa

  
  

  The grassland region south of the Sahara and north of the forest zone was known to the Arabs as Bilad as-Sudan or the land of the blacks. It witnessed in medieval times the emergence of four notable empires – Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem – Bornu – in the west and central parts of it.
  

  Ghana Empire

  
  

  Ghana was the first kingdom to emerge as an empire in the Western Sudan. Apart from metropolitan Ghana, the empire included several important provincial territories.
  

               
  

  Chief among these was Awkar, a name by which Ghana was, for some time, better known in the Islamic world. At its height, the territories governed or influenced by Old Ghana covered a considerable area in the source-region of the rivers Niger and Senegal.

  Origins

  The Mande-speaking Soninke people founded Old Ghana. The exact date of its foundation is not known, but was probably between 500 and 700 AD. It grew out of the Trans-Saharan trade. The original name of the kingdom was Wagadu. A sacred king who was the highest authority in the state ruled Ghana. He was known as the ‘Ghana’. Later, the name Ghana also came to refer to the kingdom.

  Old Ghana lay between River Senegal in the west and River Niger in the east. The Sahara Desert formed the northern boundary, while to the south were the forests in which lay the rich mining areas of Wangara.

  Factors that led to the rise and growth of Old Ghana

  
  

  Activity 3.1

  In groups of five , visit the library and research on the factors that led to the rise of the kingdom of old Ghana and those that led to its downfall. Later hold a class discussion to debate your findings.

  These were the reasons for the rise of Old Ghana:

  (i) Control of trade routes: The empire occupied the savannah land between the rich gold-fields of Wangara and the most important of the trans-Sahara trade routes. In this middle-man position, the ruler of Ghana could control and tax both the trading goods taken from North Africa to the Western Sudan (e.g. salt and horses) and those taken from the Western Sudan to North Africa (e.g. gold, ivory, kola). From this trade came wealth and with this wealth the rulers of Ghana were able to establish and maintain a reasonably efficient administration and army.

  (ii) The use of iron: The Soninke were apparently the first group of people in that part of the Western Sudan to discover the use of iron. The ability to make weapons of iron was important and assisted in Ghana’s military strength and growth.

  (iii) Use of horses: Soninke are considered the first people to secure a sufficiently large number of horses from North Africa to build up a powerful cavalry.

  (iv) Effective administration: The Soninke built up a fairly effective large-scale government, which enabled them to rule a large area and to maintain law and order.

  (v) Unity in the empire: The fact that the rulers of Ghana were considered semi-divine must also have helped the rise of the empire by maintaining unity and limiting the incidence of rebellion.

  
  

  Political organisation of the old Ghana

  
  

  (i) At the head of the empire was the king, operating from the headquarters at Kumbi Saleh.

  (ii) The king was assisted by able administrators. These men served also as secretaries.

  (iii) In the capital city there was a governor, besides the emperor. He was in charge of the civic administration of metropolitan Ghana.(iv)In the conquered or vassal states, two types of provincial government seem to have operated: In some provinces the administration was entrusted to governors appointed directly by the emperor. These were places where either hostile subjects were constantly plotting to rebel or there was no centralized native provincial ruler. In other places, the local rulers were allowed a great measure of independence. All that was required of these provincial native rulers was loyalty to metropolitan Ghana, and regular payment of tax to the emperor.

             

  (v) Vassal kings sent up their sons to the emperor’s palace. This practice was maintained for two reasons. Firstly, as long as the sons of the vassal kings were at the emperor’s palace or court, it was not wise for their fathers to rebel against the imperial authority. Secondly, these pages learnt a great deal of the arts of government from the imperial court. The experience thus gained stood them in good stead when later they returned home to assume the reins of government in their own land, in succession to their fathers.

  (vi)The supreme judicial power in the empire was vested in the emperor, assisted by a hierarchy of subordinate officials.

  (vii)The king did not maintain a standing army. Men were recruited or called up when the king needed them for a campaign or to defend the empire from external attack.

  Economic Organisation

  
  

  Old Ghana was a wealthy empire. The following were its sources of economic prosperity:

  (i)The gold mines were a source of revenue. The king held a monopoly of all the gold mines in the empire. This policy helped to maintain the high value of this precious metal. It also accounted for the great wealth which the kings enjoyed.

  (ii)Ghana’s middleman position helped her to benefit immensely from the trans-Saharan trade.

  (iii)Taxation on trade goods gave the emperor good revenue. The import and export taxes yielded much revenue for the king’s treasury.

  (iv)The people of Ghana used their skills in iron-working in good farming and adequate production of food.

  (v)The people were successful fishermen. They fished from the many rivers crisscrossing the empire.(vi) Agriculture was also a major source of economic prosperity

  Social Organisation

  
  

  (i)The king of Ghana made use of Muslims in his government, but his people still followed the traditional religion.

  (ii)The king of Old Ghana was regarded as semi-divine. As the chief priest, the king conducted special ceremonies and rituals, and was the link between the living and the gods.

  (iii)The people believed in life after death. This was seen in the burial rites that were performed when the king died. After his death, the king’s body was placed in a special building on a bed decorated with fine cloths. His clothes, weapons and other personal belongings were placed near him. When all this had been done, some of the closest servants entered the tomb, which was then sealed.

  (iv)The people threw earth over the tomb until a small burial mound had been created.

  (v)The people of Old Ghana lived in thatched houses that were built of wood.

  (vi) The king wore special robes and ornaments during official ceremonies.

  (vii) People approached the king on their knees as a sign of respect.

  Activity 3.2
  

  Draw a sketch map of the Western Sudan, and indicate the position of Ghana and its expansion.

  
  

  Decline of Old Ghana

  By the end of the 11th Century, Old Ghana had begun to decline. A number of reasons caused this:

  (i)Generally speaking, the inherent structural weaknesses common to most Sudanese states caused the decline. In this case it was particularly due to the disruptive activities of the Almoravids, who, either because of a genuine desire to purify and spread Islam, or because of the prospects of booty, descended on and sacked Ghana in AD 1076.

  (ii)The Almoravid attacks had opened the way for internal revolts and incursions from hostile neighbours which Ghana could not control.

  (iii)Ghana’s great wealth, which had been an asset in its heyday, was now a disadvantage as its envious neighbours began to make increasingly menacing attempts to seize it

  (iv)Towards the end of the 12 Century, the Soninke dynasty, established by Kaya Magan about 770 AD, was overthrown by a soldier called Diara Kante who was succeeded in turn by Sumanguru Kante (1200-35). From the small vassal state of Kaniaga, Sumanguru Kante took advantage of his suzerain’s weakness and conquered Ghana in 1203. The resultant confusion and insecurity caused the merchants and scholars in the capital of Old Ghana to move out and settle in Walata. Sundiata, the only surviving son of the ruler of the state of Kangaba who had been sacked by Sumanguru in 1224, captured and killed Sumanguru at the Battle of Kirina in AD 1235.

  (v)The rise of strong neighbouring state of Mali were a threat that caused the collapse of the Ghana empire.

  (vi) Decline of trans-saharan trade in Ghana due to the exhaustion of trade goods weakened the economy of Ghana leading to its downfall.

  (vii) The large size of Ghana kingdom made it difficult for administration, therefore weakening the kingdom until it declined.

  Mali Empire

  
  

  Activity 3.3

  In pairs, discuss the possible factors that led to the rise and decline of the kingdom of Mali, considering the points we have discussed concerning the kingdom of Old Ghana.

  
  

  From the ruins of the Old Ghana Empire, there arose the Mandingo Empire of Mali. Two important personalities dominated the history of this empire, Sundiata (1230-55) and Mansa Musa (1312-37). Under Sundiata, Mali became the dominant trading empire of the Western Sudan. It therefore took the place of Ghana and although there are differences, it imitated the previous empire very closely. One essential difference is that everything that Mali did was on a grander scale; there was more trade, a larger army and a larger empire.

  
  

  Origins

  
  

  Mali was not given the name by which it is known until after Sundiata started to build the empire. Its original name was Kangaba. The people of Kangaba were the Mandinka, or in other words, the southern Mande.

  
  

  Thus, Mali developed from the coming together of a number of Mandinka chieftaincies to form the small state of Kangaba. However, the neighbouring Old Ghana ruler Sumanguru Kante viewed this up-and-coming state with grave concern; and in about 1224 he descended on Kangaba and conquered it, killing, according to some traditions, all but one of its ruler’s twelve sons. Sundiata, the survivor, went into exile.

  
  

  Kangaba was left in a desperate situation, but eventually Sundiata returned from exile and became the king. He was sent help by many of Sumanguru’s enemies, such as the king of Bobo who sent 1,500 archers to help Kangaba. Thus, Sundiata was able to assemble a large army to face his foe at a place called Kirina. His greatest obstacle to victory was the fear that Sumanguru inspired in the Mandinka. They believed incredible stories about Sumanguru; for example, that he possessed eight heads. It was very important for Sundiata to lead the way in battle and to demonstrate that the Susu king was human and indeed mortal, which he did. The Susu were defeated and Sundiata went on to capture the old kingdom of Ghana.

  
  

         

  
  

  Between 1235 and his death in 1255, Sundiata created the empire of Mali. Mali is a name that was given to the empire by Arab travellers and its meaning is the ‘place where the king lives’. The title which the Mali people gave to their king was mansa; so by 1235 the once crippled–Sundiata was Mansa Sundiata of Mali.By 1337, Mali empire controlled an area in West Africa that included most of what are now Gambia, Guinea, Senegal, Mali and parts of present-day Burkina Faso, Mauritania, and Niger.

  
  

  The rise and expansion of Mali Kingdom

  
  

  A number of factors led to the rise and expansion of Mali:

  
  

  (i)Strategic geographical position – Mali’s position, away from the southern movement of the Sahara Desert, and near the centre of the savannah lands, gave it a good geographical advantage. Thus, with good farming land, Mali could be sure of adequate food, a large population and a powerful army. There was less danger in Mali that war would cause a collapse of agriculture as it had done in Ghana. Another advantage of Mali’s geographical positioning was that empire was less vulnerable to attacks from desert tribes such as Sanhaja and the Tuaregs.

  
  

  (ii) Unity in Islam – The empire was not a target of the jihads because Mali, unlike Ghana, had long been a Muslim state. Not all the people of Mali, including Sundiata, were strict Muslims, but most kings seem to have been. This fact was beneficial to Mali’s trade and the smooth running of its government.

  
  

  (iii)Expansion of trade – Sundiata extended the empire’s trading activities –resulting in the expansion of the empire – in a number of ways:

  
  

  • In order to attract the trans-Saharan trade to the heart of his empire, he moved the capital from Jeriba to a new town, called Niani, which later became known as Mali. He realised that northern traders had abandoned Awdaghost as the main trading centre, and were now concentrating their activities in the direction of Timbuktu and Gao. By concentrating trade in positions on the Niger, he could be sure of keeping in contact with Gao.

  
  

  • When he extended his empire, he concentrated on areas that would be especially useful to Mali’s trade. He gained control of the gold-producing areas of Wangara. It meant that traders from Gao and Timbuktu would have to trade with Mali for gold and that there would be no need to offset their profits by paying agents for it.
  

  
  

  • Another area of expansion of trade included the copper-producing area of Takedda and Taghaza from where the salt came.

  
  

  (iv)Military conquests and annexations – Sundiata extended the Mali Kingdom through a series of conquests and annexations. Following the defeat of Sumanguru, Sundiata annexed the kingdom of Kaniaga and all her vassal states, including Ghana which he conquered in 1240. After the final defeat of Ghana, Sundiata stayed at his headquarters. He left to his generals the job of further expansion wars. His generals conquered the gold-producing regions of Bambuk and Wangara. The gold in these territories attracted trade, and thus the wealth of the new empire increased. Another important gain was the control of Taghaza, with its rich salt mines

  
  

  (v)Good administration. Sundiata organized an effective administrative system. He united many petty states, including the newly-annexed ones under one centralised system of administration. He himself took control of the metropolitan administration. He established a standing army under able leaders. He appointed several of these war leaders as governors in the provinces. These military governors exercised effective control over potentially rebellious subjects.

  
  

  (vi)The contributions of Mansa Musa. He made contributions in the expansion of Mali in a number of ways:

  
  

  • Devotion to Islam: He was very concerned with spreading the education of Islam and it is under him that Timbuktu started to grow as a great cultural centre. The most famous event of his reign was the great hajj (or pilgrimage) he made to Mecca in 1324. It is clear that he was a cultured man who had great regard for Arab styles of architecture.

  
  

  • Expansion of trade: He was a shrewd king who dispensed his generosity in directions that he considered most profitable. His lavish presents in Cairo were rewarded by a great expansion of trade with the sultan of Egypt.

  
  

  • Expansion of boundaries: Musa made conquests and annexations and greatly expanded the boundaries of Mali. Walata was annexed, and then attention was turned toward the main trading centres of Songhai, Gao, Timbuktu and Djenne (Jenne). These centres had always been the most profitable in the Western Sudan. Musa sent his military leader, Sagaman DSir, to conquer these towns, and it was accomplished by the time Musa returned from Mecca in 1325. The wealth of Mali was therefore substantially increased in the reign of Mansa Musa.

  
  

  Political organisation of the Mali Kingdom

  
  

  Activity 3.4

  In groups of five, go to the library and find out from books of history how the political structure of the kingdom of Mali appeared. Make comparisons between the Mali kingdom and the pre-colonial kingdom of Rwanda.

  
  

  The Mali Empire covered a larger area for a longer period of time than any other West African state ever did. This in part can be explained by its political organisation:

  
  

  (i)Decentralisation of administration: The farther the territory was from Niani, the more decentralized the mansa’s power became. Nevertheless, the mansa managed to keep tax money and nominal control over all the area without agitating his subjects into revolt. The Empire reached the limit of its expansion in the reign of Mansa Musa.
  

  
  

  (ii)Skilful leaders: Sundiata was an able ruler. Mansa Musa even surpassed him. This great ruler of Mali, who possessed considerable administrative skill, did much to organize Mali’s machinery of government. At the close of Mansa Musa’s reign, in 1337, the empire of Mali extended far beyond the frontiers of the empire of Ghana which it had replaced. This vast empire comprised many kingdoms inhabited by many different peoples. To govern a vast empire of this kind, successive rulers established institutions designed to promote effective government.

  
  

                                     

  
  

  (iii)Administration: Mali was divided up into two main administrative units; the metropolitan area which comprised the state of Mali itself and a collection of provincial states annexed through conquest. Assisted by able ministers and counsellors, all renowned Muslims, and by faithful members of the kings’ own extended family, the king exercised personal control over the administration of his own Mandingo people in the metropolitan territory. Sundiata divided the empire into a number of provinces. Mansa Musa re-organised the provinces in the south into fourteen administrative units. The government of these provinces was entrusted to able governors. The machinery of political administration then ran as follows:

  
  

  • In the southern provinces where the subjects were relatively submissive, the local rulers served as governors. They were allowed a great measure of provincial autonomy, as long as they maintained their loyalty and paid tributes to the emperor regularly.

  
  

  • To the north where both the vassal states and the neighbouring Tuareg were troublesome, the practice was to send military governors to be in charge of the provincial and local administration, and to keep the people under control.

  
  

  • Another area which constantly resisted the emperor’s rule was Gao, in the east. To reduce these rebellious people to submission not only were strong military men sent out to govern the province, but also a specially trained battalion was stationed there.

  
  

  • At stated times, the provincial governors reported at Niani, the capital, not only to submit the accounts of taxes collected for the imperial treasury, but also to give a report of their administration in general. Occasionally, too, officers of the imperial court were sent out to the provincial capitals to inspect and report to the emperor on conditions in the provinces.

  
  

  • In general terms, provinces picked their own governors via their own custom (election, inheritance, etc.). Regardless of their title in the province, they were recognized as dyamani-tigui (province master) by the mansa. Dyamani-tiguishad to be approved by the mansa and were subject to his oversight. If the mansa didn’t believe the dyamani-tigui was capable or trustworthy, a farbamight be installed to oversee the province or administer it outright.

  
  

  • At the local level (village, town, city), kun-tiguis elected a dougou-tigui(village-master) from a bloodline descended from that locality’s semi-mythical founder. The county level administrators called kafo-tigui (county-master) were appointed by the governor of the province from within his own circle.

  
  

  (iv)Motivation of officials: To encourage faithful and effective local administration, provincial officials were all well paid, not only in gold, but often in kind with horses and leases of land. In addition, Mansa Musa instituted special honours to reward outstanding leaders.
  

  
  

  (v)Administration of justice: The administration of justice was keenly promoted by the kings of Mali, notably Mansa Musa. The king made sure that no-one received preferential treatment in the law courts, whether the case involved a governor against an ordinary citizen, or a native against an alien. It was recorded, for example, that Mansa Musa once tried and punished severely a provincial governor who had wronged an ordinary peasant. Referring to the administration of justice as it prevailed throughout the empire of Mali in his days.

  
  

  (vi)Loyalty and respect for authority: Loyalty and respect for authority were other characteristics of the people of Mali, which resulted from good administration.

  
  

  Economic organisation

  
  

  • The Mali Empire flourished because of trade. It contained three immense gold mines within its borders. The empire taxed gold or salt that entered its borders. By the beginning of the 14th Century, Mali was the source of almost half the Old World’s gold exported from mines in Bambuk, Boure and Galam.

  
  

  • There was no standard currency throughout the realm, but several forms were prominent by region. The Sahelian and Saharan towns of the Mali Empire were organised as both staging posts in the long-distance caravan trade, and trading centers for the various West African products. At Taghaza, for example, salt was exchanged; copper was traded at Takedda. Ibn Battuta observed the employment of slave labour in both towns. During most of his journey, Ibn Battuta travelled with a retinue that included slaves, most of whom carried goods for trade but would also be traded as slaves.

  
  

  • On the return journey from Takedda to Morocco, his caravan transported 600 female slaves, suggesting that slavery was a substantial part of the commercial activity of the empire.

  
  

  Role of minerals

  
  

  The role of minerals in Mali’s economic activity included the following:

  
  

  • Gold:Gold nuggets were the exclusive property of the mansa, and were illegal to trade within his borders. All gold was immediately handed over to the imperial treasury in return for an equal value of gold dust. Gold dust had been weighed and bagged for use at least since the reign of the Ghana Empire. Mali borrowed the practice to stem inflation of the substance, since it was so prominent in the region. The most common measure for gold within the realm was the ambiguous mithqal (4.5 grams of gold). This term was used interchangeably with dinar, though it is unclear if coined currency was used in the empire. Gold dust was used all over the empire, but was not valued equally in all regions.

  
  

  • Salt:The next great unit of exchange in the Mali Empire was salt. Salt was as almost if not equally valuable to gold in Sub-Saharan Africa. It was cut into pieces and spent on goods with close to equal buying power throughout the empire. While it was as good as gold in the north, it was even better in the south. The people of the south needed salt for their diet, but it was extremely rare. The northern region on the other hand had no shortage of salt. Every year merchants entered Mali via Walata (Oualata) with camel loads of salt to sell in Niani. According to Ibn Battuta who visited Mali in the mid-14th Century, one camel load of salt sold at Walata for 8-10 mithqals of gold, but in Mali proper it realised 20-30 ducats and sometimes even 40. Copper. Copper, traded in bars, was mined from Takedda in the north and traded in the south for gold. Contemporary sources claim 60 copper bars traded for 100 dinars of gold.

  
  

  
  

  Social organisation

  
  

  Social organisation of Mali covered a number of areas:

  
  

  (i)Islamisation of state – Mansa Musa’s major achievement was that he made Mali a much more devoutly Muslim country. In Mali he instituted compulsory readings of the Koran. As a Muslim, he promoted the careers of fellow Muslims. Many mosques were built and Friday prayers were always observed at the king’s court. Yet many of his subjects continued to worship in the traditional way and Musa showed no objection. This was particularly true of people who were not  related to Musa’s Mandinka clan, such as the gold-diggers of Wangara. For in spite of his own piety, he had no wish to divide his domain with religious disputes.

  
  

  (ii)Education– Mansa Musa encouraged the establishment of Islamic schools. These increased the prestige of both Mali and Songhai. He attracted many learned and skilled men, like As-Sahili, from the Muslim world to these centres of learning. He encouraged the practice of sending promising scholars from his empire to Islamic seats of learning abroad to pursue advanced studies. These scholars returned to Mali, to form the nucleus of a group of learned teachers and professors in the schools and colleges in the empire.

  
  

  (iii)Architecture – Returning from the pilgrimage, Mansa Musa brought with him a group of renowned Muslim architects and scholars. Chief among these men was As-Sahili the celebrated architect and poet. As-Sahili is believed to have been the first to introduce in Mali the use of burnt bricks for building houses. Among his great constructional works were the famous burnt brick mosques in Gao and Timbuktu as well as the burnt brick palace at Timbuktu. Through the influence of As-Sahili the knowledge of the use of burnt bricks for building houses spread throughout the empire.
  

  
  

  As-Sahili also introduced to Mali flat-roof architecture. In this and other ways a new age of architecture was born in the Western Sudan. Within Mali, the imperial rulers ordered mosques constructed and palaces converted into mosques. Architects and builders increased the size of the mosques to accommodate a larger Muslim population and underscore the importance of Islam. The cities of Gao, Djenne (Jenne) and Timbuktu boasted large mosques. In Djenne stands a great mosque. Constructed of blocks made from a mixture of rice husks, earth and water that was allowed to ferment. It is an impressive structure, four stories high, with three minarets almost 60 feet high. The spires are topped with ostrich eggs symbolic of good fortune and fertility.

  
  

  (iv)Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca – In the years 1324-5, Mansa Musa went on a pilgrimage to Mecca, passing through Muslim centres such as Walata, Tuat and Cairo. The splendor and generosity which attended the pilgrimage won the admiration of the people in every territory through which he passed.
  

  
  

                   

  
  

  The important effects of his pilgrimage to Mecca may be summarised as follows:

  
  

  • Mansa Musa’s own faith and zeal increased remarkably.

  • He set about purifying the religion in his empire and, as noted earlier, insisted on the strictest observance of the faith and practice of Islam.

  • He promoted Islamic learning.

  • Mansa Musa’s example and his devout insistence on the faithful observance of the rules of Islam must have increased his prestige greatly among the Muslims of Western Sudan.

  
  

  The decline of Mali Kingdom

  
  

  Activity 3.5

  Work in pairs Considering the factors that led to the decline of the kingdoms of Old Ghana and the kingdom of Rwanda, brainstorm on the possible reasons for the downfall of the kingdom of Mali. Discuss your points in class.

  
  

  Mali’s greatness and renown continued up to the end of Mansa Sulayman’s reign. It was then that the empire began to decline. By the end of the 15th Century it had lost much of its power to Songhai. The disintegration of the empire of Mali took place because of internal and external reasons:

  
  

  1. Internal causes

  
  

  Internal causes of Mali’s decline included the following:

  
  

  (i)Weak and incompetent leaders: The death of Sulayman began a period of forty years of constant civil war and changes of kingship. There were immediately two men ready to rule over Mali; Sulayman’s son Kamba and the grandson of Mansa Musa, Mari Jata II. The army was split in civil war and the royal clan was divided. Temporary peace was restored when Mari Jata became king (1360-74). A greedy despot, he hardly reflected the greatness of his grandfather. The attempts made by Mansa Musa II (1374-87) to revive the strength of the army, trade and government failed. Constant internal dissension resulted in the assassination of Mansa Maghan II (1387-9), after a short reign.

  
  

  (ii)Rebellion by vassal states: At the height of its glory, the Mali empire was very extensive, comprising many provinces which were inhabited by different ethnic groups. Each of these was waiting for signs that the central authority was weakening; for them to seize an opportunity to become independent of imperial control. Some of these attempts were successful. The first to do this was Gao (Songhai). On his way from pilgrimage, Mansa Musa had stopped at his vassal city of Gao and taken with him to Mali two princes of Gao, Ali Kolen and Sulayman Nar, as hostages to ensure the continued loyalty of the people to his authority. Not long afterwards, the two princes escaped from Mali and went back home to Gao. They organised a successful rebellion, and drove out the military forces stationed there by Mansa Musa. The people of Tekrur in the west followed the example of Gao.

  
  

  2. External causes

  
  

  The empire suffered a number of attacks by her jealous neighbours:

  
  

  (i)Attack from Mossi: In the reign of the great Mansa Musa, in 1333, the Mossi in the south had attacked Timbuktu. They were Later repulsed. About 1400 they made another destructive attack on the empire.

  
  

  (ii)Tuareg attack: Mali’s northern neighbours, the Tuareg, under their able leader Aki lag Malwal, took Walata and Timbuktu in 1433-4.

  
  

  (iii)Songhai attack: In 1468, Sunni Ali of Songhai started raids on Mali. By the end of the 15th Century, Mali had been completely annexed by Songhai.

  
  

  (iv) French colonisation: Mali as an ancient kingdom disappeared from the maps from about 1670 onwards. About a century and a half later, this former great West African territory fell into the hands of the French. Great patriots like Samori Toure made courageous attempts to recover Mali’s lost heritage. But it was not until 1960 that this French colony regained her independence. The founders of this new nation renamed their country Mali, to recall the past glory of the medieval Sudanese empire of that name, to which their ancestors belonged.

  
  

  
  

  Songhai Empire

  
  

  As Mali’s power waned, Songhai asserted its independence and rose to power in the area as the third and perhaps the greatest of the Sudanese states of West Africa. Songhai had been an important trade centre within Mali’s empire, just as Mali had once been ruled by Ghana.

  
  

                           

  
  

  Origin

  
  

  What became the nucleus of Songhai began with the coming together of two mutually unfriendly groups of oborigines: the Sorko, who were mostly fishermen, and made their living on the river Niger; and the Gabibi, who were agriculturalists, and lived in different parts of the countryside. Depending mainly on fishing, the lives of the Sorko were dominated by the river. By the 7th Century, they had organised themselves into a fairly strong kingdom, with Kukia as their capital. With time, the Sorko dominated the Gabibi. The two people’s merged into one kingdom, which the Arabic records refer to as Al-Kawkaw.

  
  

  About the beginning of the 8th Century, the Berber Lemta tribe from the north of Gao, under their leader Za Alieamen, conquered the kingdom. Thus began a long line of Za rulers in Al-Kawkaw. Al-Kawkaw grew into a prosperous and powerful kingdom through fishing, cattle-rearing and trade. The growing prosperity attracted Muslim merchants from the north. In about 1010 the ruler, Za Kossoi, was converted to Islam. We have seen that Sundiata moved the capital of Kaniaga from Jeriba to Niani (Mali) to be nearer the centre of trade. The leaders of Al-Kawkaw transferred their capital from Kukia to Gao for the same reasons. Al-Kawkaw grew in importance alongside both the Ghana and Mali empires. But as the two empires developed, more and more of the Sudanese trade shifted westwards, and Al-Kawkaw declined gradually in importance. Indeed, she lost her independence for a time to Mali.

  
  

  
  

  Factors that led to the growth of Songhai

  
  

  Activity 3.6

  
  

  Work in pairs.Considering the factors that led to the growth of the kingdoms of Mali and the Old Ghana, brainstorm on the factors that boosted the growth of the Songhai kingdom.

  
  

  A number of factors led to the growth of Songhai:

  
  

  (i) Trade
  

  
  

  Songhai’s rich and fertile land and other resources attracted traders. Three principal trade routes converged at the capital, Gao.

  
  

  (ii) Influences of Islam

  
  

  Trans-Saharan trade brought into the kingdom Muslim influences which helped the development of the kingdom. These influences became more pronounced from the beginning of the 11th Century, following the conversion of the king, Za Kossoi, to Islam. Furthermore, as happened elsewhere, the Muslims became advisers in the royal court, and influenced not only the administration, but also the social, economic, and political life of the kingdom.

  
  

  (iii) Gao’s resistance to Mali domination

  
  

  In the 14th Century, the kingdom of Gao came under the control of Mali in the reign of Mansa Musa. In due course, Gao threw off Mali’s domination, in a rebellion initiated by the two Gaoan princes, Ali Kolen and Sulayman Nar, whom Mansa Musa had taken away to Mali as hostages. These princes escaped and Sulayman Nar drove out the army of Mali stationed at Gao. However, some time elapsed before Gao, now developing into an empire, was able to gain its independence from Mali completely.

  
  

  (iv) The work of Sunni Ali (1464-1492)

  
  

  Just as Sundiata was the founder of the Mali Empire, so was Sunni Ali’s role in the history of the Songhai empire.

  
  

  Sunni Ali’s contribution to the growth of the empire

  
  

  A number of factors enabled Sunni Ali to contribute in the growth and expansion of the empire.

  
  

  (a)Weakness of neighbouring countries: Weakness in the neighbouring countries helped Sunni Ali’s work of expanding and consolidating his empire. However, much of his success was due to his own personal courage and ruthlessness.

  
  

  (b)Enough military strength: In order to quell internal opposition and to launch wars of expansion, Sunni Ali established a very well-organised army. He also started a navy and organized a strong fleet, headed by a navy officer, the Hi-koy. With the help of the fleet, he was able to command control of the Niger River. With these formidable armed forces he was able to clear his kingdom of all opponents to his rule. His military might enabled him to conquer neighbouring countries such as: Timbuktu, Jenne, Yetanga and Hausaland.The wealth derived from these newly-annexed vassal states contributed greatly to the prosperity of Songhai empire.

  
  

  (c)Efficient administration: Sunni Ali established a very efficient administration. He had so expanded the frontiers of Songhai that the empire contained many different peoples and territories. To keep this large empire together, Sunni Ali set up very efficient administrative machinery. He divided his empire into provinces. He made able war leaders governors of strategic regions. For example, in the province of Hombori in the south, a mountainous territory which gave him much trouble, he placed a veteran leader, called Tondifari to keep the rebellious people in submission and to maintain an effective check on any incursions from outside the frontiers of the empire. In the relatively peaceful provinces, Sunni Ali allowed the native rulers a good deal of local autonomy, as long as they were answerable to him, and showed their loyalty to the imperial authority through the regular payment of tributes. His policy towards conquered peoples therefore varied according to conditions prevailing in each individual territory. In localities where the Muslims did not oppose him, he treated them fairly.

  
  

  (v) The work of Askia Muhammad (1493-1528)

  
  

  When Sunni Ali died in 1492, he was succeeded by his son, Abu Bakr (also known as Sunni Baru). He reigned for only a little over a year. A succession dispute then arose, which resulted in fierce rivalry between Ali’s son and one of Sunni Ali’s war generals, who had served as Ali’s chief minister. The general’s name was Muhammad Ture, also known as Muhammad Ture Ibn Abi Bakr. Muhammad Ture emerged victorious from a war against Abu Bakr, defeating his rival at a place called Angoo. Entering Gao in triumph, Muhammad Ture was proclaimed king of Songhai. He assumed the title Askia, meaning ‘he can’t be (king)’, an expression with which the sisters of his rival, in utter disgust at learning of the victory of Muhammad Ture, had greeted his triumphant entry into Gao. That started the new ‘Askia’ dynasty which replaced the Sunni line. Askia reigned from 1493 to 1528, when he was deposed by his eldest son, Musa. Askia Muhammad took measures to improve the social and economic life of the empire.

  
  

  
  

  Askia Muhammad’s achievements for his Empire

  
  

  Political organisation

  
  

  Askia Muhammad’s political astuteness and administrative genius helped to make him one of the great rulers of Songhai. Under him the empire reached its greatest extent stretching from Walata in the west to Kano in the east. It included a number of important trading centres in the Sahara.

  
  

  (a)Territorial expansion: Askia followed the example of Sunni Ali and made further territorial gains through conquests and treaties. He renewed Songhai’s attack on the Mossi but, like his predecessor, Sunni Ali, he failed to conquer these strong southern neighbours. After a long campaign, he then conquered what was left of the Mali kingdom. His next move was against the Hausa states of Gobir, Kano, Katsina and Zamfara, all of which he annexed. At the height of Askia’s reign the Songhai empire stretched from the Atlantic to Lake Chad.

  
  

  (b) Administration: Askia set about consolidating the territorial gains made by his predecessor, Sunni Ali, by an elaborate administrative system. He extended this administrative system to the new lands he added to the empire. He re-divided the empire into four regions, and at the head of each he placed a vice-roy or governor. The regions were Kurmina Masina, Bambara; Dendi Bala, to and Bangu

  
  

  Each region was headed by a governor, called fari, farma or koy. Local rulers still had authority but they were responsible to the regional governors. In metropolitan Songhai itself, the king held direct control of the machinery of government. He appointed a council of ministers who assisted him in ruling not only the metropolitan area but the entire empire. Among the most important ministerial officers were:

  
  

  • Katisi-farma, responsible for finance

  • Asari-mundia, responsible for justice

  • Balama, responsible for defence

  • Hi-koy, responsible for the navy

  • Korey-farma, responsible for foreign affairs

  • Sao-farma, the minister in charge of forestry

  • Hari-farma, in charge of rivers, lakes and fisheries

  • Kari-farma, the chief priest of the indigenous religion of Songhai

  • Barey-koy, who was in charge of the imperial court arrangements.

  
  

  (c)Military organisation: Askia Muhammad also organised the army effectively. The soldiers kept Tuareg bandits out of the empire and maintained a peaceful atmosphere in which commerce could flourish.

  
  

  Social organisation

  
  

  In the realm of social development, he encouraged learning, built up Timbuktu as a hub of civilisation, and patronised Islam.

  
  

  (a) Religion – Like Mansa Musa, Askia Muhammad was a devout Muslim. He used Islam as a unifying force and adopted Islamic principles as guidelines for the conduct of his people. Askia appointed judges in each important town of the empire. These judges followed the Koranic law and the Sharia. As a devout Muslim, Askia Muhammad made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1497. Though not as fabulous as Mansa Musa’s, Askia’s pilgrimage had important effects on the development of his empire. He bought a hostel at Cairo for Sudanese pilgrims going to and returning from Mecca. In recognition of his strict adherence to and promotion of Islam, Askia was awarded the title of ‘Caliph of the Blacks’.Like Mansa Musa, Askia returned from the pilgrimage with a number of celebrated Islamic scholars. These served the empire as educators administrators, advisers and judges. As more Muslims were attracted to Songhai, relations with the Muslim world improved. This meant an increase in trade. These Muslim immigrants also had a far-reaching influence on the political, social and cultural life of the empire.Also, inspired by North African Islamic theologians like Al-Maghili, he abolished the practice of sand-divining and the belief in talisman. He also made laws against the ill-use of pregnant slave women; and further, he legislated against nudity among adults.

  
  

  (b) Education – Askia Muhammad encouraged the spread of education. It was recorded, for example, that during Askia’s reign, there were as many as 150 Koranic schools in Timbuktu alone. The standard of learning at centres such as the Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, in Jenne and in Gao reached a very advanced level. Scholars from all over the Islamic world came to these centres for further studies. These institutions of higher learning produced many celebrated scholars. The growth of literacy had a great influence on the social, cultural and political life of the empire; it also helped to promote the trade in books.

  
  

  Economic organisation

  
  

  Askia Muhammad reformed and put the economy of Songhai on a firm basis. He encouraged regional specialisation according to the natural distribution of the Empire’s economic resources. Thus some areas specialised in the cultivation of food crops, some in fishing, others in the production of building materials, in smith work and in the mining of gold, salt and copper.

  
  

  He regularised the system of weights and measures and made salt, in addition to cowries, the imperial currency. His reforms increased the yield of state revenue from slave-worked in royal estates, regular contributions from the provinces, tributes from vassal states and proceeds from state-controlled commerce, particularly the trans-Saharan trade. The prosperity helped, among other things, in the establishment of a standing professional army vital for the strength and stability of Songhai.

  
  

  Following are his contributions to Songhai economy.

  
  

  (a) Weights and measures – Askia established a unified system of weights and measures throughout the empire, allowing, where necessary, a degree of local variation. . He legislated against cheating in trade, and appointed inspectors to control weights and measures and prices.

  
  

  (b) Sources of imperial revenue – The imperial treasury derived its revenue from farming and industry, court fines and from a variety of taxes. The income from these sources and the huge sums of money gained from commerce helped the kings to maintain an effective administration, to build up a strong army and navy, and to develop flourishing cities like Gao, Timbuctu and Jenne.• Farming: Much wealth was derived from farming and fishing. Throughout the empire, the government established vast estates which were worked by slaves. Each estate was under a fanfa, or estate manager. The revenue from these state farms went into the imperial treasury.

  
  

  • Crafts: Teams of slaves were also organised for the production of boats, spears and arrows. Some of these products went to equip the imperial army and navy. Some were sold to replenish the imperial treasury.

  
  

  • Tributes: Other sources of imperial revenue were tributes collected from vassal states.

  
  

  • Taxes: Taxes were collected from farmers by the regional governors and were sent regularly to the capital.

  
  

  • Tolls and duties: In addition, much revenue was collected in form of tolls and customs duties.

  
  

  • Court fines: These were another source of imperial revenue.

  
  

  
  

  Decline of Songhai Empire

  
  

  Activity 3.7

  
  

  In groups of five, visit the library and use resources such as history books and the Internet to find out both the internal and external causes for the decline of the Songhai Kingdom.

  
  

  When Askia Muhammad was 85 years old, and had become blind and infirm with age, one of his sons, Musa, is said to have taken advantage of this to dethroned him. Thereafter, the history of Songhai was one of decline, for, with the exception of Askia Daud who ruled Songhai from 1549 to 1582, the successors of Askia the Great could not cope with the problems which contributed to the decline and final collapse of the empire at the close of the 16th Century. The fall of the empire was brought about by factors which were both internal and external.

  
  

  (a) Internal factors

  
  

  (i) Incompetent rulers: The strength of Songhai was weakened by ineffective and often incompetent rulers. In addition, the empire suffered from a series of dynastic intrigues and short and unsuccessful reigns. For example, when Askia the Great was aged 85, he was deposed by his eldest son, Musa. He was later sent away from the capital by his nephew, Askia Bankuri (also known as Askia Muhammad II or Bengan Korei), to exile in kankaka island in the Niger. The ill treatment of Askia the Great caused dissention and rivalry which weakened the unity of the empire.

  
  

  (ii) Short reigns: Short reigns failed to create stability in the empire. Between 1528 and 1549, a relatively short period of 21 years, as many as four rulers occupied the Songhai throne, each one deposing his predecessor: Askia Musa (1528-33), Askia Bankuri (1533-37), Askia Ismail (1537-39), and Askia Ishak 1(1539-49). These short reigns were in contrast to the long reigns of Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad the Great, and by 1549 when Daud’s long reign began, the stability of the empire had been seriously impaired.
  

  
  

  (iii) Frequent succession disputes:Although Songhai’s prestige was restored somewhat under the next ruler Askia Daud, who had a very long reign from 1549 to 1582, he could not heal all the wounds which had been inflicted on the empire during the previous 21 years. Moreover, after his death, succession disputes hampered much of his work. The three Askias who followed, like those who came before him, were weak rulers and were, in addition, immoral. They had naturally short reigns: Askia Muhammad III (1582-6), Askia Muhammad Bani(1586-8), and Askia Ishak II (1588-91). In Ishak II’s reign Songhai fell under Morocco. These weak kings contributed to the final fall of the empire.

  
  

  (iv) Rebellions in the empire’s border territories: Songhai was united and strong enough to withstand external pressures. Many vassal states had become independent and hostile. They were only ready to help the invading Morocco forces. The Mossi to the south-west, the Hausa to the east, and the Tuareg to the north were a constant threat to the security of the empire. Besides, the heterogeneous nature of the vast empire, meant that the empire could be kept together only by the most able ruler. When the rulers were incompetent, and their claims to the throne were disputed, the empire was liable to disintegrate. This was the internal state of affairs when Moroccan forces marched down on Songhai.

  
  

  (b) External factors Morocco and other northern African countries had for centuries been envious of the wealth of the empire of Songhai. They always wanted to take it. Gold was one reason. Another was that the Moroccans did not want the Sudanese advancing into the desert as they had steadily been doing. Morocco especially resented the control of the Taghaza salt mines by the Songhai and long before the invasion of 1591 the two countries had been fighting over this region.

  
  

  Reasons for the defeat of Songhai

  
  

  The reasons for the defeat of Songhai included the following:

  
  

  (i)A major cause was the internal weakness of Songhai combined with the willing assistance given to Morocco by several vassal states who wanted to assert their freedom from the authority of Songhai.

  
  

  (ii)The Moroccans commanded an army of well-drilled and determined men, intent on gaining the rich possessions of Songhai.

  
  

  (iii)The Moroccans had the advantage of using superior weapons which included arquebuses (obsolete matchlock firearms) and muskets. The Askia’s forces included, somewhat unusually, 1,000 cows, which were placed between the two armies, and it was hoped that they would block the Moroccan bullets. But, like the Songhai soldiers, the cattle were terrified by the sound of the guns and turned to trample to death many of the Songhai soldiers. The weapons of Songhai were primitive, being bows and arrows, spears, swords and clubs.

  
  

  The capture of Gao and Timbuktu did not end the war completely. Having deposed Ishak II, the Songhai installed Askia Kagho as their ruler; he directed his men to resort to guerrilla warfare. They put up a considerable fight until, unfortunately for Songhai, Kagho was treacherously killed by the Moroccans who had invited him for peace talks. Kagho was succeeded by his brother, Askia Nuh, who continued the resistance until 1595, when Songhai was finally it defeated, and became a province of Morocco.

  
  

  Results of the defeat of Songhai

  
  

  The Moroccan conquest of the empire of Songhai had several consequences on the history which included the following:

  
  

  (i) Loss of independence

  
  

  (a) Songhai lost her independence and became a province of Morocco. Songhai as a great empire lost her identity and her well-organised central administration. The results of this situation were as follows:

  
  

  (b) The different states which had been united as members of the great empire of Songhai asserted their independence. But they did not have adequate resources to exist as separate units; instead they started fighting each other.

  
  

  (c) The Sultan of Morocco sent out governors called pashas to take charge of the Sudanese provinces that were under the control of Morocco.

  
  

  (d) The pashas sent out to the Western Sudan were mostly greedy and corrupt and unfit for the task assigned to them. Indeed, the administration of these provincial pashas was characterized by constant intrigues and struggles for power. This explains why, for example, within a short period of five years, from 1616 to 1621, the Western Sudanese administration passed through the hands of as many as twenty-one pashas.

  
  

  (e) While the superstructure of the imperial system collapsed, the diverse groups which made up the Songhai empire regained their independence and survived as small but virile states until the 19th Century – before the jihads and Partition. These groups included Tekrur, Kaarta, Segu, Masina, Dendi, Kebbi, Gobir, Kano Zaria and Katsina.

  
  

  (ii) Economic consequences

  
  

  The trans-Saharan trade and the internal economy decline for the following reasons:

  
  

  (a) By a coincidence, Europeans had started trading on the Guinea coast about a century before the fall of Songhai. This, combined with the disturbed situation in the Western Sudan, meant that the centre of the West African trade shifted from the north to the western and southern coasts of West Africa. The gold and ivory which now ceased to go north went southwards instead to boost the prosperity and importance of some of the forest and coastal states, particularly Asante and Fante, turning Songhai’s economic loss into these states’ gain.

  
  

  (b) The condition of the Western Sudan was made worse by the crippling taxation and levies imposed by the pashas.

  
  

  (c) The Moroccans had been very disappointed by what they had gained from conquering the Songhai empire. Although Al-Mansur obtained a great deal of gold, and earned the title El-Dhahabi, meaning the ‘Golden Ruler’, what Morocco actually gained as a result of the conquest was far less than they had expected.

  
  

  (iii) Loss of glory

  
  

  The capture of the Sudanese cities, accompanied by the destruction of men and property had other consequences:

  
  

  (a) Cities like Gao, Timbuktu and Jenne declined as centres of trade and as seats of learning.

  
  

  (b) With the death and capture of many scholars, the influence of Islam in the Western Sudan declined rapidly. In its place, pagan religions were revived. It was not until the beginning of the 19th Century that Islamic revivalist movements were launched by the Fulani in the Western Sudan

  
  

  (c) On the other hand, the eastward shift of the trans-Saharan trade and the movement of scholars from the Western Sudan in the same direction, as a consequence of the Moroccan invasion, increased the prosperity and renown of some of the Hausa states and that of Kanem-Bornu

  
  

  Kanem-Bornu Empire

  
  

                    

  
  

  The Kanem-Bornu Empire existed in modern Chad and Nigeria. It was known to the Arabian geographers as the Kanem Empire from the 9th Century AD onward. It lasted as the independent kingdom of Bornu until 1900. To the east of Lake Chad there emerged a kingdom comprising several states. This developed over a period of time, into the great Kanuri Empire. The beginnings of the empire coincided with the rise of Mali and Al-Kawkaw or Songhai, and the period of Ghana’s greatness.

  
  

  For many years, what came to be officially known as the Kanuri Empire was made up of two parts, separated by the lake. Kanem was in the east, and Bornu in the west of the empire. Kanem served as the centre of the empire for many years, but in the 15th Century, the seat of government shifted to Bornu in the west.
  

  
  

  Origins

  
  

  The origins of the Kanuri Empire are very unclear. Much of what we know about it is purely legendary. According to the so-called Kisra legend, Kanem was founded by a prince called Kisra and his followers who migrated to the east of Lake Chad from eastern Africa. It is believed that the westward movement of Kisra and his people took place as a consequence of the destruction of the city of Meroe (in the present-day republic of the Sudan) by the people of Axum (in Ethiopia) in about AD 350. Archaeologists have unearthed several historical remains in Kanem, which seem to point to the influence of Meroe.

  
  

  Some of the early peoples of the Kanem area were the So, who were the original inhabitants of the area; the Zaghawa – a nomadic people who were believed to have immigrated from eastern Africa in early times, and to have settled to the east of the lake in about 8th Century AD; the Kanuri or Kanembi; and the Bulala.

  
  

  The major factor that influenced the later history of the state of Kanem was the early penetration of Islam. North African traders; Berbers and Arabs, brought the new religion. Towards 1068, Hummay, a member of the Sefawa establishment, who was already a Muslim, discarded the last Duguwa King, Selma, from power and thus established the new dynasty of the Sefawa. Islam offered the Sefawa rulers the advantage of new ideas from Arabia and the Mediterranean world, as well as literacy in administration. But many people resisted the new religion favouring traditional beliefs and practices. When Hummay had assumed power on the basis of his strong Islamic following, for example, it is believed that the Kanembu began some kind of internal opposition.

  
  

  When the ruling dynasty changed, the royal establishment abandoned its capital of Manan and settled in the new capital Njimi further south of Kanem. By the 13th Century, Kanem’s rule expanded. At the same time, the Kanembu people drew closer to the new rulers and increased the growing population in the new capital of Njimi. Even though the Kanembu became the main power-base of the Sefawa, Kanem’s rulers continued to travel frequently throughout the kingdom and especially towards Bornu, west of Lake Chad. Herders and farmers alike recognized the government’s power and acknowledged their allegiance by paying tribute.

  
  

  The power and growth of Kanem-Bornu, unlike that of most other Sudanese states, fluctuated over the years, but the state never really completely broke down. One reason for this was the remarkable extent of the Sefawa dynasty whose rulers were able to sustain the state through crises of disintegration. Their profiles below show how this happened:

  
  

  Achievements of some Mai to the expansion of Kanem-Bornu

  
  

  (a) Mai Dugu

  
  

  The first known Mai (or ruler) who ruled these early settlers as a united people was Dugu. He founded the Sefawa dynasty in about AD 774. His capital was Njimi, situated to the north-east of Lake Chad.

  
  

  (b) Mai Umme Jilmi (1085-97)

  
  

  It was in the reign of Mai Jilmi that Islam was introduced to Kanem-Bornu. He is said to have died while on pilgrimage. Between 1085 and 1240 Islam gained ground in Kanem Bornu, especially among the ruling class. Islam tended to make a positive contribution to scholarship and administration.

  
  

  (c) Mai Dunama 1 (1097-1150)

  
  

  Dunama had a long reign. He was powerful and pious. He strengthened the hold of the Kanembu on their subjects and went on pilgrimages several times.

  
  

  (d) Mai Selma (1194-1221)

  
  

  Mai Selma is notable as the first Kanembu king of Kanem-Bornu, his predecessors in office having been the Zagha, who founded the state. He continued to strengthen the state by maintaining a firm control over his more troublesome peoples, particularly the nomadic tribes, and by controlling the trans-Saharan trade as far as Fezzan. Njimi became well-established as the capital of the growing empire in Selma’s time.

  
  

  (e) Mai Dunama Dabalemi ibn Selma (1221-59)

  
  

  He was also known as Dunama II. His reign was full of wars, and with an army 30,000-40,000 strong men, he made extensive conquests. Dunama II maintained good relations with the powerful Hafsid rulers of North Africa. He is said to have exchanged rich presents with them, including a giraffe which he sent to Al-Mustan-sir. The first phase of the empire (ie from its foundation to the time when it moved westwards to Bornu) reached its height under Mai Dunama II.

  
  

  (f) Mai Ali Ghaji (Ghazi)

  
  

  (1472-15-4He came to the throne after a period of civil wars which threatened the continued existence of Kanem-Bornu. On his accession, he began to shift the headquarters from Njimi to Ngazargamu, completing this in 1484. He thus laid the foundation for the second phase of the Kanem-Bornu Empire. He ended the disruptive civil wars, and reformed the administration and the army. But he is best remembered for his remarkable career of conquest which earned him the title ‘El Ghazi’ or the Warrior. Ali Ghaji patronized Islam, and is said to have enforced Islamic practices with the help of his Chief Imam.

  
  

  (g) Mai Idris Katakarmabi and Mohammed (1504-45)

  
  

  This was Ali Ghaji’s son and successor, who completed his father’s conquests. He checked the Bulala threat, and strengthened the link with North Africa by sending an embassy to Tripoli about 1512. Idris Katakarmabi was followed by Mai Mohammed (1526-45). Mohammed more or less ended the continued Bulala menace by a ruthless military action in which the Bornu ‘rebels’ were beaten and their king killed. After Mohammed, succession disputes flared up again and there followed a brief interregnum when the Magira Aicha ruled, preparing the way for the most famous Mai of Kanem-Bornu.

  
  

  Mai Idris Aluma (1571-1603)

  
  

  Kanem-Bornu peaked during the reign of the outstanding statesman Mai Idris Aluma (1571-1603). Idris Aluma’s reign was well-documented by his chief Imam, Ahmed Ibn Fartua Aluma (also spelled Alooma). He is remembered for his military skills, administrative reforms, and Islamic piety. His main adversaries were the Hausa to the west, the Tuareg and Toubou to the north, and the Bulala to the east. Mai Aluma’s reign can be remembered for a number of innovations and achievements:

  
  

  Factors for the rise and growth of Karnem-Bornu

  
  

  (i)Military innovations – His innovations included the employment of fixed military camps (with walls); permanent sieges and ‘scorched earth’ tactics, where soldiers burned everything in their path; armoured horses and riders; and the use of Berber camelry, Kotoko boatmen, and iron-helmeted musketeers trained by Turkish military advisers.
  

  
  

  (ii)Good diplomatic relations– His active diplomacy featured relations with Tripoli, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire, which sent a 200-member ambassadorial party across the desert to Aluma’s court at Ngazargamu. Aluma also signed what was probably the first written treaty or cease-fire in Chadian history.
  

  
  

  (iii)Legal and administrative reforms – Aluma introduced a number of legal and administrative reforms based on his religious beliefs and Islamic law (sharia). (iv)Islamisation – Idris Aluma was a great patron of Islam and used his great power to boost the process of Islamisation within his sphere of influence.

  
  

  Previously only the clerical families and the ruling class had adopted Islam; but in Idris Aluma’s time all the notables, and many others, according to Ibn Fartua, became Muslims. He began the process of substituting the Sharia for customary law in certain spheres. He sponsored the construction of numerous mosques and made a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he arranged for the establishment of a hostel to be used by pilgrims from his empire.

  
  

  (v)Political alliances – As with other dynamic politicians, Aluma’s reformist goals led him to seek loyal and competent advisers and allies. He frequently relied on slaves who had been educated in noble homes. Aluma regularly sought advice from a council composed of heads of the most important clans. He commanded the loyalty and support of the Kanuri who came to identify themselves with the Bornu empire, and he went a long way towards the political unification of the various groups within it. He used a combination of Islam, dynastic marriages and a careful definition of Bornu’s sphere of influence, to achieve this. He required major political figures to live at the court. He reinforced political alliances through marriages.
  

  
  

  (vi)Economic organisation– Kanem-Bornu under Aluma was strong and wealthy. Government revenue came from tributes, sale of slaves, and duties on participation in trans-Saharan trade. The Chadian region did not have gold. Still, it was central to one of the most convenient trans-Saharan trade routes. Between Lake Chad and Fezzan lay a sequence of well-spaced wells and oases. From Fezzan there were easy connections to North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Many products were sent north, including natron (sodium carbonate), cotton, kola nuts, ivory, ostrich feathers, perfume, wax and hides. But the most important of all were slaves. Imports included salt, horses, silks, glass, muskets, and copper.

  
  

  Mai Idris Aluma’s contribution to the rise of the second Kanem-Bornu empire is comparable to that of Mansa Musa of Mali and Askia Muhammad Ture for Songhai. He died in 1603 when returning from an expedition. When expanded the empire to its widest extent; Islamised all aspects of life in the empire; he had made his empire widely known and respected throughout the Muslim world in Africa, Asia and Turkey; he left the empire at the peak of its power and prosperity. His reign coincided with the decline of the Songhai empire. His fame did not end with his death, but persisted down to the 19th Century.
  

  
  

  Organisation of the empire

  
  

  The empire lasted for over a thousand years. During this long period, institutions of government underwent changes. However, the following may be regarded as an outline of how the vast empire was organized, when at the peak of its power.

  
  

  Social and political organisation

  
  

  • At the head of the central government was the king (Mai). He was regarded as sacred and was more or less worshipped. For this reason, he did not show himself in public, except on two annual festivals. Otherwise he remained always hidden behind a curtain, even when receiving guests. Next in importance was the queen mother, Magira. Some of these Magira became so powerful that they had great influence over and sometimes vetoed the decisions of the Mai. Another influential person was the first or ‘eldest’ wife of the king Gumsu. The Mai in effect ruled indirectly through a hierarchy of officials, including the Supreme Council of State. Each of the twelve councillors exercised authority over a feudal-like territory, sometimes in addition to other administrative assignments in the capital. The most important Councillors were the Yerima, First War Lord and Warden of the South, the Warden of the North, the Warden of the East and keeper of the Mai’s household and the (Galadima) Warden of the West. In time these titles became honorific, as circumstances changed and their holders settled down to a life of cultured leisure in the capital. They appointed officers called Chimagana to administer their fiefs.
  

  
  

  • The change of dynasty, from Seifawa to Shehu, in the 19th Century also saw the shifting of effective political power from these old dignitaries to a new class of administrators called ‘Kokenawa’.

  
  

  • Other important officials of Kanem-Bornu included the Mainin Kanendi (Chie Judge), who was the second most important citizen after the Mai. He and twelve other judges formed the High Court which dispensed justice; a Registrar (Talba) kept records of its proceedings. There were also courts in the main towns from which appeals could be put before the High Court. Eventually, as Islamic practices took root in Kanem-Bornu, Muslim Qadis and local judges (Malamai) joined the judiciary.

  
  

  • Royal personages like the Queen Mother the Mai’s official elder sister (Magara), and his consort or official wife (Gumsu), enjoyed certain privileges and took part in the administration. In particular, the Queen Mother wielded considerable political influence, if not direct power. For instance, one Mai, Biri Ibn Dunama (1151-74), was said to have been imprisoned by the Magira of his time. Another Queen Mother, Aicha, successfully fought and won the throne for her son, Idris Aluma, who was to become the greatest Mai of Kanem-Bornu.

  
  

  Economic organisation

  
  

  Kanem-Bornu got its revenue from poll tax (binemram) which was levied through each fief-holder and the sadaa, a special harvest tithe. The proceeds went direct to the royal coffers. Tribute was collected from vassal states, and officials of royal origin were generally entrusted with this.

  
  

  Trade was the greatest source of income, despite the absence of large and important commercial centres as in the Western Sudan. Grain from the empire was exchanged for salt at Bilma, and natron or potash from the Lake Chad region was sent to Kano from where it was distributed over wide areas of the Sudan.

  
  

  Kanuri middlemen handled the copper trade between Darfur and Nupe. Kola from the forest belt came through Kano and was exported, along with slaves from the southern part of the empire, to Tunis, Tripoli and Cairo. Cowries and rolls of cloth were the standard currency.

  
  

  Decline of Kanem-Bornu Empire

  
  

  The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Aluma sustained the empire until the mid-1600s, when its power began to fade. By the late 1700s, Bornu rule extended only westward, into the land of the Hausa. Around that time, Fulani people, invading from the west were able to make major inroads into Bornu. By the early 19th Century, Kanem-Bornu was clearly an empire in decline. In 1808, Fulani warriors conquered Ngazargamu.

  
  

  • Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani thrust and proclaimed a jihad (holy war) on the irreligious Muslims of the area. His campaign eventually affected Kanem-Bornu and inspired a trend toward Islamic doctrines. But Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi contested the Fulani advance. Kanem was a Muslim scholar and non-Sefawa warlord who had put together an alliance of Shuwa Arabs, Kanembu, and other semi-nomadic peoples. He eventually built a capital at Kukawa (in present-day Nigeria). Sefawa mais remained titular monarchs until 1846. In that year, the last mai, in league with Wadai (Ouadai) tribesmen, precipitated a civil war. It was at that point that Kanem’s son, Umar, became king, thus ending one of the longest dynastic reigns in the regional history.
  

  
  

  • Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem-Bornu survived. Umar, who eschewed the title mai for the simpler designation, shehu, (from the Arabic “shaykh”) could not match his father’s energy. He gradually allowed the kingdom to be ruled by advisers (wazirs). Bornu began to decline, as a result of administrative disorganisation and attacks by the militant Wadai Empire to the east. The decline continued under Umar’s sons. In 1893 Rabih Fadlallah, leading an invading army from eastern Sudan, conquered Bornu. He was defeated by French soldiers in 1900.

  
  

  Activity 3.8

  
  

  Form groups of five each. Trace where the early West African kingdoms of Ghana, Mali, Songhai and Kanem-Bornu were located on the historical map. Study the modern map of West Africa to see the modern areas where those kingdoms were found. Note the differences between the old and the modern places in terms of economic and political transformation.

  
  

  
  

  Mwenemutapa Kingdom

  
  

  The Mwenemutapa Kingdom, also spelled Monomotapa, was a Shona-speaking kingdom of the Karanga people (1450-1629). The kingdom stretched between the Zambezi and Limpopo rivers of Southern Africa in the modern states of Zimbabwe and Mozambique.

  
  

  • The name Mutapa means ‘the conquered lands’. The mwene (Bantu term for “lord,” specifically a conquering king) was the title giving rise to the state being referred to as Mwene mutapa. This phrase has been preserved in documents as Munhu mu tapa,Manhumutapa, and the Portuguese, Monomotapa.

  
  

                                   

  
  

  Origin

  
  

  The Karanga are a subgroup of the Shona The other subgroups include the Rozwi, Zezuru, Korekore and Manyika. They migrated in AD 1000 and settled in an area north of River Limpopo and south of the Zambezi River. They founded the Great Zimbabwe.

  
  

  Chief Chuka was the founding ruler of the Great Zimbambwe kKngdom. Between 1420 and 1450. it was by Nyatsimba Mutota who expanded the chiefdom. He expanded it to the north to control to the long-distance trade. The kingdom was later abandoned in 1450 because it had exhausted its salt and trade.

  
  

  The Mutapa state is often linked to the impressive stone ruins that dot Zimbabwe. Two ruins are situated at the centre of the present-day Zimbabwe. One group crowns a rocky outcrop, and could be reffered to as a hill-fort. The other, in the valley beneath, consists of a vast elliptical enclosure, massively walled in stone, with other stone walls inside and in particular a solid conical tower. The time of building is uncertain; it was probably as early as the 11th Century or as late as the 14th Century.

  
  

  After abandoning the original kingdom, the Shona then established Mwenemutapa Kingdom, as Mutota conquered other lands in the north. The Mwenemutapa Kingdom got its name from the Barwe and Manyika communities who were describing the king’s action of extreme force to expand his territory. It was located in Mazoe valley.

  
  

  Mwenemutapa became the royal title and eventually the name of the kingdom which was ruled by Mutapa. It was known for its gold. Mwenemutapa kingdom later collapsed in 1480. The Shona then established yet another kingdom called Rozwi in the 18th Century. It was established on the Zambezi plateau. It was established by Dombo and it was also known for its gold. The ruins of Great Zimbabwe, near Masvingo in modern Zimbabwe, were built by Shona-speaking people between the 11th and 14th centuries. The Great Enclosure, shown here, contains a series of walled areas and, seen on the left among the trees, a solid conical structure, the function of which is not known. The main walls of the enclosure are as high as 10m (32 ft) and as thick as 5m (17 ft).

  
  

                               

  
  

  Factors that led to the rise and expansion of Mwenemutapa Kingdom

  
  

  Mutota’s successor, Mwenemutapa Matope, extended this new kingdom into an empire encompassing most of the lands between Tavara and the Indian Ocean. The Mwenemutapa became very wealthy by exploiting copper from Chidzurgwe and ivory from the middle Zambezi. This expansion weakened the Torwa kingdom, the southern Shona state from which Mutota and his dynasty originated.

  
  

  Matope’s armies overran the kingdom of the Manyika as well as the coastal kingdoms of Kiteve and Madanda. By the time the Portuguese arrived on the coast of Mozambique, the Mutapa Kingdom was the premier Shona state in the region. He raised a strong army which conquered the Dande area that included Tonga and Tavara. A number of factors led to the expansion of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom:

                               

  
  

  (i) Able rulers – The rulers of the kingdom had good leadership skills and were held in great awe by their subjects. They enjoyed immense powers and prestige in the kingdom. They also exerted firm control over the commercial activities of the kingdom.

  
  

  (ii) Strategic position for commercial activities – The kingdom had a rich hinterland for resources which were in great demand at the East African Coast. It attracted large numbers of Swahili and Arab traders, and was thus a key player in the long-distance trade.

  
  

  (iii) Strong economic base – The kingdom had rich cultivable land, grazing areas and large timber resources. Besides, it had huge deposits of gold, iron ore and copper.

  
  

  (iv) A vibrant craft industry – A good craft industry was developed, which specialized in making items from gold, copper, iron ore, weaving of cloth from local cotton and pottery. Thus it was possible to trade with the kingdom’s neighbours.

  
  

  (v) A common religion – The Shona people were bound by a common religion called the Mwari cult or Mlimo. The religion involved ritual consultation of spirits of royal ancestors. Shrines were maintained within the capital by spirit mediums. The spirits also served as oral historians recording the names and deeds of past kings. The ancestral spirits relayed the people’s requests to God. The Shona religion was a major unifying factor for the society.

  
  

  (vi) Rise in population – The rise in population and the ever-increasing demands of the people, led to the expansion of the kingdom. The rulers decided that a military conquest to create room for expansion was the solution.

  
  

  Political organisation of the Shona

  
  

  The king’s power over his subjects was absolute. He could determine whether they should live or die.

  
  

  (i) The hierarchy – The highest political unit was the kingship as the head of state and government. The high-priestly notion of kingship went with a well-defined and most elaborate arrangement of the court and chiefly hierarchy. At the court there was:

  
  

  • Chancellor of the kingdom

  • Court chamberlain- manager of the king’s house.

  • Head drummer

  • Military commander

  • Keeper of fetishes

  • Head door keeper

  • Chief cook

  • Nine provincial wives of the king.

  • Concubines and waiting-women

  
  

  Outside the court, there were the vassal kings and governors of the provinces, as well as a large noble class. There were expected to send their children to be educated as pages and warriors at the Mwenemutapa’s court.

  
  

  (ii) Council of chiefs – There was a council made up of selected chiefs who advised the ruler. The council brought together the chiefs of Guruuswa, Kiteve, Mbire, Barue and Manyika. The chiefs maintained law and order, collected taxes and supplied warriors to the king. They were also responsible for the fertility of land, were custodians of tribal property, and prisoners of war. They also organised communal labour.

  
  

  (iii) Unity of political and religious life – The political and religious life was inseparable in the Shona society. Kings were semi-divine and were the highest representatives of god on earth. Priests played a vital role in maintaining peace and stability. They travelled widely and kept the monarch informed of what took place in the kingdom.

  
  

  (v) The royal fire – The royal fire was a key institution and burnt so long as the king lived. All the great chiefs and other vassals had fires lit from the royal fire. Once a year, after the great new moon ceremonies in May, these fires had to be rekindled from the central one. Messengers were sent all over the country with brands from the king’s fire. To accept rekindling symbolised a renewal of allegiance to the king.

  
  

  (vi)Sacred animal – The king’s spirit was supposed to take up residence in a lion. For this reason, a lion was regarded as a sacred animal which might not be killed except at a hunt where the king was present. The king was therefore regarded as the lion.

  
  

  (vii) A standing army – The rulers also had a standing army. Its main function was to defend and expand the kingdom. Each provincial ruler was expected to recruit soldiers. High standards of discipline were observed. Before participation in any duties, the recruits went through rigorous training.

  
  

  
  

  Economic organisation of the Shona

  
  

  The main features of the Shona economic system were:

  
  

  (i) Crop farming – The climate in Mashonaland was good. It encouraged cultivation of a variety of crops. Labour was organized along gender lines. Men cleared the land while women planted and took care of the crops. The main crops were millet, sorghum, maize, cassava, bananas, yams, sweet potatoes, beans and pumpkins. Granaries were built across the kingdom to store the farm produce.

  
  

  (ii) Livestock keeping – The Shona kept cattle, goats, sheep and poultry. Grazing was intermittently done in the uplands and lowlands.

  
  

  (iii) Trade – Took place at the local, regional and international levels. The Shona participated in the long distance trade with the Swahili and Arabs from the East African Coast. Pockets of Portuguese merchants from the coast also engaged in commercial activities. Thus the Empire engaged in importing goods as well as in exporting them. Imports included such luxury goods as silk, cloth, guns and ammunition, daggers, knives, ceramics and glassware.A cloth known as machira woven from local cotton was draped over the ruler’s throne as a symbol of his kingship. The main exports were slaves, gold and ivory. The mode of exchange was barter. The rulers exerted a lot of influence on commercial activities.
  

  
  

  (iv) Hunting and gathering –The men hunted elephants for ivory and other animals for food to supplement their diet. Women gathered fruits, vegetables and berries.

  
  

  (v) Fishing – The Shona supplemented their food supply with fish. The activity was carried out in rivers and lakes found in the empire.

  
  

  (vi) Craft industry – The industry concentrated on iron working, gold smithing, cloth making from wild cotton and fibres, and carving. They also engaged in leather working and weaving. A variety of items were made from the industry. They also made grinding-stones which they used to pound grain into flour.

  
  

  Social organisation of the Shona

  
  

  The Shona had an elaborate social organisation:

  
  

  (i) Divine kingship – The king was not a monarch in the Western sense. He was a divine king or priest-king. His subjects approached him crawling on their stomachs. At formal audiences, he sat concealed behind a curtain. The common people could only hear the king’s voice but never see him. Among the courtiers, the king’s slightest action was imitated by all. If he had a cough, they all coughed. If he sprained his ankle, they all limped. It was considered necessary for the well-being of the whole state that the king should be fit and without any physical problem.
  

  
  

  At the onset of old age, or if he developed any serious infirmity, he was supposed to take poison and make way for a successor. The religious observance of the Mwenemutapa was a kind of spiritualism, practice especially at new moon. On such occasions, the reigning monarch communed with his ancestors, who were supposed to take possession of the bodies of ecstatic mediums.

  
  

  (ii) Belief in one supreme being – The Shona-speaking peoples believed in one god, Mwari, who was believed to have been the creator of the Earth. Priests generally came from the Rozwi clan, which had the additional practice of ancestor worship. The ancestors were consulted at the appearance of a new moon. The priests led in sacrifices and enjoyed powers to protect people from, diseases, made rain and gave victory in war. The rulers were considered semi-divine hence represented god on earth. The priests claimed that they could only get in touch with Mwari through the spirits of ancestors.
  

  
  

  There were two kinds of spirit: Family spirits, called vadzimu vemisha, and clan spirits, called mhondoro. Both vadzimu and mhondoro expressed themselves through a medium, svikiro, who was a departed member of the family or clan. The mediums were elders who were believed to possess the spirits of the dead emperors and chiefs. Shona elders were therefore treated with respect, so that they would be friendly when they became spirits. The mhondoro had various uses. The royal mhondoro was used to keep the royal house in power, and to decide the rights of inheritance and the ownership of cattle. Mhondoroprotected the clan against bad government by the chief. During the period of Mwenemutapa, there were senior mediums that emerged in different regions. These were Dzivaguru (Eastern), Nehanda (Central) and Chaminuka (Western) Mashonaland. There was also a kind of national spirit called Chaminuka, who settled disputes between clans and protected them against bad government by the king. The senior mediums had an overbearing influence on the society.

  
  

  (iii) System of priesthood – Priests led worship in the shrines dotting Mashonaland. They acted as several organs of the creator. For instance, some acted as the ‘eye’ and welcomed members seeking advice and offerings. Others were the ‘ears’ who delivered the requests of the people to god. Others were the ‘mouth’ who kept and interpreted god’s commands to the people.

  
  

  (iv) Clan organisation – The Shona were organized along clan lines which followed strict totenism. These clans were named after animals such as monkey, leopard, hyena and lion. It was a taboo to eat the meat of an animal by members bearing the name of the particular animal. Each clan had its own traditions and lived in the same area. Several families constituted a clan. A family was headed by the father who often was a polygamist. The homesteads were surrounded by reeds or grass and palisades.

  
  

  (vi) Age-groups and age-sets – Age groups were formed by those born at the same period. The members therefore underwent initiation at the same time. They regarded each other as brothers and were patrilineal.

  
  

  (vii) Specialists – The Shona had specialists in various fields like medicinemen (nganga who were useful in supplying herbal medicines used to cure various ailments. There were also diviners, seers, witch doctors and sorcerers. The last two were feared because they could harm members of the society.(viii) Dwellings – The houses were built of stones.

  
  

  (vi) Division of labour – Social responsibilities were shared along gender lines. Forexample, construction of houses was done by both men and women. Men built the wooden framework, while women thatched the roofs.

  
  

  (ix) Family life – Polygamy was practised and children were highly valued. Bride price was paid in form of cattle.

  
  

  The decline of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom

  
  

  The following factors led to the decline of Mwenemutapa Kingdom:

  
  

  (i) Exhaustion of natural resources– The natural resources like salt and timber that had sustained the kingdom’s economic life got exhausted. There was also over-cultivation of land which reduced its fertility.

  
  

  (ii) Vastness of the empire – A succession of weak rulers contributed to the kingdom’s decline. Matope was succeeded by his son Nyahuma (1480-90) but the empire was already too big for one man to govern properly. There was a big problem of communication. Nyahuma was younger and less experienced than Changa and Togwa, the great chiefs of the south. To make matters worse, he depended on them for revenue, as they controlled the gold-producing areas. The Swahili may have influenced Changa to set up a separate kingdom, in which they would be able to control the long-distance trade.

  
  

  (iii) Secession by southern chiefs – In 1490 Changa and Togwa rebelled. They declared themselves independent, and then attacked Nyahuma. Nyahuma and most of his family were killed. Changa became king, taking the title Changamire. His reign, however was brief. In 1494 he was killed by Nyahuma’s son Chikuyo. Chikuyo ruled from 1494 to 1530, but by now the empire was split in two. Chikuyo controlled a thousand kilometers of the south bank of the Zambezi To the south, however, Changa’s son Changamire II, built a strong empire known as Urozwi.

  
  

  (iv) Portuguese Control –In 1629 the Mwenemutapa attempted to throw out the Portuguese. He failed and was overthrown, leading to the Portuguese installation of Mavura Mhande Felipe on the throne. The kingdom signed treaties making it a Portuguese vassal and ceding gold mines. The kingdom remained independent only by name Portugal increased control over much of southeast Africa with the beginnings of a colonial system.

  
  

  (v) Rebellions by tributaries – The kingdom faced rebellions by the tributaries such as Kiteve, Madanda and Manyika, which ceased paying tribute. At the same time, a new kingdom under a Rozwi dynasty near Barwe was on the rise. All of this was hastened by Portugal retaining a presence on the coast and in the capital. In 1663, the praezeros deposed Mwenemutapa Siti Kazurukamusapa and put their own nominee, Kamharapasu Mukombwe on the throne.

  
  

  (vi) Rise of Butwa Kingdom as a new regional power – The rise of the Butwa Kingdom under a Rozwi dynasty contributed to the decline of Mwenemutapa Kingdom. The origin of the Rozwi is obscure. There is some evidence that they were an offshoot of the Karanga people – perhaps led by a dissident member of the Mwenemutapa family.

  
  

  By the 17th Century, a dynasty of Rozwi pastoralists under the leadership of a Changamire called Dombo began transforming the Butwa kingdom into a new regional power.

  
  

  In 1684 his forces encountered and decisively defeated those of Mwenemutapa Kamharapasu Mukombwe In 1695, Changamire Dombo overran Manyika and took his army east and destroyed the Portuguese fair-town of Masikwesi. This allowed him complete control of all gold-producing territory from Butwa to Manyika, replacing Mwenemutapa as the premier Shona Kingdom in the region.

  
  

  (vii) Rivalry and return of the Rozwi – In 1712, another coveter of the Mwenemutapa throne invited the Rozwi back to put him on the throne and kick out the Portuguese. This they did and the kingdom again came under the control of the Rozwi Empire. The new Mwenemutapa Samatambira Nyamhandu I became a Rozwi vassal, while the outgoing king was forced to retreat to Chidama in what is now Mozambique.
  

  
  

  The Rozwi quickly lost interest in Mwenemutapa, as they sought to consolidate their position in the south. The kingdom regained its independence around 1720. By this time however, the kingdom had lost nearly the entire Zimbabwe plateau to the Rozwi Empire. In 1723, Nyamhandi moved his capital into the valley near Tete, under Mwenemutapa Nyatsusu.
  

  
  

  (viii) Civil war and final collapse – The Mwenemutapa died in 1759, sparking yet another civil war for the throne. This one was more destructive than its predecessors. Mwenemutapa never recovered. The ‘winners’ ended up governing an even more reduced land from Chidima. They used the title Mambo a Chidima and ruled independently of Portugal until 1917 when Mambo Chioko, the last king of the dynasty, was killed in battle against the Portuguese.
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  The Zulu Empire

  
  

  The Zulu were originally a major Nguni clan (isibonga in Nguni) in what is today Northern KwaZulu-Natal. In the Nguni language iZulu or iliZulu means heaven or sky. The iZulu clan was founded about 1709 by Zulu kaNtombela. At that time, the area was occupied by many large Nguni communities. Among them were the Mthethwa, under whose chief Dingiswayo the founder of the Zulu state Shaka, began his career.

  
  

  Dingiswayo and the origins

  
  

  The Mthethwa were a Nguni community, located very near the coast in what is now Zululand. On the death of his father Dingiswayo, deposed his brother who had succeeded his father and came to the chieftaincy of the Mthethwa community during the 1790s. Dingiswayo rapidly embarked on the steps towards achieving his ambition of territorial expansion by employing new techniques.

  
  

  Abolishing the traditional initiation ceremonies – the circumcision rituals of the Mthethwa – he enrolled the young men of the community into age-regiments instead of age-grades. The regiments provided Dingiswayo with a standing army. This innovation gave him advantage over his neighbours. His authority expanded over them. The system, encouraged greater community coherence and military efficiency. The standing army was instrumental in enabling easy defeat and subjugation of his neighbours, and recruitment of their men into his army.

  
  

  Shaka’s rise to power

  
  

  Shaka was the son of Senzangakona, chief of the Zulu clan, and Nandi. Nandi’s quarrelsome and violent character caused her to be sent back to live with her people. She took with her the young Shaka, who thus became an illegitimate boy, not recognised by Zulu clan elders. Shaka spent an unhappy childhood as he grew up unwanted and humiliated by his playmates, who teased, mocked and harassed him. This unhappy background was responsible for Shaka developing arrogance and indifference to human suffering. He was determined to be recognised and displayed extraordinary qualities for achieving early recognition – intelligence, courage, physical strength and ruthless ambition. He was conscious of his chiefly descent and set firm targets to assume the leadership of his father’s people at some stage.

  
  

  In about 1809, Shaka joined Dingiswayo’s regiments. Dingiswayo’s army represented Shaka’s only hope of personal success. He threw his mind and body into the new life. Very rapidly, he distinguished himself by courage and tactical skill, and became commander of one of the regiments. In 1816, his father Senzangakona died and was succeeded by his son Sigujana. However, with Dingiswayo’s support, Shaka deposed Sigujana and took over as chief of the Zulu.
  

  
  

  Dingiswayo was killed by Zwide of the Ndwandwe. This event created opportunity for the emergence of Shaka on a wider arena. He quickly incorporated the Mthethwa into the Zulu chiefdom, making it more powerful and a challenge to the Ndwandwe. Soon the Ndwandwe too fell victim to Shaka’s expansionist ambitions and were expelled together with their leader Zwide. Other generals such as Zwangendaba and Soshangane followed suit and fled from Zululand.

  
  

  Shaka’s establishment of the Zulu Empire

  
  

  Shaka’s military genius enabled him to ascend to power. It also came in handy in his creation of a powerful Zulu nation. Once he achieved political power in his community, he began a further revolution in military, political and administrative organisation to build and expand the the Zulu nation as follows:

  
  

  (i) Military organisation and control

  
  

  Shaka improved on the military reforms of Dingiswayo by introducing further changes in the regiment. The standing army was divided into age-regiments in each district. Each age-regiment had to live in special camps under their commanders appointed by Shaka himself, usually from commoner families or clans with no royal ambitions.
  

  
  

  The regiments were now armed with short stabbing spears, which made them immensely dangerous at close quarters, especially against men armed with traditional throwing spear (assegai in Zulu parlance) which could only be used once. Military training became much more rigorous. The traditional heavy wooden sandals were discarded, since they impeded quick movement even though they made travel more comfortable.
  

  
  

  The regiments were trained to use the new enveloping tactics, the cow-hornformation, whereby wings (or horns) of the Zulu army surrounded the enemy while the main body of the army attacked them from the front. The rearguard of ‘the horns of the cow’ formation was a large reserve regiment always ready to come to its aid when the going became too difficult. The regiments also became the units of social life as well as military service. Men lived in the regimental headquarters until when Shaka permitted them to marry and retire from active service.
  

  They were obliged to marry women from the equivalent female regiment. Since military service was drawn out for many years and men retired only in their forties, the regiments were a focus of social and political life in the way the old lineage-groups had been before the military revolution.

  
  

  (ii) Administrative and political organisation and control

  
  

  In 1818, the Mthethwa lost their king Dingiswayo at the hands of Zwide. Just as Dingiswayo had imposed Shaka on the Zulu, Shaka now imposed one of his followers on the Mthethwa, and consolidated his authority throughout Dingiswayo’s sphere of influence. The following year, he led Dingiswayo’s old armies in a successful and devastating war against Zwide, and so extended his power over all the Nguni in what is now Zululand, and his influence over a vast area from Swaziland in the north to the Transkei in the south, and from the Drakensberg Mountains to the sea. Many of the changes Shaka introduced had already been attempted on a small scale in the pure Zulu community. They had a different effect when applied on a large scale in the whole Zulu state. For instance:

  
  

  a) The regiments had been organised before but now they served a nation-building purpose as well as a military one. Recruits from all over the new state were mixed together in each regiment, where they built up a loyalty to the regiment and to Shaka as king and tended to forget their separate individual origins. By living and fighting together, they grew to understand and trust each other. Promotion could only be achieved through the military organisation. Ambitious young men devoted their efforts to serving Shaka as commander-in-chief.

  
  

  b) Shaka adopted more of the military form of government as an absolute ruler. He assumed executive, legislative and judicial powers and functions and therefore made all decisions. He was the commander-in-chief, high priest, and the supreme justice. All appeals from the lower courts were heard by him and his ruling was final. He ignored the old traditional councils of chiefs and leading elders and relied more on his indunas for advice, which he was not obliged to accept.
  

  
  

                               

  
  

  c) Since most of the able-bodied men at any given time were to be found in these regiments, local chiefs were unable to build up any dangerous organisation against the state. The success of the regiments made members to develop pride in the regiment and the state which it served, prior political identity. Mthethwa and Ndwandwe young men took common pride in belonging to the most powerful state. Therefore, a political and social unity replaced the political fragments of the earlier era. The Zulu dialect of Nguni became standard throughout the country The traditions of the Zulu dynasty became the traditions of all the citizens. People thought of themselves as Ama-Zulu instead of the remnants of the earlier political units.

  
  

  d) Chiefs of conquered and incorporated people lost their powers, and their authority was restricted to routine issues. Normally, he replaced them with his own subjects. The conquered people were absorbed into the Zulu nation. They had to adopt the Zulu language as the nation’s official language as well as the Zulu traditions and culture. The Zulu culture was centred on Shaka’s family and this became the basis for unity in the nation.

  
  

  e) Shaka was careful that his local chiefs (some of whom had ruled before the conquest) remained absolutely loyal, by bringing them frequently to his own court. He dismissed and executed potential and real enemies of the new state system. Loyal subjects won prestige and wealth through service to the king; those suspected of disloyalty ran the risk of being executed. Chiefs were further controlled by the fact of having to spend much of their time at the royal court and in any case Shaka’s female relatives were often posted to provincial centres.

  
  

  (iii) Economic organisation and control

  
  

  a) Each barracks of a regiment was also the location of one of the royal herds. Cattle and captives from the raids were distributed by the king himself.

  
  

  b) External trade was strictly controlled by the king.
  

  
  

  c) The problem of feeding so large a standing army made it necessary to establish state control over food production. Though each soldier had a home to go to on retirement, he spent most of his active life entirely dependent economically upon the ability of the state for food supplies. The homesteads were no longer the focus of economic activity and interest.
  

  
  

  d) Religious beliefs were also transformed into instruments of nation-building. Shaka, making himself ritual as well as political and military head of the system, devoted his attention to rooting out sectional religious beliefs and exterminating sectional religious officials. The famous ‘smelling-out of witches’ exercise emphasized the fact that the king was supreme even over the religious institutions. That supremacy was symbolized when the annual first-fruits ceremony became a national event; which also symbolized the new economic centralisation.

  
  

  (iv) Wars of expansion

  
  

  Shaka also established the Zulu nation through wars of expansion. He started by defeating several powerful neighbours. After the Ndwandwe had defeated the Mthethwa and killed Dingiswayo in about 1817, the Zulu remained as the Ndwandwe’s only rivalling power. But Shaka rapidly attacked and defeated the Ndwandwe, forcing the community to scatter and flee to the north.
  

  
  

  Shaka invaded Natal five times, after which he completely destroyed and occupied the area. Shaka expanded his empire to the east near the coast, to the west bordering Basutoland and to the north against the Swazi. This period of expansion was known as the Mfecane. It occurred between 1820 and 1834. It was characterised by prolonged destructive warfare. The Pondo, Xhosa and Thembu were subdued. In 1824, Shaka established friendly relations with the English traders in Durban and Natal. In surrendering part of Natal to a trader called Farewell and receiving guns in return, Shaka was enabled to fight and break up the Ndwandwe in 1826.

  
  

  The fall of Shaka

  
  

  Activity 3.9

  
  

  1. In groups, debate and explain Shaka’s reforms and their contribution to the foundation of the Zulu Empire.

  2. In groups discuss what you understand by the “cow’s horn” military formation.

  
  

  Activity 3.10

  
  

  In groups of five debate about the lessons Rwandan leaders can learn from Shaka’s reforms. Thereafter note down the key points.

  
  

  On 10th October, 1827, Shaka’s mother Nandi died. Shaka wept publicly and his behaviour was taken as a general signal for universal mourning. Chiefs led their people in competitive wailing. Shaka ordered immediate butchering of a number of men and cattle. The massacres then became general throughout the country. Nandi was buried three days later accompanied by ten beautiful girls, their limbs having been broken while they were still alive. A hundred and twenty men were posted as guards over Nandi’s tomb for twelve months.

  
  

  • The conditions for mourning were then laid down by Shaka. There was to be no crop cultivation for one year. No milk was to be drunk; instead it had to be poured out onto the ground. Sexual intercourse was not permitted, and all women found pregnant in that period were to be killed with their husbands. All those communities which had failed to attend Nandi’s funeral were to be destroyed. The killings went on for two months, and then Shaka summoned the Zulu nation to his capital to help him in proper official mourning. Cows-in-milk were slaughtered ‘so that even calves might know what it was to lose a mother’. Shaka had gone insane.

  
  

  • Famine. The year 1828 opened with widespread famine as a result of Shaka’s ban on cultivation. Then Shaka made a fatal decision: that even the remotest communities had to know about his sorrow. He set his army on the longest expedition of his career. His object was to crush the Pondo of the north-eastern Cape. After crossing the Umzimvubu, Shaka had second thoughts about the consequences of this campaign.

  
  

  • Invasion of neighbouring communities. He stopped for a while at HF Fynn’s trading station. Fynn warned Shaka not to invade Pondoland which the British government considered to be under its protection. Shaka agreed, but to convince his men that the expedition was not in vain he divided them into two groups. One group was sent to punish the Bacha, a Nguni community who lived at the foot of the Drakensberg; the other advanced against the Cape Nguni but under strict instructions to avoid any war against the white men or the communities on the white man’s border.

  
  

  • Shameful defeat. Shaka’s army returned to Zululand and was immediately dispatched on yet another long campaign to seek and destroy Soshangane around Delagoa Bay in Mozambique. Shaka did not live to see his army return in shameful defeat. His brothers Dingane and Mhlangana, in conspiracy with his chief induna MBhopa murdered him on 24th September, 1828. Yet their claims were not untrue, their motives not wholly selfish. He had ignored the traditional chiefs; his military campaigns led to depopulation of Zululand and Natal. Lives had been wantonly lost in the insanity he had regarded as mourning. Their own turn in being killed might not be a far-fetched idea; his preoccupation with war led to neglect and decline in agriculture and starvation in Zululand.

  
  

  Dingane’s nation-building, 1828-40

  
  

  The concentration of political, military and economic power round the central monarch instead of the local territorial rulers reduced the possibility of territorial rulers breaking away from the kingdom. It did not remove altogether the danger of disunity. Dissatisfaction could be expressed by the transfer of loyalty from the king to another of the royal family. This happened in 1828, when Shaka was assassinated, partly because the army wanted a rest from constant campaigning and partly the nation was tired of Shaka’s despotism. It happened again in 1839-40 when most of the army deserted Shaka’s successor, his younger brother Dingane, for another brother, Mpande.

  
  

  Dingane won the loyalty and support of the army and the Zulu people by promising them peace. He relaxed the severe military discipline left by Shaka. He freed warriors from regiments and allowed them to marry earlier than had been the case before. He also ended military expeditions which left the army idle without adventure. Many Zulu then escaped to work in Natal farms and some attempted to break away. This prompted Dingane to re-impose severe military discipline and to keep the army busy. He therefore sent regiments to raid the Pondo, Ndebele and Ngwane in which the Zulu regiments captured cattle. But the campaigns were unsuccessful and the army was demoralized. The Qwabe rebelled and escaped to the south and the army could not stop them. Many fled as refugees to Natal.

  
  

  In foreign relations, Dingane tried to establish friendly relations with the whites in Natal. He acquired firearms from traders at Port Natal. However, their welcome of the Zulu refugees made Dingane cautious in the way he related to the Natal whites. In contrast to fairly neutral relations with the British, Dingane’s relation with the Boer trekkers was hostile. Dingane had been tricked into signing a charter surrendering Natal land to the Boers and felt bitter. The Boers under their new leader defeated Dingane’s army at the Battle of Blood River on 16 December 1836. An agreement with Boers ended the war, and Dingane agreed to evacuate Natal for Boer occupation.

  
  

  Dingane was generally disliked for his arbitrary rule, his dislike of war, his preference for feasting and dancing and the company of women, and for his failure to cope with the invasion of the Trekboers into Natal. Mpande became king when, at the climax of the first Zulu civil war that pitted him against his brother. He defeated Dingane at the Battle of Magongo on 29 January 1840. Dingane managed to escape from his former subjects, but was killed by the Swazi with whom he sought refuge to.

  
  

  Mpande’s nation-building, 1840-72

  
  

  Mpande ruled the surviving Zulu nation with Boer support from 1840-72. The reign of Mpande showed that the strength of the Zulu nation relied no less on the person and personality of the king than on the nature of the nation’s institutions.Mponde was a peaceful man who hated war. He led a bloodless cattle raid against the Swazi. Mpande gave the Zulu a breathing space from war, and as a result, the population steadily increased. He never supported fighting the whites arguing that it would only result in certain destruction of the Zulu state.

  
  

  In 1843, the British annexed Natal from the Boers, but Mpande’s policy of peaceful co-existence never changed. The young men in the Zulu state were greatly disillusioned by the humiliating policy adopted by their leader. In consequence, they formed two factions around Mpande’s two sons, Mbulazi and Cetchwayo. A war of succession started when the king was alive. Cetchwayo representing the more militant faction annihilated Mbulazi’s army of 7,000 and his followers, 23,000 defenceless women and children, were slain. Cetchwayo became heir apparent.

  
  

  Cetchwayo’s nation-building, 1872-9

  
  

  Cetchwayo re-organised the army of Ndondakusuka effectively. At his accession the Zulu regiments were at a peak of efficiency. They were able to inflict on Britain a humiliating defeat at the Battle of Isandhlwana a few years later.Cetchwayo did not favour war for its own sake. He wanted to carry out the traditional practice ‘washing of the spear’ of the army under a new king on the blood of an enemy. This was not for the sake of tradition but out of practical necessity. Whilst he was heir apparent, the expectations of the regiments had been aroused. These expectations had to be fulfilled. Cetchwayo tried to do this with campaigns against the Swazi and the Thonga. He studiously ignored the movement of Boers into the northern areas of his country in order to avoid a conflict that might bring the destruction of his state. At the same time he prepared for the possibility of war by tightening up conscription into the army, and obtaining firearms through Lourenco Marques.

  
  

  Cetchwayo also tried to maintain peace with the British. He had two coronations: a ‘traditional’ Zulu one followed by an extraordinary British ceremony where he was crowned by the Natal Secretary for Native Affairs, Theophilus Shepstone. wHe had invited Shepstone for the purpose. Cetchwayo merely wanted to cement Zulu-British friendship, but Shepstone took advantage of the occasion laws. The laws were designed to reduce the number of judicial and political executions in Zululand. Cetchwayo maintained his friendship with the British until 1877, and the British supported him in his boundary disputes with the Transvaal.Britain’s annexation of the Transvaal in 1877 destroyed the basis of Cetchwayo’s foreign policy. It was no longer possible to maintain an anti-Boer alliance with the British as the Boer republic no longer existed. The Boers who had taken so much pain running away from British control and they resented this annexation. Sir Bartle Frere, the British High Commissioner at the Cape was concerned that Boer resentment must not be allowed to spill overboard.

  
  

  The Zulu wanted back the Blood River Territory, which Mpande had allegedly ceded to the Transvaal in 1861. Cetchwayo decided this had not been genuine cession, and now sent his men to settle the disputed territory. By 1877, there had been further loss of Zululand to the Transvaal by the expansion of the Blood River boundaries into Zululand. Theophilus Shepstone supported the Transvaal claim.At first a Zulu-Boer War seemed more likely than an Anglo-Zulu War. Sekhukhune’s successful resistance in the Transvaal encouraged Cetchwayo, the Zulu king, to mobilize his army on the Transvaal border. The custom of ‘washing the spears in the blood of the enemy had not been carried out for Cetchwayo who had become king in 1873. The Zulu wanted war with the Transvaal in order to ‘wash their spears’, resolve the land dispute, obtain revenge for the Zulu defeat at the Battle of Blood River in 1838, and replace the Zulu cattle lost in the drought of 1877. Yet Cetchwayo was not prepared to fight the Boers unless they started the war. He did not want war with Britain with whom he was so keen to maintain peaceful relations.

  
  

                                      

  
  

  However, on 22nd January, 1897, Sir Bartle Frere ordered the invasion of Zululand. At the battle of Isandhlwana the Zulu ‘impis’ under their commander-in-chief Tshingwayo wiped out 905 of 960 British soldiers, and nearly 500 of those assisting the invaders, among them colonists and African recruits. The Zulu completed their humiliation of the British at Isandhlwana by capturing all the stores and ammunition. The Zulu army inflicted the most severe defeat a European army was to suffer in Africa until the Ethiopian victory over the Italians at Adowa in 1896.In spite of, Isandhlwana the Zulu lost the war. The tables were soon turned against them.
  

  
  

  The British hastily sent reinforcements to their battered comrades in the field. Three hundred and fifty Zulu were killed while 17 were lost on the British side at Rorke’s Drift. When the British renewed their invasion with Gatling guns and artillery, they stopped a Zulu frontal attack at Kambula, a battle which left 18 Britons and 2,000 Zulu dead. Finally, at Ulundi on July 4, the British troops destroyed the last Zulu frontal assault, after Cetchwayo soldiers had disobeyed his orders to retreat into the forest and adopt guerrilla warfare. The soldiers retired to their kraals in defeat.

  
  

  Destruction of the Zulu nation

  
  

  The Battle of Ulundi marked the beginning of the end of the Zulu empire. The British were out to destroy the Zulu kingdom. Cetchwayo was deposed, exiled and imprisoned in Cape Town, and was not allowed to return until 1883. Zululand was broken up into thirteen small chiefdoms, each under a British nominee. A British Resident loosely supervised the affairs of the dismembered Zululand. Anarchy and civil war spread through the length and breadth of Zululand. Two factions emerged, one of pro-Cetchwayo royalists, and another of the new petty kings appointed by the British. The British found themselves unable to cope with the mess, and Cetchwayo was restored in 1883 in the hope he would use his old magic over his people and restore order. It was also hoped that he might be used as a bridge by the British administration in Zululand, a hope for some form of indirect rule as it was feared direct involvement might be too expensive.

  
  

  However, the emergence of a strong anti-Cetchwayo faction between 1879 and 1883 made sure the King’s authority was circumscribed within the centre of his old kingdom. The south of the kingdom was reserved for the clans and the chiefs highly opposed to Cetchwayo’s restoration. In the north, the existence of an independent kingdom, Mandhlakazi, was recognized by the confirmation of Sibobu, Cetchwayo’s rival, as its ruler. Supporters of the two went to war against each other, and Cetchwayo’s forces were routed and the ex-king forced to flee to the southern reserve where he died in 1884.

  
  

                                    

  
  

  Dinizulu, 1884-1913

  
  

  Dinizulu was only 15 years old when his father Cetchwayo, went into exile. He became the king of the Zulu nation from 20 May 1884 until his death in 1913. Zululand had been broken up into 13 smaller territories after the Anglo-Zulu War of 1879. Dinizulu, administered one of them.
  

  
  

  However, they left one of Cetchwayo’s sons, Usibepu (Zibhebhu), alone with his lands intact. On July 22 1883, Usibepu attacked Cetchwayo’s new kraal in Ulundi, wounding the king and causing him to flee. This caused anarchy and civil war to spread throughout Zululand.

  
  

  To contest the succession, Dinizulu first appealed to the British, but had no response. He then offered rewards of land to Boer mercenaries to lure them to join his army. In 1884, a group of Boer farmers from the districts of Utrecht and Vryheid undertook to restore order, in return. Led by General Louis Botha, they formed Dinizulu’s Volunteers and after several clashes with Usibepu. They defeated him at the Battle of Ghost Mountain (also known as the Battle of Tshaneni) on 5 June 1884.
  

  
  

  Usibepu and his forces were killed to the last man.The mercenaries then claimed payment and Dinizulu found himself confronted with demands he could not meet. Eight hundred mercenaries claimed to have fought for him and all claimed large farms. They claimed about half of Zululand, including St Lucia Bay, an outlet to the sea. Britain intervened and the mercenaries were given a grant of land in the northern part of Zululand. Five hundred mercenaries each received a farm of 16 km². Another 300 men who had arrived late received smaller grants, known as ‘half farms’. On 5 August 1884, these mercenaries declared a republic, with the town of Vryheid as its capital, which lasted for only four years.
  

  
  

  After considerable dispute a Natal arbitration court recognised the New Republic, reduced in size, however, and deprived of its claims to St Lucia. The following year it was absorbed into the Transvaal. Six years from these events, in a strange version of belated ‘justice’, Dinizulu was exiled to the island of St. Helena - the same as Napoleon - for seven years for leading a Zulu army against the British from 1883 to 1884.

  
  

  The Bambatha uprising, 1906

  
  

  In 1906, the so-called Bambatha rebellion broke out. It was an uprising by a section of the Zulu of Natal led by their chief called Bambatha of the Zondi people. The uprising occurred for six main reasons:

  
  

  (i) Loss of land – The Zulu were frustrated by the loss of their land to white settlers. After the small Zulu states were annexed to Natal in 1884, they lost more land to the Boers between 1902 and 1904. Two thirds of their land was made open to white settlement. The Zulu were pushed into reserves where they were overcrowded. Furthermore, there was an increase in rent for Zulu tenant farmers on white-owned land. Land available for rent eventually shrank in size.

  
  

  (ii) Colonisation and loss of independence – The Zulu were aggrieved by the loss of their independence since their colonization by the British in 1879 after the Battle of Isandhlwana. The Zulu kingdom had ceased to exist in 1879 and had been broken up into 13 smaller kingdoms, which had also been incorporated into the Cape Colony. In particular, they could no longer bear the harshness and unfairness of British laws as applied in Natal.

  
  

  (ii) Introduction of poll tax – Bambatha and his Zulu followers were against the introduction in 1905 of the very unpopular and unfair poll tax of £1 per head. They did not want to pay taxes meant to sustain an unpopular foreign authority. Besides, all the races had to pay the same amount of tax per head yet the Europeans were earning at least twenty times more than the Africans.

  
  

  (iii) Loss of traditional authority – Traditional Zulu chiefs had lost their authority. They became even more hostile due to growing power of British-appointed district magistrates while the chiefs’ authority diminished. Those who tried to protest were arrested. For instance, the then Zulu king Dinizulu, returned from detention in exile demoted to a headman after his attempted rising had been crushed. Bambatha himself had been dismissed and deported by the British government after he became troublesome to the British.

  
  

  (iv) Overreaction to pre-Bambatha – There were smaller, local risings in 1906 as a protest to poll tax. The whites felt alarmed and insecure, and the Natal government overreacted by declaring martial law and having twelve Zulu leaders of the risings executed. The government also confiscated large numbers of cattle from the Zulu, burnt many Zulu homes and carried out mass flogging of villagers. This worsened African attitudes and increased discontent against white rule.

  
  

  (v) Ethiopian movement – There developed among the Zulu a religious movement called Ethiopianism. It preached the departure of the white man and advocated the slaughter of pigs and chickens as a sign that the white man should leave immediately.

  
  

  (vi) Harsh labour laws – Many young men had to work in urban areas and on white farms on extremely poor pay. They lived a life of poverty, insecurity and fear and developed hatred and defiance for their white employers.

                     
  

  Bambatha, a former Zulu chief whom the British had deposed reappeared and started a rebellion. When the government ordered him to appear with his men and pay poll tax, he defiantly refused to co-operate, and instead mobilized his people across the Tugela River where he clashed with the police. He had a strong appeal to the Zulu national feeling. Some chiefs supported him in a well-coordinated uprising. However, the police eventually trapped and killed him and his followers, together with other Zulu leaders in the Mome Gorge on 10 June 1906

  
  

  After the rebellion had been put down, Dinizulu was accused of giving orders to Bambatha to start the rebellion and was put on trial for treason. Although he steadfastly protested his innocence, he was found guilty and sentenced to four years imprisonment in March, 1908. Two years later an old friend of his, General Louis Botha, became Prime Minister of the Union of South Africa.

  
  

                                    

  
  

  Botha ordered that Dinizulu be released and transported to the farm Uitkyk in the Transvaal, where he died in 1913. He was succeeded by his son Solomon. But the fact of the matter was that with the defeat of the Bambatha uprising, the Zulu empire had completely collapsed.
  

  
  

  Activity 3.11

  
  

  Form groups of five each to debate about the origin, rise and career of leaders of ancient kingdoms in West and South Africa such as:

  
  

  1. Mansa Musa of Mali

  2. Diara Kante of old Ghana

  4. Suni Ali of Songhai Kingdom5. Shaka Zulu of the Zulu Kingdom

  3. Nyatsimba Mutota of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom

  
  

  Look into the political, social and economic organisations of these kingdoms and explain how these factors have contributed to the strengths of these kingdoms.

  
  

  Unit summary

  This unit deals with the origin, organisation and decline of the empires in West and South Africa.

  
  

  The kingdom of ancient Ghana was founded by the Mande-speaking Soninke people between 500 and 700 AD. The growth of the kingdom of old Ghana was majorly supported by the Trans-Saharan trade. The kingdom was led by a king whose palace was at Kumbi-Saleh. The kingdom had gold mines, which earned it great wealth. This kingdom declined due to many attacks from its neighbours who wanted to take over the gold mines.

  
  

  The original name of the Mali Empire was Kangaba. The kingdom of Mali arose, led by Sundiata, after the collapse of the kingdom of old Ghana. The strategic position of Mali kingdom enabled it to grow strong as it had good farming land and it was less vulnerable to attacks from the desert tribes such as the Sanhaja and the Tuaregs. The Mali Empire flourished more because of trade. It also had minerals such as gold and salt, which supported it economically. Mansa Musa made the Mali Empire a Muslim state. He encouraged the establishment of Islamic schools. The Mali Kingdom collapsed due to internal causes such as rebellion by vassal states and external causes such as attacks by its neighbouring kingdoms.

  
  

  The Songhai Kingdom arose due to factors such as trade, influence of Islam and strong leadership. This kingdom also had able leaders such as Askia Mohammed. The Songhai Empire derived much of its wealth from farming and fishing. When Morocco conquered the kingdom of Songhai, it turned it into one of its provinces therefore, weakening the empire.

  
  

  The ruler in the Kanem-Bornu Empire was known as Mai. He was considered sacred. Kanem-Bornu rose during the reign of Mai Idris Aluma (1571 – 1603). This ruler was known for his military skills, administrative reforms, and devotion to Islam. Trade was the greatest source of income in Kan-Bornu Empire. Goods such as grain, copper, kola and slaves were exchanged for products such as potash, cowries and cloth. The Kanem-Bornu Empire started to decline in the1700s, when the Fulani people invaded it and made major advances inside. The Fulani, led by Usman dan Fodio, proclaimed a jihad (holy war) on the irreligious Muslims of the areas they conquered.

  
  

  The Mwenemutapa Kingdom was able to expand due to able leadership, a strong army and a strong economic base. The Shona people believed in a supreme being called Mwari. The coming of the Portuguese led to the decline of the Mwenemutapa Kingdom.

  
  

  Unit assessment

  
  

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to describe the origin, rise, organisation and decline of empires in West and South Africa.

  
  

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. List and explain the factors that helped in the growth of the kingdom of Ghana.

  
  

  2. Give an account of the factors that led to the decline of the empire of old Ghana. List at least five factors.

  
  

  3. (a) Why did Mansa Musa generously reward his officers?
  

       (b) How did Mansa Musa contribute to the social and economic development of the Mali Empire?

  
  

  4. (a) Explain the ways in which Askia Mohammed contributed to the growth of Islam in the Kingdom of Songhai.

        (b) What were the results of the conquest of the Songhai Kingdom?

  
  

  5. Discuss the religious and educational developments Songhai Empire under the leadership of Askia the Great.

  
  

  6. Why was the reign of Idriss Aluma important in the history of Kanemi-Bornu?

  
  

  7. Discuss the origin and the rise of Mwenemutapa Kingdom.

  
  

  8. (a) Discuss the factors for the rise of the Zulu Kingdom in the first half of the 19th Century.
  

       (b) What were the effects of political and military changes introduced by Shaka?

       (c) Why did the kingdom decline after the death of Shaka?

  
  

  9. Discuss the social, political and economic organisation of the following:

  
  

  (a) Mali Kingdom
  

  (c) Songhai Kingdom
  

  (b) Mwenemutapa Kingdom

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  
• Unit 4: Role of agents of colonial conquest

  Topic area: World history

  
  

  Sub-topic area: European exploration and colonisation of Africa

  
  

  Key unit competence

  Discuss the role of agents of colonial conquest

  
  

  Activity 4.1

  In groups of five, discuss the roles played by missionaries, chartered companies and explorers during the process of colonisation of Africa.

  
  

  
  

  Introduction

  
  

  Who is an agent?

  This is a person who acts on behalf of another. It can also mean a person who obtains and provides information for the government in a certain area in secret.Europeans who acted as agents to their respective governments came to Africa either individually or in groups such as: traders, hunters, explorers an missionaries among others.

  
  

  Europeans annexed African states in the second half of the 19th Century and early part of the 20th Century. Groups of foreigners began arriving in earnest in the 15th Century, and the flow steadily continued thereafter. Some were explorers and adventurers, curious and eager to see new things and places, or to confirm certain geographical phenomena or scientific precepts. Many were looking for trading opportunities. Others sought an opportunity to spread the gospel and do philanthropic work among the long-suffering Africans; these were the missionaries. European intervention dramatically changed the history of Africa.
  

  
  

  The socio-political set up of many states was significantly disrupted and changed. New forms of economic life were introduced. At first imperialism was gradual, sometimes imperceptible, and in the early days not even always in the conscious domain of the early arrivals. From the second half of the 19th Century, colonial intentions were much more clearly articulated and manifested. The roles of agents of colonial conquest can be illustrated through three main themes that link the activities of the earliest arrivals with the ultimate events of the colonial occupation.

  
  

  Colonial agents in Africa

  
  

  Explorers

  
  

  Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of obtaining information or resources. An explorer is a person who travels various in search of information various things and places. European explorers in Africa were seekers of information on geographical features, trade possibilities and agricultural potentials to mention but a few areas. However, whatever their immediate motivation, the result of their explorations led to European ultimate conquest of Africa.

  
  

  Explorers in West Africa

  
  

  Though by the beginning of the 19th Century the Europeans had a considerable amount of knowledge about the coastal states of West Africa, they were almost entirely ignorant about the interior of the continent. Men were sent off to explore the interior of Africa and bring back information about its peoples, its products and its geography. This was targeted at obtaining information about trading possibilities. This is why the early explorers of West Africa were so concerned with the River Niger, which they believed would be the highway to the riches of the interior.

  
  

  The Europeans thought of themselves as explorers of unknown lands. From the point of view of the Africans these European explorers were tourists in lands which Africans had known for centuries. As a result of trade, particularly by the Dyula and Hausa, there were groups of Africans who knew a great deal about the geography of their neighbours. In 1826, the Caliph Mohammed Bello of Sokoto was able to tell his visitor, Commander Clapperton from England, much about the lands through which he would travel.

  
  

  The European explorers were only making discoveries for other Europeans. They were not telling Africans in the lands they ‘discovered’ anything they did not already know. What is significant about the work of the explorers is that they gave their own governments information about the interior of West Africa, in particular about its trading possibilities. Immediately after Richard and John Lander ‘discovered’ that the Niger emptied into the sea at Brass, the British government backed an expedition up the river by MacGregor Laird, a Liverpool trader. At first the information the explorers brought back served peaceful ends; the promotion of trade and the opening up of the continental to Christian missionaries. But when the European powers undertook the Scramble for Africa, they had already obtained a considerable amount of the geographical information which they needed to conduct their invasion.

  
  

  Mungo Park

  
  

  In 1788, the African Association was formed by a group of leading British scientists, with the aim of finding out the course of the Niger River. Europeans knew very little about the river beyond its delta. The first three travellers failed. In 1799, a Scottish doctor, Mungo Park, set out from the Gambia. He travelled through Medina and Kaarta and eventually reached the Niger at Segu. His only success was to establish that the Niger flowed from the west to the east. No one knew, yet, where the Niger ended. Park was sent on a second trip in 1805, this time accompanied by 45 Europeans. Many of his companions died of sickness.

  
  

                                 

  
  

  Clapperton and Richard Lander

  
  

  In 1822, explorers Qudney, DenhamandClapperton travelled from Tripoli to Lake Chad. Qudney died but Denham travelled in the Bornu area and Clapperton travelled to Sokoto where he learnt that the Niger flowed south. Soon after returning home, Clapperton set out for the Niger again and travelled to Sokoto from Badagry, but he died there in 1827. His young servant, Richard Lander tried to follow the course of the Niger alone, but had to abandon the journey and return home to England. He then persuaded the British government to sponsor him and his brother on one more journey of the Niger exploration.

                                 

  
  

  They travelled from Badagry to Bussa, where they used on canoes and floated down the river, eventually finding their way to the Niger Delta. There these two young men finally resolved the issue of the Niger and established that the so-called Oil Rivers were in fact the gateway to the Niger. Subsequent expedition in the 1830s which otherwise ended disastrously with even Richard Lander himself losing his life, established that the Niger was navigable by steamer.

  
  

  The British Government in 1841 sponsored another ambitious expedition. It aimed to establish an agricultural colony of freed slaves at Lokoja. This, it was hoped, would become a centre old Christianity and legitimate trade comparable with Freetown.

  
  

  In 1854 another Scottish doctor, William Balfour Baikie, led another expedition up the Niger. This expedition opened the door to an era of intensive trade and missionary work in the Niger. The British later conquered this place. As can be seen, these journeys were not motivated by imperialist ambitions. But one later important journey was between 1887 and 1889, where a French Officer, named Binger, travelled from Bamako to Kong Salaga and Mossi, ending his journey at Grand Bassam, in the Ivory Coast. This directly paved the way to French conquests in the Cote d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) hinterland.

  
  

  Heinrich Barth

  
  

  Heinrich Barth was a German traveller in the service of the British Government. Between 1849 and 1855, he journeyed from Tripoli across the Sahara to Western Sudan. His mission was to survey old trade routes and make treaties on behalf of the British government, with a view to exploring the possibility of developing the Sahara trade and to destroy the slave trade. Unfortunately the treaties he made were not followed up, and his mission proved worthless on threat score. But Barth also pursued other interests and copiously recorded in his Travels and Discoveries a great deal of the complicated history and analogy of these regions.

  
  

  Travellers and explorers in East Africa

  
  

  Early European explolers in east Africa came with the aim of establishing the source of River Nile. News that Krapf and Rebmann had seen the snow-capped mountains of mt. Kenya and Kilimanjaro and stories of great inland seas revived this quest.

  
  

                                        

  
  

  Speke and Burton

  
  

  In 1856 The Royal Geographical Society picked two army officers, Richard Burton and John Hanning Speke, to lead an expedition from Zanzibar to trace the source of the Nile. With the aid of two experienced Yao guides, Sidi Bombay and Mwinyi Mabruk they travelled inland along the trade route to Tabora. Early in 1858, they reached Lake Tanganyika but were unable to continue much further owing to illness. Returning to Tabora, Speke decided to go north to examine stories of a great lake in that direction. Speke alone found the lake and named it after his Queen, Victoria. He was convinced, though without sufficient proof, that it was the source of the Nile.

  
  

  Speke and Grant

  
  

  A second Royal Geographical Society expedition came out in 1860, with Speke in command accompanied by Grant. Travelling north – west round the shores of Lake Victoria they eventually reached Buganda and were welcomed by Kabaka Mutesa. Leaving Grant behind, Speke then travelled east and came across the place where the Nile leaves the Lake, the modern site of Jinja Town. Grant rejoined him and together they travelled north following the river to a place called Gondokoro. To Speke the matter was settled, and he sent a telegram to this effect to London from Khartoum

  
  

  Henry Morton Stanley

  
  

  Henry Morton Stanley made four expeditions to Africa:

                                       

  
  

  First expedition, 1871-2

  
  

  Stanley had his first taste of African travel while in the service of an American newspaper, the New York Herald. He was on a mission to find Dr. David Livingstone whose whereabouts for a long time were unknown. Stanley caught up with Livingstone in Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika in 1871.

  
  

  Second expedition, 1874-7

  
  

  In his second expedition, from 1874 to 1877, he moved across the continent from Zanzibar to the mouth of River Congo. He became the first traveller to use large, well-equipped, well-armed columns and ruthless military action against local populations who showed any hostility and lack of co-operation to his expedition. This made local people mistake Stanley and his party for slave traders. In his brief stay in Buganda in 1875, he impressed the Kabaka that he represented a people who would be useful to him because they possessed superior technological and military power. Stanley believed that the success of European Christian missionaries in Africa would be dependent on European commercial and military power.

  
  

  After his expedition, European Christian missionaries visited Buganda, which in turn was one of the factors leading to British colonial occupation of Uganda and Kenya. It was also during this expedition between 1875 and 1877 that Stanley charted the main stream of the Congo River. He confirmed that the river was navigable. This opened up to Europe the general possibility of exploiting the economic potential of the Congo Basin. The journey further led directly to the actual beginning of Leopold’s imperial activities in the Congo. Stanley later became Leopold’s agents in the Congo between 1880 and 1885. He had made a thorough survey of Lake Victoria, Albert and Tanganyika, completing his journey by travelling down the River Congo to the Atlantic.

  
  

  Third expedition, 1879-84

  
  

  In 1879, Stanley made an agreement with Leopold II. In return for a large sum of money he would acquire the Congo for the Belgian monarch. Between 1879 and 1884, Stanley travelled up the Congo, establishing road and river communications from Kisangani to the coast, and building a solid base in the Congo Basin for Leopold’s future commercial enterprise. Another European by the name Savorgnan de Brazza was in 1882 busy obtaining a treaty from Chief Makoko of the Teke, whose lands were north of the river. In this treaty, Makoko apparently ceded his territory to France. Leopold suddenly became aware that all his efforts in the Congo might come to naught if he did not first assume political control of the area. Stanley was consequently instructed to make treaties with the Viri chiefs south of the river, and this he did.

  
  

  Fourth expedition, 1885

  
  

  Stanley’s last expedition, to rescue Emin Pasha, was an anti-climax after his second journey and imperialist work in the Congo. It was as futile and as unnecessary as his first expedition to find Livingstone. The Emin Pasha Relief Expedition was financed by a grant from the Egyptian government and the donations of English supporters.

                                           

  
  

  Leopold II, with a great interest in the Upper Nile, got Stanley to lead the rescue expedition. The men of Stanley’s relief expedition arrived at Kavalli’s in such a state of poverty and sickness that Emin could be said to have rescued his rescuers. When Stanley and his men were fit again, Stanley insisted that Emin Pasha accompany him to Zanzibar.

  
  

  Joseph Thomson

  
  

  Joseph Thomson travelled between 1883-1884 through Maasailand, across the Rift Valley and into Western Kenya where he saw Mount Elgon. This was essentially a scientific expedition whose purpose was to gather geological and biological information about this part of Africa.

  
  

  Explorers in Central and Southern Africa

  
  

  From the close of the 18th Century, European countries began to take an increasing interest in Central Africa. The issue of the slave trade aroused interest in the continent which was the home of the black slaves. Furthermore, the Industrial Revolution led manufacturers and traders to turn their attention towards Africa as a source of raw materials and a market for the products of their factories. Thirdly, was curiosity and the quest for information on and confirmation of reported geographical and other scientific phenomena in the continent which might prove useful back home. And finally, there was the philanthropic interest, normally associated with Christian missionaries, who sought to put an end to the slave trade and convert Africans to Christianity.

  
  

  Problems faced by explorers

  
  

  • They lacked food & safe drinking water, whether they were explorers on land or sea.

  
  

  • They were affected by disease mostly cholera and dysentery
  

  
  

  • Lack of good maps to guide them in their exploration expeditions.

  
  

  • Lack of effective medicine to cure snake bites bites, and other bites by poisonous animals. people had to be treated on the spot with experimental treatment: If it worked, well and good; if it didn't, they were buried where they lay.

  
  

  Traders and hunters

  
  

  During the latter part of the 19th Century, traders penetrated into Central Africa using two main approaches: from the east coast, either overland from the central settlements in Tanganyika and Mozambique; or up the Zambezi and the Shire and Luangwa rivers, to the land between the four great lakes of Mweru, Bangweulu, Tanganyika and Malawi.

  
  

  Many Arab and Swahili traders used the overland routes while Portuguese traders generally used the Zambezi one. The other main approach was from South Africa to Barotseland and the area south of the Zambezi. European hunters and traders went into this area from the south. They went first to Matabeleland and then extended their interests to Mashonaland and Barotseland. Few penetrated further into Zambia which was very inaccessible before 1890.

  
  

  Most of the visitors travelled along the so-called ‘Missionary Road’ to Matabeleland, which ran between the borders of the Transvaal and the Kalahari Desert. This area offered good facilities for hunting, as elephants and other game animals were plentiful in the savannah. Traders too were attracted as they were able to bring their goods into the area quite easily by wagon from the south.

  
  

  
  

  George Cobb Westbeech

  
  

  The Matabele were the dominant power in the region between the Limpopo and the Zambezi. Hunters and traders who wished to go anywhere north of the Limpopo needed first to gain permission from the Matabele ruler. In the early 1860s, two traders, George Philips and George Cobb Westbeech, reached Matabeleland. They were to have a long association in Matabeleland. In 1867 they formed a trading partnership: while Philips remained in Matabeleland, Westbeech pioneered trade in the Barotse Valley. As a businessman Westbeech was usually more trustworthy than many. This earned him permission to conduct business from a permanent camp at Pandamatenka, a little way south of the Victoria Falls. Between 1871 and 1876 he exported 30,000 lbs of ivory from Bulozi. Lewanika found Westbeech’s weapons superior to any he had handled before Abhorring slaves as a means of transporting his ivory, he used ox-wagons. The Lozi now more interested in contact with the south drafted him as an advisor to the Litunga. A seasoned white hunter and trader, perhaps no one played a greater role in paving the way for missionaries in Barotseland than George Westbeech; he introduced Lewanika to missionaries such as Coillard and Arnot.

  
  

  Frederick Selous

  
  

  He reached Matabeleland in 1872 and after his introduction to the Matabele ruler joined an existing hunting party for elephant hunting. In his first three seasons he killed 78 elephants – a relatively small quantity compared to his predecessors.At first, he hunted in Matabeleland and the region to the north, near the Zambezi and Chobe rivers.Then in 1877 he got permission to travel further east, exploring Mashonaland in the next few years.
  

                                           

  
  

  He constructed a road from Bulawayo to Hartley Hills to facilitate transportation of ivory; it was named the Hunter’s Road. He visited and named many places including the Sinoia Caves, Mt Hampden and Mt Darwin. The increasing shortage of big game in Mashonaland and part of the Zambezi Valley made Selous eager to cross the Zambezi and explore the land to the north.

  
  

  Eventually, he made a trip to the Barotse Valley where he met Lewanika and Coillard.In his wanderings, Selous acquired an unrivalled knowledge of Mashonaland which he bequeathed to others in numerous books. He mapped much of the area and described it in vivid detail. When quantities of ivory began to dwindle, Selous began his great collection of African mammals. Then he found himself collecting specimens for many of the museums of Europe.

  
  

  For over twenty years he was hunting and collecting in what is today Rhodesia, and stirred much enthusiasm for the area among those who followed his career. He also made a contribution to the events that led to the region coming under British control. In 1889 he made a preparatory trip up the Zambezi and obtained for Cecil Rhodes a mineral concession from Mapondera, a chief who claimed independence from Lobengula. He next acted as a guide to the Pioneer Column and then laid out many roads under the new regime before he left for hunting fields outside Africa. He was foremost among the pre-Pioneers in opening up Mashonaland to the knowledge of Europeans.

  
  

  Missionaries and Christianity in Africa

  
  

  Missionaries or the ‘soldiers of Christ’, as they called themselves, provided the first concerted thrust at African institutions and way of life. Although they were preceded by the explorers, the the missionaries were men with a mission. They wanted to stay and win Africa into Christianity.

  
  

  Their activities were to have a serious bearing on the direction of African history in the 19th and 20th Centuries. They usually invited their home countries to come and conquer Africa. In a sense therefore, the pattern of the partition was substantially affected by the earlier settlement of the missionaries.

  
  

  Secondly, the missionaries purported to know the African better than other Europeans. Thus many of the policies pursued by the colonizing powers were inspired by the reports of the missionaries. It is important therefore to regard missionary activity in Africa in the 19th Century as the pioneering arm of imperialism.

  
  

  Missionaries in West Africa

  
  

  Christianity made practically no headway in West Africa between the 15th and 18th centuries. But in the 19th Century there was a great movement among English Protestants called the Evangelical revival. Evangelicals led the crusade against the slave trade.
  

  
  

  They stressed that man is saved by faith that made the work of converting non-Christian seem extremely urgent, though it tended to produce low and condescending view of non-Christian cultures Two important missionary organizations in West Africa were the Church Missionary Society (founded and run by Evangelical Anglicans), which was established in 1799, and the Wesleyan Missionary Society.

  
  

  Both of these were soon at work among the settlers and recaptives of Freetown, and the Creole Christians.Christianity spread more rapidly in West Africa than in any other region of the continent. By 1900 there were about quarter million Christians, nearly 2,000 churches, about 3,000 missionaries – 2,500 of them African and 29 missions. The bulk of Christian activity was concentrated in areas of British trading and political domination, namely along narrow strips of coast.

  
  

  The Protestant Churches began the Christian missionary activity after 1800. They include Anglicans, Methodists, Baptists and various German and Swiss churches. They differ from the Roman Catholics in that they do not recognize the Pope as head of their Churches; their priests or ministers may marry; and their services are more varied. They received the name ‘Protestant’ because they protested against the Roman Catholic Church and therefore had to leave it.

  
  

  The Church of England (Anglican Church)

  The Church of England, also known as the Anglican Church, had two main missions in West Africa. One was the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG), and the other the Church Missionary Society (CMS).

  
  

  The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG)

  This mission operated mainly in Ghana.

  
  

  Ghana

  
  

  The first chaplain of SPG, Rev Thomas Thompson, stayed for four years from 1752- 56, trying to learn the Fante language. He baptized eight peole some of whom disappointed him. He tried to start schools which were not successful at first. He therefore sent some boys to England for education. Rev Philip Quaque, a Fante educated under Mr Thompson’s scheme in England, was the chaplain from 1765 until 1816. He mixed trading with his job as chaplain. The only thing that he did actually to convert his fellow Africans was to run a school. In 1788 the school had 12 children. But he worked at his post for 41 years and left a small group of Christians on his death.
  

  
  

  Church Missionary Society (CMS)

  
  

  Men who had been active in the Sierra Leone Company founded the Church Missionary Society (CMS) in 1799. It was logical that Sierra Leone should be one of the first areas of interest.

  
  

  Sierra Leone

  
  

  Missionaries were dispatched in 1804. They were Melchior Renner and Peter Hertwig, both from Germany. Zachary Macaulay, the able ex-governor of Sierra Leone was on the Society’s committee. He had brought some Susu to England for education. Therefore, Renner, after a long delay in Freetown, went with some reinforcement from Germany to the Rio Pongas in 1808 to start the Susu Mission. The mission proved both a challenge and an opportunity for the CMS. The challenge lay in the climatic unsuitability of the coast for Europeans, and in the lack of precedent in missionary methods. The opportunity was the ability to reach a significant number of Africans who were uprooted from their tribal surroundings and who represented a variety of ethnic groups.

  
  

  From 1808 to1812 setting up of the Susu mission remained the CMS’ only work. Even so, it was reported, there was no church, no proper public worship, and the school room was everything. By 1812 there were 120 pupils. In the same year three lay missionaries came out to teach working with the hands. One CMS missionary, Nylaender, worked north of Freetown on the Bulom shore and produced a grammar and translation of part of St Mathews Gospel in Bulom tongue.The colony was administered on parish basis, each parish was supervised by a clergyman, and the CMS provided not only churches but schools and education in each parish, culminating in training colleges for boys (Fourah Bay) and for girls (Annie Walsh Training Institution).

  
  

  The Yoruba Mission

  
  

  In 1942, the CMS in Sierra Leone sent the missionary Townsend to Shodeke, the chief of Abeokuta in the Egba part of Yorubaland. This was because several hundred Yoruba from Freetown had returned to their native land and sent urgent requests for missionaries to come after them. Shodeke undertook to suppress the slave trade and welcome white traders and missionaries to his land. Thus the Yoruba Mission was begun and in 1846, Townsend and Crowther reached Abeokuta to start work. This was the first effective mission from Sierra Leone. In 1948, five people, including Crowther’s mother, with whom he had been reunited after twenty-five years became Church members. By 1857, there were 827 communicants. Schools were founded and in 1949 a teachers’ training college at Abeokuta began.
  

  
  

  However, the slave traders on the coast and in Abeokuta itself had no time for the mission and only wished to crush it. The priests of the Yoruba Supreme Being, Olorun, also opposed the Christians. The most serious threat was from Ghezo of Dahomey (the ‘Leopard’), who attacked Abeokuta in 1851, but Bit he was repelled, with heavy losses, and the Egba drew the useful conclusion that the presence of the Christians and their God had secured their victory. All persecution stopped and many more chiefs sent their children to school.

  
  

  This interference in politics was seen even more clearly in 1851. In that year, missionaries asked the British government to take over Lagos to bring peace to the country. Accordingly, the British deposed the ruler, Kosoko and elevated Akitoye as a puppet, with conditions that: first he would outlaw slave trading; second that he would afford complete protection to missionaries; and third that he should engage only on lawful trade, especially with British merchants. This incident shows clearly the co-operation between missionaries and the British government in achieving their aims.The Yoruba mission also encouraged trade and agriculture. Once the slave trade was stopped in Lagos, the river Ogun was open to legitimate trade, which the missionaries encouraged. They encouraged the growing of cotton and taught Africans how to clean and pack it and to repair the machinery. They arranged for its export to England. Crowther introduced the plough round Badagry and gave prizes for the best farms.

  
  

  In the 1860s, however, war broke out again in Yoruba. The British government intervened on the prompting of the missionaries. The events of that war can be summarized to demonstrate how often the missionaries proved to be one side of the coin of European colonial ambition.

  
  

  Missionary influence in the colonial occupation of Lagos

  
  

  Starting in 1839, large numbers of Anglican CMS missionaries, many of whom were former Yoruba slaves, started to arrive in Abeokuta. The CMS hoped to see the Egbas develop a christian state, which would grow through the palm oil trade, and which would turn away from slaving. Abeokuta was interested in this emerging trade and regarded the missionaries as worthwhile contact with the British traders at Lagos.

  
  

  When the Egbas turned to a policy of military expansion at the expense of the Egbados, a Yoruba sub-tribe, the mission approved on the grounds that this would extend the influence of its Christian teaching. However, Ghezo of Dahomey was not so willing to see Egbadoland, which gave Dahomey access Porto Novo and Badagry, fall to the Shodeke of Abeokuta. Ghezo had already conquered Mahi to the north of Dahomey and was determined to destroy Abeokuta. Under these circumstances in 1851, the Egba-missionary friendship scaled new heights. The missionaries persuaded the British authorities at Lagos to help Abeokuta, and Ghezo was successfully driven back to Abomey. However, fear and suspicion of the missionaries began to set in, and they were expelled from Abeokuta in 1862.

  
  

  To begin with, the Egbas were suspicious of British motives informally occupying Lagos in 1851. In return, the British did not like the fact that Abeokuta was intending to make Badagry into a more important export than Lagos. Then came the problem of Ibadan which caused the split between the Egbas and the missionaries.

  
  

  The Niger Mission

  
  

  In 1857, a further British government expedition in the ship Dayspring went up the Niger. The CMS sent Ajayi Crowther and JC Taylor, an Ibo, and decided to start a Niger Mission. The expedition left Taylor at Onitsha, then a town of 13,000 people, where he worked for nearly two years. Crowther obtained three sites for the mission. Crowther began to build a mission and read from the Hausa New Testament to passing caravans but soon after, the dayspring was sunk on the Juju rock at Jebba.Deaths still occurred among European missionaries sent to the Niger and Crowther was so active and effective that Venn decided that he should be made a Bishop to had an all-African mission. In 1864, he was consecrated at Canterbury Cathedral in England. His main stations were then Onitsha and Lokoja. He recruited his staff mainly from Sierra Leone and ordained a few of them who were worthy. He was invited by William Pepple into Bonny in 1864 and despite persecution and one martyrdom, the mission progressed.

  
  

  The Methodists

  
  

  The Methodists broke off from the Anglican Church in the 18th Century. Their leader, John Wesley, an Anglican minister, did not wish to do this but he was often not allowed to preach in the Church of England and so Methodism became separate. They worked more with the poorer and simpler English people than the Anglicans did.

  
  

  Sierra Leone. Of the 1789 arrivals in Sierra Leone from Nova Scotia, 223 were Methodists and had their own black preacher, Moses Wilkinson. The work of the early Methodists did not pick until 1815 when Rev W Davis arrived. By 1821 there were 470 members of the church and by 1840 2,000. In 1841 they had 1,500 pupils in their schools. They were divided into two areas: the Creole Churches, mainly in the Colony around Freetown, and the white-run mission Churches, mainly in the bush.

  
  

  The Gambia. After 1821, the Gambia came under governor Macarthy. He proposed that Wesleyan Methodists should work there. Morgan arrived in 1821 and began work among Muslims in the Kimbo chiefdom. This proved to be an uphill task and he soon returned to Bathurst where he opened a school for liberated Africans who lived there. By 1836 there were 535 Methodists in the Gambia and 230 in the schools. Little increase occurred after that, partly because European after European died.

  
  

  Gold Coast. In the Gold Coast the mission work was begun by Africans. William de Graft, a pupil at the Cape Coast Castle School, on his own initiative began in 1831 a ‘Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge’ which studied the Bible in order to understand it. Between 1838 and 1857, TB Freeman, the son of Negro father and an English woman did much work in Kumasi. After the British attack on Kumasi in 1874, however, the mission had to leave the area. Not until 1896 did they return by 1913 2,600 baptised Asante and a new beginning had been made in the Northern territories. In all areas, there was a clamour for schools.

  
  

  Catholic missionaries in West Africa

  The Catholic revival began half a century later than the Protestant efforts. It led to the formation of fairly small missionary congregations, often with only several hundred members each. Whereas the Protestant societies included both clergy and laymen, and a large number of lay supporters at home, the Catholic congregations consisted only of priests, nuns, or brothers. Funds were collected by a number of separate organizations, which pooled small amounts from large numbers of humble contributors. The most important of these was the society called the Work of the Propagation of the Faith.

  
  

  The Catholic congregations that had the greatest impact on West Africa were the Society of African Missions, and the Congregation of the Holy Spirit. The latter grew out of a congregation founded in France in 1844 by a converted Jew, Father Liberman. In 1848, it joined another body, taking the name of the Congregation of the Holy Spirit. Bishop Melchior de Marion Bresillac, a French aristocrat who had previously worked in India, founded the Society of African Missions in 1858.Sometimes the individual foreign missionary was unable to translate the high ideals, which brought him to Africa into day-to-day practice. Many were high-handed and authoritarian with their converts and exacted work from them, much in the fashion of forced labour for colonial governments.

  
  

  Effects of missionary enterprise

  
  

  In pursuing their main aim of conversion to Christianity the missions had several general effects:

  
  

  (i) New religion. They introduced a new religion into West Africa. This broke down tribal, national and racial differences by preaching the brotherhood of man. This contributed towards African unity and world understanding of Africa It must also be said that after independence, the presence of Christian, educated elite led to divisions within states: an important example were the Ibo in a mainly Muslim Nigeria.

  
  

  (ii) Education. Missionaries served the cause of imperialism further by providing a small circle of Africans with Christian Western education. They and their children were to prove invaluable to colonial rulers in establishing their administration: they provided government clerks junior officials in the commercial houses and interpreters in the early days of colonial rule.

  
  

  (iii) Medicine. Hospitals helped to defeat diseases, do operations and fight malnutrition. Thus the missions helped Africans to live more healthily and happily and be more useful members of society.

  
  

  (iv) Traditions challenged. The old way of life was undermined and old authorities challenged. Being independent observers, missionaries were often arbiters. Also, total conversion often, meant a rejection of chiefs and elders whose power came partly from ancestors. This effect uprooted Africans, sometimes violently, from their environment and was not always good.

  
  

  (v) Abuses stopped. Specific abuses like slavery were denounced and combated by missions, sometimes again weakening traditional society but in the long term leading to improvements.

  
  

  (vi) Europeanisation. There was the effect of an inculcation of the European, as well as Christian attitude to life. They did not live as simply as Jesus intended his disciples to do and they had, by African standards, enormous numbers of material possessions.
  

  
  

  (vii) Independent churches. Missionary influence led to the foundation of the many independent African churches.

  
  

  (viii) Source of information. Apart from venturing into hitherto unknown parts and supplying information to their home countries about the possibilities of trade, they also sent home reports of practices such as human sacrifice and domestic slavery or twin murder which the colonial powers used as justification for occupying Africa for its own good. Often these reports were exaggerated, and in fact the real motive of the colonial powers for occupation was economic, not moral.

  
  

  (ix) Trade encouraged. Missionaries had an indirect effect in the early days of encouraging European traders, partly to supply their needs. Trade followed the mission. The flag followed trade. Missionaries asked for protection in some cases or demanded British or French interference. In the German Cameroon, missionaries were encouraged to go ahead into new areas to make first contacts peacefully. The occupation of Lagos in Nigeria was a case in point.

  
  

  (x) European conquest and colonization. The flag of European conquest sometimes followed the mission. Missionaries asked for protection in some cases or demanded British or French assistance. In the German Cameroon, missionaries were encouraged to go ahead into new areas to make first contacts peaceful. Later, traders and the German government followed less peacefully.

  
  

  Problems faced by Christian missions in West Africa

  
  

  The Christian message received varied responses in West Africa. Some people accepted it, while others rejected it. There were rulers who were alarmed by the missionary presence and activities, for the missionaries demonstrated their capacity to disrupt the political and social life of the people early. Jaja of Opobo, for example, would on no account allow missionaries into his kingdom. His rejection of the missionaries was shaped by the events occurring in the neighbouring Bonny state.
  

  
  

  In Bonny, present – day Niger, King George had warmly welcomed the missionaries. But he went even further in his pro-missionary zeal; he personally led the campaign to convert his subjects to Christianity. These attempts had destabilising consequences for the kingdom of Bonny. People became completely subservient to the white missionaries.
  

  
  

  The missionaries gradually took over his powers, forcing him to increasingly depend on their prop to rule. Many rulers and people believed that the white men were spirits and therefore unnatural. They were treated as bringers of evil who would bring famine and destruction. Many Africans rejected the missionaries on these grounds. Furthermore, the egalitarian doctrine of Christianity made many converts, especially of slave or subject origin, insubordinate to their rulers.
  

  
  

  The Christian doctrine which placed all men on the same level before God because they were all God’s creation seemed to undermine the authority of rulers. Some of questioning the rulers’ actions. This was particularly evident in Efik country. Many rulers sought to resist this harmful ideology.

  
  

  Missionaries in East Africa

  
  

  For East Africa, missionary activity can be divided into two phases. First the period from the early 1840s until about 1870. During this time the number of missionaries involved was small, their success limited and sphere of their operation confined largely to the coast. Then following the death of Livingstone in 1873 came a great wave of enthusiasm and support that led to the establishment of new mission stations in the interior, particularly in Buganda.

  
  

  Missionary activities at the Coast

  
  

  The earliest European missionary in East Africa was a German, Dr Johann Ludwig Krapf. He had been sent by the Church Missionary Society in England to work among the Galla of southern Ethiopia in 1837. It was hoped that through this strategy he might effectively spread the Gospel across much of north-eastern Africa, the area occupied by the Galla.

  
  

  It failed, however, and in 1844 Krapf came south to Zanzibar, hoping to obtain permission to cross to the mainland and approach the Galla from the south. A few months later he crossed to Mombasa and established a mission station at Rabai. Here Johann Rebmann in 1846 and Jakob Erhardt in 1849 joined him. Krapf saw the Rabai station as the first of a series, ‘the first link of a mission-chain between East and Central Africa’, he wrote in 1848.

  
  

            

  
  

  From the Rabai base, these missionaries travelled inland. Rebmann travelled to Taita in 1847 and Chagga the following year when he met Chief Makinga. It was during these visits that he saw Mt. Kilimanjaro. In July 1848 Krapf visited Usambara where he was welcomed by the Shambaa king Kimweri ye Nyumbae who asked for missionaries to come and teach his people. In 1848 Krapf travelled through Ukambani and met Chief Kivoi and saw Mt Kenya. He made a second visit there in 1851 hoping to set up a mission station. But while travelling with Kivoi towards the Tana River he was attacked and Kivoi was killed.

  
  

  These pioneering days were difficult and the work of evangelism did not prove a success. When the British Consul, Colonel Playfair, visited Rabai in 1864, he found that only six people had been baptized and another six were being taught. But their work was not without some achievement. From the experience of their travels inland and from information they gathered from Arab and Swahili traders, Erhardt compiled a map of the interior, including what he called the Inland Sea, ‘Uniamuesi’. This, together with their reports of snow-capped mountains on the equator, was to arouse much geographical curiosity and controversy. Several expeditions were sent out to East Africa in search of the Nile’s source. On top of all of this, Krapf’s work on a Swahili grammar dictionary was to prove of great value to missionaries and travellers. Due to ill health he was forced to leave in 1853, but Rebmann remained for another twenty years.

  
  

  During the 1860s and 1870s, one of the main concerns of mission societies in East Africa was the suppression of the slave trade and the subsequent problem of what to do with the freed slaves. In 1863 the Holy Ghost Fathers came from Reunion Island and started a mission in Zanzibar. In 1864, Bishop Tozer and the UMCA came to Zanzibar after an unsuccessful attempt to establish a station in the Shire area of Malawi. Much of their time and energy was taken up by the campaign for the abolition of the slave trade and plans for the resettlement of freed slaves. One such centre was set up by the Holy Ghost Fathers at Bagamoyo in 1868 at which former slaves were taught basic skills such as agriculture and carpentry as well as how to read and write.

  
  

  In 1875, the CMS started a similar centre at Freretown on the outskirts of Mombasa.Livingstone’s death in 1873 made him a national hero in Britain. His reports on the slave trade and speech at Cambridge University in 1857 were received with enthusiastic response, and money and offers of assistance poured in. Livingstone’s emphasis on ‘Commerce and Christianity’ united both religious and business interests and gave a new impetus to missionary activity in Africa, widening its aims and objectives.

  
  

  Typical of this new policy was the formation of the Livingstone Central African Trading Company by James Stevenson of Glasgow, with the dual object of supplying the missionaries in the area and exporting ivory at a price that would undercut the Arab slave traders.

  
  

  Missionary activities in Buganda

  
  

  Henry Morton Stanley led the exploration to the interior of east Africa and especially Uganda in 1876. He was an explorer who was looking for a missionary, David Livingstone. In the cause of his second great African journey, Stanley spent some time in 1875 at the court of Kabaka Mutesa I of Buganda. There, like Speke, he was impressed by the organisation of Buganda and, unlike Speke he found Mutesa no longer a foolish youth but a skilful diplomatist. In the course of his stay, Stanley broached the subject of Christianity with the Kabaka and found in him a ready listener. Stanley saw in Mutesa’s interest the possibility of establishing a sound missionary station in an organized and prosperous country.

  
  

  Sir Henry Morton Stanley dispatched a message by Linant de Bellefonds, an agent of the Egyptian Government whom he found at Mutesa’s court, calling upon the missionary societies of England to answer Mutesa’s request for aid. Stanley’s appeal created a greater impression than had the earlier proposal by Speke, which the CMS had rejected. In view of the state of public interest aroused by Livingstone’s death it would indeed have been difficult for the missions to resist Stanley’s call. Nevertheless, the CMS would still have preferred to abide by their established policy of steady progress, step by step, from the coast.

                                   

  
  

  Their position became untenable, however, when, a few days after Stanley’s letter had been published in the Daily Telegraph to startle its receptive readers, an anonymous offer of £5,000 was made to the CMS for the purpose of establishing a mission station on the shores of Lake Victoria. Other contributions were also received for the same purpose. The CMS selected a party of six to form the first expedition, and in spite of many difficulties Kabaka Mutesa received the first two members, who formed the advance guard, in July 1877. At the end of the following year three more missionaries entered Uganda from the north, following the Nile route.

  
  

  Missionary activities and relation to the Kabaka

  
  

  The first missionaries to arrive were from the Church Missionary Society (British Protestants) in 1877, led by Alexander Mackay. There was also the Catholic White Fathers Mission, founded in 1868 by Cardinal Lavigerie to work among the Muslims of Algeria and more particularly to provide homes for children orphaned by famine. The order had grown in strength and Lavigerie had begun to look for further fields of activity. The party of missionaries set out from Bagamoyo in June 1878, and on reaching Tabora divided into two parts, one going on to Ujiji and the other, under Father Simon Lourdel, turning northwards to cross the lake to Buganda. Both groups received a warm embrace from Mutesa and were accommodated at his court and confined in his capital to curb their freedom of movement and the possible influence they might have on his people.

  
  

  Buganda offered an excellent starting point for missionary activity. The country was under a strong government. It had a ruler who was intelligent and interested in Christianity. The Protestants and Catholics lacked charity towards each other. Mutesa and his people regarded Protestantism and Catholicism as two different religions, one for the Ingleza (the English) and one for the Fransa (the French).

  
  

  In 1879, Mutesa almost became a Christian and even sent Baganda ambassadors to Queen Victoria, on a trip organised by CMS missionaries. However, the Katikiro(prime minister) Mukasa pointed out that the Kabaka must remain independent of the three rival foreign religious groups: Muslims, Protestants and Catholics. The katikiro told the Kabaka, ‘If you join any of these foreign religions there will be no peace in this country’. Even if Mukasa’s advice had not given Mutesa sufficient reason to pause, the issue of polygamy – of what to do with about two hundred wives – would have done so. Moreover, the Kabaka found the disputes between Protestants and Catholics confusing.

  
  

                                    

  
  

  The absence of White Fathers between 1882 and 1884 was a blessing in disguise to Christianity in Buganda. African converts, left under their own leadership, continued the work of evangelisation with not only fervour but a growing self-reliance and responsibility. Men like Joseph Mukasa Balikuddembe emerged as inspiring Catholic leaders during Father Lourdel’s absence. Lourdel’s temporary withdrawal also led to an abandonment of the narrow and rather futile policy of trying to Christianise Buganda by first converting the Kabaka. From 1882, a new policy of spreading the Gospel widely to all in the capital who would care to listen to it was adopted. By the end of Mutesa’s reign in 1884 there were several hundred Christian converts in Buganda.

  
  

  Kabaka Mwanga’s reign and persecution of Christians

  
  

  The worsening relations between the missionaries and the Buganda leadership were brought to a head by Mwanga’s accession to the throne. During his reign, Mutesa had been able to retain control over the new forces at work in his country. He had succeeded in preserving his independence by playing Anglicans against the Catholics, and both against the Muslims as the situation demanded. Arab traders had been admitted freely from as early as the 1840s, but their activities had been carried on under the strict supervision of the Kabaka himself. And if many of his subjects had become interested in Islam, Mutesa himself had paid it some attention, with the tolerant outlook of one who knew his own ability to check excess.

  
  

  The Christian missionaries had been able to arouse deep concern for their teachings in the minds of some Baganda and had attracted a wider circle of those who hoped to benefit materially from the new religion. The arrival of the Christian missionaries had pushed the influence of the Muslims to a dangerous precipice, for the Christians combined their war against the slave trade with a powerful presence at the Kabaka’s court. But under the watchful eye of Mutesa, neither the Christians nor the Muslims could hope to be too successful, lest they should challenge his own pre-eminence.

  
  

  Mwanga, who succeeded Mutesa on the latter’s death in October 1884, was of a different calibre. A young man of weak character, he was unable to dominate the situation in which he found himself, save for brief periods and by ill-considered acts of violence. At first it was hoped that the accession of Mwanga to the throne would strengthen the churche. Joseph Mukasa was promoted to the the position of majordomo (leading servant or butler in the palace), and Andrea Kagwa became the hunting and travelling companion of the young Kabaka. A bitter struggle for power, however, developed between these new young men and the older tribal chiefs headed by the Prime Minister.

  
  

  Impact of European explorers and missionaries on Buganda Kingdom

  
  

  European explorers and missionaries had a great impact on Buganda Kingdom in a number of ways:

  
  

  (i) Growth of Christianity: By 1896 there were nearly 7,000 baptised Protestants and 57,000 readers. Further growth was aided, firstly, by the work of GL Pilkington who was the chief translator of the Bible into Luganda and began a system of ‘reading-houses’ where the scriptures were studied with enthusiasm under African teachers. Secondly, the strictly graded society of Buganda made the Baganda willing to accept the bishops, archdeacons, priests and other ranks of the Anglican Church. Thirdly, Bishop Tucker in 1909 was able to put into practice a church constitution which ensured an African majority in the House of Laity and also in the House of Clergy as soon as the African priests outnumbered the Europeans. He had left, he said, the Church of Uganda, ‘with power to make its own laws’.

  
  

  (ii) Growth of the Church: The numbers in the Anglican Church rose as this activity continued. Missionaries from Buganda began in the nineties to work in Toro and by 1914 there were 9,000 Christians there. Bunyoro and Ankole also saw advances. Apolo Kivebulaya, a teacher on the edge on the then Congo Free State, translated St Mark’s gospel into the language of the pygmies for use in his evangelical work. From 1890 Bishop Tucker encouraged the Africanisation of the Church and by 1914 there were 33 African priests of several tribes who began as a group the breaking down of tribal barriers. By 1918 there were 110,000 baptised Anglicans in Buganda.
  

  
  

  The coming of the railway from the coast gave rise to many social ills. In 1937 a Revival led to new evangelism, better living and as Muganda said, ‘heart-knowledge’ of Christianity instead of verbal acceptance. This has continued to the present and has affected Anglicans in Kenya as well as Uganda and other areas. Its theme song is the Luganda Tukutendereza, ‘We praise Thee’. The Revival works through meetings for confession, prayer and singing. By 1966 Uganda was the only African country where Christians (including Catholics) outnumbered non-Christians.

  
  

  (iii) Growth of education: Mission education flourished and the government took no part until 1920. In 1900 there were seventy-two CMS schools with nearly 8,000 scholars and in 1913, 331 schools with 32,000 scholars. The schools were mainly primary up to World War II but they included the famous Kings College, Budo (founded in 1906 for sons of prominent Baganda Protestants), and agricultural, technical and industrial training institutions. The Catholics had Saint Mary’s College, Kisubi offering high school education to the sons of prominent Baganda Catholics. Since there were more Protestant boarding schools than Catholic in the early days, there were more Protestants among Uganda’s elite in the 20th Century.

  
  

  (iv) Development of agriculture: In the agricultural field Borup, a lay missionary, imported the first cotton seed in 1903 and thus began the cultivation of this vital cash crop, on which the prosperity of Buganda depended.

  
  

  (v) Developments in medicine: In the medical field the CMS was well-known. In 1897 a hospital was opened at Namirembe. Dr A Cook in 1900 was the first to diagnose sleeping sickness, to demonstrate how widespread syphilis was and to show that one form of anaemia was caused by the hook worm. He also warned that the population of Buganda and Bunyoro was decreasing largely through sexually-transmitted diseases. Not until 1922 did the population begins to increase in the Protectorate as a whole. In addition, three centres for lepers were founded by the CMS after 1920.

  
  

  (vi) Forerunner of colonial rule: In Britain and Europe in general, the need to spread christianity justified imposition of colonial rule. However, it is the efforts of explorers over the source of the Nile, and the efforts of Protestant missionaries from Britain in Buganda, that led to the declaration of a protectorate over Uganda.

  
  

  The rivalry and turbulent relations between the Protestants and Catholics in Buganda, ultimately resulted in a civil war (the Battle of Mengo) in 1892, which the protestantswon. But the situation was still dangerous for the Protestants. The Catholic got support from the Germans in Tanganyika. The Kabaka was certainly hostile. The Protestant appealed to their government, Britain, to declare this area a British protectorate and give them and their work security. Public opinion in Britain supported them. Buganda was declared a British protectorate in 1894.

  
  

  Missionaries in Kenya and Tanzania

  
  

  Kenya

  
  

  After the efforts of the 1840s by Krapf and Rebmann, other missionaries followed much later. These included the Holy Ghost Fathers who arrived in Mombasa in 1890 and founded a mission in Bura in 1891. The Consolata Fathers came in 1902, founding the Mangu Mission in 1906. The Mill Hill Fathers from Uganda founded a mission near Kisumu in 1903, Mumias in 1904 and Kakamega in 1906. African Inland Mission (AIM) was founded in 1895 and began its work in Machakos. The Society of Friends (Quakers) founded a mission at Kaimosi in August 1902 and later among the Akamba. The CMS began their work in Western Kenya from Uganda with Bishop JJ Willis founding the Maseno Mission, while the Church of Scotland Mission worked in Central Kenya.

  
  

  This Church later became known as the Presbyterian Church. It can be seen that most of these mission stations were established well after the British occupation in 1895, and perhaps as a direct consequence of the building of the Uganda Railway (1896 – 1901).

  
  

  Tanzania

  
  

  Missionaries moved in from Central Africa. They included the LMS near Lake Tanganyika. The Holy Ghost Fathers worked at the coast while the White Fathers worked in central and western Tanzania.Founding of mission stations in East Africa also meant establishing rehabilitation centres for freed slaves (Freretown in Kenya and Bagamoyo in Tanzania). It also meant establishing of schools to teach literacy skills and vocations such as agriculture, carpentry, and masonry. Examples of mission schools in Kenya included Maseno School, Alliance High School and Mangu High School. In Uganda, the Catholic and Anglican missionaries founded St. Mary’s College, Kisubi and Kings College, Buddo respectively. Mission stations were therefore centres of learning as well as medical centres as they offered medical services.

  
  

  Missionaries in Central Africa

  
  

  The story of missionary enterprise in Central Africa must start with David Livingstone. Livingstone was the pioneer of a widespread missionary movement in Central Africa. Several different mission groups took part in this, one of the first being the London Missionary Society. The LMS tried to work among the Matabele, but was as unsuccessful as the Jesuits who established missions at Bulawayo and Empandeni. The Paris Missionary Society’s Francois Coillard tried to establish a station at Mashiangobi’s in western Mashonaland but was taken away and warned not to try again by Lobengula’s indunas. Coillard did not give up, and moving northwards to Bulozi, he managed to get close to Lewanika and achieved much success with the king and his people.

  
  

                                        

  
  

  Dr. David Livingstone

  
  

  Activity 4.2

  Look for a historical map in the library and trace the movement of David Livingstone in East and Central Africa. Act out how he dealt with various African kings that he came by during his journeys in Africa. What would have been the reaction in Rwanda during the reign of King Mutara III Rudahigwa?

  
  

  Dr David Livingstone was both a traveller and a missionary. Livingstone was born at Blantyre near Glasgow in 1813. At the age of 10 he went to work in a cotton mill, but spent time improving his education through evening studies. He entered university in 1836 to study medicine, at the completion of which he volunteered to work with the London Missionary Society (LMS) and proceeded to South Africa to join Robert Moffat at Kuruman in December 1840, from where he rapidly moved to Central Africa.

  
  

  
  

  Objectives of Livingstone’s missionary work

  
  

  There is every reason to suppose that Livingstone’s ambitions, besides straightforward missionary work, had been formulated before he left for Africa, but they certainly concretised and took a more practical form during his first twelve odd years in Southern and Central Africa. The Following were the objectives of his missionary work:

  
  

  (i) To spread Christianity: Although born of Christian parents and becoming a devout Christian early, Livingstone’s missionary zeal seem to have been catalyzed by a speech delivered by the veteran missionary practicing in South Africa, Robert Moffat. Moffat spoke of ‘Africa’s perishing millions’, to whom the word of God would be a great gift. Moffat continued, ‘I have sometimes seen, in the morning sun, the smoke of a thousand villages where no missionary has ever been.’ The picture embodied in these words captivated Livingstone’s entire being and fired his soul with great passion. He would go to Africa! He would be a forerunner for Christ ‘in the land of the miserables’.
  

  
  

  (ii) To abolish slavery and promote legitimate trade: Livingstone detested slavery, which he saw firsthand in South Africa and later in its Arab form in East Africa. He was anxious that Christianity should break out of its narrow geographical confines and penetrate the interior. But such penetration required safe lines of communication, unsuited to the conditions of the slave trade and with endemic war. This could be secured only by regular trade of a kind welcome to interior peoples. Besides, the Zambezi valley would be a good source of raw materials for the British textile industry by producing enough cotton to make Lancashire independent of the slave-grown cotton of the American South. If articles of British manufacture were supplied to the interior by means of ‘legitimate’ commerce then the slave trade would find it difficult to survive. And if this could be accompanied by the spread of Christian influences, a new moral climate would exclude slavery and soften other features of African life.

  
  

  (iii) To introduce western education: He also entertained the current popular belief in Europe, that white settlement in the vast, sparsely populated parts of the interior of Africa would greatly benefit the indigenous people in terms of western education and civilisation. Besides, the open space of Africa would provide a very healthy alternative to the slum dwellers of Britain’s cities.

  
  

  Livingstone’s legacy

  
  

  In reality, these expeditions constitute Livingstone’s major activities in Southern and Central Africa. Through them he had become an eyewitness to the most in human and repugnant trade in slaves, one whose eradication he felt must be the obligation of his countrymen. In his reports back to England as well as in lectures he gave between the expeditions, he singled out this as a reason why men of good will must come to Africa. The slave trade must be abolished. And here he achieved immensely. His writings and speeches on the horrors he witnessed at first hand in the central-southern African interior, stirred the humanitarian urging of the British Government to enforce abolition of the trade by the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1873, the year of his death.

  
  

  He inspired the foundations of the Universities Mission to Central Africa (UMCA) and the United Free Church of Scotland, which established a mission at Blantyre. Men were inspired to volunteer for missionary work as a result of Livingstone’s example. The activities of these missionaries were later to lead to the British colonisation of parts of central-southern-eastern Africa.Another target audience was settlers and farmers. He summoned his countrymen to come and settle in the healthy and fertile Central Africa, like the Shire Highlands. The British industrialisation now seriously underway, created a situation of overcrowded slums, smog-filled environment, and deplorable living conditions of the lumpen proletariat who were ready to move to new sites any time. Many people in England followed Livingstone’s persuasions with a lot of interest. The settler situation in Central Africa subsequently became a prominent factor in the British colonisation of this area.

  
  

  Livingstone also believed that commerce must be encouraged as this would undermine the slave trade and put Africa at par with the rest of the world. The Scottish doctor’s activities and attitude towards Africa, was itself the epitome of paternalism, that of a superior being sent as a gift to the ‘unfortunate’ lands. This attitude hopelessly betrayed the pioneer tourist’s motives. The white settlers, argued Livingstone, would tap the mineral and agricultural potential of Africa which the ‘natives had been too lazy to harness for the benefit of all mankind’.

  
  

  Finally, there can be no debate that Livingstone hoped to prepare the way for imperialism. He did so in various ways. He spread his views by means of his books, such as Missionary Travels and Researchers in South Africa (1857). A voracious readership consumed his letters, reports and articles, many of which appeared in newspapers and magazines.
  

  
  

  Thus he played no mean role in nurturing public opinion for effective British involvement in Central Africa. His death in 1873 activated Stanley’s great trans-continental journey from Zanzibar to the mouth of the Congo between 1874 and 1877 this led to the surveying of the River Congo, and active interest of King Leopold of Belgium and De Brazza of France in the region. Livingstone indirectly influenced these happenings, but they nonetheless conformed to his imperial motivations from the very beginning.

  
  

  Missionaries in Zambia

  
  

  Francois Coillard

  
  

  Coillard belonged to Paris Missionary Society. Earlier missionaries had not been very successful. In 1858 the London Missionary Society missionaries Helmore and Price came to Bulozi but the Kololo chief Sekeletu gave them a cool reception on account that David Livingstone was not with them. Helmore died of malaria and Price went back to South Africa. In 1879, the Jesuits began work among the Ila. Lewanika, now restored as ruler of Bulozi, took this as an insult, as he regarded the Ila as his subjects. On this occasion the Jesuits left because of disease, but when they returned in 1881, Lewanika sent them away. It was the Methodists who finally established themselves among the Ila, and later extended their activities beyond the Kafue.

  
  

  However, the advantages of having missionaries working in his area were not lost on Lewanika. For one thing, they would teach people to read and write, and so improve the administrative system; for another, they would bring legitimate forms of trade, and so discourage the slave raiding of the Mambari. To be resisted, however, was Christianity itself, as it threatened the king’s own religious authority. Thus, in this cautious mood, Lewanika gradually moved towards acceptance of missionary activity in Bulozi.

  
  

  Meanwhile, Lewanika’s ally Khama had come under British protection. For Khama this meant security from the Boers of South Africa and from the Ndebele. Lewanika was well aware that the quickening of advance of Europeans from South Africa could not be ignored. An alliance with white men, either those in the south or those in the west, was essential for his survival. He decided to follow Khama’s example and in 1886 allowed Francois Coillard to found a mission station in Bulozi. Lewanika realized that this would mean valuable new kind of education for his people, or at least for his sons and those of other Lozi chiefs. If he could keep this education under his control, it could greatly strengthen his own position as a ruler, which was still by no means secure.

  
  

  Coillard had worked in Lesotho and spoke the Sotho language which was similar to the Kololo spoken by Lewanika and his people. The Paris Missionary Society now became something of a state church in Bulozi. It was successful among members of the royal family, Lewanika’s son Letia being converted, and the Mokwani, or Queen-Sister, being persuaded to temper her punishments with mercy. But the PMS never became a popular church among the people of Bulozi as did the Watch Tower in the 20th Century. The Paris missionaries also suffered greatly from malaria. Coillard’s wife died in 1891, and Coillard himself died of blackwater fever in 1904.

  
  

  Missionaries in Malawi

  
  

  Missionary work preceded the effective establishment of government by European powers. Missionaries from a number of Christian churches were involved in this work. Christian churches in Malawi included the following:

  
  

  (i) The Universities Mission in Central Africa (UMCA)

  
  

  At a meeting at Cambridge on December 4, 1857, Livingstone had said, ‘I go back to Africa to try to make an open path for commerce and Christianity. Do you carry on the work which I have begun. I leave it with you’. These words inspired the formation of the Universities Mission to Central Africa, supported by largely Anglican well-wishers in Oxford, Cambridge and Durham universities. Soon afterwards Charles Mackenzie was chosen to lead the first expedition. Mackenzie, a brilliant mathematical scholar at Cambridge, had planned to become a lecturer there, but in 1854 he decided to devote his life to missionary work. He had been working for five years in Natal when he was appointed leader of the UMCA expedition.
  

  
  

  Having been consecrated a Bishop, Mackenzie set out with five European and three African Christians from South Africa. The party met Livingstone early in 1861 at the mouth of the Zambezi. Livingstone had recently explored the Shire and Lake Malawi area, and it was agreed that he should accompany the mission party to search for a mission site.

  
  

  The Magomero Mission

  
  

  They sailed up the Zambezi into the Shire in Livingstone’s ship, the Pioneer. At Chibisa’s kraal, the party stopped while Livingstone and Mackenzie pushed on towards the Shire Highlands where they hoped to find a mission site. Two years earlier, Livingstone been impressed by the prosperity of Nyanja villages there. But the area had been depopulated by Yao slave raids. Within a couple of days of setting out, trouble with a raiding party led to a change of plans. The missionaries made a settlement in the low-lying land at Magomero, where Livingstone left them.The disasters which befell the mission can largely be traced to this ill-fated decision. The entire region was increasingly harried by the Yao who were pushing south-westwards from their home in the Rovuma Valley in their search for slaves. The whole area proved unhealthy too, and soon all the members were suffering from recurrent fevers.

  
  

  The climax came in January 1862, when Mackenzie took a small party down the Shire to meet Livingstone who was bringing supplies. The canoe in which they were travelling struck a sand bank and the medicine chest which contained the all-important quinine was lost. Shortly afterwards Mackenzie and a colleague, Henry Burrup, fell ill with malaria and died in a few days. Illness struck the others, and within a year there were three more deaths.

  
  

  The move to Zanzibar

  
  

  In June 1863 Bishop Tozer took Mackenzie’s place as leader of this mission, and when he reached Magomero he reluctantly came to the conclusion that the mission had to be withdrawn to a less isolated and unhealthy centre. Tozer moved to Zanzibar, home of the Sultan, the recognised head of all the Arabs in East Africa, and the greatest centre for the trade in ivory and slaves.
  

  
  

  In August 1864, work among the Arabs and freed slaves begun there. When the Sultan agreed to close the slave market in 1873, the missionaries hastened to buy this site, and soon a fine cathedral was built with the alter on the spot where formerly the slaves’ whipping post had stood.

  
  

  The move to Likoma Island

  
  

  Tozer was determined that the UMCA should return to the lake region as soon as possible. After 1875 the UMCA established a chain of mission stations leading to the lake. In1881, the missionary WP Johnson travelled around Lake Malawi. In 1885 a permanent settlement was established at Likoma Island, and this became the centre of missionary activity on both sides of the lake.
  

  
  

  A map drawn in 1899 shows seventeen stations on the eastern side and five on the western. It was Chauncy Maples who built up Likoma, while WP Johnson carried out itinerant work from the steamship Charles Jansen. This steamship was important in two other respects: it enabled the missionaries to bring stores from Matope on the Shire River; and it put them in touch with the Scottish missionaries at Bandawe, where medical care was available. This meant that the UMCA missionaries no longer had to rely on the dangerous route to Zanzibar.

  
  

  The Nyanja people, however, were now being raided by the Gwangwara Ngoni, so the UMCA mission at Likoma, like the one at Magomero, became a place of refuge rather than a centre of civilisation. There was also the recurring problem of malaria. In the first thirty years of the mission, fifty-seven missionaries died out of a total of two hundred, and the average tour of duty was only five years. Furthermore, Islam was well-established in the Likoma area, making it difficult for the missionaries to convert people to Christianity. Nonetheless, schools were opened; the gospels were translated by WP Johnson into the chi-Nyanja language; and medical work was carried out, especially after the arrival in 1889 of Dr Robert Howard.

  
  

  Likoma Island became the centre of mission work in the area – indeed today the headquarters of the Anglican diocese of Malawi – and a fine cathedral was completed in 1905. From this centre missionaries eventually spread into Zambia. Meanwhile, the UMCA made their biggest impact in the rural areas. The main emphasis of UMCA education was still academic, and in reality the UMCA missionaries did little to prepare Africans for the Industrial Revolution when it came. They did, on the other hand, allow an African clergy to emerge: the first African priest was a Yao, Johanna Abdalla. Another African priest was Leonard Kamungu, who was ordained in 1901, and who later worked at Nkhotakhota and in Zambia.

  
  

  (ii) Livingstonia Mission

  
  

  The UMCA withdrew to Zanzibar in 1863. In 1874, the Free Church of Scotland formed a new mission in the area. It was called Livingstonia Mission of the Free Church of Scotland in memory of the great missionary-explorer.

  
  

  Work in the south among the Amachinga Yao

  
  

  It was first established in 1875 at Cape Maclear at the south end of Lake Malawi. It was not particularly successful in this area. The local people, the Amachinga Yao; saw little value in the missionaries for a number of reasons. First, they were sufficiently secure in their political position to need aid of external allies. Secondly, they also possessed in Islam an alternative historic religion and an alternative source of modernising skills to those offered by Livingstonia; and thirdly, and perhaps most important, their economic structure, and therefore their political power, depended on the continuance of the slave trade, while the missionaries demanded that they abandon slave trading and turn to ‘legitimate’ trade along the line of the Shire River.

  
  

  This they could not accept, and the missionaries six years’ sojourn on the edge of Yaoland was characterized by tension between the mission settlement and the chieftains of surrounding villages, as the former sought for refugees from the latter’s villages to swell the ranks of its dependents. The Yao made little use of the missionaries.

  
  

  Work in the north among the Tonga

  
  

  In the north, even more momentous developments were taking place. In 1881 the Mission left Cape Maclear and moved north up the lakeshore at Bandawe in Tonga country. Here, under the energetic leadership of Dr. Robert Laws, the Mission was more successful. The Tonga were not involved in the slave trade and there was an absence of Islamic influence among them.
  

  
  

  The Tonga, unlike the Amachinga Yao, welcomed the missionaries as they were looking for allies against Mbelwa’s Ngoni, from whose kingdom they had broken, and who continued to raid towards the lake in the 1880s. Also, being agriculturalists, the Tonga were less opposed to the missionaries than the Yao or the Ngoni, whose way of life depended on raiding.
  

  
  

  Yet, perhaps more compelling in their need for missionaries was the internal competitiveness of the Tonga society in which a premium was placed upon individual achievement, in consequence of which education was sought with unequalled enthusiasm. The Tonga took quickly to education and by 1890, there were more than 2000 Tonga pupils in mission schools. They wanted this education not to strengthen their political position, as was the case among most of the other African societies who were quick to encourage education, but to give themselves the skills they needed to take part in a western-style economy.

  
  

  From 1886 onwards, the Tonga were using their new skills to obtain jobs as clerks, foremen and interpreters in the young work markets of the Shire Highlands, where the African Lakes Company, an adjunct of the Livingstonia Mission, had established the first settler-type economy north of the Limpopo. The desire for educational skills generally preceded conversion to Christianity itself. Many Tonga took advantage of the missionaries’ teaching while remaining suspicious of their beliefs; not until 1895-1898 and after 1903 were there large-scale conversions of the Tonga.

  
  

  (iii) The Blantyre Mission

  
  

  The Blantyre Mission, a second Scottish mission in Malawi, was another branch of the Presbyterian church. It was founded in 1876 by Henry Henderson and established on land given by the Yao chief Kapeni in the Shire Highlands. It was more successful than the Livingstonia Mission had been at Cape Maclear because the Amangoche Yao, unlike the Amachinga, wanted an alliance with the missionaries. They had been driven south by their Amachinga compatriots and were now being attacked by the Maseko Ngoni of the Dedza highlands. They saw some value in an alliance with the Blantyre Mission of the Church of Scotland, established a year later than Livingstonia.

  
  

  Success, however, did not come immediately to the Blantyre Mission. From 1879-1881 there were management scandals and in 1881 the Mission had to be re-founded by Reverend DC Scott. By 1885 the mission was carrying out successful missionary and educational work. But the mission’s residential role as a small colony was paramount, as it had also acquired certain political powers. The mission intervened repeatedly in the political and judicial process, judging a wide range of cases, not only at its stations, but among the surrounding Yao chiefdoms. Scott and his colleague Hetherwick, not only judged cases between chiefs, but also decided on punishments themselves.

  
  

  iv) The London Missionary Society (LMS)

  
  

  The London Missionary Society (LMS) had opened a station at Ujiji on Lake Tanganyika. In 1881, a Scottish businessman, Stevenson, gave some money for making a road between the lakes, so that the missionaries at Ujiji could get their supplies from the African Lakes Company. This route, named the Stevenson Road, served two other stations – the L.M.S. station at Fwambo and the Free Church mission at Mwanwanda. In order to supply these new missions, and to collect ivory from the northern end of the lake, the Company decided to establish a permanent trading station at Karonga.

  
  

  This move invited trouble because the Arab and Swahili traders, attracted by the chance of selling ivory to the Company, decided to settle in the area. But the Arabs and Swahilis, viewing the lake-side missions as the chief critic of their own form of trade – the slave trade – now threatened the latter with violence and annihilation. Mlozi, the leading Arab tycoon, was not at all happy with the presence of the missionaries in Karonga, and the threat of Portuguese interference from the south-east. In the face of mounting opposition, British missionaries in the late 1880s began to campaign for some form of British protection.

  
  

  John Moir, the founder of the Lakes Company, obtained the signatures of a number of chiefs to be sent to the Queen of England for her protection, or, if that was refused, the protection of a chartered company, in this case the African Lakes Company. Predictably, the request was refused, on account of the financial responsibilities it might involve the British Government in. At this stage, Cecil Rhodes offered to shoulder the administrative costs of the country under the British South African Company’s charter. But the ALC’s supporters and the Scottish missionaries were strongly opposed to the idea of South African involvement.

  
  

  The British Government, however, did eventually reverse its earlier stand to accept administrative responsibility over Nyasaland. She could no longer take lightly the dangerously proximate Portuguese presence and the growing German interest in East Africa in the 1880s. Moreover, the victory of the Mahdi in Sudan in 1885 had created another fear. Salisbury thought that Sudan was urging the Arabs in the lake country to drive the missionaries and other white men into the sea, and conquer the whole region for Islam.

                                   

  
  

  In May 1891, the British declared a Protectorate over Nyasaland. Johnston was appointed Her Majesty’s Commissioner and Consul-General to the territories under British influence north of the Zambezi. His expenses, and those of the other aspects of the administration of the new Protectorate, were to be borne by Cecil Rhodes’ Company.

  
  

  v) The Dutch Reformed Church Mission

  
  

  In the early 19th Century Afrikaners had little interest in missionary work. This attitude changed, however, after about 1885-6. The Dutch Reformed Church formed a missionary society, and in 1889 sent a missionary, AC Murray, to Malawi. Murray, having gained experience by working with Dr Elmslie, began work among Chiwere’s Ngoni. Murray’s presence helped Chiwere to keep his prestige among his own counselors, some of whom were plotting against him. Chiwere also expected Murray to have supernatural powers, especially in rain-making.
  

  
  

  There seemed to be miraculous evidence of these powers when, as had been the case with Dr Elmslie, rain appeared in answer to Murray’s prayers, at just the right time.Murray was then joined by another missionary, Vlok, and in 1890 schools were opened at Mvera and Ndwide. In the 1890s more missionaries came, and more schools were opened. It was, however, an uphill task: the missionaries were often threatened by the Ngoni, and malaria took its usual toll. Murray himself was savaged by a leopard.

  
  

  In 1894, 19 Africans were baptized. In 1896, the Mission began work among Mazengera’s Chewa. (Mazengera was anxious to protect himself against both the Ngoni and the Yao, and thought that he could do this by having missionaries at his village). By 1900 there were 18 missionaries working at Mvera, Kongwe and Nkhoma, and an African, Albert Namalamba, was looking after schools, 48 teachers and 1300 pupils. This educational work expanded still further after 1900.

  
  

  Problems encountered by early missionaries

  
  

  Activity 4.3

  
  

  Work in groups of four.Using previous knowledge learnt, the Internet, textbooks and other historical materials;

  (a) Find out the specific problems that were encountered by missionaries as colonial agents in Africa. Give examples where possible of the different areas where they encountered problems.

  (b) Write down your findings in a notebook.

  (c) Present your findings in a class discussion

  
  

  Early missionaries encountered a number of problems:

  
  

  i. Poor communication facilities. The Missionaries went into little-known areas with poor communication facilities, and for months, or even years at a time, they had to depend on the haphazard trips of traders and hunters for supplies and letters.

  
  

  ii. Insecurity. They were faced with constant insecurity, for missions depended on the goodwill of some powerful chief, and at any time succession quarrels, tribal wars or raids could endanger their lives or force them to leave the district.

  
  

  iii. Hostility of people. Frequently, missionary teachings provoked trouble, for they attacked many existing customs which appeared to them to conflict with the teaching of Christianity.

  
  

  iv. Slave trade. Missionaries were often sickened by the heartlessness and cruelty they encountered, which included the agonies of victims of slave raids, speared to death if any rescue was attempted.

  
  

  v. Medium of communication. Mission work in scattered populations, speaking a variety of languages increased the difficulty of putting new ideas across to the people. To secure understanding and acceptance of the Christian message was a long and arduous task.

  
  

  vi. Unfavourable climate and disease. Most dangerous of all was the tropical climate, and the fevers that followed. Although quinine was known, the causes of malaria, blackwater fever, and many other diseases had not been discovered. Few of the missionaries were given any training in the use of such medicines as were available, and poor communications often caused a shortage of medical supplies. All suffered continually of illness and there were frequent deaths.

  
  

  vii. Lack of central government. Lack of central government was an obstacle to missionary work; the spread of independent chiefdoms, often rivalling each other, resulted in missionaries getting into unnecessary antagonisms. This was not conducive to consistency and even success of missionary work.

  
  

  The impact of missionary work in Malawi

  
  

  Activity 4.4

  Work in groups of three.Using previous knowledge learnt, the Internet, textbooks and other historical materials;

  (a) Outline the positive and negative effects or consequences of missionary activities in Africa. Give examples where possible.

  (b) Write down your findings in a notebook.

  (c) Present your findings in a class discussion

  
  

  
  

  Early missionary work had positive and negative impact on Malawi in a number of ways:

  
  

  Positive impacts

  
  

  (a) Introduction of Western education. Western education was introduced in institutions that were opened by missionaries. In their schools they established the beginnings of literacy among many African communities. A number of the early missionaries did an immense amount of work on the structure of African languages, reducing them to written form with the alphabet.

  
  

  They produced grammar books, translated religious and educational books into the vernaculars, and published such work at the mission printing presses. In 1895, the Overtoun Institution was opened among the Ngoni at Kondowe in an area that came to be called Livingstonia. It trained Africans to become pastors, evangelists, schoolteachers, craftsmen and medical assistants. Livingstonia soon became famous for providing the most advanced education for Africans in Central Africa.
  

  
  

  (b) Improvement of agriculture and food production. New crops and vegetables were introduced, new agricultural skills were practised, and people learnt how to use new implements such as ploughs.

  
  

  (c) Spread of Christianity. The early missionaries built numerous churches where an ever-increasing number of converts were able to choose and accept certain Christian standards which they thought beneficial. Their work of evangelisation became even more effective by the translation of the Bible into various languages by those of them who learnt and mastered African languages, because literate Africans were trained and were able to supplement missionary efforts in spreading Christianity.

  
  

  (d) Ending of the slave trade. The slave trade was brought to an end. Early missionaries such as Livingstone relentlessly campaigned against the slave trade. In his expeditions across Central Africa, Livingstone had become an eyewitness to the most inhuman and repugnant trade in slaves, one whose eradication he felt must be the obligation of his countrymen.

  
  

  In his reports back to England as well as in the lectures he gave between the expeditions, he singled out this as a reason why men of good will must come to Africa. His writings and speeches on the horrors he witnessed first hand in the central-southern African interior, stirred humanitarian urging of the British Government to enforce abolition of the trade by the Sultan of Zanzibar in 1873, and the year of his death.

  
  

  (e) Promotion of commerce. One of the reasons for Livingstone’s expeditions was to explore the Zambezi River in order to establish its navigability and use for commerce. In the early 1880s, the African Lakes Company – a concern financed by philanthropic Scottish businessmen to assist their missionary compatriots in the Malawi area – was established at the north end of Lake Malawi. This greatly promoted trade in the entire Lake Malawi region.

  
  

  (f) Pacification of hostile people. The missionaries often met hostility among some communities and had to call in assistance from their government. For example, the majority of the Arab and Yao rulers bitterly resented the European incursion which threatened to destroy their trade in slaves and ivory, and their own power structure.

  
  

  Mlozi, the leading Arab tycoon, was not at all happy with the presence of the missionaries in Karonga. When Nyasaland was declared a British protectorate, Harry Johnston immediately undertook the pacification of such hostile people, breaking in the process the power of the Yao and Arab slavers, and securing the position of the missionaries and the young British administration.

  
  

  Negative impacts

  
  

  (a) Destruction of indigenous culture. The missionaries despised and criticised many aspects of African beliefs, culture and traditions and worked hard to destroy them. African religious practices, marriage systems, ceremonies and festivals and so on were attacked as ‘backward’.

  
  

  (b) Destruction of African industries. Missionaries destroyed local industries like craft industry, e.g. blacksmiths, pottery work were all destroyed and replaced with European. manufactured items like cups, saucepans, and so on.

  
  

  (c) Harbingers of colonialism. Missionaries were harbingers of colonialism. An early missionary David Livingstone worked closely with the British government who saw the Shire Highlands as a suitable settlement for Britain’s surplus populations. Indeed, in his scouting activities, his second expedition was fully funded by the British government. However, the missionaries’ role as harbingers of colonialism in Malawi came more directly in the late 1880s when the slave-trading Arabs and Swahilis threatened two lakeside missions, the LMS at Fwamba and the Free Church mission at Mwanwanda, with violence and annihilation.

  
  

  Karonga, which became both a strong mission and trading centre, was particularly vulnerable. In addition, the threat to the missionaries of Portuguese interference from the south-east was always real. In the face of mounting opposition, British missionaries in the late 1880s began to campaign for some form of British protection. John Moir, the founder of the African Lakes Company, obtained the signatures of a number of chiefs to be sent to the Queen for her protection. When the request was refused, Cecil Rhodes offered to shoulder the administrative costs of the country under the British South African Company’s (BSA) charter. The British government later took over when company rule came to an end – the invitation to do so having been spearheaded by the missionaries.

  
  

  Missionaries in Zimbabwe

  
  

  In other parts of Central Africa missionaries helped to prepare African societies for the impact of European rule in various ways. Sometimes they acted as advisers to chiefs. Sometimes they provided education and skills, which gave the people among whom they worked a favourable position in the early days of colonial rule. Sometimes they became so committed to ‘their’ people that they acted as effective spokesmen for them and defended their interests against the new colonial administrations. Very often they prepared African societies for the impact of other Europeans by beginning the process of introducing new ideas and new demands.
  

  
  

  The missionaries in Barotseland, the missionaries among the Tonga and northern Ngoni in Malawi; the missionary advisers of Khama of Botswana; all these played an important part in lessening the shock of the confrontation of blacks and whites in Central Africa.

  
  

  From 1859 missionaries of the London Missionary Society were permanently established in Matabeleland. The Ndebele made use of them in various ways such as to mend guns, inoculate cattle and give medical treatment to the sick. The Shona were Lobengula’s subjects. He refused permission for mission stations to be set up in Mashonaland. The Boer and Portuguese hostility blocked alternative approaches to Mashonaland.

  
  

  In 1877, Coillard tried to set up a mission station in western Mashonaland; he was summoned before Lobengula and warned never to repeat the attempt. Eventually, missionaries lost interest in trying to get to Mashonaland. This position of missionaries in Matabeleland and Mashonaland had important results.

  
  

  Traders as agents of colonisation

  
  

  Activity 4.5

  In groups of five each, visit the library and use the internet to carry out research on the role of traders in the colonisation of different parts of Africa. Prepare a group essay. Discuss the group essays in class.

  
  

  In the second half of the 19th Century, a large part of Africa was divided among the European powers. This process has been called both the Scramble and the Partition of Africa. In reality, the Scramble took place in Africa itself, when representatives of the European powers took land in Africa, or made treaties with African chiefs.
  

  
  

  The Partition took place in Europe, in agreements between the European powers, especially, at the Berlin Conference in 1884-5. One of the leading figures in both the ‘Scramble and Partition’ was Leopold II, king of the Belgians.

  
  

  Leopold II and the Congo Free State

  
  

  Leopold was an ambitious man. When he became king of the Belgians in 1865 he had already formulated ideas of taking over large parts of undeveloped world. He had travelled widely, and had studied African exploration. In 1876, he formed the African International Association. The aim of the Association was to establish commercial and scientific stations in Central Africa. They were to be attached to missionary stations, and protected by military garrisons. The first of them were set up in 1878 and 1879 at the White Fathers Missions at Tabora and Lake Tanganyika.
  

  
  

  At this time, Leopold was mainly interested in developing Africa, and in abolishing the slave trade. From 1879 onwards, however, he became more interested in the wealth and power he could get from Africa.It was in 1879 that Leopold formed his association with Henry Morton Stanley. Stanley, the journalist who had met Livingstone at Ujiji in 1871, had tried to carry on Livingstone’s work by exploring the Lualaba area. He had travelled down to Congo, and he believed this area should be developed. He had taken these ideas to the British government. Britain, in the early 19th Century, had been interested in the Congo. Official expeditions had been sent up the river, and trade had been developed by merchants from Manchester and Liverpool.
  

  
  

  This interest had now decreased, and the British government would not give Stanley the support he wanted. In 1897, therefore, Stanley made an agreement with Leopold. In return for a large sum of money, Stanley would take the Congo for Leopold. It took Stanley five years (1879-84) to travel up the Congo. He established road and river communications from Kisangani to the coast converting more than 1,000 miles. Leopold wanted the control of the area mainly for its trade. He wanted to control all the trade in the Congo Basin. He wanted goods to be exported on his own river steamers, and on the railway he would build from Kinshasa to the coast.

  
  

                                       

  
  

  Leopold’s methods

  
  

  Leopold now had to get the other great powers to agree to his taking over the Congo. In this, he showed himself a clever diplomat. He claimed that it was better to keep Congo as a free trade area under his ‘international’ control than to let any particular country have it. There were four main powers to convince - France, Germany, USA and Britain:

  
  

  (i) France: With France, Leopold made a secret treaty. He promised France that she could have the Congo if he was unable to govern it. (He had already led France to believe he would be unable to govern it owing to shortage of money).
  

  
  

  (ii) Germany. Turning his attention to Germany, he supported the German chancellor, Bismarck, in his claims to other parts of Africa. In return, Bismarck supported Leopold in the Congo.

  
  

  (iii) America. American support was obtained when Leopold’s American secretary, Stanford, told the American government that Leopold’s main aim in the Congo was to abolish the slave trade.

  
  

  (iv) Britain. The biggest obstacle, however, was Britain. Britain was worried about the position of her traders in the Congo and about the safety of Baptist missionaries. In February 1884, Britain signed a treaty with Portugal giving the Portuguese control of the Congo estuary; this cut Leopold off from the coast. Leopold countered by offering profitable contracts to British merchants, and by persuading the British government that he would be more ‘liberal’ in the Congo than either the French or the Portuguese. Britain abandoned her agreement with the Portuguese but would not actually agree to Leopold taking the Congo.

  
  

  In November 1884, however, the Conference of Berlin opened. The Conference decided that there should be ‘freedom of navigation’ on the Congo River. Britain could no longer keep Leopold out, and therefore gave way. France kept her territory north of the river, but Leopold took the rest of the Congo basin down to the Congo-Zambezi watershed. His territory thus included the mineral-rich area of Katanga; it was to be known as the Congo Free State, and it was to be the property of Leopold himself – not the Belgian government.

  
  

  Problems faced in the colonisation of the Congo

  
  

  Leopold had left behind many problems. The concessionaire companies still owned large areas of land under contracts made with Leopold. They still controlled the trade of a still larger area. The Congo was heavily in debt: Leopold had borrowed money on Congo’s account, and spent it to build palaces in Belgium. Interest on this debt took as much as 20% of the government’s revenue. Congo was still a poor country; its people had no income that could be taxed to pay for more development.The Africans had been hostile to Leopold, and this hostility continued when the Belgian government took over.

  
  

  The main opposition came from societies which were remote from the centre of Belgian power, and in which chiefs were mainly military leaders. These included the Azande of the Sudan frontier (whose main opposition was from 1892 to 1912), the Bashi in eastern Congo (1900 to 1916), the Luba of Kasongo Nyemba (1907 to 1917), and the Yaka on the Angola frontier (1895, 1902 and 1906).

  
  

  Traders in West Africa

  
  

  In many instances in Africa’s colonisation, ‘the flag followed trade; in other words, traders, in the fashion of explorers and missionaries, blazed the trail for European colonisation. Traders were important agents of the British, French and German colonisation of the African continent. Sometimes their activities were of individual traders; but they were more successful as agents of colonisation when they coalesced as chartered companies. In parts of West, East and South-Central Africa, traders played no mean role in the European acquisition of colonies.

  
  

  Activities of traders in the colonisation of West Africa

  
  

  Until the 19th Century relations between Europeans and West Africans were dominated by the slave trade, and it was not until the 1850s that the slave trade died out. The real period of European conquest began in the late 1880s. In the intervening years, Africans were required as objects to be bought. In the colonial period, they were subjects to be governed, if necessary by force of arms.

  
  

  But in between the 1850s and 1870s when there was a black Anglican bishop on the Niger and a black commercial and professional class in Liberia and Sierra Leone, at least part of Europe’s interest in Africa was a measure of genuineness in European concern for Africans welfare and sympathy for African aspirations. This was partly the reflection of religious movements such as Evangelical revival, partly the result of a sense of guilt about the slave trade.

  
  

  It fitted in well with the search for export commodities. The combination of different interests was reflected in the motto “Christianity, Commerce and Civilisation”. It was hoped that there would arise on the Niger ‘a kingdom, which shall render great benefit to Africa and hold a position among the states of Europe’.

  
  

  However, there were limitations to the humanitarian phase. It had a tendency to identify civilisation with European culture. The implication was also evil. What the Europeans had done to Africa in the long centuries of the slave trade was conveniently forgotten. They now could see themselves as bringers of Christianity, crusaders against the slave trade, agents of ‘civilisation’. In a sense, it promoted a low view of Africans, who were seen mainly as the recipients of European good deeds. It directly paved the way for colonialism, which would be defended only in terms of the supposed benefits it would bring.

  
  

  British encroachment

  
  

  The Scramble for West Africa was to end with the British in control of the two small colonies, the Gambia and Sierra Leon and two large ones, the Gold coast and Nigerian.

  
  

  (i) Role of traders in Gambia

  The British presence on the Gambia dates from 1816. France and Britain had just fought a long war, in the course of which the British had taken Senegal from the French. At the end of the war, Senegal was restored to the French, so British merchants moved to Bathurst (now Banjul). Britain controlled a narrow strip of territory along both banks of part of the Gambia; French expansion soon cut it off entirely from its natural hinterland. On several occasions in the 19th Century, an exchange of Gambia for French territory elsewhere was suggested, but it never came to anything, mainly because of opposition of British merchants on the Gambia. In this instance, colonialism meant the creation of a small country, where economic development would be difficult, and which was cut off by political and linguistic factors from its neighbours.

  
  

  (ii) Role of chartered companies in Sierra Leone

  The colony of Sierra Leone began as a small area around Freetown. The colony was established in 1808, partly as a sequel to the various settlements made there, and partly because of the strategic value of Freetown harbour. During the 19th Century, the Creoles, who traded far and wide in the territory, repeatedly asked for an extension of British authority. But by the time the British authority was finally established in 1896, the French had already taken much territory which might well have formed part of Sierra Leone, and which instead became part of the Republic of Guinea.

  
  

  (iii) Role of traders in the Gold Coast

  For centuries, the Europeans competed for gold and slaves in the Gold Coast (Ghana). They had built a number of stone or brick forts but continued to pay rent to African owners of the land in acknowledgement of African sovereignty. By the beginning of the 19th Century, the European nations remained on the Gold Coast. All faced economic difficulties after the abolition of the slave trade. Palm oil and gold found their way to the coast, but in small quantities. The Dutch and the Danes finally withdraw from the area and the British came close to doing so on several occasions.

  
  

  In the 19th Century the company of African Merchants administered the British forts. This company had been heavily involved in the slave trade, and in 1821 it was abolished. The British forts on the Gold Coast were then placed under the Governor of Sierra Leone, who happened to be Sir Charles MacCarthy, who had made tremendous contributions to the development of Sierra Leone. MacCarthy was killed in a battle with the Asante in 1824 and the British came close to withdrawing from the area entirely. The merchants trading in the area protested, and in 1828 the forts were handed over to a committee of merchants. The British presence in what is now southern Ghana was greatly strengthened during the tenure of the committee, especially its leader, Captain George Maclean, who developed very good relations with the African peoples with whom he had dealings. But jealousy led to criticism of him by his white colleagues and the crown resumed control in 1843, though Maclean remained in the area, in a judicial capacity, until his death in 1847. This direct control placed the territory under the Governor of Sierra Leone, Commander Hill who was appointed Lieutenant Governor.

  
  

  Role of chartered companies in the colonisation of Nigeria

  
  

  Activity 4.6

  Work in pairs.Using the Internet, textbooks and other historical materials;

  (a) Define a chartered company.

  (b) Give examples of chartered companies that were involved in the colonisation of Africa.

  (c) Find out the roles that these companies played especially in Nigeria.

  (d) Write down your findings in a notebook.

  (e) Present them in a class discussion.

  
  

  For British activity, Nigeria was unique in two ways. It was the area where British traders had penetrated deeply into the African hinterland, and it was also the area where they became deeply involved in local politics. Besides, Nigeria eventually emerged as Britain’s largest colony in Africa in terms of size of territory as well as size of population.
  

  
  

  The one British trader most remembered for a lasting interest in trade and politics in Nigeria was Sir George Goldie, who as the head of the Royal Niger Company acquired for Britain the bulk of its most important colony in West Africa.

  
  

  Lagos

  
  

  The British established their first bridgehead in Nigeria by the conquest of the small state of Lagos in 1851. Originally Britain became involved in this Yoruba Port by intervening in the rivalry for the kingship. In 1845 Kosoko drove out Akintoye and made himself king. Both Akintoye and Kosoko were slave traders, but Kosoko as ne in power was now doing most to keep the slave trade going in Lagos. Kososko became the target of British missionaries and palm oil traders who persuaded the British government to drive out Kosoko and make Akintoye King.

  
  

  In 1851-1852, the British navy duly intervened and defected the king. Akintoye as king signed treaties with Britain in which he promised to expel slave traders, protect missions and trade freely with British merchants. British conquest of Lagos was an act of economic imperialism.

  
  

  Lagos was now very much under the influence of Britain, and ten years later the island and a small area of coastline became a colony. A number of major problems still faced the British and each required determined attention. French interest in the port needed blunting. The British palm oil trade and missionary interests needed protection.

  
  

  The semi-independent ruler of Lagos, Dosunmu, who had succeeded his father Akintoye in 1853, had not effectively suppressed slave trading by the people of Lagos. Now a British governor replaced Dosumnu. Although British annexation led to a quick end of the slave trade, the development of the Lagos palm oil trade that followed caused slavery to increase in the Yoruba interior, as the warrior merchants of Ibadan used slaves as labourers in palm oil plantations and as porters in trading.

  
  

  The occupation of Lagos brought with it the obligation to pay the cost of administering it. The most satisfactory source of revenue would have to be customs duties, which in turn could only come in sufficient amounts if the colony was expanded along the coast and other ports annexed. Governor Glover during his tenure from 1866 to 1872 expanded the colony to the West to take in Badagry and to the east to absorb Palma and Lekki. But the Yoruba wars in the hinterland of the ports continued.

  
  

  Trade was constantly interrupted and revenue remained poor. The logic of the British position in Lagos required expansion inland to impose a Pax Britannica on all Yoruba and end the war in the interior, thus ensuring free and regular trade. When the French occupied nearby Dahomey in 1892, the stimulus for Governor Carter to invade the interior was finally provided.

  
  

  For a long time Yoruba communities had looked suspiciously at the island and British authority at Lagos, and feared that it would lead to a further encroachment. But its divisions and wars weakened Yoruba’s capacity and will to resist the invader. In 1886, despite this, two Christian Yoruba men went on a largely successful peace mission with the support of the Lagos governmen. They failed in one important respect, as Ilorin remained outside the agreement.
  

  
  

  In 1888, a Frenchman obtained a treaty at Abeokuta, and the possibility of the French moving in on the area appeared. In 1982 the British invaded the southern Yoruba kingdom of Ijebu. They chose this particular area for a show of force, it would seem, because of Ijebu’s refusal to admit Christian missions and Western influence.

  
  

  The overthrow of the warlike and well-armed Ijebu had a great psychological effect on the rest of Yorubaland, and treaties in the various Yoruba states, again with the exception of Ilorin.

  
  

  In 1849 the British had appointed a Consul for a wide coastal area stretching from Dahomey to Cameroons. This consul’s successors came to concentrate on the Niger Delta. Of course they were not colonial rulers. They were diplomatic representatives to sovereign states. They did not even live there, but, until 1882, on the distant island of Fernando Po. But supported by the ‘moral authority of a “man-of-war”’ they often intervened in Delta affairs, with decisive effect.The nature of the British presence in Southern Nigeria changed dramatically in the middle of the 1880s.

  
  

  In 1884-1885, an international conference was held at Berlin, where it was decided that ‘effect occupation’ was recognised. Before the delegates had left Berlin, German representatives arrived in Togo and Cameroons, and obtained treaties, which established their claims to these areas.

  
  

  The British presence in the Cameroons had been much like the British presence in the Delta. There had been many British traders there, but nothing like colonial government. Hurriedly, to avoid being forestalled by another European nation the British established a protectorate in the Delta.

  
  

  George Goldie and the Royal Niger Company

  
  

  George Goldie Taubman, better known as Sir George Goldie, was the founder of the Royal Niger Company. The Holland Jacques and Company of London was one of the several companies operating in West Africa. In 1875, this Company was nearly collapsed due to financial difficulties, its Secretary, Captain Joseph GroveRoss turned for help to the wealthy Maux family of Taubman. The response was positively enthusiastic, and Goldie took the affairs of the problem-ridden Company.
  

  
  

  A year later in 1876 he reconstituted Holland Jacques as the Central African Trading Company, and his brother left for the Niger. Goldie arrived in Nigeria in 1877, and found three other British companies operating in that area; James Pinnock and Company, of Liverpool; the West African Company, of Manchester; and Alexander Miller Brothers and Company, of Glasgow. He quickly studied their problem.
  

  
  

  The four British and a few French firms were engaged in a fierce competition and could not realise much profit. Consul Hopkins visited the interior in 1878 and confirmed that the coastal type of cutthroat competition was now rampant there. Goldie decided that this state of affairs had only one solution: the amalgamation of all these companies, elimination of competition, and the institution of a trade monopoly. One problem, however, would still remain unsolved.

  
  

  While amalgamation might take care of the European firms, it would not reduce competition from African merchants. The solution to this was to secure political control over the Oil Rivers.The question of competition was to be tackled swiftly. Goldie now took firm control of the Company, which had invited him first, and by 1879 had managed to persuade the four British companies to come together and form the United African Company, with a nominal capital of £250,000. Their assets - ships, stores and staff – would be pooled together for a more economical and profitable operation.

  
  

  The bargaining power of the British traders would be strengthened, enabling them to reduce the prices paid to Africans for their palm oil and other products. Thus the new Company hoped to raise the capital needed to open regular trading relations with Hausaland.
  

  
  

  Eventually, Goldie hoped, he would be able to add the region of the Niger to the British Empire.But the success of this monopolistic policy was itself a new incentive to renewed competition, for if prices fell on the Niger, trade in that region would begin to attract merchants buying produce in other areas and paying more. The French did not delay in making this possibility a reality.

  
  

  Chartered companies in East Africa

  
  

  Missionaries and travellers had shown what the prospects were for trade. At first, this was limited to Zanzibar and the traditional exports such as ivory, gum copal, cloves, copra and skins.
  

  
  

  In 1833, the Sultan had signed a commercial agreement with the United States, to be followed by one with Britain in 1839. French and German traders also became increasingly interested in trade in East Africa.
  

  
  

  The French had a particular concern in the export of slaves from the coast to their islands in the Indian Ocean. This was to bring them into conflict with both the sultan, for encouraging the smuggling of slaves without paying the duties required, and the British because they were attempting to abolish the trade.Following the establishment of a British Consulate in 1840, British influence increased steadily in Zanzibar.

                                            

  
  

  In the 1822 Moresby Treaty and the 1845 Hamerton Treaty, Seyyid Said had reluctantly agreed to severe restriction on the extent of the slave trade, in return for Britain’s recognition of his position in East Africa and encouragement of what they referred to as ‘legitimate trade’. Missionaries and travellers were at the same time trying to interest British merchants and shippers in the commercial prospects of East Africa.
  

  
  

  Though prospects for trade were in fact poor, there was some response, especially from Scotsmen influenced by the appeal of Livingstone and the activity of the Scottish missions that followed him. In 1872, William Mackinnon, a self-made Glasgow ship owner and a member of Free Church of Scotland, began running the ships of his British India Steam Navigation Company to Zanzibar.

  
  

  Thus there was tremendous expansion of European missionary and commercial activity in East Africa. But it would be a great mistake to imagine that this expansion was to lead inevitably to the establishment of colonial rule. Although the British, with their Indian and South African territories, and their powerful navy controlling the Indian Ocean, were in a very strong position to do so, they had no desire at all to found new colonies in East Africa. Prevailing economic theories insisted that colonies were a bad investment, yielding less in trade returns than they cost in administrative expenditure.
  

  
  

  The British Government’s task was to create the conditions necessary for legitimate trade and Christianity to expand and drive out the slave trade.This meant that the British Foreign Office, acting through its consular officials, sought to strengthen local states, which seemed likely to maintain the peace and order necessary for commercial expansion. In East Africa, the Sultanate of Zanzibar was an obvious vehicle for such a policy, the only difficulty was that it was a slave trading state.
  

  
  

  In 1841, Britain appointed a consul in Zanzibar and began the long process of forcing the Sultan to cut down the extent of the slave trade and to seek compensation in expanding his ‘legitimate’ trade and his political control over the mainland.After the appointment of John Kirk, who had been with Livingstone on the Zambezi, British pressure on Zanzibar increased to such a pitch that in 1873, under threat of force, Sultan Bargash had to prohibit the sea-borne slave trade completely.

  
  

  Zanzibar was now ready as the British saw it, to go forward as a respectable, enlightened state, maintaining law and order in favour of British travellers, missionaries and traders.In the light of later events such a policy was naïve, informed less by tough analysis of world politics than by hopeful dreams of an ideal world. It was soon challenged. The first challenge to the idea of using Zanzibar to control East Africa came, not from Europe but from Egypt.

  
  

  Role of Imperial British East Africa (IBEA) Company

  
  

  The British company was at first more successful than its rival. It possessed a rather more capital, which it kept more or less intact so long as its activities were confined to the coast. But for some years after the Anglo-German partition, British interest in East Africa was focused upon the Kingdom of Buganda.
  

  The great object of the East African Company was how to reach the lakes and its populous surroundings.
  

  
  

  By 1890 the establishment of an administration in Buganda had become not only the chief goal of the Company, but also the chief justification for its stations at the coast and along the route into the interior. The Company’s overriding emphasis upon Buganda determined the way money was spent in Mombasa and the way economies were made in Kikuyu.

  
  

  At the coast the company stationed agents at Kismayu, Lamu, Witu, Malindi, Takaungu, and Vanga. Not much happened here save for the collection of customs. The central administration at Mombasa was larger, employing as many as 20 Europeans, and more active, but again, most of its work was connected either with customs or preparing caravans for the interior. Otherwise poor management was responsible for a great deal of inefficiency and sheer waste. Every traveller who visited the town commented upon the disorganization of the Mombasa administration.
  

  
  

  A great deal of disorganization was attributed to Mackinnon. Since Salisbury had never had much confidence in him; Kitchener’s advice in 1888 was to ‘get rid of him’. By 1890 even his fellow directors were angered with his impractical ideas and his poor tactical sense.
  

  
  

  An assessment of Mackinnon’s IBEA Company

  
  

  The Company had gone into Buganda, and indeed East Africa, to further and defend British imperial interests, while the government whose claims it was upholding had steadfastly withheld its own assistance even during compensation. The biggest share of the burden was to be shouldered by the Sultan. So the administration of the I.B.E.A. Company was taken over by the Foreign Office, and what is now Kenya became the British East Africa Protectorate in 1895.

  
  

  The reasons for the Company’s financial embarrassment, which led to its inability to continue operating in East Africa, were manifold. The early preoccupations with Anglo-German rivalry accounted for a great deal of lost time and spent resources. By 1890, however, the German problem had been resolved.

  
  

  Challenges facing the IBEA Company

  
  

  Activity 4.7

  Work in groups of three.Using the Internet, textbooks and other available historical documents;

  1. Outline the problems faced by traders and chartered companies in Africa.

  2. Write down your findings in a notebook.

  3. Discuss them in a class presentation.

  
  

  The East Africa seemed to have more challenges than opportunities for the Company in a number of ways:

  
  

  • Lack of exportable produce. It had a limited range of exportable produce, and the Company did not have an established commodity trade, like the palm oil trade of West Africa.

  
  

  • Means of transport. The greatest challenge for any European enterprise in East Africa, whether a chartered company or colonial government, was the lack of an economical means of transport. It took about six weeks for a caravan to march from Mombasa to Kikuyu, and three months for the journey from the coast to Buganda. Human porterage cost in the region of £ 250 a ton; at this figure only ivory could be a comfortable source of commerce from the interior. The Company made several unsuccessful attempts to improve its method of transportation and to find a substitute for its Zanzibar porters. Pack animals – donkeys and camels – and carts pulled by Cape oxen were imported and tried out along the Mombasa route. A steamer was chartered for use up the River Tana and Juba. Roads were levelled off inland from Malindi and from Kibwezi towards Tsavo. Finally, a few kilometres of a 0.61 metre (24 in) tramway were shipped out to Mombasa in 1890, and the first rails of the so-called Central African Railway were laid. Like the park animals, which died, and the roads, which washed away with the seasonal rains, the railway was a ‘sorry fiasco’, never used except for what one witness called ‘occasional picnic parties’ from Mombasa. The company needed only two years experience of East Africa before its directors began, with increasing desperation, to press the government for a railway subsidy.

  
  

  • Internal challenges. There were problems within the Company also. Among them was the crippling combination of lack of qualified staff, disorganization and undercapitalisation. At the London headquarters the directors lacked coordination. Plans were often capricious, erratic and confused. Some thought Mackinnon himself was at the root of the obviously mediocre administration of the Company.
  

  
  

  • Salisbury commented that Mackinnon ‘had no quality for pushing an enterprise which depends on decision and smartness’. Most of the Company’s staff was recruited outside East Africa without much regard for their experience or qualifications. The Niger Company in West Africa had done well right from the start because of the use the Company made of established trading agents with knowledge and experience of local conditions. For East Africa, there was no comparable group of traders.

  
  

  But the Company did not fail in its principal aim, which was to acquire the area for Britain. It left a mixed legacy to the government of the British protectorate. It secured for the Imperial Government Uganda and the route from the Coast to that area at a cheaper cost. This route paved the way for colonisation of the territory it passed through.

  
  

  The treaties of April 1892 gave future administrations both the authority and juridical basis upon which to negotiate new treaties and new land settlements. The protectorate government inherited even the Company’s armed forces. It had been a definite asset to Britain in providing continuity from missionary influence, especially in Buganda, to the institution of her administration. So the Imperial Government, which at first would rather work through a chartered company, finally and energetically embarked on the task of establishing a ‘white man’s country’ in today’s Kenya, and a powerful presence in Uganda. However, Lugard and Williams left their successors with three major problems; the revision of the inequitable land settlement within Buganda, the pacification of the Baganda Muslims, and most difficult, the decision upon the question of Britain’s future relationship to Toro and Bunyoro.

  
  

  Role of chartered companies in Central Africa

  
  

  In the 16th Century, the Portuguese were the first Europeans to attempt colonizing south-central Africa, but the hinterland lay virtually untouched by Europeans until the arrival of explorers, missionaries, ivory hunters, and traders in the early 1800s. These were the pioneers exploring unknown territory with their own agendas. The occupation and administration of firstly, Southern Rhodesia, followed by Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland started, and during the years 1885 to 1895 most of Central Africa was brought under British control.
  

  
  

  
  

  Traders in Southern Rhodesia

  
  

  The name “Rhodesia” was derived from Cecil John Rhodes, the British capitalist and empire-builder who was a guiding figure in British expansion north of the Limpopo River into south-central Africa. This was part of the scramble for Africa when almost the whole continent was parcelled out and apportioned among European countries. The British South African Company (BSA Company) under Cecil Rhodes was the enduring agent of the British colonisation of Southern Rhodesia.
  

  
  

  The factors that led to growth of British interest in Southern Rhodesia

  
  

  Spearheading British interest in Southern Rhodesia were English-speaking South Africans led by the empire builder Cecil Rhodes. The following factors led to this interest:

  
  

  • Belief in the existence of minerals in the interior. In the late 1860s travellers brought reports that gold was to be found in Matabeleland, and though the earliest prospecting companies, set up in the 1870s, failed to make any really spectacular strikes, influential South Africans were still prepared to believe in the 1880s that Mashonaland held some of the richest deposits of alluvial gold in the world.

  
  

  • At the same time, the discovery of gold on the Witwatersrand in the Transvaal in 1886, led to the belief that gold existed further in the interior. It had been known that Africans had access to gold of their own in trading with Arab traders on the East African Coast.
  

  
  

  • Besides, stories of ‘King Solomon’s Mines’ mixed with the theory of the Witwatersrand gold seam running further north attracted speculators and adventurers from around the world. Cecil Rhodes was determined to acquire this area for Britain in the belief that it contained endless supplies of minerals.

  
  

  • Settlement. The country between the Limpopo and the Zambezi was regarded as enormously fertile. The climate and soils were also suitable for agriculture. The British saw Rhodesia as an area with promising potential for settlement.

  
  

      

  
  

  • Cecil Rhodes was a declared imperialist. His overriding ambition was the expansion of the British Empire. ‘If there is a God’, Rhodes once remarked, ‘I think that what he would like me to do is to paint as much of Africa British-red as possible’. In his vision, this meant the extension of the British Empire from Cape to Cairo for Britain. He believed the British culture to be superior to all others, and had to be planted in Africa. He formed De Beers Company, which controlled South Africa’s diamond trade. Money provided Rhodes with freedom and power. Power he used to translate his political vision of extending the British empire into reality. Between 1888 and 1893, Rhodes’ men, by a mixture of war and diplomacy, occupied Mashonaland and Matabeleland in Southern Rhodesia.
  

  
  

  • Trade. The Portuguese were known to have conducted lucrative trade in gold with this part of Central Africa dating back to the days of Mwenemutapa through the Indian Ocean. The British sought to occupy Southern Rhodesia for the purpose of trade.

  
  

  The role of BSA Company in the British occupation up to 1923

  
  

  The British, Portuguese and Boers from the Transvaal desired to push into Central Africa but, as agreed at the Berlin Conference, a country’s claim to a region would only be recognised if it could show ‘effective occupation’. Whoever would be first to try in 1885, Lobengula, king of the Matabele, would be the greatest obstacle in the area south of the Zambezi, as the rivalry between Britain and the Transvaal centred upon him.

  
  

  The British-Boer rivalry
  

  
  

  The increasing number of concession seekers worried Lobengula and perplexed him about the best course to follow, as he found it difficult to resist the pressures upon him first by one group, then by another. In 1885, an envoy of British soldiers arrived from Bechuanaland to inform him that the country on his southern borders had become a British Protectorate and that the chiefs, notably Khama (with whom Lobengula had a border dispute) had accepted this. The envoy returned, believing that Lobengula’s body language indicated he too favoured British protection.However, by 1887, the Transvaal, a potentially wealthy state since the discovery of gold on the Rand, was subjecting Lobengula to a lot of pressure.
  

  
  

  The Transvaal government wished to expand northwards, especially as Mashonaland was known to have gold deposits which might yet prove as rich as those of the Rand. Accordingly, two government representatives sent over by President Paul Kruger, Pieter and Frederick Grobler, visited Lobengula and persuaded the king to agree to a treaty in July 1887. The treaty was a far-reaching non-aggression pact (treaty of friendship) between the Matabele and the Transvaal (the South African Republic). But the difference between what was said and what was subsequently written looked disturbingly big. This became especially evident when early in 1888 the Transvaal government appointed Pieter Grobler as ‘Consul of the Republic in Matabeleland, who, after a short visit there, left for the Transvaal to fetch his family. Thus Lobengula later insisted that this was merely a revival of an old, non-committal treaty of friendship signed in 1852 between his father and predecessor, Mzilikazi, and the Boers, and no more.

  
  

  The BSA Company’s Charter and administration of the colony

  
  

  In granting the BSA Company a Charter, Cecil Rhodes was given a number of mandates and the conditions to be met by the Company in carrying out the function of its powers.Mandates

  
  

  (i) Its object was to acquire and exercise commercial and administrative rights in a large area extending from the Transvaal to the Congo and from Angola to Portuguese East Africa.
  

  
  

  (ii) To extend the infrastructure of modern capitalism (including railways) into south-central Africa for the benefit of the British but without the cost’s falling on the British taxpayer.
  

  
  

  (iii) Unlike normal companies, the BSA Company was permitted to establish political administration with a paramilitary police force in areas where it might be granted rights by local rulers.

  
  

  (iv) It was also allowed to profit commercially through its own operations or by renting out land, receiving royalties on the mining of minerals according to the Rudd Concession, levying customs duties, and collecting other fees.
  

  
  

  (v) The British government guaranteed the BSA Company a monopoly where it operated and, as a last resort, was prepared to support it militarily against rival European powers or local rebellions.

  
  

  Conditions

  
  

  The following conditions applied:

  
  

  (i) The company was to be directly responsible to the Colonial Office for the handling of native affairs.

  
  

  (ii) Though a private concern, it had to accept some government-appointed directors.

  
  

  (iii) It was obliged to pay off all previous concessionaires.

  
  

  (iv) It was to exercise governmental powers only with the consent of the native ruler.

  
  

  (v) It could have its charter revoked at any time.

  
  

  These stiff conditions were meant to try and diminish the exploitation of Africans along the lines of what had happened to Africans in the Transvaal Republic.
  

  
  

  The BSA Company was now poised to occupy at least part of Lobengula’s dominions. A secret agreement was reached between Rhodes and two soldiers of fortune, Frank Johnson and Maurice Heany, that if Lobengula proved difficult, they would enter Bulawayo with a force of 500 whites, attack Matabeleland and completely break up the king’s power, to pave the way for the Company’s personnel and mining operations. Lobengula learnt of the pending confrontation and gave way just enough to avoid it. He gave Jameson, Rhodes’ emissary, permission to prospect in the southern part of the kingdom. He gave them an alternative permission to prospect in Mashonaland in the event of gold not being found in the south.

  
  

                    

  
  

  The ‘Pioneer Column’ and the occupation of Mashonaland

  
  

  Lobengula’s permission to the Company to prospect in Mashonaland, together with worries over Portuguese activities in these areas, propelled Rhodes to act. Armed with the BSA Company’s Charter, Rhodes was fast in organising and dispatching the Pioneer Column to Mashonaland to carry out its provisions. The expedition was divided into two main groups: prospective settlers and police. The first was called the Pioneer Corps and consisted of some 200 young men. On arrival in Mashonaland each was promised fifteen gold claims and 3,000 acres of land. The second group consisted of another 200 young men to help protect the expedition on its way to Mashonaland and to maintain order on its arrival. These were the BSC Company police. The officer in charge of the police, Lt-Col Pennefather, was also to be in charge of the whole expedition. In addition, 200 Ngwato, led by Khama’s brother, accompanied the Pioneer Column to help in making the road and to look after the cattle, wagons and horses. Dr Leander Starr Jameson accompanied the Pioneer Column as Rhodes’ personal representative. Sir Archibald Colquhoun, who had gained administrative experience in the Indian Civil Service, was to act as the Company’s administrator when the Column reached its destination.

  
  

  In order to avoid a clash with the Matabele, it was decided to abandon the route through Bulawayo for the moment and to occupy Mashonaland by taking a column along the eastern border of the Matabele area. Thus, an armed ‘road-making party’ was dispatched to make a wagon road to Mt. Hampden near present Harare. Thus, the ‘Pioneer Column’ entered Mashonaland in July 1890. On September 13 a flag pole was erected and the Union Jack hoisted in what became Cecil Square, Salisbury (present-day Harare), and the occupation of Mashonaland was proclaimed. In 1891 Mashonaland was declared a British Protectorate by an Order in Council.

  
  

  BSA Company administration

  
  

  In the early years of occupation of Mashonaland a simple administrative system was organised by Colquhoun and then by Jameson who took over from him as administrator in August 1891. The laws of Cape Colony were adopted. Mashonaland was divided into districts, each under a magistrate. In 1891 the BSA Company took over the ownership of the land. It had from the beginning granted settlers farms of 3,000 acres in anticipation of some agreement being made, as the Rudd Concession had given no rights over the land, and no land settlement had been made in the BSA Company’s Charter.

  
  

  Constitutional and administrative development of (Southern) Rhodesia followed a unique path. From the conquest of the country in the 1890’s until 1923, the territory was administered by a commercial company, the BSA Company. The Company developed an administrative cadre whose members were drawn mainly from the Cape, headed by an officer bearing the title of ‘administrator’. The Company’s control of affairs was restricted in 1898 and a Resident Commissioner was appointed to Southern Rhodesia to act as a ‘watchdog’ of the British government. WH Milton, Administrator from 1898 to 1914, set up administrative machinery by reorganising the civil service, modelling it on that of Cape Colony. He set up a number of government departments and recruited capable and experienced staff. Europeans were employed in many subordinate posts which elsewhere in British Africa would have been filled by Africans. At the same time, most recruits to the service came to be local Europeans, not expatriates. In the administration of Africans, the BSA Company followed the direct method developed earlier in South Africa with chiefs deprived of most of their judicial powers and regarded as nothing more than government agents.

  
  

  Southern Rhodesia was given a new constitution by the Orders-in-Council of 1898 to ensure a sound basis for its administration. The constitution provided for an Executive Council consisting of a British government-appointed Resident Commissioner - an ex officio member without voting rights - and four Company nominees as members, and a Legislative Council which would have four elected members in addition to five nominated ones. The Company Administrator presided over both councils. The Legislative Council could make laws subject to the approval of the South African High Commissioner, who might also legislate by proclamation. This constitution was largely the work of Lord Alfred Milner, the South African High Commissioner. He hoped, as did Rhodes, that Southern Rhodesia would one day join with the four self-governing South African states in some form of union or federation, in which Southern Rhodesia would act as a counter-weight in favour of British interests over Afrikaner nationalist ones. For this reason he set Southern Rhodesia on the road to white self-government by providing for the settlers to elect some of the members of the Legislative Council. Cecil Rhodes saw the new constitution as ‘the first step in the direction of self-government’ for Rhodesian white settlers.

  
  

  Elections were held every three years. The effect of these qualifications was to exclude Africans from registering as voters. In 1903, the composition was altered to provide for seven BSA Company officials and seven elected members. In 1912 the franchise qualifications were raised to prevent sizable numbers of Africans from qualifying to vote: Voters had to be able to complete the registration form and write a fifty word dictated passage in English while the property qualifications were doubled. In 1919 women were granted the franchise, which roughly doubled the numbers on the voters’ roll.

  
  

  Role of traders in Northern Rhodesia

  
  

  Imperialism in Northern Rhodesia (today’s Zambia) was preceded and prompted by the outcome of the deliberations at the Berlin Conference of 1884 - 1885. The Berlin Conference stipulated that once a European power had established an effective occupation of an area, it could assert its claim upon the territory, and her supremacy in the region would be recognized by other powers.

  
  

  For a variety of reasons, Britain was interested in retaining an influence in these areas. As was the case elsewhere in Africa, it was reluctant to face the pains of colonisation. In Central Africa, she was lucky in having Cecil Rhodes who was ready and willing to undertake the task of imperial expansion on her behalf. A supposed minerally-rich area, the BSA Company had made Northern Rhodesia an early target.

  
  

  Factors that led to growth of British interest in Northern Rhodesia

  
  

  Northern Rhodesia was created as an extension of British power in South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, and its main contacts were always with southern Africa. As was the case with the occupation of Southern Rhodesia, Cecil Rhodes’ British South Africa Company spearheaded British interest in this area. A number of factors led to the growth of British interest in this region:

  
  

  i. Copper mining. The Copperbelt attracted white settlers from Europe and South Africa. Rhodes considered Barotseland as a suitable area for British South Africa Company operations and as a gateway to the copper deposits of Katanga.
  

  
  

  ii. Agriculture.Europeans were discouraged from settling in Northern Rhodesia by the prevalence of tsetse fly and malaria. But in the more healthy areas, the Company appropriated blocks of land and made allocations from these to Europeans. Thus a few settlers took up land in Tonga country along the railway, which happened to run through a tsetse-free belt. There they raised maize and beef for sale in Katanga. Other European farmers settled in the far north, at the south end of Lake Tanganyika, and near Fort Jameson in the east, where from 1914 tobacco was grown successfully.
  

  
  

  iii. Suppression of slave trade. In his travels across Central Africa, David Livingstone had highlighted the dominance of the slave trade, calling upon men of goodwill to work for its suppression. The first batch of missionaries, traders and other humanitarians settled in these areas to see what they could do to suppress the slave trade and replace it with legitimate trade.

  
  

  Role of the BSA Company in North-western Rhodesia

  
  

  Cecil Rhodes used the chartered British South Africa company to make treaties with African chiefs on behalf of the British government in Central Africa. The company made many stakes of claim to African territory at the expense of other European powers. These treaties gave the company powers of administration in the areas, and thus helped in extending the British empire. With the charter, Rhodes managed to secure for the British the Central Plateau north of Limpopo, at no cost to the British tax payer. His company shouldered the costs.

  
  

  Most Europeans who crossed the Zambezi from Matabeleland or Bechuanaland in the 1870s went to the Lozi kingdom. Some ten years later Europeans began to reach the north-eastern part of Zambia, entering from Tanzania and Malawi. In this dual approach, Zambia was brought under British control as two separate areas, North-western Rhodesia and North-eastern Rhodesia.
  

  
  

  The ‘conqueror’ with the praise name Liwani Ka la, more commonly Lewanika (whose real name was Lubosi) was king of the Lozi people of Barotseland in north-western Rhodesia. This made him a leading figure in the events by which the area was brought under the BSA Company rule. He was aware of rival European ambitions, for by 1885 a German protectorate had been established in South-West Africa and a British one in Bechuanaland (Botswana).

  
  

  The BSA Company’s activities in Barotseland

  
  

  Having made a treaty with the Ndebele in 1886, the BSA Company’s first goal north of the Zambezi was Bulldoze (Barotseland). Rhodes’ desire to establish his Company north of the Zambezi coincided with two factors, both advantageous to him. The first was Lewanika’s eagerness to seek British protection against Ndebele and Boer attacks. Having heard of the benefits of cooperating with the British from his friend Khama of the Bamangwato, Lewanika was eager to welcome the British.
  

  
  

  He invited a French Missionary Francois Coillard of the Paris Evangelical Mission to act as an intermediary with the white man and his technology. Lewanika reasoned that western education – especially reading, writing and even learning the English language – would be an asset to himself and his people. He also thought the British would create law, order and stability in his kingdom, and above all give him protection against his rivals and unfriendly neighbours.

  
  

  The Lozi king had several times suffered from Ndebele raids, and had observed that the Bamangwato, his neighbours, had secured considerable immunity to such attacks by placing themselves under British protection. Lewanika made a formal application through the French missionary Francois Coillard, who wrote to Sheppard, the British administrator in Bechuanaland, requesting for protection.
  

  
  

  The second coincidence advantageous to the Company was the presence in Bulozi of the pro- British Coillard. Coillard was the only foreigner in whom Lewanika had confidence. Coillard himself feared Portuguese or German interference from the west and desired British protection in order to further his missionary efforts. In January 1889, therefore, Lewanika sent a request for protection to the British government. The reply was slow in coming and somewhat indefinite as Britain did not see much wisdom at that stage in establishing a protectorate so far in the interior.Meanwhile, concession-seekers mounted much pressure on Lewanika, who for some time was unyielding as he awaited a reply from Britain.

  
  

  Finally in June 1889, he granted a limited concession outside the Lozi kingdom itself to Harry Ware, a Kimberley businessman who hoped that there might be gold north of the Zambezi. It was with this background that the north-western Zambia found itself entering into treaties with the British representatives, which would later lead to the occupation of their lands by the British. The British company upon entering the area, signed treaties with the chiefs in total disregard to those earlier made by the Portuguese. The key African personality to deal with the British and other European agents was King Lewanika of the Lozi.

  
  

  Assessment of BSA Company’s activities

  
  

  Right from the start the Company was faced with the problem of fighting the institution of slavery, and in this Lewanika’s cooperation was steady. By 1906 the practice of slavery had been significantly reduced, and about 30,000 slaves liberated in the region. It also achieved the following.

  
  

  • The Company also succeeded in solving the boundary problem. The true extent of Lewanika’s sovereignty had not been agreed upon by all the powers neighbouring the Kingdom: Britain, Germany, Portugal and Belgium. Rhodes had some interest in the north and would do anything to prevent Katanga’s copper from falling into the hands of Leopold II of the Congo Free State. Accordingly, in 1890, Alfred Sharp was sent to Katanga to negotiate treaties, but had no success at Msiri’s. Rhodes later dispatched Joseph Thomson of East African fame to reach Msiri, but Thomson only got as far as the Lamba country. Rhodes’ luck in this area failed him completely, for in 1891 two expeditions working for Leopold II penetrated the so-called ‘Katanga Pedicle’ and asserted Leopold’s claims. These were upheld by a treaty between Britain and Portugal in 1894.

  
  

  • There was a problem also over the RhodesianAngolan boundary. The Portuguese had established a post across the Zambezi from Katanga and were clearly trying to press their claim. The British claimed that the area lay within Lewanika’s kingdom. Both parties agreed in 1903 that an arbitrator be appointed to define the boundaries of the Bulozi kingdom. The Arbitrator Commission, under the chairmanship of ltaly, established the frontier along the conventional geographical lines which form a prominent feature of the map of northwestern Zambia today. To the east, the Anglo-Portuguese Treaty of 1891 had established the boundary line.

  
  

  The Company now faced local hostilities from the Bemba and Lunda. The Bemba had not abandoned the export of slaves and therefore resented the Company’s influence. They tried to resist company rule but were finally defeated in 1898 by Company forces led by Robert Young. The Lunda under Kazembe also put up some resistance, but were silenced by the Company’s machine guns, which hastened Kineme’s flight into the Congo Free State. The defeat of the Bemba and Lunda made it possible for the Company to execute a more effective control in Bulozi.

  
  

  The Mpezeni Ngoni of eastern Zambia who had settled among the Cewa in 1870 united together to resist invasion by Company Europeans. With their warrior tradition, which distinguished them from Bemba, the Lunda and the Lozi immediate military action against the invaders who believed Ngoniland to be rich in gold, came naturally. The Europeans also attempted recruiting the Ngoni as labourers in their plantations in Malawi. Thus the Ngoni were determined to resist. A major confrontation occurred, resulting in the defeat of the Ngoni in 1891. This the completed the of subduing all the parts of Zambia. The territory was then referred to as Northern Rhodesia.

  
  

  Role of colonial agents in Nyasaland

  
  

  At the beginning of foreign interest in these areas, Britain, Portugal and Germany were the main actors in the Nyasaland region of Central Africa. But factors that led to the growth of their interests were not always the same.

  
  

  1. British interest

  
  

  The factors that led to the growth of British interest in Nyasaland included the following:

  
  

  (i) Fight against the slave trade. The activities and explorations of David Livingstone in the 1850s first ignited British interest in Nyasaland. Livingstone became witness to the horrors of the slave trade around Lake Nyasa and was highly opposed to it. His pioneering efforts would prove a magnet for British missionaries keen to follow in his footsteps.

  
  

  (ii) Missionary influence. The early interest of British missionaries in Nyasaland regions was aroused because of the promising and facilitating line of communications into the interior offered by the Zambezi-Shire water route. As a direct influence of Livingstone’s work, Nyasaland became an area of great missionary enterprise. By 1890, missionary centres and schools were established all over Nyasaland, and the missionaries began to press for their home government to assume imperial control over these areas. There were four main reasons for their doing so:

  
  

  • Their campaign against the slave trade required mechanism of enforcement – a stronger, administrative force.

  
  

  • Connected with the first point, the missionaries wanted to have a power that would be judicial in civil activities and free them to concentrate on teaching and preaching.

  
  

  • The missionaries felt threatened by the Mahdist revolution in the Sudan and the subsequent Arab advance from the north. If these Arabs teamed up with the Yao Muslims, the fanaticism of the Mahdists would make the position of the missionaries in Nyasaland very difficult.
  

  
  

  • The Catholic Portuguese were laying claims to parts of Nyasaland. If they succeeded, this might see a link up of the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique, and the British Protestants’ work in Nyasaland would be in jeopardy, as news from Uganda was amply demonstrating.

  
  

  (iii) Expansion of territory. The British also wished to extend their influence and control of their southern African territories. In this imperial ambition, the plans of the British government and of a certain Cecil Rhodes coincided. The Portuguese had claimed that their lands in Mozambique ran across the continent to their lands in Angola. If this had been the case, then British plans for uniting their southern colonies with their eastern colonies would have been stillborn. Instead, the existence of British missionary activity and the absence of any Portuguese settlements of any kind was a convenient diplomatic excuse for the British to lay claim to the intervening land.

  
  

  (iv) Economic interest. The growth of British interest was also fired by economic factors. An early explorer and missionary, David Livingstones, believed in the area’s potentiality for agricultural development on cash crop lines; his reports led to the encouragement of white settlement, especially of Shire highlands. The settlers found that the area was suitable for growing the valuable coffee cash crop.
  

  
  

  (v) Labour. Availability of cheap African labour led to the growth of British interest in Nyasaland. The BSA Company hoped to exploit presumed mineral resources using African labour. When the settlers found the area agriculturally suitable, they began to establish coffee plantations with extensive use of cheap or sometimes forced and free African labour.

  
  

  2. Portuguese interest

  
  

  The Portuguese had been in these parts from the 16th Century. In both west coast and east coast, their main pre-occupation had been the slave trade. The Portuguese interest lay in the fact that control over Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia would give them an unbroken control from the Atlantic coast of Angola to the Indian Ocean coast of Mozambique.
  

  
  

  It also lay in the fact that from Mozambique, they had operated in the region of Nyasaland for a long time – to such an extent that in 1882, the Governor of Quelimane in Mozambique took an armed force along the Lower Shire and invited the chiefs to hand over to his government ‘the lands now in their possession which by right belonged to the Crown (of Portugal). Indeed, two years later a large force under Lt. Auguste Cardoza travelled up the Rovuma valley from the coast to Lake Nyasa and persuaded a number of chiefs, including the Yao slave trader, Mponda, to make treaties of loyalty to Portugal. This would give the Portuguese a bigger geographical area in which to operate.

  
  

  Effects of BSA Company’s policies in Central Africa

  
  

  Activity 4.8

  1. In groups of five, discuss the consequences of each of the following agents in Africa.

  (a) Explorers

  (b) Missionaries

  (c) Traders

  
  

  2. Find out at least three colonial agents who came to Rwanda and discuss their effects.

  
  

  The BSA Company was the most important agent of the colonization of central Africa. In the execution of its control, solidly based on its South African experience, the impact of its administrative policies on the Africans was not always positive. The subsequent British colonial system was not to see a significant departure from what its agent had established. The BSA Company needed revenue. This could be obtained from mining royalties, sale of land, customs duties, postal charges and other sources. These sources, however, did not bring in enough money: in 1911 for instance, the Company collected £95,000 but spent £149,000. The deficit was particularly great in Northern Rhodesia. Taxation was the obvious answer. The whites themselves were not taxed until after 1918, but the Company taxed Africans. Hut-tax, already in operation in Nyasaland, was introduced in Southern Rhodesia in 1898, North-East Zambia in 1900, and North-West Zambia in 1904. Hut-tax was double-edged: to raise revenue, and to get Africans to work.

  
  

  • In the early days the tax could be paid in kind – in gold, copper, ivory, livestock, cotton, coffee and salt. These goods were each given a value. Later, however, the tax could only be paid in cash. The hope was to draw Africans into a cash economy.

  
  

  • The problem of taxation was intertwined with that of labour. Because they had to pay tax, Africans had to go search for work in mines and on farms. The whites knew this: when the tax collector went to a village he was often accompanied by the recruiter of labour. The whites wanted cheap labour, and this often meant forced labour. This was normally the responsibility of District Commissioners.• In the mining settlements discipline was strict. Corporal punishment was often used. The whites had no concern for the well-being of the Africans. They used ‘boss boys’ noted for their brutality. They sat on the Africans’ wages until they had worked long periods. They knew that if the African wanted money he would have to work at a mine; there was no other work. The government did nothing to help. The Masters and Servants legislation of 1908 made desertion a crime.

  
  

  • Migrant labour took away rural workers and broke up the pattern of rural life. It led to the weakening of traditional structures of government and to great suffering in the villages. The effects of migrant labour in Malawi were perhaps more acute than anywhere else in the BSA Company-controlled Central Africa.
  

  
  

  • In the Northern Province 328,314 Africans were expected to pay £18,379 in tax, but only 2,800 could work locally at wages between 4/= and 20/= a month, and since they were subsistence farmers they could make little money from selling surplus food. They had to go south to raise enough money for tax.

  
  

  • The expansion of the South African mining industry after the Anglo-Boer War of 1902 gave an impetus to the demand for labour. The Witwatersrand Native Labour Association was given permission to recruit in Malawi. In 1906 the Rhodesian Native Labour Bureau set up an agency at Chipata and recruited Malawi labour from there. pass system came into operation in 1909, but it was not successful. Conditions for obtaining it were too stiff, and many Africans went south without obtaining it. Commissioner Manning tried to stop the flow, but it continued unabated.

  
  

  • Migrant labour caused a labour shortage in the Shire Highlands. The settlers and builders of the Chiromo-Blantyre railway needed labour. Going south was not the only reason for non-availability of African labour; the Africans, especially those educated at mission schools, were perfectly willing to work in order to buy calico and other goods, but the problem was that the settlers paid poorly and wanted labour in the rainy season when the Africans were planting their own crops.

  
  

  • Various methods were used to get Africans to work. Some settlers bribed the chiefs. Others used agents whose methods included intimidation. Some brought labour from the Northern Province and from Mozambique.Many settlers still took labour from their own estates to work as ‘squatters’ – to pay their tax and to pay rent.
  

  
  

  • In 1904, Commissioner Sharpe laid down rules that only approved recruiters could carry out recruitment in the Lake province. Employers would have to provide transport, food and housing. The settlers complained that this raised the cost of labour, but Sharpe rejected their demand to what amounted to forced labour, and from 1903-10 the relations between the settlers and the Government were hostile.

  
  

  Unit summary

  
  

  This unit deals with the different agents of colonisation. Most of these agents were Europeans who acted as agents of their respective governments. They came to Africa as; traders, hunters, explorers and missionaries.
  

  
  

  The Royal Geographical Society picked two army officers, Richard Burton and John Hanning Speke in 1856, to lead an expedition from Zanzibar to trace the source of the Nile. The two set out as explorers.They faced the challenges of tropical diseases such as malaria and dysentery in the interior of Africa. Unfortunately these diseases had no cure at the time. Missionaries were also sent out to different parts of Africa. For example, the two important missionary organisations in West Africa were the Church Missionary Society and the Wesleyan Missionary Society.African rulers and their subjects believed that the white men were spirits and therefore, unnatural.
  

  
  

  They treated the whites as bringers of evil who would bring famine and destruction. The earliest European missionary in East Africa was Dr Johann LudwigKrapf, a German who had been sent by the Church Missionary Society in England.Kabaka Mwanga II supported missionary activities in the Buganda Kingdom leading to the strong establishment and growth of Christianity.

  
  

  The problems experienced by early missionaries included: insecurity, poor communication facilities, unfavourable climate, diseases and slave trade.The Europeans also established chartered companies that operated in Africa to enable them to exploit the resources of their colonies in Africa.There were also traders who were sent to trade in Africa even though the trade balance was unfair as Africans benefitted less than the Europeans.

  
  

  Unit assessment

  
  

  At the end of this unit, the learner is able to discuss and analyse the activities of colonial agents, their roles, the problems they faced and the consequences of their presence in Africa by identifying different colonial agents such as missionaries, chartered companies and explorers.

  
  

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. (a) What were the problems faced in the colonisation of Congo by the Belgians under the leadership of King Leopold II?
  

     (b) Explain why the Congo was named ‘the Congo free state’ at the time of its colonisation.

  
  

  2. (a) Name two European traders who were found in West Africa and explain the activities in which they were involved.

       (b) What were the roles of European traders in the colonisation of Nigeria?

  
  

  3. (a) Who is Seyyid Said?
  

      (b) Describe how Carl Peters led the Germans to the encroachment of East Africa.
  

      (c) What are the terms of the Heligoland Treaty of 1890, signed between the British and the Germans?

  
  

  4. Why did European traders find it difficult to establish themselves in Africa’s interior before they established their governments there?
  

  
  

  5. (a) Discuss the roles of the Imperial British East African Company (IBEACo).

      (b) What problems did the Imperial British East African Company face in the region during the period of its operation?

  
  

  6. (a) What role did Cecil Rhodes play in the colonisation of central and southern Africa?

      (b) What does BSA stand for?

  
  

  7. (a) What role did Harry Johnston play in the British occupation of Nyasaland?

      (b) What were the causes of the struggle between the British and the Portuguese in Central Africa and especially in Nyasaland?

  
  

  8. Analyse the use of chartered European companies in the colonisation of Afric
  
• Unit 5: African response to colonial rule

  Topic area: World history

  
  

  Sub-topic area: Colonial administrative policies and decolonisation
  

  
  

  Key unit competence

  
  

  Asses the African reactions towards European colonisation.

  
  

  Introduction

  
  

  Activity 5.1

  Work in pairs.Using the Internet, textbooks and other historical sources of information;

  
  

  1. Find out the different reactions by Africans towards European colonisation.

  2 Were the reactions helpfuL to Africans?

  3. Write down your findings in a notebook.
  

  4. Discuss them in a class presentation.

  
  

  When the Europeans partitioned Africa among themselves, they agreed at the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885 that any European nation claiming possession of an African territory must maintain effective occupation of the area by sending administrators to avoid being challenged by others. Britain and Germany, desirous of maintaining spheres of influence, but reluctant to take full administrative responsibilities over them, initially opted to use chartered commercial companies for these purposes.
  

  
  

  The French, on the other hand, largely stormed their way into West Africa through the use of the military.

  The African peoples, whose lands were the subject of all these manoeuvres, reacted violently to the provocation. Some of them reacted directly and immediately, as the Europeans attempted to establish colonial rule. Such reaction is referred to as primary resistance, and most reactions fall into this category. Others mounted a type of struggle which historians have called secondary resistance.

  
  

  This had several characteristics. It took place, not in response to initial imposition to colonial rule, but afterwards, when its effects had become apparent. It succeeded in uniting many previously disunited states.

  
  

  Forms and methods of resistance

  
  

  Activity 5.2

  Work in groups of three.

  Use the Internet, textbooks and other historical sources of information to;

  
  

  (a) Explain what resistance is using relevant examples.

  (b) Research on the methods and forms of resistance.

  (c) Reasons for resistance.

  (d) Consequences of resistance.

  (e) Compile an essay on the various aspects of resistance.

  (f) Discuss them in a class presentation.

  
  

  Resistance refers to the attempts by Africans to refuse the imposition of the colonial rule by the Europeans.

  
  

  Primary resistance

  
  

  This was direct confrontation by African communities at the invasion of Europeans into their land. They used force to expel the Europeans before they gained access to their land.A number of examples of primary resistance can be cited where African reaction immediately followed the arrival of Europeans.

  
  

  Resistance against French in Mali and Senegal

  
  

  From the 17th Century, the French, attracted by the trade in slaves, had made the Senegalese coast their base. Louis Faidherbe ruled Senegal as Governor from 1854 to 1861 and from 1863 to 1865. Faidherbe laid the foundation of France’s West African Empire thirty years before the European partition. He united the scattered and precarious French coastal settlements known as the Four Communes as part of a larger colony about a third of the size of modern Senegal. Faidherbe was opposed to the policy also pursued by the British at this time, of informal empire. For him commerce at the coast could only flourish with effective French occupation of the interior. During his two spells as governor of Senegal, Faidherbe was able to formulate the concept of French penetration of the interior designed to prevent any European nation from challenging the French pre-eminence in the Upper Senegal or from sharing the commercial advantages the French were seeking to develop from there.

  
  

                                   

  
  

  Resistance of Al-Hajj Umar of Tukolor, 1857 – 60

  
  

  Umar was a member of a Fulani ruling clan. In the true tradition of a good Muslim, he had made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1820. Colliding with the Muslim chiefs of his area in Futa, he had moved off to Dinguiry and declared a jihad against the peoples of the Sudan.

  
  

  Causes of resistance

  
  

  Knowing of the commercial ambitions of the French, he sought to prevent their domination of the hinterland of Senegal. Faidherbe, on his part, also sought to prevent Umar’s expansion westwards, and negotiated a demarcation between Umar’s and French territory, while secretly engineering rebellion in Umar’s sphere by selling arms to the latter’s enemies. Umar found himself unable to tolerate Faidherbe’s doublegame. Many of those armed by the french defected to his side and fighting started. In 1857 Umar’s forces were repulsed in an attack on Fort Medina. Frustrated, he turned to the river and brought French trade on the Senegal to a standstill.

  
  

                                           

  
  

  Consequences and significance

  
  

  Umar’s clash with French Imperialism was important in a number of ways:

  
  

  It made the French realise that in the prevailing circumstances it would be unrealistic to be content with the creation of immobile states. The new policy must be establishment of expansionist colonies.

  
  

  It also gave the French an idea of what they were up against in attempting to colonise the Senegalese hinterland. Although unable to dislodge the French, Umar was able to secure a demarcation showing his sphere of influence in 1860.

  
  

  It is also significant to note that the French did not expand into Umar’s territory for the next fifteen years, and when they did they met with fierce resistance from Umar’s successors.
  

  
  

  This later resistance was occasioned by the decision to construct a railway from Senegal to the Niger. The brain behind the project was Paul Soleillet, a man who had made a name for himself in France by proposing a scheme to build a railway from Algeria through Timbuktu to Senegal.

  
  

  Reaction of Ahmadou Sekou of Tukulor, 1882-96

  
  

  The Tukolor Empire had been created by Al Hajj Umar in 1862. Now, in the 1880’s, it was being ruled by Ahmadou Sekou, al-Hajj Umar’s son, and extended from the whole length of the Niger at Bamako to Timbuktu.

  
  

  Causes of resistance

  
  

  The French plans for a railway line was the main cause of this resistance. The railway was supposed to link up with the Niger through Sekou’s territory. Gallieni demanded surrender of Sekou’s territory on the Niger left bank, as well as French monopoly of trade on the Niger – a move that would definitely kill the middleman’s role of Sekou’s subjects. Yielding to these demands would have meant cooperating in the building of the SenegalNiger railway, which Sekou was not prepared to do.

  
  

                   

  
  

  
  

  Not wishing to show commitment too early, Sekou employed delaying tactics, and stalled Gallieni for ten months. To force an answer, the French occupied Kita, inside Sekou’s territory. Continuing his diplomatic game, Sekou gave the town away and agreed to give French the ‘most favoured nation’ status in trade. But he rejected the demands in their original wording.

  
  

  
  

  In October 1881, he travelled to St. Louis to have his interpretation of the agreement ratified. When his mission failed, he repudiated the treaty and remained free for nearly two years, as the French were still pre-occupied with securing the Senegalese base.

  
  

  Course of resistance

  
  

  Early in 1883 the French struck. Bamako was captured, a fort erected, and preparation made for continuing the construction of the railway. “You have burst into our lands” complained Sekou to the French Commandant at Bamako, ‘without authorisation, with no right and without any respect for the treaties which bound us.’ The conquest of the Sudan had begun.Sekou, in anticipation of French attack on Segu, had moved to Nioro. In 1886, Gallieni captured Upper Niger, and Sekou now divided his empire into four provinces: he himself took Kaarta, centred at Nioro; he placed Segu under his son, Madan; Massina under his cousin Tijani; and Dinguiry under his brother Aguibou. The French resorted to divide-and-rule tactics. Gallieni signed a protection treaty with Aguibou.

  
  

  Apprehensive, Sekou also feigned surrender to Gallieni’s protection. But Archinard succeeded Gallieni in 1888 and declared that he would have no protection treaty with Sekou: he would only work for his destruction. Sekou, pricked by Archinard’s obvious disregard to the importance of peaceful co-existence, attacked villages near Kayes and Medina. It was now Archinard’s turn to sue for peace - a request that Sekou relished in rejecting. But soon after this, Segu and Medina fell to the French forces.

  
  

  Samori at this stage suggested an alliance with Sekou, seeing that even he was under grave French pressures. He warned Sekou of the tragedy of remaining divided, and suggested an attack on the French by Sekou from the north while he would attack from the south. Sekou arrogantly refused. Nioro, his capital, was captured. Then Sekou, badly subdued, asked for Samori’s help. But the request had come too late. In 1893, aided by Sekou’s treacherous brother, the French beat him at Korikori, and for the following three years he ruled only a tiny kingdom at Dounge. Later, he fled from the French advance and died in 1898.

  
  

  Occupation and reaction in Dahomey

  
  

  In the French occupation of West Africa, Dahomey was unique, for its occupation was driven by economic factors. Before the 1840s slaves had dominated Dahomean trade.

  
  

  Reasons for resistance, 1890

  
  

  After the 1860s palm oil replaced slaves and by 1880, two main Dahomean ports, Whydah on the West Coast and Cotonou to the east, were the exit points. The amicable, purely trade relations that had existed between the French and the Dahomeans began to be replaced by tensions in the 1880s, as the French demanded that Cotonou be handed to them. The French traders claimed that the town had been ceded to them in the 1868 treaties.
  

  
  

  The Fon did not agree, accusing the French traders of forgeries of clauses concerning Cotonou.In November 1889 the French governor of Rivieres du Sud Dr. Jean Byole, was sent to Abomey to demand from the crown prince that Dahomey should immediately hand over Cotonou to the French. When Prince Kondo would not co-operate, Byole ordered for the forceful occupation of Cotonou and the arrest of all the Fon administrators there. The excuse for the attack was that the Fon were planning to attack the French installations and had already taken French merchants as hostages at Hueda. In 1880 the French invaded Cotonou, but were repulsed by the Fon army.

  
  

  Results of resistance

  
  

  A French missionary Father Dorgere was sent to Abomey to negotiate for peace. By the subsequent settlement, Cotonou was recognized as French and the French had to pay an annual tribute of 200 Francs to the Fon king as compensation for loss of revenue from Cotonou. The expelled Fon administrators were to be allowed back into the town to look after the affairs of the Fon.

  
  

  But this peace agreement did not take care of another area causing much friction between the French and the Fon in the 1880s. This concerned Porto Novo, a Dahomean petty state under Dahomean authority as its satellite since the 1820s. The French now purported to offer Porto Novo protection, directly challenging Dahomean authority and political influence in an area of such great economic and strategic importance.

  
  

  The so-called peace treaty over Cotonou had substantial opposition from both sides. Some Fon leaders felt that the French exploitation, when they had not been defeated in battle, was unacceptable. On their part, some of the French felt that the payment was too high while just a little more effort would have won them full control of Dahomey. In 1892 the two sides went to war again. The Yoruba captives of earlier conflicts took advantage of the war to stab their former captors, the Dahomeans, in the back. Some retreated back to their home country, looting and destroying property as they did. They attacked villages and diverted the attention of the Fon from the on-going war against the French. King Ben Hazan sued for peace and surrendered. The French forces occupied Abomey. In 1894 the French colonised Dahomey and appointed a puppet king.

  
  

  The wars of resistance in Ivory Coast

  
  

  The colonising powers often found it much more difficult to conquer on a small scale societies, which resisted village by village, than they did to conquer much larger, unified states. The Ivory Coast was such a state, where the small coastal-forest states staged the most coherent, and, along with Samori Toure, the fiercest struggle against subjugation anywhere in West Africa. They resisted for all of twenty-seven years.

  
  

                                             
  

  
  

  At the outbreak of Franco-Prussian war and subsequent defeat of the French in 1871, the French garrisons were withdrawn from the Ivory Coast. French interests were left in the hands of the merchant firm of Arthur Verdier. Treaties were signed in which the French merchants were given trading rights in return for an annual tribute to the coastal chiefs. Verdier honoured the treaties and sold his goods from the Grand Bassam and Assinie.
  

  
  

  The major markets were in the interior, to which coastal people carried French goods and where the products of the savannah and of the forest, as well as the gold of Asante, were exchanged. Between 1887 and 1889, the French negotiated similar tributary treaties with the forest chieftaincies and as far north as Kong in the savannah. By the treaties the French bound themselves not to interfere with African customs, land tenure and or government.In occupying the area the French took no time at all to violate the treaties. They adopted the tactic of using the chiefs to sign treaties and then eliminating them in order to set up direct administration.
  

  
  

  They demanded slave porters, meddled in the election of chiefs, and dispatched two military expeditions to strike at Samori in the north, which failed partly as a result of the hostile opposition. This especially came from the especially of Baoule people. In retaliation Samori sacked Kong, France’s ally and by this the French were proved vulnerable and more groups joined the Baoule in harassing them. The colony was however, established in 1893 and French control seemed well-established by 1900. In 1908 Angoulvant became Governor of the Ivory Coast.He was a man who was determined to be tough and who attributed French humiliation to the softness of his predecessors. He began a policy of systematic military conquest with the purpose of disarming the population.

  
  

  Course of resistance

  
  

  Despite the absence of centralised kingdoms like Asante, Benin and Dahomey, the small chiefdoms achieved exceptional co-operation in their resistance. While the French were preoccupied in suppressing one, two or three others arose to harass them. Because of the smallness of chieftaincies, there were no large armies against which the French could use their artillery. The forest provided an ideal environment for guerrilla ‘hit and run’ tactics. The people made a supreme effort to throw the French out of Ivory Coast and changed what had been a basically Baoule resistance into a general war of independence.

  
  

  After the outbreak of the revolt Angoulvant was sent reinforcement from Senegal. The villages taken were burnt down. No pity was shown to prisoners. The severed heads were put on poles by the railway stations or in front of houses in the villages. Guns totalling 100,000 were confiscated, and this was a serious matter to the forest peoples who treasured them for hunting. Nearly 220 chiefs were deported, often being sent to the ‘dry guillotine’ of Mauritania. Taxes totalling about 30,000 pounds were imposed retrospectively; and forced labour and porterage exacted. Angoulvant waged a brutal war in which hundreds of villages were destroyed and their people herded into larger settlements. The French guarded these settlements to people from giving support to their fighting forces. One group formerly living in nearly 250 villages was forced into about twenty; another originally 147 was herded into ten.

  
  

  Results of resistance

  
  

  After years of military action, Angoulvant left the Ivory Coast in 1916. He left Africans of the forest zones of the Ivory Coast an exhausted, humbled and leaderless lot. Killings and deportations over the past twenty-seven years had almost wiped out the chiefly class. When the chiefs were destroyed the priests of the traditional religion attempted to lead the resistance. They, like the chiefs, failed. The people lost faith in the religion and the gods they represented. Military failure led to the collapse of political institutions and a weakening of faith in African religious beliefs and principles. It was in this political, religious and social chaos that a remarkable mass conversion to Christianity took place under a Liberian Christian preacher by name William Wade Harris.

  
  

  Politically and economically the small chieftaincies were weak in contrast to the centralised states of West Africa. They could not raise large armies to be crushed by French firepower, nor depend upon walled cities which could be destroyed by French artillery. The wars therefore consisted of multiple risings, small groups striking and retiring, ambushing and cutting communication lines, so that the French found it difficult to profit by their military superiority. Africans were able to secure guns. The French capture of 100,000 firearms indicated a fairly reliable supply.

  
  

  Reaction of Samori Toure of the Mandinka, 1882-98

  
  

  Samori Toure was leader of the Mandinka in modern Mali. Samori first came into direct contact with the French in 1881. He was finally captured in 1898.

  
  

  Reasons for resistance

  
  

  Starting from Senegal, the French were expanding eastwards to the interior with the aim of conquering all of West Africa. Samori first felt their threat when they occupied Bamako. He resisted them for a number of reasons:

  
  

  • The French threatened his independence, which he was determined to maintain.

  
  

  • They threatened his commercial monopoly in the region.

  
  

  • Being Christians, they were a threat to Islam.
  

  
  

  • He himself was busy expanding his empire in the direction from where the French were advancing and the French stood in the way.

  
  

  Course of resistance

  
  

  Samori resisted the French from 1891 to 1898. He had a well organized army of about 35,000 men armed with repeater rifles, but not heavy artillery like the French.

  
  

  He preferred the use of guerrilla warfare and fielded only part of his army at a time. Samori divided his army into three groups. The first was armed with repeater rifles, engaged the French and then retreated. The second organised the people, evaluated them and led them on their eastward exodus. The third conquered new areas for the settlement of the people.

  
  

  As they moved, they carried out the scorched earth policy, burnt villages, crops and everything of value. When the French came they found nothing, no food, no shelter and no people. They therefore had to get their food supplies from further areas in the West and this delayed their pursuit of the Mandinka. This is why it took so long for the French to defeat Samori. By 1896, he had moved his empire about 600 miles to the east. After nearly seven years of war, Samori surrendered to the French in 1898.

  
  

  Reasons for Samori Toure’s downfall

  
  

  A number of factors explain Samori Toure’s fall:

  
  

  (i) He was unsuccessful in winning British support against the French. Britain had decided that the Mandinka area was a French sphere of influence.

  
  

  (ii) There were differences and lack of unity among African ruler. Samori did not get the support of his neighbours, such as Ahmadou Sekou of Tukolor, Tieba of Sikasso.

  
  

  (iii) Samori was faced with local resistance due to his scorched earth policy and ruthless aggression against his neighbours. He thus dissipated his energy fighting the French and fighting wars of conquest in the east at the same time.

  
  

  (iv) Non-Mandinka subjects – largely captives – were cruelly treated and did not give the right level of support against the French. They even tended to welcome the French, whom they saw as their liberators.(v) French troops were better armed and trained.

  
  

  (vi) Shifting of the empire eastwards weakened him economically. He was cut off from the gold fields of Wangara where he used to obtain his gold.

  
  

  (vii) amori was also cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. So he had to rely entirely on his military workshops for supplies, which were not adequate.

  
  

  (viii) The new empire was surrounded by the French and the British. The French attacked from the Ivory Coast; the British occupied Asante in 1896; the French had also occupied all the surrounding areas by 1898. Therefore Samori was stack at his second empire at Dabakala.

  
  

  (ix) His troops suffered heavy losses.

  
  

  (x) The empire was too large for himto manage effectively.

  
  

  (xi) Samori was tricked into believing that if he surrendered, he would be allow safe conduct and quiet retirement in his home village. But the French did not keep their promise, and when he surrendered in 1898, he was deported to Gabon, where he died in 1900.

  
  

  Results of Resistance

  
  

  Samori’s resistance had the following results:

  
  

  a) Samori lost his independence as the Mandinka empire was conquered.

  
  

  b) There was a lot of loss of lives and property as a result of the war.

  
  

  c) Samori was sent into exile in Gabon where he died in 1900 at the age of 70.

  
  

  Occupation and reaction in Nigeria

  
  

  By the mid 1870s the British possessed a firm political base in the island-colony of Lagos together with a strip of the adjoining coast. But the occupation of the rest of Nigeria was an extremely complex process, which brought the British into conflict with many indigenous communities. In her occupation of the coast and the Niger Delta, Britain had to contend with resistance by four African rulers. One of the better known of them was Jaja of Opobo.

  
  

  Reasons for resistance

  
  

  From 1884-1885, as Berlin Conference, Hewett began to sign protection treaties with the Niger Delta States. Protection treaties invariably purported to prevent the Delta states from making agreements with other European countries without the permission of Britain.

                                        

  
  

  Jaja refused to sign these treaties as he saw them as potentially ruinous to his middleman’s position and to the sovereignty he had achieved with such effort. He also took a militant stand against missionary entry into his country.
  

  
  

  He was determined not to end up like the king of Bonny whose warm embrace of European religion and support had reduced him to a spineless puppet in European hands and an embarrassment to his people. They began to solicit government support in gaining entry into Opobo. Many of the traders who had previously supported Jaja also now turned against him because he had held a firm monopoly of trade along his rivers and excluded them from the profits of the hinterland markets.

  
  

  The British decided to move against him, firstly, to forestall the French intervention, and secondly to break Jaja’s middleman’s position and political arrogance. Jaja decided to relax his militant stand. In company with the other rulers of the ‘Oil Rivers’ signed a treaty in 1884 designed to give the legal basis for a British protectorate.

  
  

  Course of resistance

  
  

  On 8 June 1885, the Niger Coast Protectorate was born. The activities of the British made the King of Opobo switch on again his true attitude to foreigners. He drove the Miller Brothers’ factories away from the Qua Eboe rivers. The British now decided that Jaja’s power must be broken. Johnston tricked Jaja to board a ship upon which Jaja was arrested and deposed. He was subsequently deported to the West Indies where he died in 1891. Meanwhile, Opobo was effectively occupied by Johnston.

  
  

  Nana Olumu of Itsekiri, 1883–94

  
  

  Nana Olumu was elected Governor of Itsekiri in 1883. He was determined to deal with Europeans as equals, but not as their inferior. He incorporated Urhobos, Jamieson, Ethiope and Warri rivers into his trading empire by the use of force, friendship and marriage alliances.
  

  
  

  The British, envying his control of these areas, offered him a treaty of protection in 1885. Nana signed it, but omitted a clause of commercial toleration to British traders in his empire. The British got the help of Dore Numa to stir up trouble in the empire in order to weaken Nana’s authority. Nana was invited but refused to meet the Consul. In 1894 an expedition under Moore was dispatched against him. Ebrohimi, his headquarters, was taken by the british. They found an unfinished canal and sophisticated assortment of munitions. All these were indicative of Nana’s modernising tendencies.

  
  

  The Itsekiri Governor fled to the protection of the British Governor of Lagos, who handed him to the Commissioner of the Niger Coast Protectorate. He was charged with using ‘boys’ as slaves and blocking the highway of trade to British farms. He was found ‘guilty’ and deported to Accra.

  
  

  Occupation by the British Government

  
  

  The Royal Niger Company operated along the Niger and Benue rivers for many years before a formal British protectorate was proclaimed over Northern Nigeria. Its activities were essentially commercial. But during this time the Company entered into treaty agreements with a number of emirates. Some of these treaties gave it some form of political authority over the emirates. The British government produced these treaties before the European powers at the Berlin Conference in 1884–1885 to achieve it’s recognition of Northern Nigeria as a British sphere of influence.

  
  

  The area of Northern Nigeria was also envied by the French. The only way by which the British could ensure that no other power seized control of it was by establishing a proper system of administration. It was felt that the Royal Niger Company could not, in the circumstances, undertake proper administration of the area. In 1899, its charter was revoked, and the British Colonial office assumed its powers.

  
  

                                

  
  

  Reasons for resistance

  
  

  On 1 January 1900, Lugard hoisted the Union Jack in Lokoja. This gestured the beginning of British rule in Northern Nigeria. It was already declared a British Protectorate. Lugard became its first High Commissioner. But the people of Northern Nigeria had not asked anybody to rule them and now firmly refused to recognise the declared ‘right’ of the British. They wanted to maintain their independence and deeply rooted faith. As Muslims, they were enjoined by the Quran not to allow themselves to be ruled by unbelievers.

  
  

  The Europeans, whether Christians or not, were non-Muslims. The Caliph’s stand, expressed in a reply to a British letter, sums up the attitude of all the emirates in the North.I do not consent that anyone from you should ever dwell with us. I will never agree with you. I will have nothing ever to do with you; between us and you there are no dealings except as between Muslims and unbelievers – war as God Almighty has enjoined on us. There is no power save in God on high. Consequently, wars were fought between 1900 and 1906.

  
  

  Course of resistance

  
  

  Yola, Bida, Kontagora, Kano, Sokoto, Bauchi, Bornu, Katsina, Zaria and many others preferred to fight for their faith and freedom rather than surrender willingly to British rule. Some of the emirs who did not fight to the death tried to escape. This was not cowardice, for flight in circumstances such as these was also borne out of faith.Prophet Mohammed himself had gone on such a flight in the famous ‘Hijra’. Islam permitted flight from infidel rule rather than acceptance of it. Muslims had the option to fight or flee when threatened by infidel conquest.
  

  
  

  The most spectacular flight of all was that of Attahiru I, the Caliph at the time of the British conquest. Realising that Sokoto would fall to the British, Attahiru decided to evacuate the city with his officials, emirs and property. The British pursued him. After five months of constant pursuit Lugard’s forces caught up with the Caliph at Burmi in July 1903. Here a fierce battle was fought, at the end of which 690 men lay dead.

  
  

  The Hinterland theory by Lord Lugard

  
  

  The Berlin Agreement of 1885 only settled the question of the African coastline. As Lugard later pointed out, this led to confusion and disagreements on the interior.‘Since the Conference had refused to deal explicitly with the acquisition of territory other than coast lands, “the hinterland theory’’ – made in Germany – which had not the sanction of the Berlin Act or any precise definition, gradually received acceptance in so far as the “rights’’ of the European Powers and their relations towards each other in the partition were concerned.
  

  
  

  By this dictum a Power in possession of coast lands was entitled to claim the exclusive right to exercise political influence for an indefinite distance inland. Obviously in a very irregularly shaped continent no method could be more calculated to create difficulties, and the climax seemed to have been reached when France claimed to restrict the frontiers of Nigeria, on the ground that they formed the hinterland of Algeria on the Mediterranean.‘The Powers, in their haste to declare their “spheres of influence’’ which they had claimed, had no time in some cases time to go through the formality of making treaties with the natives.
  

  
  

  They and considered it sufficient to notify that they claimed the areas as hinterlands, or because they had some special interest in them. They were vaguely demarcated by lines of longitude and latitude regardless of tribal limits, or by reference to physical features which later exploration sometimes proved to be scores of miles from their supposed position, or even non-existent.

  
  

  Results of resistance

  
  

  For the devout Muslims defeat at the hands of the infidel was a terrible but not an overwhelming experience. Shortly after the fall of Kano, but before the capture of Sokoto, the emir of Kano wrote to the waziri (Vizier or chief minister) of Sokoto: I have found no more useful plan for all Muslims.... than that we leave this countryall of us ... as dogs ( i.e. the Christians) have surrounded us and threaten to overcome us.

  
  

  For those who could not take the path of ‘hijra’ and were therefore forced to accept alien rule and even to collaborate with the infidel conquerors, an alternative line of action was permissible – taqiyyaor dissembling in order to preserve the faith. ‘This is legal in every land where Islam is not strong’, wrote a learned Sheikh of Sokoto, to whom the waziriturned for advice after the British conquest.

  
  

  We show regard to them with the tongue and have intercourse with them in affairs of the world but never to love them in our hearts or adopt their faith.This attitude soon brought satisfactory results. The British were uneasy conquerors, haunted by fears of Mahdist insurrections, of the ‘fanatical’ Muslim Jihads. They were scrupulous in avoiding any gesture likely to offend Muslim sensibilities. In time many members of the Fulani aristocracy reconciled themselves to the British presence. A prominent Sokoto Fulani, later to become the premier of Northern Nigeria wrote

  
  

  :The British were the instruments of destiny and were fulfilling the will of God ... They made no drastic changes ... everything went on more or less as it had done, for what could the resident, an assistant and a few soldiers in Sokoto do to change so vast an area as Sokoto Emirate?With the conquest of the Caliphate, Britain completed its occupation of Nigeria.
  

  
  

  Resistance of Kabalega of Bunyoro, 1893

  
  

  Omukama Kabalega of Bunyoro was always everything the British based in Buganda would be cautious with. He was economically and militarily strong, thanks to his lucrative relations with the Khartoumers from the north. He was aclose rival of the Kabaka of Buganda and not only a Muslim convert but also a dangerous rallying point for the Muslims in the region. In Lugard’s travels to the west, he had made agreements with Toro and Ankole but had not gathered courage to enter Bunyoro, which remained independent and a threat to British interests in Uganda.

  
  

  Reasons for Bunyoro campaign

  
  

  Meanwhile, in Buganda Captain JRL Macdonald had been left by Portal to act as British representative there. Macdonald continued to have problems with Baganda Muslims. Although they had been defeated in the first clash, they now lay astride Macdonald’s communications with the west and some of them were trying to get in touch with the Sudanese garrison in Toro.
  

  
  

  Kabalega, too, was threatening Toro, certainly encouraged by signs of withdrawal of the Sudanese garrisons. He was emboldened further by the middleman trade in guns and ivory between the Acholi.

  
  

  German East Africa, and Arab traders had established themselves in Bunyoro. Ntare of Ankole also appeared to be permitting caravans of gunrunners to pass through his territory in spite of his agreement with Lugard. In these circumstances, Owen was at a loss what to make of his orders to withdraw, and wondered what provision had been made to protect the Batoro. Owen delayed and angered Macdonald.

  
  

                                       

  
  

  Macdonald was driven to be more decisive. in September 1893, he recognized the need to campaign against Kabalega. Owen was authorized to prepare an advance from the south while Macdonald gathered his forces for the main attack. In November, Colonel H. E. Colvile arrived to take over from Macdonald with instructions to check a rumoured Belgian advance into the British sphere in the direction of the Nile.
  

  
  

  Macdonald’s proposed campaign fitted in well with these orders and Colvile took command of the expedition, which consisted of the Sudanese troops together with a vast number of the Baganda. The advance began in December 1893. Within a month Kabalega’s capital near Hoima was occupied. Although the Mukama continued to wage a guerrilla campaign for nearly a year he was finally driven to take refuge north of the Nile in November 1894.

  
  

  Results of the campaign

  
  

  A small occupation force was left in Bunyoro to prevent any revival of Kabalega’s influence, but no formal annexation was made. As a reward for their part in Kabalega’s overthrow the Baganda were assisted in annexing large areas in the east and south-east Bunyoro, the most important of these being Mubende. This was the former centre of the Kingdom of Kitara and the burial place of former rulers of Bunyoro.
  

  
  

  Major Owen went down the Nile to Wadelai where he induced the local chief, Ali, to accept protection. On returning to Toro he restored to office Mukama Kasagama who had been driven out by Kabalega. Mukama sought refuge in the foothills of the Ruwenzori Mountains. Owen then made another agreement with the young ruler, which guaranteed British protection in return for the acceptance of a British Resident in Toro.

  
  

  A similar agreement was made in August between Major Cunningham and the Mugabe of Ankole. Both treaties had been signed on behalf of the British Government yet neither had been authorized by the Government.

  
  

  The Nandi resistance, 1895-1906

  
  

  Soon after the proclamation of the East Africa Protectorate in 1895, the construction of the Uganda-Railway began in 1896. The Railway had to pass through the Nandi country, and it was during its construction that the British first came face to face with the Nandi.

  
  

  Reasons for resistance

  
  

  The Nandi resisted for a number of reasons:

  
  

  (i) Nandi Pride. The Nandi in recent years had experienced a series of successes in their raiding expeditions. They had come to believe in their superiority, both military and cultural, over the neighbouring tribes and everybody else. In entering the Nandi country with an air of superiority, as they did, the British were doing something that none of the Nandi neighbours would have dared. This was a serious threat to their pride by a foreign people, which had to be repulsed.

  
  

  (ii) Appearance of Europeans. Europeans were thought to be devils for their clothes and skin colour. This view was confirmed by the sound made by their guns when fired. The sound was similar to that made by Nandi women when they hit their skin skirts during a tribal dance. A conclusion was thus reached that these European devils were of the female variety and should therefore be expelled instantly.

  
  

  (iii) Kimnyole’s Prophesy. Kimnyole arap Turukat had been an Orkoiyot, a central figure in the Nandi community with social and often political functions. Kimnyole had prophesied that foreigners would one day rule the Nandi. One day, he said, there would come a big snake from the eastern lake (which turned out to be the Indian ocean), belching smoke and fire, and going to quench its thirst in the western lake (which turned out to be Lake Victoria). The ‘snake’ turned out to be the railway and the train, whose construction greatly worried the Nandi. The Nandi had sworn to resist this occurrence, and now fought an all-out war to protect their country.

  
  

  (iv) Aftermath of Peter West’s Murder.In 1895, the Nandi murdered a British traveller called Peter West who tried to cross their country. It was this event that sparked off over eleven years of fighting between the Nandi and the colonial government. Peter West had pitched his camp one evening by a running stream within the escarpment forest. The Nandi crept upon the encampment unseen, murdered West, killed 23 of his porters and looted their trade goods. The murder of Peter West was in revenge for punishment Peter West’s employer, Andrew Dick, had inflicted on them for stealing some of his cattle.

  
  

  Course of Resistance

  
  

  When news of the murder of West reached Mumias, and further news that the mail party had been attacked by the Nandi, the mail burnt and the boxes stolen, the colonial government decided to act against the Nandi.

  
  

  On 14th October 1895, Cunningham left Kampala with 1000 Sudanese and Baganda troops, who arrived in the Nandi country, and started fighting. Another column led by Colonel Trevor Ternan assembled another attacking expedition to Nandi. But this was unsuccessful and the expedition was forced to return to deal with unrest in Buganda. In spite of the two fighting expeditions that had invaded their country the attitude of the Nandi and Tugen showed little change.
  

  
  

  They were determined to maintain their independence by keeping foreigners away from their borders. Raids on the Maasai and other nearby ethnic groups were stepped up. Mail-runners and isolated strangers from caravans were still attacked and murdered. Several soldiers on the Uganda road were killed and their rifles stolen.

                                               

  
  

  In these struggles against the British, the Nandi had a number of advantages from their environment. Firstly, their country was mountainous and broken by numerous rivers, many of which had steep, heavily wooded valleys. Secondly, large areas were covered with thick forest containing glades where cattle could graze, as well as deep holes where they could be hidden. These conditions were ideally suited for guerilla warfare and allowed both men and animals to be hidden. Big guns could not be used in these conditions and even the effectiveness of rifle power was reduced.
  

  
  

  The maintenance of unity among the Nandi was moreover encouraged by the appointment of Orkoiyot Koitalel arap Samoei, to direct the war against the British. Samoei’s reputation and influence increased between the Nandi and the neighbouring people as warriors’ raids were regularly successful. Successive punitive expeditions left without forcing the Nandi to make peace and all attempts to capture them were frustrated. The British Officer in Nandi, Captain Richard Meinertzhagen was convinced that if the Orkoiyot were killed the resistance would be broken. He therefore arranged a meeting with Koitalel arap Samoei at the Orkoiyot’s home in October 1905. A stage-managed scuffle took place at the meeting and the Orkoiyot and most of his Maotik (advisors) were killed.

  
  

  Results of resistance

  
  

  Demoralised by their Orkoiyot’s death, the Nandi gave in to the massive firepower brought against them. Hayes-Sadler, the new Commissioner, met the Nandi leaders on 15 December 1905. They accepted the terms of peace, which included:

  
  

  (i) The forced removal of the south-east Nandi clans (the Kamelilo and the Kapchepkendi) to a northern reserve away from the railway line. This was aimed at:

  
  

  • The protection of the railway.

  
  

  • The isolation of the Nandi from their cousins, the Kipsigis.

  
  

  • The protection of the European farms in the area and the creation of peace for more European settlers.
  

  
  

  (ii) The Nandi also ‘agreed’ to live peacefully under British rule.

  
  

  (iii) In 1906 many European forts were built in Nandi country and effective British administration started.

  
  

  Reasons why Nandi resistance took long

  
  

  The Nandi resistance lasted almost ten years, certainly the longest resistance to colonial rule in East Africa. There were five main reasons for this:

  
  

  (i) The Nandi were traditionally a fighting people, and even in peace times young men were known to indulge in dangerous practices with their weapons. So to some of the warriors, the presence of European strangers offered them the chance for a good sport.

  
  

  (ii) The layout of the Nandi country made it possible for them to engage in guerrilla warfare, which the whites were unable to match. Besides, the high altitude of the country, consisting of many steep hills and cold forests, caused breathing problems, and was totally unfamiliar to the Swahili, Indian, Maasai and Somali soldiers fighting for the British.

  
  

  (iii) The youthfulness of many of the warriors ensured that the resistance would be long-drawn. The rising–age group, the Kimnyige, wanted to establish themselves as respected leaders of the future, who could be depended upon to protect the community.

  
  

  (iv) The British attempts to acquire allies from the Nandi’s immediate neighbours like the Kipsigis and the Nyang’oris were not successful.

  
  

  (v) There were no elements of rivalry to power and no prominent leaders among the Nandi to negotiate with the British, as the British were accustomed to, elsewhere in Africa.

  
  

  Reaction of Mkwawa of the Hehe, 1891-8

  
  

  The greater challenge to German authority during the 19th Century came from the Hehe, who lived in the southern highlands of Tanzania. The Hehe emerged as a united people in the 1860s and 1870 when a local ruler, Munyigumba, asserted his power over 15 petty chiefdoms. By adopting the military tactics of the neighbouring Ngoni, the Hehe soon acquired a formidable reputation as warriors. Under Munyigumba’s son, Mkwawa, their raiding parties were striking eastward to the coast and northward to harry caravans using the important trade route between Bagamoyo and Tabora. In their dealings with the Maasai the British were faced with a declining power: the Germans, by contrast, found themselves confronted in the Hehe with a people still experiencing the first flush of successful expansion. Thus the Hehe-German relations soon presented the familiar pattern of a clash of rival imperialisms.

  
  

                                                    

  
  

  Reasons for resistance

  
  

  The trade route from the Coast to Tabora and beyond passed through Mkwawa’s empire. He levied hongo on those who traded through or in his territory. The Germans were unhappy with reports of heavy hongo levied by Mkwawa or his vassals and saw a solution to this only in the subjugation of the Hehe chief.Mkwawa was aware that the invaders had no reason to like him, but at first hoped to amicably settle his differences with them. But he gradually became convinced that a ruler of his stature could not stomach the contempt the Germans had for him indefinitely. The manner in which von Wissmann summoned him to the Coast only confirmed his growing suspicion that the Germans did not respect him as a sovereign ruler. He retaliated by closing the trade route from Bagamoyo to Tabora. It had now become clear to him that a diplomatic solution with the Germans was impossible.
  

  
  

  In preparation for a military confrontation, he unsuccessfully sought an alliance with Chief Chebruma of the Ngoni, and Isike of Tabora. He then got ready to meet the Germans.In June 1891 a German expedition led by Emil von Zewlesky, the commander of the Defence Force, set out from Kilwa Kivinje with three companies on a punitive expedition against the Hehe, who were persistently raiding neighbouring tribes. The Hehe chief, still hoping for a last-minute peaceful settlement, sent unarmed men with lavish presents to meet the visitors. The sight of Mkwawa’s men triggered a defensive and aggressive instinct in the Germans. They opened fire and several of the men died.

  
  

  Course of resistance

  
  

  On 16 August 1891 Mkwawa retaliated by ordering an ambush at Lula-Rugaro which overwhelmed the German expedition. Ten Europeans (including von Zelewski|) and some 300 askaris fell in action. Only four Europeans and sixty askaris survived. The Hehe captured three cannon and 300 rifles. This reverse seriously weakened the military strength of the Germans and was a grave blow to their prestige.But the Hehe also sustained heavy losses and Mkwawa decided to rely mainly on defensive tactics to counter the German threat. Accordingly he set about his capital, Kalenga, with a massive stone wall. The Hehe believed this wall to be undemolishable.

  
  

  However, their confidence was misplaced and their tactics ill chosen. From the fort, Mkwawa attacked the German garrison at Kilosa, killing all the occupants, retreating to the fort. In 1894, the Germans, under Lieutenant von Prince stormed Kalenga. They destroyed its fortifications, and built a new post for themselves at nearby Iringa. The chief himself escaped and turned to guerrilla warfare. So great was the esteem and the fear in which the warrior-chief was held that he was able, though a fugitive, to resist the Germans for another four years. Eventually, tired and deserted, but determined to avoid the humiliation of captivity, Mkwawa shot himself in 1898.
  

  
  

  The Germans beheaded his corpse, and the skull was sent to Berlin. The Hehe never forgot their leader, and constantly demanded the return of his skull. Finally in 1954, the British Governor, Sir Edward Twining, brought it back from Germany.Consequent upon this victory, the Germans disbanded the Wahehe chiefs’ council, demanded the exiling of resistance leaders, and imposed a heavy fine on the Hehe for having resisted.

  
  

  Lobengula and the Ndebele War of 1893

  
  

  In the run-up to the Ndebele War of 1893, three important events occurred in sequel, impacting on the relations between the British South Africa Company and Lobengula, king of the Matabele. The first was the Rudd Concession of 1888, in which the king was tricked into giving Cecil Rhodes’ Company exclusive charge over all minerals, situated and contained in Lobengula’s territory. Second and on the basis of these concessions, Rhodes obtained a charter from the British government for his Company to establish an administration over Lobengula’s territory. Third, these events opened the flood-gates for European influx in the area, followed by the BSA Company Pioneer Column’s entry of Mashonaland in 1890. The resultant sour relations between Lobengula and the Europeans eventually led to the outbreak of war in 1893.

  
  

  Causes of the Ndebele War, 1893

  
  

  The Ndebele War was caused by a conflict of interest between the BSA Company and the Ndebele over issues which included minerals, governance and land. Specifically, the causes included the following:

  
  

  (i) The Rudd Concession. The Rudd Concession became immediately controversial. The BSA Company’s interpretation of the agreement was that the British company had obtained the right to establish an administration in Lobengula’s territory. Thus, in June 1891, police, magistrates and resident commissioners were introduced, Sir Archibald Colquhoun becoming chief magistrate in September, later to be replaced by Dr Starr Jameson. However, Lobengula vehemently rejected this interpretation, insisting that his understanding was that the British would come, dig for minerals and go home. He was prepared to go to war to stop the British treachery from taking effect.

  
  

  (ii) British occupation of Mashonaland. The British occupation of, and conduct in Mashonaland spelt loss of control over a people that Lobengula had regarded as his subjects. This loss of control was emphasised when Lobengula sent 3,000 men to attack Shona villages west of Fort Victoria as a way of punishing the Shona for the offence of disposing of his cattle without following acceptable procedure. During this episode some Shona men, women and children fled into Fort Victoria for Company security. When the Ndebele indunas came to Fort Victoria to demand the handing over of the Shona, Lendy, the magistrate at Fort Victoria refused, and instead opened fire, killing 30 of them. The Ndebele were left with no option but to fight for their right.

  
  

                            

  
  

  (iii) Loss of land. The Ndebele were protesting against loss of their land. Rhodes had promised the initial 500 white settlers together with members of the BSA Company’s Pioneer Column who had accompanied them, large tracts of land on arrival; he had kept the promise and given them 3,000 acres each of Lobengula’s territory. The Ndebele were not ready to lose their independence and land to the British.

  
  

  (iv) Protest against forced labour. The Ndebele hated forced labour imposed by British officials on white farms, mines and homes. This was made worse by the practice of the BSA Company personnel to inflict punishment on defaulters. Compelling people to work on some public utility and meting out punishment were a preserve of the king only.

  
  

  (v) Incitement of the Shona. The Matabele were by their action an example of defiance attempting to incite the Shona to resist the whites.

  
  

  (vi) Disregard for the Ndebele culture. The British undermined and disregarded the traditional values, customs and religion of the Ndebele. The war broke out in October 1893 when the Ndebele killed the Shona servants belonging to the whites. Ndebele resisting forces were broken up at Shangaan and Bembesi in late1893, and the Ndebele lost nearly 1,000 men, while others took their lives rather than return defeated. Ndebele prisoners were shot dead. In Bulawayo, Lobengula set fire to his kraal, and fled north, with Major Forbes and 142 men in hot pursuit. He had severe gout and died near the Zambezi River at the end of January 1894. Meanwhile Bulawayo fell and Matabeleland was occupied.

  
  

  The Pioneer Column entered Mashonaland in July 1890 and reached Fort Salisbury in September. The Matabele war was now only yards away, though Lobengula had played nearly all his diplomatic cards in trying to avert the confrontation. The occupation of Mashonaland by the British illuminated to Lobengula very clearly the path of what was to come, and he knew that he now could do nothing more about it. He, in a famous simile, summed up his plight to the missionary, Helm, having tried his best to avert a violent confrontation to no avail:

  
  

  ‘Did you ever see a chameleon catch a fly? The chameleon gets behind the fly and remains motionless for some time, then he advances very slowly and gently, first putting forward one leg and then the other. At last, when well within reach, he darts his tongue and the fly disappears. England is the chameleon and I am that fly’.

  
  

  And the events of 1893 more than vindicated his fears as the Matabele war started and the state was swept away.

  
  

  Results of the War of 1893

  
  

  The results of the war of 1893 included the following:

  
  

  i. Defeat of the Ndebele. The Ndebele were defeated.

  
  

  ii. Loss of lives. The war resulted in heavy loss of lives.

  
  

  iii. Dismantling of Ndebele society. After the 1893 war there was a deliberate attempt to transform the whole structure of the Ndebele society, socially, politically and economically. The monarchy was abolished; the regimental towns were broken up and none of the Ndebele indunas was any longer recognized as an authority for the purpose of administration. The superior Ndebele caste, the Zanzi, was prevented from continuing to exert their authority over the Holi Caste by force.

  
  

  iv. BSA Company occupation of Matabeleland. The Ndebele lost their independence as the BSA Company occupied Matabeleland and established their rule.

  
  

  v. Loss of property. After the 1893 war the Ndebele lost nearly all their land and cattle. The whites who had defeated the Ndebele had been promised land and cattle, which they now got. The men who supported the Company in England were also rewarded with land grants.

  
  

  vi. Creation of reserves. There was displacement of people from their original homes. Two reserves were created for Africans. The Gwaai Reserve, which was short of water and was very unsuitable for cultivation or grazing and the Shangaan Reserve, which was infested with tse-tse fly. The Ndebele had the choice of either living in these reserves or becoming squatters on European farms where they would pay rent in produce or in labour to avoid eviction.

  
  

  vii. Introduction of forced labour. Forced labour, which had started in Mashonaland, was introduced in Matabeleland.

  
  

  Occupation and reaction in Angola

  
  

  The earliest Portuguese interests in Angola were limited to the coastal regions. Only their halfcaste slaving agents known as pombeiros ventured to the interior in search of slaves. And as long as the supply of slaves to the coast was adequate, the Portuguese were content with their hazy control of parts of Angola.

  
  

  Although Portugal was the most backward country in Europe economically, the forces of industrialism which were growing in Europe, Africa and America, and causing a greater scientific interest to be taken in the African hinterland, drove Portugal also to send out its explorers to probe into the continent of Africa. This started from the Angolan coast and the coast of Mozambique. This sort of activity was stimulated by the general ‘scramble for Africa’ and the competition with other European powers.

  
  

  Reasons for resistance

  
  

  When the Berlin Conference met in 1884-5 Portugal was given authority over Angola and Mozambique. The problem now immediately facing Portugal was the problem facing the other Europeans in Central Africa, namely, the establishment of political control over the areas which they claimed and the production of local commodities to Europe. This required a greater degree of control and oppression by the Portuguese in Angola. These primary resistance struggles were especially pronounced in the extreme south and the extreme north of Angola, where they lasted until the First World War.

  
  

  The Portuguese themselves admit the degree of resistance by the Angola peoples, when they speak of the endless wars of ‘pacification’ which they were forced to wage. Pacification of an area meant that the inhabitants had to work for the Portuguese in one way or another, mainly on construction projects, in obtaining rubber for export and in growing cash crops. With insufficient capital to allow for the payment of wages in a free labour market, the Portuguese favoured the continuation of forms of slave labour. In the face of increasing opposition from certain quarters in Portugal and elsewhere, the powerful slave – owning whites and mulattoes in Angola simply changed the designation from ‘slavery’ to ‘corrective labour’, which was punishment for so called ‘vagrancy’. Later, it became ‘contract labour’, which was rewarded with a small payment, but which was as inhuman as slavery. Angolans found contract labour hateful.

  
  

  In 1890-91, the Behe chief Ndunduma blocked the main route from Luanda to Barotseland before Portuguese soldiers and Afrikaners won a bloody war for the possession of his country. But the first great revolt of the modern era took place on the Bie plateau in 1902, and mainly involved Ilundo people. They were losing their lands to the Portuguese, and they were unable to carry on with their own agriculture because the men, who traditionally worked in the field doing this heavy labour, were conscripted to work for the Portuguese. The Bailundo revolt under Mutu ya Kevela exploded in 1902 as protest against the excesses that had accompanied the recruitment of labour. A number of white traders were killed and their stores destroyed. The Portuguese troops from Benguela and Mofamedes marched against the fighters and the revolt was suppressed with utmost brutality. Thousands of Africans lost their lives and their villages were burned. But while it was in progress, it put a stop to all commerce and greatly worried the Portuguese because it spread far into the interior. By the end of 1903, the Bailundo revolt was over.

  
  

  Elsewhere in Angola, Africans similarly resisted the establishment of colonial rule. In the South, the Cuanhama remained unsubdued between 1890 and 1910, during which time they inflicted a series of defeats upon successive Portuguese expeditions. In 1897 after they had refused to have their cattle vaccinated, Cuanhama warriors routed a Portuguese garrison. There was an interval of peace, but in 1904, the Cuanhama again attacked the Portuguese, persisting in their opposition until the Portuguese finally won a decisive victory over them near Rocades.

  
  

  Between 1907 and 1910, Portuguese troops from Luanda had meanwhile captured the powerful chiefs of the Dembos region – where a modern revolution erupted in 1961 – and gradually subdued their numerous recalcitrant followers.Sao Thome experienced an even more vicious form of contract labour. Angolan workers were transported there to grow cocoa and coffee, and of the thousands who went there supposedly on fiveyear contracts none were allowed to return. The Sao Thome’s contract labour, alias slavery, brought protests from Britain, Germany and the United States, which prevailed over the Portuguese to terminate this neo-slavery in 1917.
  

  
  

  But resistance of Angolan peoples to this system was even stronger than the international protest, especially in the Congo Province of Angola, where most of the Sao Thome’ workers were recruited by force. As early as 1913, fighting broke out in this region because of the export of labour and the armed protest continued until 1917. This confrontation is known, after the name of the leader, as the revolt of Tulante Bula.As we have already seen, secondary resistance took place, not at the point of the arrival of European occupation, but after they had long settled. A number of examples can be cited.

  
  

  Occupation and reaction in Ghana (Gold Coast)

  
  

  Asante has been variously described as an empire, a union, a confederation, a confusion that arises from the complex structure. The kingdom was founded in the latter half of the 17th Century, when a cluster of Akan speaking village states, lying in the forest country of central Ghana, formed a union, headed by the chiefs of Kumasi, to protect themselves against the attacks of their neighbours.
  

  
  

  A succession of inspiring leaders guided the Asante union to become the most powerful military force in the area. The Asante paramount came to be accepted by other Akan states, and even non-Akan states like Dagomba and Gonja to the north began to pay regular tribute to the Asantehene (the ruler of Asante). By the beginning of the 19thCentury at least twenty states were tributary to Kumasi.

  
  

  During the 18th Century the Asante confederation had expanded its empire into Fante-inhabited coastal area. In the following century the Asante persisted in their long-standing policy of attempting to trade directly with Europeans on the coast instead of through Fante middlemen. The Asante especially needed guns and powder both to defend their empire and to expand it, in exchange for gold and slaves. But they were concerned to maintain their hegemony over the small Fante states that adjoined the European trading settlements.

  
  

  The Fante, however, were determined to preserve or win back their independence from the Asante. Nineteenth century Fante was divided into many small states and this political disunity made it difficult for the Fante to resist Asante attacks. The Fante sought British assistance to protect themselves against Asante aggression. In 1844 a number of Fante rulers put their signatures to a document formally acknowledging British ‘power and jurisdiction’. The ‘Bond’ of 1844 simply gave British officials the right to sit as assistants in African courts to hear certain cases in Fanteland and did not necessarily place the Fante under British jurisdiction.
  

  
  

  At this time there were still several Dutch and Danish trading posts on the Gold Coast. By purchasing the Danish forts in 1850 and the Dutch in 1872, the British strengthened their hold on coastal areas, but by so doing they caused bitter resentment in Kumasi where the former Dutch fort of Elmina was regarded as being legally subject to Asante sovereignty, indeed owned by the Asante.

  
  

  Occupation and reaction in Sierra Leone, 1896

  
  

  Sierra Leone was founded in 1789 as a Colony for freed slaves. It was a small settlement with an exclusive ‘alien’ society, which initially had little contact with the hinterland. Two things compelled the British in the Colony of Sierra Leone to declare the hinterland of the present–day Republic a Protectorate in 1896. One was to protect and promote trade with the people of the interior of the colony and the other was to secure a peaceful atmosphere for trade in the interior. In agreeing to these appeals, Britain was influenced by two other factors. These were the expansion of the French sphere of influence and the territorial designs of Samori Toure. British action became imperative after the Berlin Conference of 1884-1885.

  
  

  In 1896, Governor Frederick Cardew (1894-1900) declared the interior a Protectorate, despite strong protests from the native kingdoms. The Protectorate was divided into five districts. Bordering on the Colony were three districts: Karene in the north-west, Ronietta in the West-Central, and Bandajuma to the South-East. Further in the interior were Panguma in the north-east and Koinadugu in the north.
  

  
  

  A white district officer placed over each district administered his territory with the help of members of the Frontier Police, who kept order and peace. Members of the Force in remote places occasionally appointed chiefs of their own choice. Doing this was contrary to the traditions of the people. The traditional rulers were generally given a measure of freedom of action in their own areas but only under surveillance of the white district officer.

  
  

  In 1898 disturbances began. These escalated into a war between the natives and the British. This armed conflict is referred to as the House (Hut) Tax War.

  
  

  Causes of the House Tax War, 1898

  
  

  The War of 1898 had long-term and short-term causes.

  
  

  (i) The Creoles had been resented for a long time. They had taken advantage of their privileged position and training to monopolise the middlemen’s trade in the interior. They had experienced the greatest impact of missionary activity, controlled the educational sector and excluded the indigenous people from its benefits. They also not only claimed a monopoly of foreign culture, but also openly condemned and despised traditional beliefs and practices. They spoke ‘Krio’, a language incomprehensible to the indigenous people, branded everything traditional ‘barbaric’, and exhibited a superiority complex never before seen in the hinterland.

  
  

  (ii) The Creoles also seemed to suffer from another kind of complex. The Frontier Police Force had been established in 1890, and the Creoles formed the bulk of it. But their background as ex-slaves or descendants of ex-slaves was made much of by the people of the interior and this made them uncomfortable. Because of their rejection they took to vengeance and bullied, looted and raped women in the interior. Resentment against them was almost universal.

  
  

  (iii) Furthermore, the people regarded the taking over of their territory as a Protectorate without their consent as a usurpation of their ancestral lands and sovereignty.
  

  
  

  (iv) To make matters worse, the British-appointed District Commissioners infringed on the traditional authority of the chiefs. The chiefs now being appointed had no traditional claim to chieftaincy, and their positions in fact became steadily debased. Any chief accused of ‘disrespect’ to his European or Creole superior was summarily tried, publicly flogged and imprisoned. The Frontier Police did not only take the law into their own hands, but they were also seen as agents of terrorism in the service of equally unacceptable alien rule.

  
  

  (v) Chiefs were at the same time banned from participation in criminal or civil cases. And since the District Commissioners were ignorant of customary law, many Africans were imprisoned in a manner that did not conform to their sense of justice.

  
  

  (vi) The administration itself was riddled with inefficiency and corruption. Owing to lack of personne. Some administrative powers were given to the Frontier Police, which was full of the hated and the hateful Creoles.

  
  

  (vii) Also causing resentment was a new land policy. In 1896 a land ordinance was passed, that all mineral rights would come under the Crown, and that waste, or uninhabited lands should be allocated to settlers. The land policy overlooked the fact that Africans lived on a shifting cultivation system and that the alien definition would dispossess them by embracing their land as ‘waste’. Alienation of their land in this manner greatly hurt the people.

  
  

  The war was ignited in 1898 by an incident which served as the immediate cause of the war. Having failed to get the British home government to pay for the cost of running the protectorate and not wishing to pass the cost on to the Colony budget, the Governor, Frederick Cardew, imposed an annual tax of between five and ten shillings on each household in the protectorate. Those who had no money could pay in kind with palm oil or rice. The people interpreted this to mean that henceforth they no longer owned the houses they themselves had built. How could they be asked to pay a tax as rent on their own houses, levied by an alien authority for the running of a Protectorate they had neither asked for nor needed?

  
  

  Cardew directed that collection of the tax should start with the three districts bordering on the Colony; this was to be extended to the remaining two districts in the remote hinterland in due course. The tax was imposed not only on the ‘natives’ but also on the Creoles owning houses in the Protectorate; but it was mainly the natives who openly opposed the levy. The harsh method of its collection by some of the Frontier Police added to the objections of the people. The tax was a symbol of their loss of sovereignty. The revolt which ensued in 1898 was a war to preserve their independence.

  
  

  Course of the war

  
  

  Dissatisfaction in the hinterland exploded into violence in 1898. But at first the chiefs of the Temne in the North tried peaceful methods of protest. They petitioned the colonial government. A delegation spent some time in Freetown for the purpose. When their protests were unheeded, they had no other way open to them but submission, or violence. The House Tax became the climax and symbol of all their grievances.Armed resistance started first at Port Loko, among the Temne, led by the local ruler Bai Bureh (Kebelai’s official title as chief of Kasseh in the land of Temne).
  

  
  

  In February 1898, the British tried to collect House Tax at Port Loko, not far from Bai Bureh’s capital. The people refused, and Bai Bureh was blamed for this. Troops were sent to arrest him, but they could not withstand the local people’s resistance. The other Temne states came to the aid of Bai Bureh, who continued to conduct guerrilla warfare against the British for nearly a year. Reinforcements were sent from Freetown. Eventually the troops defeated Bai Bureh and his men. The resistance broke down when a newly recruited force, the West African Regiment, containing men who were familiar with West African conditions, replaced the original (black) West Indian Regiment.
  

  
  

  Eventually Bai Bureh was arrested and exiled to Ghana. He was allowed to return to his native land in 1905 and shortly after that. The situation in the South was much worse. The Mende, Vai, Loko, Bulom and Susu people also took up arms against the collection of the Tax. They attacked all people whom they considered enemies; whites and Creoles. The Mende who aped European culture were also slaughtered. The Creoles’ list of the dead was recorded at 1,000. In Ronietta and Bandjuma Districts there were hardly any rules concerning the method of collecting the tax.

  
  

  The Frontier Police resorted to vandalism in order to enforce payment. Having planned resistance secretly within the Poro Society, the Mende and others rose against the oppressive measures. Not having a leader of Bai Bureh’s calibre, the Mende were not organized or united. In consequence their resistance was quickly broken. Several hundreds of the leaders were tried and about 96 were hanged.

  
  

  Consequences of the war

  
  

  The House Tax War affected the history of what became to be known as the Protectorate in several ways:
  

  
  

  (i) Defeat of the natives led to loss of their ancestral independence, but heavy loss of lives, among the natives and among the Creoles who because of their dual position, were mistrusted both by the British officials and the Africans alike. The callous methods of the Frontier Police also resulted in considerable loss of property.

  
  

  (ii) The British victimised many of the local rulers who led the resistance movement. Many of them were executed. Others were removed from their chieftaincy. They were replaced by leaders loyal to the British. Some of these loyal leaders were elevated to higher positions in society.

  
  

  (iii) Governor Cardew proceeded with levying the offending tax. The Colonial Office in London sent out a special Commissioner, Sir David Charmers, to study the causes of the war and also to advise whether or not the House Tax should be stopped. He stated in his report that the cause of the war was the Tax, and recommended that it should be abolished. Governor Cardew prepared a counter-report and insisted that the tax must continue, first because without the tax there would be no money to run and develop the Protectorate, as both the home government and the Colony government were unprepared to shoulder the cost of running the Protectorate, and second, if the tax were abolished, it would harm the prestige of the British as the people might think such an action to be victory. After the war Governor Cardew marched the West African Regiment through the countryside to give a demonstration of British strength.

  
  

  (iv) The influence of the Creoles declined, for the British blamed them for many of the troubles. Hitherto they had been placed in various positions of responsibility in the colonial administration. From 1898, the colonial authorities mistrusted them and not only removed many of them from high positions but stopped the further appointments of Creoles. The new emphasis was in employing mainly British Officials in the interior.

  
  

  (v) The development of the Protectorate separate from the Colony meant that two sets of people were living under the same colonial power based in Freetown. Laws meant for the Protectorate were made from the Colony. Not unnaturally the Creoles in the Colony began for different, but additional reasons, to feel superior to the people in the ‘provinces’, a situation which only changed after Sierra Leone achieved independence.

  
  

  Mwanga’s Revolt, 1897

  
  

  The previous three years had seen Mwanga try to be submissive to British rule. He felt that during this time he had suffered unbearable political frustration in the new British administrative system, which had left him only with a title – real authority being held by the two Christian Katikiros, Chief Justice and Treasurer. He could bear this no more and decided to act.

  
  

  On 6th July 1897, he escaped from his capital to raise a revolt against the young British administration. He fled to Buddu, in southwest Buganda – an area not yet influenced by the British – and got immediate support. Quite surprisingly, in Kampala and other counties, if anybody supported Mwanga, he did not show it very enthusiastically. The two Christian Katikiros studied the situation carefully, and decided to throw in their lot with Britain, a move that was as opportunistic as it was grateful, for unlike the Kabaka and his men who had lost power with the establishment of British control, Christian leaders had all gained power. In Buddu, Mwanga was defeated and fled to German East Africa (Tanganyika).

  
  

  The Acting Commissioner, Col Trevor Ternan, officially deposed the Kabaka and called leading chiefs to Kampala to proclaim, according to tradition, the accession of Mwanga’s infant son, Daudi Chwa. Three regents were appointed to help the new Kabaka: Apolo Kagwa (senior Katikiro), Stanislaus Mugwanya (senior Catholic chief), and Zachary Kisingiri (senior Protestant Chief).

  
  

  The senior regent, Apolo Kagwa, created for himself such a position of authority by his co-operation with the Protectorate Administration, coupled with the strength of his character, that Buganda never became united under its Kabaka until after Kagwa’s death. Mwanga, meanwhile, escaped from his exile early in 1898 and sought refuge with his former enemy, Kabalega, north of the Nile among the Lango.

  
  

  The two former rulers were betrayed and captured in April 1899 and in due course deported to Kismayu and then to Seychelles. In exile, Kabalega, whose opposition to the foreigners had been mostly persistent, became a Christian. He was baptised John and was allowed to return to Uganda. He died in Jinja in1923 before he could reach Bunyoro. Mwanga died in exile in the Seychelles.

  
  

  Revolt by the Sudanese troops, 1897

  
  

  The revolt by the Sudanese troops was the next disturbance of the late 1890s. This was not necessarily resistance against the establishment of British rule – as Kabalega’s and Mwanga’s had been – but a reaction by the troops to the treatment they got from the British. Those involved were those who had participated in the campaign against Mwanga.

  
  

  Almost immediately after this campaign the troops had been ordered to march to Eldama Ravine to be led by Major Macdonald for the purpose of countering the rumoured advance by the French towards the Upper Nile. The Sudanese troops reached Eldama Ravine but once there refused to proceed farther. They mutinied for four main reasons. Firstly, their salary was in arrears. This had been occasioned by the difficulty in obtaining adequate supplies of cloth, which formed normal currency in East Africa. Secondly, they had not been allowed to bring with them the women who normally accompanied them to minister to their comfort on long marches. Thirdly, they were not willing to come under the command of Major Macdonald. They knew he despised them and had mistreated their former leader Selim Bey.
  

  
  

  Finally, they felt unnecessarily and inhumanly overworked. They had fought a year-long war in the campaign against Kabalega in Bunyoro. They had then been sent east against the Tugen and the Nandi of the Rift Valley. Soon afterwards they were brought back to suppress Mwanga’s revolt. Then they were ordered east again to Eldama Ravine in the Rift Valley to escort Major Macdonald, whom they hated, to some unknown place.
  

  
  

  They were tired.Having unsuccessfully stated their case, the troops retreated to Lubwa’s in Busoga where they were welcomed by the Sudanese garrison who had already seized three British officials. The mutineers were hotly pursued by Macdonald and there followed a long siege of Lubwa’s during the early stages of which the three imprisoned officials were killed. The Muslims in Kampala did not take advantage of the fluid state of affairs to stage a revolt, mainly because of the refusal of their leader Mbogo to break his word with Lugard.
  

  
  

  The Christian Baganda, on the other hand rallied to the aid of the Protectorate authorities. Under the leadership of Apolo Kagwa, the senior Katikiro, a large force marched to Lubwa’s to take part in the siege. Many lost their lives in the skirmishes which took place outside the stockade.

  
  

  Early in January 1898 the mutineers made good their escape and after a fierce engagement with pursuing forces, the survivors took refuge north of the Nile where some of them joined Kabalega. They caused no further trouble, but were subsequently followed into the swamps beyond Lake Kyoga in 1901 and dispersed.

  
  

  Results and significance of the revolts

  
  

  The rebellion by the Sudanese troops had two important results. First, the loyalty of the Christian Baganda demonstrated clearly the allegiance of the leading chiefs to the new authority of Britain. Second was the reaction in Britain of prolonged military operations in Uganda.

  
  

  Considerable sums of money had to be sent by Britain to assist in putting down the revolts. the expenditure of this money convinced the British Government that a more decisive policy was necessary in the Protectorate. Consequently, in 1899 Sir Harry Johnston was appointed a Special Commissioner to go to Uganda and to make recommendations on the future administration of the protectorate.

  
  

  He was especially to investigate how the resources of the Protectorate could be so developed as to relieve the financial burden upon Britain. Johnston’s detailed deliberations with Baganda chiefs resulted in the famous Buganda Agreement of 1900, which formalized the system of indirect rule in the Kingdom.

  
  

  The Buganda Agreement, 1900

  
  

  The Buganda Agreement established indirect rule system in Buganda. Similar arrangements were reached with Toro and Ankole, and ‘Buganda Model’ seemed to be the method the British were set to use in ruling Uganda. Buganda Model comprised two aspects: the traditional structure of government in Buganda, and the British claim to be the overruling power above this structure. The Agreement dealt with three main issues:

  
  

  (i) Administrative structure: The government of the Kingdom of Buganda was vested in the Kabaka and specified Baganda officials or chiefs, subject to the supervision of the British Administration in the Protectorate of Uganda. The Kabaka would continue to rule, but with the help of the British Commissioner and the Lukiko. He was given the title ‘His Highness’ and was to be helped by three ministers: the Katikiro (Prime Minister), the Obulamuzi (Chief Justice) and the Omuwanika (Finance Minister). The Lukiko was now to work as a legislature and as Buganda’s court of appeal. For the first time its membership was fixed at 3 ministers, 20 saza chiefs, 60 notables and 6 additional persons appointed by the Kabaka. Buganda itself would now be a province of the Protectorate.

  
  

  (ii) Taxation: There was to be a hut-tax of 3 rupees per year. This was to be collected by the Baganda chiefs and ministers, who would be paid for their services. Taxes collected in the kingdom were to be remitted to the Protectorate government. In return, no further taxation would be levied without the Kabaka’s permission.

  
  

  (iii) Land settlement: Half the land in Buganda was made Crown Land, in other words, property of the British government. The remainder of the land was to be divided by the Lukiko into square miles (mailos) and given to the Kabaka and his family, ministers and chiefs. They were all given freehold titles of land, meaning they would own the land forever – a departure from the past practices where land was held at the pleasure of the Kabaka, never permanently.

  
  

  The Maji Maji War, 1905-7

  
  

  The Germans had been in Tanzania since the previous century when Maji Maji broke out against them.

  
  

  Causes of Maji Maji

  
  

  Maji Maji was caused by the following three main factors:

  
  

  (i) The cotton programme

  The principal cause of Maji Maji war was cotton. For centuries before 1905, Tanganyika’s centre of gravity had lain in the south, first in the wealth of Kilwa, then much later in the new military states of the Sangu and the Hehe. Largely, the German government had first directed its programme to the highland settlement areas of the north, but by 1900, this programme seemed to have failed. Desperately in need of revenue, the government turned to a policy of African cash crop agriculture, and for this they naturally looked to the south. In 1902, Governor Adolf von Gotzen announced the adoption of a programme – borrowed from Togo in West Africa – of compulsory cotton cultivation. This was not by individual African farmers but on communal neighbourhood fields, one at the headquarters of each recognized headman (jumbe). He ordered that every jumbe and akida establish a cotton plot where all his people would come to work. The arrangement was that when cotton was finally sold, the workers, the akida and the government would share the profits equally.
  

  
  

  The programme failed. It was marred by the hardship faced by those involved. Workers in the plantations were a compelled, rather than a willing and voluntary force. Labour was controlled with brutal force and there was little motivation. The soil was unsuitable so it produced poor crops. The marketing system broke down. Subordinate officials pocketed the little cash earned before it reached the producers. Few if any peasants received any payments at all in the first two years. The Zaramo workers refused the 35 cents they were each offered at the end of the first year’s work. The whole scheme created very strong incentives for a revolt among the Wamatumbi, Zaramo and other peasants in the south. Essentially, then, Maji Maji was a revolt against the government which was interfering incompetently with the way in which farmers grew their crops and managed their land.

  
  

  (ii) The Advent of Arab Akidas

  Forced cultivation of unprofitable cash crops was a widespread grievance in southern Tanzania, but it was not the only one. There were peculiarities in certain areas. The Wamatumbi, for example, hated the Arab Akidas and the askaris whom the Germans set over them. Up to now the Wamatumbi had successfully rejected Arab influence by barring them from entering Matumbi. Under German colonial administration, Arabs were employed as akidas and assigned, especially at the coast to administer. Thus in Matumbi there were Arab akidas at Kibata, Chumo, Miteja, Kinjumbi and Samanga.

  
  

  The tragedy of this arrangement was that the Arabs had now been given an opportunity to rule a people who for years had frustrated their commercial and political efforts. There was much abuse of power as vengeance reigned high. People were seized and reduced to slaves. Backed by the askaris the Arab akidas’ conduct in Matumbi could not go on forever. The brutality with which the akida were handled when the explosion against the German administration finally occurred was a reflection of their own conduct towards the people

  
  

  (iii) Outrageous conduct of German officials

  The German officials handled their African subjects with extreme brutality. On the slightest excuse the new rulers resorted to public flogging, or even killing of their subjects. They imposed a house (hut) tax, which was collected with excessive force. Apart from the common grievances which they shared with the other tribes, Wangindos’ major complaint concerned the habit of German officials and especially that of their mercenaries and househelps, sleeping with their wives in circumstances which were a flagrant affront to Ngindo husbands. Their behaviour was punishable by war against the offender. The Wangindo were left with no alternative but to fight the Germans.

  
  

  Organisation and course of the war

  
  

  The Germans had defeated every tribe that had resisted their invasion during the l9th century. The tribes were small and divided. Besides, they had no weapons to match the rifles of the German troops. Now in the 20th Century, the people knew what they wanted to do, but waited and suffered, conscious of their disunity and the military strength of their rulers. Then, in the year 1904, a prophet arose. His name was Kinjikitile Ngwale.

  
  

  Near his home at Ngarambe there was a pool in a tributary of the River Rufiji. Kinjikitile claimed that the spirit, Hongo, who dwelt in the pool had possessed him.Kinjikitile taught that Africans were one and that his medicine - the maji of the rising’s name - was stronger than European weapons. His teaching spread among the people living around the River Rufiji. It reached the Matumbi through a whispering campaign they called Njwiywila (or ‘Jujila’). Njwiywila was a secret communication from one person to another that at a place called Ngarambe, a powerful medicineman who could make white men more vulnerable had emerged. It was further added that ancestors had not died but were looked after by God. They would be shown to those who went to Ngarambe.Pilgrimages to Ngarambe followed quickly upon the phase of Njwiywila in early 1905.

  
  

  At Ngarambe, Kinjikitile, who had assumed the title Bokero (intermediary between men and the spirit), gave them the medicine against German weapons and committed them to war. The medicine consisted of a mixture of millet flour in water, and was smeared or sprinkled on the forehead of the prospective fighter. Sometimes he only drank the water. From the beginning, Kinjikitile Ngwale’s message promised aid against European rule. As the people flocked to Ngarambe, so the militancy of the movement grew. Finally, sometime during 1905, Kinjikitile sent representatives through the surrounding country to mobilise and train the people for war. He promised them protection against European weapons. He offered them leadership, organization, and unity.
  

  
  

  But he required that all the pilgrims, get the medicine, go back, and continue to work for the Germans and wait until he gave appropriate orders to start fighting. By July 1905 no order had come, and the Wamatumbi became impatient and began to look for ways of provoking the Germans.They decided to uproot a few cotton shoots from the Jumbe’s plantation. The Jumbe reported the incident to the Akida at Kibata. Messengers sent by the Akida to investigate were rudely turned back and pursued. Before they arrived back the Wamatumbi forced them into the first engagement at Matumbi Hills on 31July 1905. The Maji Maji wars had begun. On that night the revolt claimed its first five victims. One was a German planter named Hopfer.

  
  

  He was 28 years old, and he was killed with an axe, somewhere in the bush near Mtumbei Chini, forty miles west of Kilwa. The others were the four men of the Matumbi people whom Hopfer is said to have shot as they closed in on him.The news spread rapidly among the people of the Rufiji Valley who had already heard Kinjikitile’s message. This was harvesting time, but the Pogoro of Kitope refused to pick cotton. They burnt cotton in the fields in many areas of southern Tanzania.
  

  
  

  The town of Samanga was looted and burnt to the ground. Akidas, Jumbes and those who worked for the Europeans were attacked viciously. Early in August the people of Kichi, southern Uzaramo, western Uluguru, and Ungindo joined the war. The Germans were completely taken by surprise and were ill-prepared for this mass explosion. The Governor ordered reinforcements from Germany and other parts of German Africa. By November 1905, a systematic and ruthless suppression of the movement had begun. Some African communities joined the Germans against their fellow Africans, considerably boosting German military strength.

  
  

  The Hehe were an example; they supported the Germans because their traditional enemies, the Pogoro, Mbunga, Sagara and Ngoni were fighting against the Germans. In 1905, Kiwanga, the chief of Mahenge joined the German side in gratitude for their help against Mkwawa in the 1890s. Maji Maji leaders were executed, or escaped into Mozambique. Towards the end of 1906, and by the beginning of 1907, the movement was dead.

  
  

  Reasons for failure of Maji Maji

  
  

  Maji Maji failed for four main reasons:

  
  

  • The German troops were better trained and better equipped. African fighters were armed with a religious belief in their invincibility to German rifles and cannons, and with the traditional African weapons at the time – spears, shields and clubs. The Germans overcame both types of weapons rapidly.

  
  

  • It was through the maji ideology that the leaders of the Maji Maji were able to be united and to secure the highest degree of mass commitment from a vastly diversified people spread out over a vast region. But as violence and insecurity caused by German counter-offensive tested the loyalties of the participants, the ancient ties of kinship proved stronger than the maji ideology. The peasant revolt disintegrated into a tribal and a clan guerrilla war.
  

  
  

  • Maji Maji lacked a unified command, and clear and united fighting plans. True, it produced many able guerrilla commanders: Abdalla Mapanda in Nachingwea; Selemani Mamba in Mwera; Digalu Kabasila in Maheromangu; and Chebruma Hanga in Songea. Yet none of these emerged as a genuinely charismatic revolutionary leader able to appeal beyond his people. The Germans therefore took full advantage of this leadership gap and defeated them one by one.

  
  

  • The harshness and cruelty of the Germans was excessive. They were merciless and destroyed crops and homes, so that people starved and had nowhere to live. Thus weakened, the people were unable to sustain their revolt.

  
  

  Consequences of Maji Maji

  
  

  Maji Maji had a number of short-time consequences:

  
  

  (i.) Destruction and devastation. The immediate consequences of the rising were tragic. The German forces left behind a trail of destruction and devastation that led to three years of the most terrible famine. This was the period known as Fugafuga, when survivors took to eating insects and wild fruit. Villages had been destroyed and families broken up. It has been estimated that 75,000 Africans died as a result of the fighting and the famine.

  
  

  (ii.) Inadequacies of religious organisation. Maji Maji taught the Africans that the religious unity that had enabled them to fight together was not enough. Their weapons were weak compared to those of the Germans, and they needed better organisation. The Africans realized that armed resistance was no use; instead better methods had to be found. In addition to organisation, they were to learn the importance of leadership in any campaign against oppressive foreign rule.

  
  

  (iii.) Reforms of GovernorCount Freiherr von Rechenberg. The German government had also learnt a lesson. They had defeated the Africans but it had not been easy. They realised the need for better rule in their colony. They had to take their colony more seriously, and treat the Africans better. The German government appointed a new and more understanding governor. His name was Count Freiherr von Rechenberg (1906 – 12). Rechenberg was an extremely able administrator who knew the colony well, since he had served there as a judge (1893) and had also been German Consul in Zanzibar (1896 – 1900). He had mastered the Swahili language. He believed that the interests of the native inhabitants should not be subordinated to those of the white settlers. He strongly opposed the indiscriminate use of the whip and insisted that corporal punishment should be inflicted only by due process of law.

  
  

  Thus the period after Maji Maji was a peaceful era of reform and development. As a result, the Africans became firm allies of the Germans and they cooperated with them during the First World War in 1914. This surprised the British who had thought that the people of Tanganyika loathed the Germans. There were too, long-term consequences of Maji Maji. The revolt has come to be regarded as the national epic of the people of Tanzania. When Germany lost the War in 1918, the Germans were expelled from East Africa. The newly founded League of Nations took over the territories of the defeated nation. Tanganyika was mandated to Britain. Similarly Rwanda and Burundi were ‘given’ to Belgium.

  
  

  Activity 5.3

  In groups of ten, use the available resources such as the Internet and books in the library to find out the reforms that were introduced by Governor Count Freiherr von Rechenberg in Tanganyika after the Maji Maji Rebellion.

  How were the reforms helpful to the native people?

  
  

  The Shona-Ndebele (Chimurenga) War, 1896 –1897

  
  

  The Shona-Ndebele war, otherwise known as the Chimurenga, broke out in March 1896 between the Ndebele and the British. The Shona joined the Ndebele in the war in June of the same year

  
  

  Causes of the Shona-Ndebele War

  
  

  The Chimurenga war was caused by a number of factors:

  
  

  (i) Loss of independence: The Ndebele were displeased by the British taking over political control over Matabeleland and denying their traditional leaders power to control the region. They wanted to regain their independence.

  
  

  (ii) Loss of land: It had always been the chiefs’ right to allocate land in Mashonaland. Native land was alienated by the white settlers, the BSA Company or by mission stations, without the chiefs’ permission. The whites claimed that Lobengula had granted land in Mashonaland, and that the Company therefore had the right to allocate it. But the Shona chiefs did not regard themselves as subjects of Lobengula. One of the most cherished chiefly rights was the right to allocate land. This right was now threatened. Meanwhile, the BSA Company took away all the good land and created poor reserves for the Ndebele people.
  

  
  

  (iii) Loss of cattle: The issue of cattle also caused considerable distress to the Ndebele. There had been some 250,000 heads of cattle in Ndebele hands before the 1893 war. The ndembele cattlewere shared among the Volunteers, police, taken as BSA Company property while others were rustled into South Africa by white adventurers. The Ndebele were allowed to keep only 40,930 heads of cattle, and most of these were given to senior indunas and not to the younger men, which showed a total disregard of Ndebele customs. This increased Ndebele resentment.
  

  
  

  (iv) Unpopular veterinary policies: The loss of cattle after the rinderpest outbreak in 1895 led to a decision by the BSA Company to shoot and burn animals to prevent the spread of disease. This decision annoyed the Ndebele.

  
  

  (v) Interference with Shona trade: The Shona were unhappy with the British interference with their trade in gold-dust and ivory with the Portuguese in return for cheap goods at the coast. The trade was valuable because it provided guns, and it gave the chief the means of wealth and hospitality. Now, however, the Company sought to replace the Portuguese as Shona’s trading partners but was interested only in European gold mining, not in buying gold from the Africans, and tried to stop the sale of gold-dust by African merchants from the Zambezi. The Shona were only allowed to buy goods from South Africa, which were more expensive than the Portuguese articles.

  
  

  (vi) Shona suspicion with intentions of the whites: The Shona increasingly grew suspicious of the true intentions of BSA Company men. When the whites first came the chiefs thought they would stay as their subjects, and that their stay was temporary. Each chief was seeking for temporary white allies to balance the allies his rival might manage to recruit. But gradually people began to realize that the whites intended to stay – and they intended to make the chiefs their subjects instead of allies.

  
  

  (vii) Forced labour: The Native Commissioner in each district was given the power to force chiefs to provide labour for mines and farms. Working conditions were deplorable. The system was no better than slavery. All able-bodied men had to work, whether they were Ndebele aristocrats or their former slaves. This naturally caused dissatisfaction among the zansi or Ndebele aristocrats. Employers and Native Commissioners used the sjambok (a kind of whip). Punishments were often threatened just before payday, so that workers would run away before they had received their wages.

  
  

  (viii) Hut-tax: The Company administration introduced and demanded a hut-tax among the Shona in 1894. The meaning of this demand to the Shona was that they were being asked to submit to the whites when they had neither been conquered nor disarmed. The demand for tax was resented because it was regarded as the greatest threat yet to the political independence of the chiefs; its collection usually took the form of brutal raids and seizure of the Shona cattle and sheep instead of money, which the Shona did not have; and it was introduced abruptly, Jameson leaving its collection to Native Commissioners who were young, inexperienced and often dishonest. The Shona resentment blossomed into Chimurenga.

  
  

  (ix) Law and punishment: The whites began to assume the right to punish the subjects of the Shona chiefs, thus usurping the chiefs’ powers. They did this brutally, frequently using the sjambok. Lendy of the Victoria Incident fame killed Chief Ngomo and twenty-two others after goods had been stolen from a farmer called Bennett. Lendy was promoted and Jameson applauded his action. The Shona began to adopt a hostile attitude to the whites.
  

  
  

  (x) Humiliation and social suffering by the Ndebele: The Ndebele suffered socially. The military towns were broken up and the age regiment system abolished. Indunas lost their power. Not only were the whites themselves arrogant to the Ndebele, but by appointing Shona police to work in Ndebele areas, they gave the Shona a chance to get their own back on the Ndebele after several decades of suppression. The Ndebele could not take it anymore.

  
  

  (xi) The role of the native police among the Shona: The Chiefs found their authority challenged by the new Native Police. These police were either recruited outside the district or from among servants or semi-slaves of the chiefs, the so-called Vanyai. They had been quick to switch over to Europeans either for refuge or because they wanted European goods and were among the first to join the native police force, welcoming an opportunity for revenge on their former masters. The police were a greedy lot and thought they had a right to everything they came across. In the eyes of the Shona, the conduct of the Europeans, whose direct agents and reflection the police were, could not be distinguished from that of the hated Ndebele.
  

  
  

  (xii) Natural disasters: Natural disasters like famine, drought, locust invasion and diseases like rinderpest and smallpox were given religious interpretation. They believed that the god, Mwari of both the Shona and Ndebele was unhappy with British occupation. Indeed, the Mwari cult ultimately played a crucial role in Chimurenga.

  
  

  (xiii) Disregard for the Ndebele customs: The British disregarded Ndebele customs. Especially irksome was their attitude towards the Ndebele class system, which they ignored. They treated everybody equally including the Holi caste who were traditionally slaves to the Ndebele.

  
  

  (xiv) Opportunity in the Jameson Raid of 1896: The Jameson Raid on the Transvaal provided a unique opportunity for the Chimurenga. In January 1896, Dr. Jameson led a party of Mashonaland Police to the Transvaal. His aim was to overthrow the Transvaal government under Paul Kruger for Cecil Rhodes. However, the Jameson Raid was a complete debacle for the British and quite instructive to the Ndebele. It taught the Ndebele the valuable lesson that the British, after all, were not invincible. Jameson was recalled back to Britain as a result, and with him and his police out of the country, the Ndebele had the chance they had been waiting for.

  
  

    

  
  

  
  

  Results of the Shona-Ndebele War

  
  

  The Ndebele and Shona had fought against a common enemy in unexpected unity that adherence to the Mwari cult had partly been responsible for. The results of the Chimurenga war include the following:
  

  
  

  (i)Split in Ndebele unity. In Matabeleland the leaders of the older group decided to treat for peace while the younger generation was determined to continue fighting. This disagreement brought the unity of the fighters to an end.

  
  

  (ii)High cost of war and Rhodes’ quest for peace with the Ndebele. Over 130 Europeans and Africans were killed. Rhodes had been told by General Carrington that to win his war, he would have to build a railway to Bulawayo and bring up 6,000 troops from South Africa. This would cost the Company £5 million. Rhodes was also faced with the prospect of losing the Company’s charter if war continued. He wanted peace, and personally went to the hills to negotiate with Ndebele leaders. He waited for six weeks in the foothills of the Matopos before the indunas would agree to meet him. Rhodes listened to their grievances. The indunas said they wanted the Shona police to be disbanded and the Ndebele headmen to be given some power.

  
  

  (iii)Rhodes’ promises. Rhodes promised the Ndebele that the administration would be reformed and the Ndebele would be allowed to come out of the hills and settle down in their pre-1893 land. Some of the resistance leaders would be given official posts and paid a salary as recognized indunas. There would be no victimization of the Ndebele or of their leaders. No Shona police would be used in Matabeleland without the authority of the Ndebele.

  
  

  (vi)Results for the Ndebele. Many of these promises were actually kept and the terms were some kind of victory for the Ndebele. Indeed, some of the most respected leaders of the rising did become recognized indunas and were paid salaries for their services; they were therefore able to give their people some leadership within the new system. This is how Umlugulu, the Ndebele leader in the war, became an induna of the Gwanda district. Indeed, some Ndebele were posted to help in administrative duties in Mashonaland. But the Mwari and Mhondoro priests were punished for their part in the rising: Siginyamatshe for instance was sentenced to twelve years hard labour. But Mkwati who had been the backbone of the spiritual unity of the Ndebele, escaped, and with his help, the war spread to Mashonaland. He was largely responsible for the refusal of the Shona to treat for peace.

  
  

  (v)Results for the Shona.When the Ndebele treated for peace, the Shona continued the war. They were hunted down and killed throughout 1897. After the capture of their religious leaders, chiefs Kakubi and Nehanda, most of them surrendered unconditionally. Their chiefs were given no terms and no promises. Many of them were put on trial for murder and hanged. The result was that Shona chiefs no longer appeared as leaders of their people in the old sense; the indunas lost their positions, land and authority, in contrast to Ndebele chiefs some of whose positions were recognised. Most of the Shona retired in acceptance of complete defeat.

  
  

  (vi) British government indictment of BSA Company. All in all, the events of 1897 had been very damaging to the image of the new administration. The BSA Company was discredited abroad, both for its Jameson Raid debacle in the Transvaal and its Rhodesian conduct. The Rhodesian white population was blamed for its various acts of oppression and regarded as a dangerous and irresponsible community.

  
  

  (vii)Erosion of traditional beliefs. The risings had been a political war to evict the white man. But the Mwari or Mlimo Cult had played a leading religious role in strengthening the fighters. The defeat of the risings was therefore, a serious blow to the people’s confidence in the tribal spirits in the face of modern weaponry and organization. Some even became Christian in protest. Here in the risings then, was the beginning of the slow process of erosion of traditional beliefs and customs.

  
  

  (viii)Confiscation of cattle. The Company confiscated a lot of cattle from the Shona and Ndebele as compensation for losses incurred during the war. These were given to white volunteers who had participated in the war.

  
  

  (ix)Advent of famine. Africans were exposed to severe famine because the war discouraged agricultural activities. The Ndebele were given one million bags of maize as relief food from South Africa.

  
  

  (x) Improvement in tax policy. There was improvement in the tax policies for the Africans; a tax reduction on the Shona and Ndebele from £2 to £1 was introduced.

  
  

  (xi) Division of the country. The country was divided up into districts and the Ndebele and the Shona were settled in different areas so that they could not unite again against the British.
  

  
  

  
  

  Collaboration

  
  

  Activity 5.4

  In groups of three. Using the Internet,textbooks and other sources of historical information;

  
  

  1. Explain collaboration in relation to colonisation using relevant examples.

  2. Find out the forms of collaborations.

  3. Give the reasons for collaboration.

  4. Find out the consequences of collaboration.

  5. Compile an essay on the various aspects of collaboration.

  6. Discuss your findings in a class presentation

  
  

  Types of collaboration

  
  

  The use of violent methods might have been prevalent, but in some areas, African cooperation was obtained by dangling various attractions before them. However, that even in such areas, Africans hoped that cooperation would ensure, rather than diminish their independence. Below are examples of the various ways African communities collaborated with the European colonialists.

  
  

  The Wanga collaboration

  
  

  Mumia, the Nabongo (King) of Wanga had developed a liking for foreigners from an early date. Arab and Swahili caravans in search of ivory and slaves had found hospitality with Mumia. His country lay in the main coast-Uganda route. When the IBEA Company discovered Mumia’s unending friendliness, they built a station at Lureko (Mumias).
  

  
  

  On British Government takeover in 1895, the station became the headquarters for Western Kenya, until 1920 when it was transferred to Kakamega. Mumia collaborated for four main reasons. Firstly, he wanted the British to help him against his enemies; the Luo of Ugenya and the Bukusu. Secondly, he realized the futility of resisting the British especially after learning of the defeat of the Bukusu and Nandi. Mumia had also heard of Baganda having fallen to the British. He also realized his community was small and ill-equipped to face the British.

  
  

  Thirdly, he wanted to expand his territory and the military support of the British would come in handy. Finally, collaboration was not new to Mumia. He had initially welcomed Swahili and Arabs and was thus on very friendly grounds as this was an old habit.
  

  
  

  For their part, the British found friendship with Mumia sensible. From Nabongo’s capital at Mumias, expeditions were sent against the neighbouring communities between about 1894 and 1906. The expeditions were largely composed of Baganda and Sudanese soldiers in the service of the British administration in Uganda.
  

                                            

  
  

  Throughout, however, Mumia’s fighters joined them. By 1906, military expeditions had been successfully completed against the Nandi, Nyang’ori, Sotik, Luo (Ugenya, Sakwa and Seme) and the northern Luyia (Bukusu and Banyala).

  
  

  Results of Wanga collaboration

  
  

  Collaboration worked well for both the Wanga and the British in various ways as follows:

  
  

  • In recognition of his services and loyalty, Mumia was made a Paramount Chief in 1909. His position was thus strengthened as he was consulted over appointment of headmen and chiefs in the region of western Kenya up to 1920. Indeed, his brothers and relatives were sent as chiefs and headmen to many areas throughout Western Kenya. For instance, his step brother Murunga was appointed chief of Isukha and Idakho. These appointments were resented by the communities over which the chiefs ruled.

  
  

  • Elureko became administrative headquarters of the British in western region.

  
  

  • Mumias became a major trading centre; it was a resting point for traders en route to Uganda. This position was only taken over by Kisumu after 1901.
  

  
  

  • Mumia and his subjects got material wealth like clothes, fire arms and bicycles, for the Wanga co-operation. Mumia’s step brother, Murunga, became the first Wanga to own a bicycle.

  
  

  The Maasai collaboration

  
  

  The Maasai are a Nilotic speaking community. They occupied an area stretching from the Uasin Gishu plateau in the north to the plains around Mount Meru in Tanzania to the south. From AD 1750, they were the dominant group in the Rift Valley. Organised and strong militarily, the Maasai were a constant threat to their neighbours whom they raided for cattle at will. The caravan traders avoided Maasai country for they spared no strangers on their land. When in the late 19thCentury the British appeared on the scene, it was expected that the Maasai would put up a stiff resistance against them. But they did not, and instead became one of the best examples of Kenyan

  
  

  Reasons for collaboration

  
  

  This response can be explained by five main factors:
  

  
  

  (i) Effects of the rise of the Nandi. The rise of the Nandi from the 1850s adversely affected Maasai power. They began raiding the same communities for cattle which were traditionally Maasai raiding grounds. The Nandi even successfully raided the Uasin Gishu Maasai. Second, at the time of the British penetration of Kenya the Maasai were economically and politically in a state of decline. The civil wars of the 19th Century had destroyed whole sections of the Maasai including the Uasin Gishu, the Ngurumaini, the Iloogolala and the Losegallai. From 1889 to 1890, cattle diseases spread to Maasailand, especially rinderpest and pleuro-pneumonia.

                            

  
  

  (ii) Drought of 1891. In 1891 there was drought and famine with smallpox and cholera, further reducing both human and animal populations. As a result of these calamities, many Maasai joined up with Kikuyu and Akamba neighbours. Others sold their women and children to neighbouring peoples. Still others became mercenaries, especially in the armies of Mumia and Akamba. The Maasai were no longer as strong as they used to be.

  
  

  (iii) Succession disputes. In 1890, Mbatiany, the great Laibon of the Purko and Rift Valley Maasai, died. Although a laibon by tradition was only a ritual expert and prophet, Mbatiany had also gained political power in the civil wars. Thus the position of laibon was still politically attractive when Mbatiany died, but there was no one of his stature to succeed him, and his two sons, Lenana and Sendeyo both claimed and disputed the position of laibon for ten years. Sendeyo was finally driven with his followers to the Loita region of northern Tanzania. But he never gave up and continued raids against the territory of his brother Lenana who remained in the area between Ngong and Naivasha.
  

  
  

  (vi) Dispute with the Kikuyu. Succession dispute placed the Maasai in an even weaker position in the face of the incoming British. Lenana was also in dispute with the Kikuyu. Following the calamities that befell the Maasai as already outlined, Lenana had arranged for some Maasai women and children to be cared for in Kikuyu villages to avoid certain death. When he later went back for them he learnt that the Kikuyu had sold many of them to the slave traders. He quarrelled with the Kikuyu and prepared to go to war against them. He grew desperate: his enemies threatened to destroy him and his people; he was faced by the problems of raids by Sendeyo; there were frictions with the Kikuyu; famine and disease were afflicting his people and cattle. Lenana sought the support of the IBEACo agent, Francis Hall at Fort Smith. And Hall was only too happy to oblige, and assisted Lenana in his campaigns agains Sendeyo and the Kikuyu. The British and the Maasai became allies. Maasai warriors assisted the British against other Kenyan peoples from 1894 to 1908.

  
  

  (v) The Kedong Valley Massacre. There was the Ewuaso-oo-Ng’indongi Massacre (Kedong Valley Massacre) of November 1895, and the friendship between Lenana and the British was sealed. A caravan of the Kikuyu, Swahili and Arab porters was returning from Eldama Ravine. Resting in the Ng’indongi Valley near Naivasha, members of the caravan attacked the Maasai, stole food and seized some Maasai girls. The Moran attacked the caravan, killing 647 out of 871 men. On getting the news, a Scottish trader, Andrew Dick, who was camped nearby, took the caravan side and set forth with two French travellers to fight the Maasai. He shot dead about 100 Maasai before he himself was killed. But this incident, in which three white men had killed a hundred Maasai warriors in one encounter, so shocked the Maasai that they immediately sought peace. Subsequent investigation into the whole incident by British officials exonerated the Maasai and put the blame for the Massacre upon the porters. Lenana and his people were greatly impressed both by the military might of the white men and the magnanimity and sincerity of the British officials. From these and earlier contacts, good relations between the Maasai and the British were established, and Lenana and his followers collaborated with the British.

  
  

  Consequences of collaboration

  
  

  The Maasai collaboration had a number of consequences:

  
  

  (i) The British helped the Maasai against the Kikuyu and against his rival brother Sendeyo, and later the Maasai morans helped the British in their punitive raids against the Nandi in 1905 and other ‘unco-operative’ communities.
  

  
  

  (ii) The British were able to build their railway across Maasailand without any trouble.
  

  
  

  (iii) Lenana increased his prestige because the British rewarded him with cattle and he not only successfully claimed the laiboniship but was given the grand title ‘Paramount Chief of the Maasai’ in recognition of his support for the British. This was a purely political position, which helped to alienate him from many Maasai. He then moved permanently away from his traditional home among the Loita to Ngong, to live among the Kaputiei and Keekonyokie.

  
  

  (iv) However, this happy relationship did not exist for long. Not all British administrators were friends of the Maasai and British Commissioner of the East Africa Protectorate from 1901-04, Sir Charles Eliot openly despised the Maasai, asserting that they should abandon their ‘socially and politically abominable’ nomadic habits and settle down. Eliot considered that the Maasai had served their purpose and could no longer pose a threat to the railway or to the administration.

  
  

  (v) The Anglo-Maasai Agreements, 1904 and 1911: Eliot was succeeded in 1904 by Sir Donald Stewart, who in the same year accomplished what Eliot had been working on earlier - the signing of the first Anglo-Maasai Agreement. While Donald Stewart represented the British, the Maasai were represented by Lenana and his associates such as Masikonte (‘Chief’ of Laikipia) and Ole Gilisho (‘Chief’ of Naivasha). But the mass of the Maasai had no say in the matter. The Maasai are said to have agreed to move to two reserves – to the south of Ngong and to the Laikipia plateau. They were promised that the two areas would remain theirs ‘so long as the Maasai as a race shall exist’. A half-mile corridor would be created to link the two reserves.
  

  
  

  But none of these points was implemented. On the other hand, all the land formerly owned by the Maasai was made available for white settlement. As a matter of fact, the Colonial Government and local settlers in particular were determined to alienate the enviable Maasai land.
  

  
  

  By 1911, the settlers were putting pressure on the Government to move the Maasai out of Laikipia so that they could move there themselves. The Laikipia Maasai, through their chief, Legalishu, refused to move. Lenana, on the other hand, is said to have agreed as the ‘Paramount Chief’. The second Maasai Agreement of April 1911 settled the matter. This time, the Maasai were literally forced to vacate their lands at great personal inconvenience and loss of property. In fact their lands in Laikipia were appropriated before adequate arrangements were made for them in the less attractive southern reserve (Ngong) even before the Imperial Government in London had given its approval. It is doubtful whether the Maasai agreed to move from Laikipia.

  
  

  By April 1913, they had vacated Laikipia and moved to the enlarged, but drier and less attractive southern reserve in Ngong. The Maasai ‘as a race’ still existed; but they had virtually been forced to vacate Laikipia for white settlers and, as for other communities, their collaboration had not spared them from the ravenous intents of colonialism.

  
  

  Sir Apolo Kagwa and Baganda collaboration

  
  

  In Uganda, perhaps the best example of African collaboration in the early days of colonial rule is served during the reign of Apolo Kagwa. Born in 1869, Apolo Kagwa served as a page in the courts of Kabaka Mutesa and Kabaka Mwanga. He thus learnt the art of political survival in those dangerous times. Converting to Protestantism as a page, he became the leader of the Protestant group that eventually played a part in Mwanga’s downfall. He came out openly and unabashedly in support of the British in their campaign against Mwanga and Kabalega in 1897-9.
  

                            

  
  

  This episode was followed by Mwanga’s exile to the Seychelles and in his place his one-year old infant son Daudi Chwa was proclaimed Kabaka. Of the three regents appointed to rule for him during his youth Apolo Kagwa, as Katikiro, was the senior.He therefore played a leading part in the formulation of the Buganda Agreement of 1900, receiving the largest single grant of land outside the royal family. He was granted 78 sq. km (30 sq. miles). He continued to work closely with the British authorities, encouraging the establishment of schools and the adoption of new agricultural methods and crops.
  

  
  

  His influence was particularly valuable when Sir Hesketh Bell decided on the evacuation of all people living on the shores of Lake Victoria, in order to eliminate sleeping sickness. He was not afraid to stand up for the rights of traditional Buganda institutions such as the Lukiko. This brought him increasingly into conflict with the protectorate government whenever he felt that the independence of his group, the ‘Bakungu’ chiefs, was being threatened. He had other rivals and enemies within Buganda, including the Bataka and the new generation of chiefs. Moreover, the Kabaka had grown up and was anxious to assert himself. Finally in 1925 Kagwa resigned, angry and disappointed, and died the following year.

  
  

  On the whole the British did not meet with a great deal of armed resistance after 1900. It took some time, however, to establish regular administration in the north and northeast. A series of boundary agreements made clear the exact extent of the protectorate for the first time. Between 1907 and 1912 the Uganda-Congo border was made clear and in 1914 the West Nile district was added to Uganda from the Sudan. In 1902 the whole of the Eastern province of Uganda was transferred to the East African Protectorate.

  
  

  Lewanika’s collaboration in (Barotseland) Zambia

  
  

  The Lozi are among the three main southern Zambian tribes, which include the Tonga and the Ila. They belonged to Bulozi kingdom, and lived as mixed farmers on the fertile flood plain of the region. They had a long tradition of iron-working. They also traded with the Portuguese from the Atlantic coast and the Swahili from the east coast.David Livingstone’s reports on the atrocities of the slave trade gave rise to a flurry of activity in Zambia, aimed at its eradication. This partly explains the establishment of most mission stations in the slave-infested areas of Bemba and Lungu. In Bulozi, the missionaries established an early rapport with the Lozi King, Lewanika, who, ascending the throne in 1884, soon permitted them to begin work in his territory.

  
  

  Reasons for collaboration

  
  

  Lewanika’s early collaboration with the missionaries can be explained by a number of factors. First was the desire for his people to get a new type of education, which only the missionaries could give. Second, his kingdom found itself faced with threats of invasion from all directions.
  

  
  

  The British advanced from the south and east; the Germans threatened from the south-west; while the Portuguese threatened from both their bases in Angola and Mozambique; nearer home, the Ndebele were a constant menace. Lewanika could not face them all and defend himself. He became a typical candidate for collaboration as a means of self-preservation. He chose the British as his protectors against the rest. Lewanika was eager to seek British protection first against Ndebele attacks.
  

  
  

  The Lozi King had several times suffered from Ndebele raids and had observed that the Mangwato, his neighbours, had secured considerable immunity to such attacks by placing themselves under British protection. Khama, the Ngwato ruler, had succeeded in convincing him of the reliability of British protection. Lewanika made a formal application through the pro-British Coillard, who, like Khama, saw every good in Lewanika inviting, welcoming and accepting the protection of the British South Africa Company. Coillard was the only foreigner in whom Lewanika had confidence. He himself feared Portuguese or German interference from the west and desired British protection in order to further his missionary work. Coillard therefore played a significant role in inducing Lewanika to accept the Company.
  

  
  

  Coillard wrote to Sheppard, the British administrator in Bechuanaland (Botswana) saying ‘Lewanika is most anxious to solicit the protectorate of the British Government’. The British South African Company, through this request, was later to gain a stake in Lozi Kingdom.

  
  

  Results of collaboration

  
  

  Lewanika’s collaboration had a number of results:

  
  

  (i)BSA’s rights over mining. The BSA Company first gained a foothold in Bulozi when it purchased the concession that Lewanika had sold to Harry Ware. Ware had been granted the right to look for minerals and to carry on mining for a period of twenty years. The permitted area of his operation was through Lewanika’s dominions on the banks of the Manjili River, north and east of the cattle path from the north end of Barotse plain to the Ila country, and west to the Upper Zambezi.

  
  

  (ii)Lewanika-Lochner Treaty (with BSA Company). In 1890, Frank Lochner, a former officer of the Bechuanaland police, met with Lewanika on behalf of the leader of the BSA Company, Cecil Rhodes. He met the King at Sesheke at a time when the area had become a highly contested one, with several concession seekers rivalling the Company. But the Company was clearly favoured, a fact evidenced by Lewanika’s presentation to Lochner in June 1890 of two large elephant tasks, followed by the signing of a treaty.

  
  

  (iii) The Lewanika-Coryndon Treaty of 1898 (with the British Government). The treaty allowed the Company to exercise limited authority within Barotseland proper (i.e. the area under effective Lozi control) and throughout the rest of north-western Zambia as far as the Kafue River. It further gave the Company the right to prospect for minerals, trade and mine as before throughout the territory of the Lozi as before. But the center of Bulozi would be closed to prospectors. A new clause granted the Company administrative rights to adjudicate all cases between white men, and between white and black men. Lewanika’s salary, which he had not received between 1890 and 1897 was reduced to £ 850.

  
  

  The Company, also for the first time, undertook to maintain and endow schools and industrial establishments for the education of the King’s subjects, and the provision of telegraphic, postal and transport facilities. Traditional Lozi rights to game, iron-working and tree-cutting for the manufacture of canoes, were safeguarded. The Company undertook to protect Lewanika and the nation from all outside interference and attack.

  
  

  Lewanika, on his part, promised to continue trying hard to suppress slavery and witchcraft in his country.The treaty was understood to be a treaty of alliance between the Bulozi nation and the British Government. This treaty was modified a little bit in 1900. But thereafter, Lewanika’s internal authority was greatly reduced and the Company threatened his people with use of force if they rebelled against their collaborating King. Lewanika’s prestige rapidly waned and subordinates in various parts of the kingdom failed to regard him as king or to pay tribute to him. The Company started to give land to the Afrikaners from South Africa. Lewanika persisted in seeking protection from the British Crown, but the Company was in control. He died in 1916 a dejected and disillusioned man.

  
  

  Collaboration of Khama of the Bamangwato

  
  

  Khama became chief of the Bamangwato, a small Tswana group, in 1875. His ascent to power was difficult and he became authoritarian and arbitrary. He was an early convert to Christianity. This caused tension between himself and some of his non-Christian followers.

  
  

  Reasons for collaboration

  
  

  At the beginning of the Scramble, Khama had to contend with two dangers: Afrikaner expansion and Ndebele conquest. The beginnings of the Scramble in 1884, also brought the British into the area, and it was the British whom Khama and others determined to manipulate. At a meeting in 1885 with the British authorities from the Cape, Khama designed the tactics which were pursued by himself and two other Tswana chiefs, Gaseitsiwe of the Bangwaketse and Sechele of the Bakwena. In requesting British protection they stipulated that they would prefer a continuation of existing laws, particularly those prohibiting the sale of alcohol and the sale of land. However, realizing that the British would almost certainly require land for white settlement, they offered land for that purpose as well.

  
  

  Significantly, he offered land which was of no value to themselves in any case. Khama offered land which was actually controlled by Lobengula and the Ndebele; Gaseitsiwe offered a vast stretch of the Kalahari Desert; and Sechele offered another stretch of desert.

  
  

  Through a combination of diplomacy and accidental external factors, the chiefs obtained an Imperial protectorate which was extremely favourable to them. The British were more concerned to keep European rivals out than to intervene in detail, with the result that for several years the only effect of the protectorate was to protect against Afrikaners. Again southern Tswana country was transferred to the Cape while the north (apparently by accident and lack of interest) remained a separate political entity.

  
  

  Course of collaboration

  
  

  The severest test of Khama’s diplomacy began in 1889. Rhodes’ British South Africa Company had been formed for the purpose of getting and exploiting the area which became Rhodesia and the Company was anxious to secure rights and privileges in Bechuanaland Protectorate as well. The Imperial Government was apparently willing to allow the Company to do so. From Rhodes’ point of view it was desirable to secure non-imperial control over the Protectorate, so as to facilitate communications between his base at the Cape and his extension into Rhodesia , and in order to reduce the risk of imperial interference in his rather dubious activities.

  
  

  First, a telegraph line was run through the protectorate in 1890 and then a railway line began to approach the Protectorate’s southern border from Cape Town in 1894. Rhodes’ conquest of the Ndebele in 1893 with some assistance from Khama’s people was also a portent for the future. The Tswana chiefs had not invited the British in merely to make room for Rhodes’ colonization schemes, though they had no objection to Rhodes as an ally against the Ndebele.

  
  

  In 1894 Rhodes submitted a formal request to the Imperial Government for the right to administer the Bechuanaland Protectorate; and it looked as if the Imperial Government might agree. On the other hand a sizeable body of missionaries in South Africa and in Britain, impressed by Khama’s religious attitudes and his claims upon the Imperial Government, protested against Rhodes’ proposal.

  
  

  Results of collaboration

  
  

  • Khama set off to London in 1895. He was accompanied by Sechele of the Bakwena and Bathoen of the Bangwaketse, and reinforced by a letter signed by themselves and by Lentswe of the Bakgatla. In London, the new Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain, was apparently willing to accede to Rhodes’ proposal and to hand over the whole protectorate to the Company, on the same terms as it administered and controlled Rhodesia itself. However, in the face of the protests of the chiefs, he agreed to compromise so that each chief and his people would have a demarcated reserve, while the remaining area, of which the most important was a thin strip of country running parallel with the Transvaal border, was handed over to the BSA Company.

  
  

  • It was not a perfect arrangement, but it did preserve the status quo in most of the protectorate and it got rid of direct company control over most of the Tswana. It was clearly an advantage to the chiefs that so little of their country was suitable for white pastoralism, and that all of the country was so important in colonial strategic terms.

  
  

  • Thus two reasons sum up how the Tswana chiefs managed to become British-Protected persons on relatively good terms. External circumstances were favourable to such a decision, and the diplomatic skills of the chiefs in seizing their opportunities were even more crucial.

  
  

  • Chief Khama was converted to a Christian and for this reason he was able to acquire British support.

  
  

  • The British support enabled chief Khama of Ngwato to expand his kingdom against the Ndembele in the north and boers in the east such that he was able to bring the goldmines of Tati Region under Ngwato control.

  
  

  Activity 5.5

  In groups of five, look for History books and historical journals in the library. From these, look for information on;

  
  

  1. How Rwanda reacted to colonial rule.

  2. Give reasons for the reaction.

  3. Analyse the consequences of the reaction.

  4. Write down your findings and present them in a class discussion.

  
  

  Unit summary

  
  

  This unit looks at the reception and reaction that the Europeans colonialists got in their different territories in Africa. The arrival of European colonialists in Africa was received in two major ways which are; collaboration and resistance.The Africans who resisted the coming of the European colonialists include the Fulani, Banyoro, Hehe and Ndebele people.

  The African communities who welcomed the Europeans and collaborated with them include; the Wanga, Maasai, Baganda, Lozi and Ngwato people.

  
  

  Unit assessment

  
  

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able identify and assess the methods and effects of resistance and collaboration in Africa and make a judgement on which method worked best between the two.

  
  

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. What do you understand by the following terms?
  

  
  

  (a) Resistance

  (b) Collaboration

  
  

  2. Discuss any five African communities who collaborated and those who resisted colonial conquest.

  
  

  3. Who was Nabongo Mumia? Why did he collaborate with the British? What were the consequences of his collaboration?

  
  

  4. Why did Lewanika of the Lozi collaborate with the British? Highlight the main events of that collaboration.
  

  
  

  5. Discuss the reasons for Samori Toure’s downfall in his resistance against the French occupation of Mandinka.

  
  

  6. Describe the establishment of Portuguese rule in Angola and the nature and extent of African resistance to it down to 1898.
  

  
  

  7. Describe the course of Maji Maji resistance.

  
  

  8. (a) Describe the circumstances leading to the Hut Tax War of 1898 in Sierra Leone.

      (b) Write briefly on the course of the Hut Tax W
  
• Unit 6: Contribution of main ancient civilisations to the developments of the modern society

  Topic area: World history

  
  

  Sub-topic area: Ancient world civilisations, medieval and modern times
  

  
  

  Key unit competence

  Explore the contribution of main ancient civilisations of the world to the development of the modern society.
  

  
  

  Introduction

  Human evolution has informed changes in human development. What is civilization? Where did it begin? And how does it explain where humanity finds itself today? These questions have been posed by humanity for many years. We will attempt to provide answers to them in this chapter.
  

  
  

  The word “civilisation” comes from the Latin word ‘civis’ which means a city. Therefore, civilisation is a way of a group of people that entails their various way of life such as culture, dressing and food.
  

  
  

  Civilisation is life of human beings, in cities and towns. Urban dwellers had to have rules or laws to live by, someone to govern them, someone to make them or see them work together, urban dwellers must also exchange goods.
  

  
  

  The earliest civilisations began along the banks of great rivers in warm countries where the soil was fertile. Examples of such rivers were the Nile in Egypt (which gave us the Egyptian Civilisation), the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) and the Indus river (which gave us the Indus Valley civilization). In these valleys, a variety of crops grew hence keeping hunger at bay. This enabled people to have time to study the things on earth and heavenly bodies in the sky.
  

  
  

  Location, occupation and expansion of Greece and Rome Civilisations

  
  

  Two civilisations developed in Europe at different times but immediately one after the other. The Greek Civilisation preceded the Roman one. The development of these civilizations happened from around 1750 B.C to AD 500. Each of these civilisations brought high levels of development and organisation to the human society at the time. Their ideas were to be later useful to humanity hence forming the background to its development today.
  

  
  

  The Greek Civilisation

  
  

  Activity 6.1

  Using the Atlas, Internet and historical sources of information;

  
  

  1. Identify the location, occupation and expansion of the Greek Civilisation in Europe.

  2. Present your findings in classs.

  
  

  From the ancient times to today, the Greeks have called their land Hellas while they call themselves Hellenes. The names Greek and Greece were used to describe them later on by the Romans. Superiority of Roman Civilisation made their names to stick.Greece is to be found in a rocky, mountainous southward extension of the Balkans, on the east of Mediterranean Sea. On one side, the eastern shore lays the Aegean Sea. The Ionian Sea, facing Italy, is on the western side. To the south, across the Sea of Crete from the portion of Greece known as the Peloponnesus, is to be found the large island of Crete. The whole country is stunning and very beautiful. It has over one thousand islands, the sea, the mountains and numerous fertile green valleys.

  
  

                 

  
  

  Only 20 percent of Greece is suitable for agricultural production. Most of the high mountains ranging unto 6000 feet, narrow fertile valleys and small to medium size but fertile plains such as those of Thessaly and Boeotia are usable for agriculture. Rivers are small and sometimes dry up during summer thus making farming a challenge. Nevertheless, most of her climate is mild and favourable for cultivation of crops such as wheat, olive and grape vines that could support the population of ancient times. As during the Ancient times, today, the hills and mountains provide pasture to goats, sheep and cattle.

  
  

  Greece was founded on conquest. The area witnessed invasions from time to time from around 1900 BC. By the beginning of the eighth century B.C, The Greek Civilisation had taken shape. But it was not until the 4th Century BC that it became the common cultural currency of the Mediterranean and Near Eastern worlds. This was the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great’s empire.

  
  

  Human settlement in ancient Greece

  
  

  Greece was invaded by various groups at different times. The decedents of these groups were the ones who were later to be known as the Greeks. They settled in the peninsula and evolved an unusual system of government for themselves on the hills and rocky coasts which gradually developed into city states.

  
  

  Cretans

  
  

  Their entry into the Peninsula began around 2500 BC and was first done by Cretans. One of their ancient kings was known as Minos. Theirs was therefore known as Minoan civilization, named after their king. The civilization was mainly concentrated along the Aegean Sea. These people are described to have lived well had hot and cold running water, bathrooms and possessed elaborate furniture. They are also said to have protected their valuables with metal locks and keys. Their houses are also said to have had plastered interiors which were decorated with paintings called frescoes, a technique of painting on wet plaster still in use even today. Cretans are further said to have been fond of dancing, boxing, racing and bull leaping among other sports. Lastly, they are described to have been slender, short and had dark curly hair and been a very peaceful community who were among the earliest sea traders in the region. Trade what was thus brought them to the shores of main land Greece.

  
  

  Archeans

  
  

  After the Cretans were the Achaeans who arrived about 2000 B .C. These groups came to dominate the trade and government of the area. Near the Sea, they met and interacted with the Cretans thus giving rise to a new civilisation called Mycenaean. This civilisation was marked by constructions of walled cities and development of bronze goods. They occupied Knossos around 1400 BC and ruled it until 1100 B .C hence making them rule the whole of the Aegean area.Later the Bronze – Age civilizations of the Mycenaens were acquired by later groups. One of the outstanding groups was the Dorians. They invaded the area and overran Knossos around 1100 BC.

  
  

  Dorians

  
  

  The Dorians invaded Greece from the North and drove the Myceanaens off to Asia. At around the same time, another linguistic and religious subgroup known as Ionians reached the area. Around the 5th Century the Ionians and Dorians engaged in intensive rivalry in Greece. The Ionians mainly inhabited the city of Athens and even prohibited the Dorians from entering their sanctuaries. There was thus tension between the groups even though they interacted in various ways to give forth to the Greek Civilisation between 1000 BC and 800 BC.

  
  

  The Greek city states that existed in the area during their civilisation included: Athens, Sicyon, Megara, Corinth, Thebes, Chalccis, Eretria, Boetia, Argolis, Phoxcis and Thessaly, Arcadia, Archaea, Aetolia.
  

  
  

  These cities were involved in various wars. Examples of such wars are:

  
  

  • Peloponnesian war (431 – 404 BC); and

  • Corinthian war (395 – 386 BC

  
  

  The main elements of the Greek Civilisations

  
  

  Activity 6.2

  Using the Internet and other sources of historical information;

  
  

  1. Identify the unique elements of the Greek Civilisation.

  2. Write them down in your notebook.

  3. Present them in a class discussion.

  
  

  The Greek Civilisation permeated virtually every aspect of the human life. It marked a complete refinement of its predecessors, that is Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilisations. Some of its elements were:

  
  

  A common language

  
  

  All the Greece islands spoke an identical language known as Greek. They were thus able to communicate easily with one another. The common language also brought feelings of togetherness among the islands’ inhabitants.

  
  

  Greeks had forgotten their diverse backgrounds. All of them considered themselves as one race. They regarded non-Greeks as barbarians- men and women whose speech was to them meaningless noise

  
  

  The Greek language gave them a great advantage. It was something of superb beauty and clarity. The people closely associated settlement in city states with it.Greek was spoken and written. The language was also used for instruction in both private and public functions. The Greeks also had a common alphabet. This formed the basis of the Greek language. In the 8th Century BC, they adopted a simpler alphabet from the Phoenicians.

  
  

  Settlement in cities

  
  

  City states were a major feature of the Greek Civilisation. Greeks lived in cities which were all independent of each other. Each city and the farms around it formed a separate state called a polis. Sometimes a city sent out a band of its citizens to found a daughter city elsewhere. The new city was quite independent of its parent city, although naturally it had close ties with the latter.

  
  

  By the 8th and 7th Centuries BC, cities were built almost everywhere throughout Greece. All these cities were independent. The city-states forged alliances with one another.

  
  

  Each city state was proud and jealously guarded its independence. This made them to be characterized by battle and shifting alliances. Cooperation among them also took place. The citizens were very patriotic. Where the enemy was non-Greek, the other city states came to the defense of their counterpart.
  

  
  

  The city-states governed themselves differently. Sometimes they had kings for example at Sparta. Other cities were led by a self-imposed strong man who ruled the way they wanted. Such a leader is known as a tyrant. Sometimes the nobleman ruled, and this was called an aristocracy. Sometimes all the citizens took part in the government. This was called a democracy. It was practised in Athens. All adult male assembled together to discuss issues of interest to their polis. Other forms of government in the city states were: monarchy, oligarchy and aristocracy.

  
  

  Activity 6.3

  In groups visit the library and research to find out what kind of governments these are:

  
  

  1. Monarchy                2. Oligarchy
  

  3. Aristocracy              4. Democracy

  
  

  What form of government do we have in our country? Explain.

  
  

  Ancient Greek city of Athens

  
  

  In city states were found the asty (city itself) with its watchtower, the agora(public square/market place) and surrounding rural- agricultural lands referred to as the chora. The asty was the business, political, religious and social centre of the entire community while the Chora provided the food to both the villages and to the city.

                         

  
  

  Participation in games In Ancient Greek, there was a strong belief that athletic competitions were a way to please the gods and honour the dead heroes. Greeks therefore participated in the Olympic games from 776 BC. During the games, fighting city-states even suspended wars between them to allow the competitions to go on.

  
  

  The games were held after every four years. They attracted some 40,000 Greeks into the stadium built in Olympia. The games were dedicated to the god Zeus, father of the gods. The games lasted for more than five days.

                                           

  
  

  Games events included foot races, wrestling, boxing, jumping, javelin, discus throwing and chariot-riding. Athletes were proud of their bodies and emphasized physical fitness. A greek by the name Myron, made a famous marble sculpture of a discus thrower around 450BC. This sculpture survives in the Roman copy of the Greek Bronze. The most celebrated event during the Olympic Games was known as the pentathlon. It was considered the supreme contest of athletic skill. Winners were crowned with a wreath of olive leaves, a coveted Olympic prize. The wreath of olives awarded the candidate was considered sacred to Zeus.

  
  

  The Greek Olympic Games came to an end in 393 AD. They were banned by a Christian Roman Emperor. He saw them as pagan practices. But fifteen hundred years later, the games were revived through the efforts of a French baron, Pierre de Coubertin, who was inspired by the ideals of the Ancient Greeks. In 1896, the first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece. Since then, the games have been a major event in the history of sports in the world.

  
  

  Belief in gods and goddesses

  
  

  Ancient Greeks were very religious. They believed in gods and goddesses. They had a common religion based on twelve chief gods and goddesses. These deities were thought to live on Mt. Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. The gods and goddesses include the following:

  
  

  • Zeus – the chief god and father of the gods• Athena – goddess of wisdom and craft

  
  

  • Apollo – god of the sun and poetry• Aphrodite – goddess of love and beauty

  
  

  • Poseidon – brother of Zeus and god of the seas and earthquakes

  
  

  • Hades – the god of the underworld – where the spirits of the dead went

  
  

  • Nemesis – god of vengeance

  
  

  • Nike – goddess of victory
  

  
  

  Apollo - god of archery, music, poetry, prophecy, medicine and later on god of the sun

  
  

  

  
  

  Although the twelve gods and goddesses were common to all Greeks, each city-state usually singled out one of the twelve Olympian gods as its guardian e.g. Athena was the patron goddess of Athens, for example. Each polis also had its own local gods. These local gods, remained vital to the community as a whole.Important elements in the Greek religion were rituals and festivals. The Greeks wanted the gods and goddesses to look favourably upon their lives and activities. This was what informed these religious practices.

  
  

  Artistic heritage

  
  

  The Greeks attached a lot of importance to artistic expressions. Their arts have greatly influenced the standards taken by those of other European groups.

  
  

  Human beings were the subject matter of ancient Greeks’ art. In them, people were presented as objects of great beauty. It was based on the ideals of reason, moderation, balance and harmony in all things.

  
  

                            

  
  

  Greek art was shown in their unique architecture and sculptures. Here, they went to great lengths to show their expression of beauty. Some of these works still stand today. On architecture, their artistry was visible in the temples they built for their gods and goddesses. An example was the famous building built in the fifth century BC, the Parthenon. This temple was built between 447 and 432 BC under the supervision of Ictinus and Callicrates as the master builders. The temple covered 23,000 square feet.

  
  

  It was dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. The temple was also dedicated to the glory of Athens and the Athenians. It shows the principles of classical architecture: the search for calmness, clarity, and freedom from unnecessary detail. The Parthenon still stands on the Acropolis in Athens. Its classical beauty and symmetry symbolize the power and wealth of the Athenian empire. The temple was decorated with statuary and beliefs by the sculptor Phidias.

  
  

  They also made sculptures and statues. Their sculptors, showed relaxed attitudes. Most of their faces were self-assured, their bodies flexible and smooth muscled. They were life-like as the figures bore natural features. The sculptors shown their ideal standards of beauty. Most were informed by Doryphoros, a reknown sculptor at the time, who operated on the theory that use of ideal proportions, based on mathematical ratios found in nature, could produce an ideal human form, beautiful in its perfected features. The figures were graceful, strong and perfectly formed. Their faces showed neither laughter nor anger, only serenity. Sculptors also tried to capture the grace of the idealized human body in motion. They valued order, balance and proportion in the works.

  
  

  Love of philosophy

  
  

  In the Greek society, there were thinkers who challenged the belief that events were caused by the whims of gods. Instead, these thinkers, used reason and observation to establish the causes of things. They were known as philosophers or lovers of wisdom.The philosophers explored many subjects from mathematics and music to logic (rational thinking). Some were interested in ethics and morality. Through reason and observation, the thinkers believed that, they could discover laws that governed the universe.

  
  

  They based their philosophy on two assumptions:

  
  

  • the universe is put together in an orderly way, and subject to absolute and unchanging laws;

  • people can understand these laws through logic and reason.

  
  

  Greek philosophers were divided into two. There were those who questioned people’s unexamined beliefs and ideas of justice, and other traditional values. These were known as the sophists. The most famous of them was Protagoras. He took a position questioning the existence of the traditional Greek gods. Pythagoras also argued that there was no universal standard of truth, saying ‘Man (the individual) is the measure of all things ...’ These ideas were considered dangerous and radical.

  
  

   

  
  

  Then there were critics of the sophists. One of their harshest critics was Socrates. Socrates believed that absolute standards did exist for truth and justice. He however, encouraged Greeks to go further and question themselves and their moral character. But like the sophists, his ideas were considered radical and poisonous. He was later sentenced to death over the same. Others were Plato (a student of Socrates) and Aristotle (a student of Plato).

  
  

  Literature and drama

  
  

  Athens led the other Greek city states in literature and drama. The latter was made up of both tragedy and comedy. Epic and lyric were other literary forms in the Greek world of literature. Drama is said to have developed out of the choruses that chanted lyrical poems also known as Odes, to the god Dionysius. A group of citizens judged the plays and awarded the winner a simple prize: a wreath of ivy. The plays were partly acted and partly chanted. Action was limited as emphasis was on the story and its meaning. Greek literature began with the epics of Homer, whose stirring tales inspired later writers.

  
  

  The drama was closely tied to the political and religious life of the state, which sponsored it. The Dionysian odes were improved by adding characters and chorus into them, making them conversational, hence being able to bring human conflict on the stage.

  
  

  In the drama, staging remained simple. There were two or three characters (all male) wearing masks, with a chorus of twelve to fifteen members chanting commentary on the action. Dialogue was in verse, and movements were slow, solemn and formal, punctuated by music and dance; but the emotional impact of tragic drama could be overwhelming.
  

  
  

  Aristotle is credited with the introduction of definition and explanation of the nature of tragedy. He declared that the purpose of tragedy was to inspire pity and fear in the audience, and so to purge these emotions through a catharsis. Comedy, on the other hand, was even more directly a form of direct political commentary. It also addressed themes such as sex, farming, the good old days, the nightmare of politics, the oddities of religion and the strange manners of the town, among others. Prose was another literary genre that emerged in Ancient Greek.
  

  
  

  The people, from the fifth century, began to express philosophical and political ideas through prose. This symbolised the increasing functional literacy of mostly, the Athenians. It was in this background that later major literary achievements, by Plato and Aristotle, were to emerge.

                           

  
  

  Drama held a vital position in the public life of Athens that citizens were sometimes paid to attend the plays, just as they were paid to hold public office. As part of their civic responsibility, wealthy citizens bore the cost for producing the plays.

  
  

  Writing of History

  
  

  We owe the discipline of History to the Ancient Greeks. At first, History was part of literature until Herodotus campaigned for its separation from literature. The Greeks applied observation, reason, and logic in understanding the human past. Herodotus was the pioneer in this hence he is often referred to as the Father of History.

  
  

  According to Thucydides, history was to be written in an accurate, factual and impartial way. He also vouched for the use of eye witness accounts in writing in this discipline.

  
  

  Activity 6.4

  In groups, discuss how History relates with literature today in the school curriculum. Which are some of the ways through which a student of history may make use of literature to learn the subject?

  
  

  Trade

  
  

  Ancient Greeks were also seamen and traders. They traded with the neighbouring lands in a variety of goods. The Greek city states also traded with each other. Trade made the city states to be rich and prosperous.

  
  

  In sum, the Greeks were ahead of other people in virtually all fields. Little wonder, Cicero, the Roman scholar is quoted saying that “in all branches of learning, the Greeks are our masters”. He made this statement in the first century B .C. It still holds today. Even in medicine, astronomy and other sciences, they made their footprints. The Greek Civilisation spread to other parts of the world through education (literacy), trade and conquest. They built their civilisation from the wide array of resources which abounded in their environment.
  

  
  

  A few examples were marble, limestone, copper and silver. Coupled with the bounty of the sea, and fertile land, they had a lot of wealth and food which supported their strong and growing population. The Greeks were united by geographic region, language, religion, economics and common customary practices. However, they remained divided politically into the scores of the independent city states. Loyalty was first and foremost to the city state before it extended to the more remote ideal of Hellas.

  
  

  Contributions of the Greek Civilisation in the modern world

  
  

  Activity 6.5

  Use the Internet, the encyclopedia and History textbook to ;1. Find out the contribution of the Greek Civilisation to todays’s world.2. Write them down in your notebook3. Share your findings in a class presentation.

  
  

  Sports

  In sports we owe to the Greeks the Olympic games which are held after every four years. The games are today a global event which attracts teams from various nations in different parts the World.

  
  

  Literature

  Greeks pioneered drama as a form of entertainment. They performed plays which explored the struggles made by individuals to free themselves from the imperfections in their characters. The playwrights balanced their tragedies with comedies that poked fun at the important and the disliked. Some of the outstanding playwrights included:

  
  

  • Aristophanes added his genius by using satire and comedy to make his points about society and politics of the time.

  
  

  • Hommer believed to have been two people with the name to have written the Iliad and the Odyssey.
  

  
  

  • Sappho brought lyric poetry as a genre.
  

  
  

  • Aeschylus introduced ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwright hence inventing drama.

  
  

  • Sophocles brought irony as a literacy technique.

  
  

  • Plato introduced philosophy in literature through his dialogues.Writers valued and preserved much of the knowledge and writings of the past in libraries such as Alexandria, the most famous in the world.Athenians led other Greek city states in literary appreciation. They are famous for their love and appreciation of literature especially poems and plays. The world today has borrowed heavily from their rules and habits for writing, reaching and theatre arts performance. Some of their plays are still being performed in different parts of the World today.

  
  

  History

  
  

  The Ancient Greeks are credited with developing history as a distinct discipline of study. Prior to this, history was considered to be part of literature. Herodotus constructed a narrative of the Persians wars using critical methods and interpretative framework. Later, Thucydides (460 – 400 B .C) used scientific methods in writing the History of the Peloponnesian war. He used the analytic methods borrowed from science and philosophy in writing the history so as to produce ‘an exact knowledge of the past as an aid to the interpretation of the future.’

  
  

  Philosophy

  
  

  • Philosophy is the study of nature and meaning of the universe and of human life. The Greeks believed in rational explanation for the existence of the universe or wise people. They believed that truth was relative and depended on how one argued his or her case out not withstanding whether what was at stake was truthful or false.

  
  

  • The philosophers tried to understand humanity’s relationship to nature, the gods, individual to another and between the individual and the groups of human society. Some of the most renown philosophers of ancient Greece are. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurious.

  
  

  Activity 6.6

  In groups of five, visit the library, read from history books and research from the Internet the contribution of the following ancient Greek philosophers.

  
  

  • Socrates                 • Plato

  • Aristotle                  • Epicureans
  

  Are the works of these Greek philosophers relevant in the modern world? Show how.

  
  

  Science and Mathematics

  
  

  Greeks made most pronounced legacy in science and mathematics. Various personilities made numerous contributions. A few examples include:

  
  

  • Aristarchus of Samos living around 200 B.C discovered that the earth and the other planet revolved around the sun.

  
  

  • Eratosthenes discovered that the earth is spherical.
  

  
  

  • Euclid around 300 B.C, in his school at Alexaneria, borrowed from the ideas of other scientists from Mesopotamia and Greece and developed the basic principles of geometry. Later other Greek mathematicians developed trigonometry. In schools today, students still study Euclid geometry. Euclid also noted that light travels in straight lines and described the law of reflection.

  
  

  • Archimedes (287 -212 BC). He was a student of Euclid. He developed various laws of physics. His discoveries included: the principle of determining specific gravity and the basic principle of the modern conveyor belt. He is also said to have known the use of the pulley system and the lever and once used them to pull a loaded ship out of the sea and brought it to the beach. Today, there is even a screw pump which bears his name. Archimedes also defined a spiral
  

  
  

  • Hero living in Alexandria, around 100 BC made a long list of inventions some of which includes a fire engine and steam engine.
  

  
  

  • Hippocrates is known today as the father of medicine. He believed that sickness is a result of natural cause and not a product of god’s wrath. He formulated the Hippocratic Oath which outlines the responsibilities of the medical profession up to today.

  
  

  • Herophilus lived around 200 B .C. He made several discoveries on how the body functions. The main ones were that blood is pumped from the heart through the arteries to other parts of the body, the pulse is vital in revelation of sickness, there exists a relationship between the brains and the nerves and lastly, the brain is divided into many sections, each with its own functions in controlling various parts of the body.

  
  

  • Thales of Miletus (640 – 610 to 548 – 545 BC ) – He travelled widely and learnt a lot during his travels. Thales brought Phoenician navigational techniques into Miletus. He also revised the calendar, brought Babylonian mathematical knowledge to Greece and used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distances of ships from the shore. Thales studied astronomy in Babylon and came back home and predicted the eclipse of the sun.
  

  
  

  • Pytharogras (569 – 475 B.C). He was a philosopher and mathematician. He studied astronomy and geometry before founding the Pythagorean cult. The cult was devoted to the study of numbers which they saw as concrete. As a mathematician, Pythagoras also investigated the ratios of lengths corresponding to musical harmonies and developed methods of geometric proof. In geometry, he developed the Pythagoras theory or Hypotenuse theorem that is still being used today.

                              

  
  

  

  
  

  
  

  Architecture

  
  

  Ancient Greeks excelled in great architectural works. Most of the formulas they invented as early as the 6th Century B.C have informed the world of architecture for the past two millennia. They built temples, theatre and stadiums which are still the envy of the present world. We owe today our theatres and stadium designs to this Ancient civilisation.Greek architecture still influences many people today. The US Supreme Court design, for example, was influenced by the Parthenon, the Greek temple to the goddess Athena.

  
  

  Government and law

  
  

  Greeks are credited for introducing and practicing democracy, system of checks and balances in government, equality before the law and active citizen participation in the civic functions of the state. They also brought the issue of political and civil rights which were limited to citizens of a city state. As citizens, people had their duties and responsibilities to the state and fellow citizens clearly spelt out.

  
  

  Athens was the first Greek city to set up a democratic government. All free men were members of the government. They passed laws and were allowed to serve on a jury of its 30,000 citizens, 500 were chosen on a yearly basis to run the city. Those chosen were given stipends as token of appreciation for their work. The outstanding Athenian leaders who contibuted towards the development of democracy were Solon (early 594 – 508 BC) Pericles (461 – 429 BC) and Alexander the Great (336 – 323 BC).

  
  

  Art, music and dance

  
  

  Greek art, music and dance have exercised an enormous influence on the culture of the present world. In art they made sculptures and statues of stones marble, limestone and clay. Drinking vessels were made from lumps of gold, silver or bronze, stamped with a geometric design.
  

  
  

  One of the great sculptors was Phidias who lived during the 400 B .C. He is credited with carving the massive statues of Athena which stood within the Parthenon. He also carved the great statue of the seated Zeus at Olympia, the site of Olympic Games – today listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Other well known sculptors were Praxiteles and Myron who both lived in the 300s B.C. On music and dance, Greek folk music and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry.
  

  
  

  The Greeks created their art to look natural and realistic. The depictions of nature, humanity and noteworthy events of society were designed to please the public, support civic pride and to reinforce Greek ideals of beauty. The Greeks civilizations as can be seen from these contributions left a rich legacy to the modern world. However, it equally had it flaws. Women and slaves had no political rights. Foreigners were also prohibited from owning land. These made the Greek system to be discriminative by today’s standards.
  

  
  

  Religion

  
  

  The Greeks shared a common religion and belief system. They believed in many gods and goddesses. Their belief system was also made up of heroes and myths.Greek gods and goddesses had human appearance.
  

  
  

  They also bore human characteristics and attributes. The deities, participated directly in human affairs according to Greek beliefs. In addition, the Greeks believed in oracles to tell the future and to give prophesies.Today, religion is common to humanity. It is based on a system of beliefs just as during the Ancient Greek period.
  

  
  

  Belief in oracles is still practiced in games and sports and many other fields of human endeavour. The belief in existence of gods (or god), life after death, provision of sacrifices and offerings to god, command of divine powers over human life and observance of festivals and rituals in religious life, were evident in the Greek Civilisation. We owe these partly to the Greek Civilisation.

  
  

  Belief in military power of a country

  
  

  Sparta, was renowned for her military power. She built an army which proved fatal to other Greek city – states and beyond. War was glorified and every efforts was made to train boys to serve in the military. Today, all world states have developed their military along almost similar lines. A might of a nation is partly seen through its military capability.

  
  

  During training today, like during the Spartan period, body and mind held a central place. The recruits and those in service have their bodies and minds hardened and shaped for war. This is also what took place in Sparta.

  
  

  Activity 6.7

  Have you watched a movie called Spartacus? If not organise to watch it with your classmates. You can also watch it at home. Explain how it helps your understanding of the ancient Greek Civilisation.

  
  

  The Roman Civilisation

  
  

  Activity 6.8

  Use the Atlas, Internet amd other historical sources of information to;

  
  

  1. Identify the location, occupation and expansion of the Roman Civilisation in Europe.

  2. Present your findings in class

  
  

  The Roman Civilisation grew along the Tiber River in central Italy. It was mainly first concentrated in the city of Rome. This was after the Romans, conquered the Greeks in 146 B .C. They founded the city in 753 BC. According to Legend, this was done by two twin brothers – Romulus and Remus who were abandoned on the Tiber River as infants and raised by a she-wolf. The two decided to build the city. By the end of the Fourth Century BCE. the city was already the dominant power on the Italian peninsular.
  

  
  

  For five centuries thereafter, Rome’s power steadily increased. By the first century CE, it controlled Greece and most of her colonies, as well as most of Western Europe. It expanded her hegemony in these areas through conquest. Rome also managed to take control of the powerful North African city of Carthage hence uniting the entire Mediterranean region. She also controlled the Mediterranean sea.

  
  

  At the peak of its powers, her empire covered Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria – all to her East. To her west were Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Spain, Portugal, France, Switzerland, Belgium and England. She managed to Conquer all these lands.Rome’s development was greatly influenced by the geography of the Italian peninsular. The area had excellent marble and small quantities of lead, tin, copper, iron (on the island of Elba) and silver in its extensive coastline. There were few good harbours, most of which faced the west away from Greece and the Near East. Ancient Italy, nonetheless, was well endowed with large forests. It had more fertile land than ancient Greece.

  
  

  However, it was more exposed to invasion. Invaders entered it easily, as the Alps posed no effective barrier to invaders from central Europe. To make matters worse, Italian low lying coastline opened it to invaders from the sea. All these made the Romans, from an early time in their settlements, to be absorbed in military pursuits to defend their own conquests against the invaders.

  
  

  

  
  

  The geography of the Italian Peninsular made possible the rise of Rome. The peninsular extends about 750 miles from north to south with a width of about 120 miles. It is centrally located in the Mediterranean. The city of Rome is in the centre of Italy. This central location made Rome to expand, first in Italy, and later in the lands around the Mediterranean sea.Italy’s location made it easier to unify than Greece. The Peninsular is not broken up into small, isolated valleys.
  

  
  

  The Apennine Mountains formed a ridge from north to south and divides the country into west and east. Italy was equally blessed by having broad, fertile plains, both in the north under the shadow of the Alps, and in the west, where the Romans settled. The fertile lands supported her growing population. Rome was built on seven hills and was easily defensible.

  
  

  Occupation of Rome

  
  

  The earliest settlers in the Italian peninsular arrived in prehistoric times. From as early as 1000 to 500 BC the area was already settled. Three groups inhabited the region and eventually battled for its control. These were: the Latins, the Greeks and the Etruscans. The Latins were farmers and livestock keepers. They wandered into Italy across the Alps around 1000 BC These people settled along the Tiber river valley in a region they called Latium. They are credited with building the first settlement at Rome. This was a cluster of wooden huts on Palatine Hill, one of the seven hills in the city. Other main hills were Esquiline and Quirinal. The Latins were the first Romans.

  
  

    

  
  

  Next to invade the area were Greek settlers. They arrived and settled in the area between 750-600 BC. They brought with them elements of their civilisation. They established about 50 colonies on the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily. Their cities became prosperous and commercially active. They taught the Romans farming, especially how to grow grapes and olives.
  

  
  

  Unlike Latins and Greeks, the Etruscans (or Rasenna as they called themselves before they were given the name Etruscans) were native to northern Italy. These people were skilled in metal works and engineering. They exerted a great influence on the Roman Civilisation. This was especially in writing, (where the Romans, adopted their alphabet) and which had been borrowed from the Greeks) architecture (where they influenced Rome’s architecture, especially the use of the arch). The Romans are also said to have borrowed religious ideas from both the Greeks and the Etruscans e.g. from the Etruscans, they borrowed rituals which they believed helped them to win the favour of the gods. The Etruscans are also the ones who built the city of Rome and even gave the Romans their dress – the toga and short cloak. The Romans also borrowed their military organisation.
  

  
  

                             
  

  
  

  The Romans, from the Greeks, even took Greek gods but changed their names e.g. Zeus became Jupiter, while Hera, the queen god, became Juno. They also gave Rome its artistic and cultural models through their sculpture, architecture and literature.

  
  

  Elements of the Roman Civilisation

  
  

  Activity 6.9

  Using the Internet and other sources of historical information;
  

  
  

  1. Identify the unique elements of the Roman Civilisation.

  2. Write them down in your notebook and present them in a class discussion.

  
  

  Architecture

  
  

  Like other ancient communities, the Romans paid attention to architecture. Their architecture borrowed a lot from the Greek and Etruscans ones. They also introduced new designs and materials in their works. The Romans, for example, pioneered the use of concrete in construction. Roman architectural works were hence an improvement over the earlier Greek ones.

  
  

  Roman civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined. Some of what they built have remained to date for example, the Pantheon (with one of the largest single span domes in the world), a building still found in the business district of the present city of Rome. There was also the Colossium, a theatre which could accommodate 50,000 spectators.
  

  
  

  The pantheon was a temple of all Roman gods.Roman architectural developments were found in virtually all the cities under its control and influence. A few examples are: the Verona Arena in Verona Italy; Arch of Hadrian in Athens, Greece; Temple of Hadrian at Ephesos in Turkey; a theatre at orange in France and Lepcis Magna in Libya among others.The architectural works were visible in palaces, stadiums, temples, private dwellings, villas, public buildings and hydraulics. Roman architectural works emphasized grandeur.

  
  

  Roman Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain

  
  

  Romans are known to have experimented with the dome and pioneered in the building of amphitheatres, public baths, and race courses. In the empire, public buildings were of massive proportions and solid construction.Roman architecture made use of rows and columns and rectangular buildings. They also used curvilinear forms (forms based on curved lines): the arch, vault, and dome. Combined with concrete, the curvilinear forms saw the Romans building massive building by their times.Closely related to architecture was road construction.
  

  
  

  They made big strides in this area even though they did little in science. Engineering was thus their strength. The Romans built magnificent roads and bridges some of which have survived to date. Aqueducts brought water into Rome from nearby hills. The water was used for drinking and bathing. It also served as sewage system.

  
  

  Law

  
  

  The early Roman republic had a written code of law which was heavily based on custom. It was known as the ‘Twelve Tables or tablets’. They were written to make the interpretation of the law objective. Work of writing the law begun in 451 B.C.
  

  
  

  It involved a group of ten officials. Upon finishing the work, the laws were carved on twelve tablets or tables and hung in the Forum (market place). These laws became the basis for future Roman law. They were based on the spirit of equality of all citizens to the law. Every individual had thus a duty to protect the law.Through the universal laws, they were able to establish standards of justice that applied to all people.
  

  
  

  The standards of justice brought by the Romans included principles that were recognizable by people. An individual was regarded innocent until proved guilty. Every suspect was allowed to face his or her accuser and himself or herself before a judge who was expected to weigh the evidence carefully before making a verdict. The Roman law was based on the following principles:

  
  

  • All persons had the right to equal treatment under the law.

  • A person was considered innocent until proven guilty.

  • The burden of proof rested with the accuser rather than the accused.

  • A person should be punished only for actions, not thoughts.

  • Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set aside
  

  
  

  Government

  
  

  From the earliest times, the Romans had distrust of Kingship and of a sole ruler. This was due to the lessons they learned from their experience with Etruscans. As a result, the Romans devised a complicated system of government.

  
  

  In the Roman republic, the chief executive officers were the consuls and praetors. Two consuls, chosen every year, ran the government and led the Roman army into battle. In 366 BC., a new office, that of praetor was created. The occupant was in charge of civil law. A counsul’s term was only one year, and once elected, he could not be elected again for ten years. One counsul could also overrule or veto the others’ decision.

  
  

  The senate was made up of a select group of about 300 land owning men who served for life. It begun by serving as an advisory body to government officials. Later, by the 3rd Century BC ., it got the force of law. Senators each year, elected from the patrician class two consuls. The power of the consuls was thus checked by the senate. Consuls’ power was further checked by limitation of terms. They could only serve for one term. Membership to the senate was for life.

  
  

  There were also a number of assemblies in the Roman republic. It was organized by classes based on wealth. This assembly was fixed in such a way that the wealthiest citizens always had a majority. It elected the chief officials and passed laws.

  
  

                       

  
  

  The senate was allowed during war, to elect a dictator, or a ruler who enjoyed complete control over government. The consuls chose him before the senate elected. Each Roman dictator was granted power to rule for six months. After the expiry of the time, the dictator had to give up power and go back to his former duties. This governmental set-up made Roman writers to boast by about 275 B.C. that they had attained a balanced government.
  

  
  

  This was because there was a blend of monarchy, Aristocracy and democracy. They believed that mixture gave them the best features of all kinds of governments.When Rome became an empire, from the reign of Octavian, Senate gave him the honorific title of emperor. He became known as emperor Augustus. This marked the beginning of the Roman Empire. From the date, Roman rulers adopted the name of emperor. But like before, they exercised the very powers as during the period of consulship.

  
  

  Social organisation

  
  

  The family held a central place in the Roman society. By law and custom, power at the household was vested exclusively in the eldest man, known as the ‘paterfamilias’ or the father of the family. This individual had absolute authority over the family. He controlled all family properly. He could sell a member of his household into slavery or even kill any member of the family without penalty. The father was equally the individual who protected the family, spoke on behalf of the family in public assemblies or in law courts. He also acted as the family’s chief priest.

  
  

  Roman women were in charge of the day to day management of their families. Generally in Rome, women enjoyed more freedom than in the Greek society. They had right to own property and testify in court. They also often provided advice to their husbands on business and politicsAll members of the family and by extension the clans, were supposed to uphold the principles of their ancestors, a set of traditions known mos maiorum. Traditions were considered sacred and were products of many years of experience

  
  

  Activity 6.10

  The Rwandan Government, unlike many African ones, has made great advances in women development in society. In groups of five, analyse the major developments the government has undertaken to promote gender equality in the society. How can the government bring other African states to emulate her example?

  
  

  The Roman society was divided into classes. At the top was a group of families which claimed that their ancestors had been patres or “fathers” who had founded the city of Rome. These families were privileged and belonged to a class known as the patrician. They claimed that due to their ancenstry, they had the right to make laws for Rome and its people.

  
  

  The other class which brought together common farmers, artisans and merchants formed the plebians. They were citizens with a number of rights, including the right to vote. However, they were considered to be below the patricians. In the Roman society thus, birth and not merit or wealth, was the sole determinant of an individual’s social and political status. Voting when the Republic was founded in 509 BC was exercised by the patricians and plebians.
  

  
  

  Slaves, women and children were not allowed to vote.On food, the Romans observed very simple dietary practices. They usually ate the first meal of the day at around 11 O’clock. It consisted of bread, salad, olives, cheese, fruits, nuts and cold meat which had been left over from the previous night’s meal. They also had other meals such as breakfast and dinner.

  
  

  Education

  
  

  Formal schooling begun around 200 BC. In most of the Roman Empire, pupils began to learn at around age six and spent the next six to seven years in school. They learnt basics of reading, writing and counting. By age twelve, they were introduced to learning Latin, Greek grammar and literature after which, they undertook training for public speaking. Romans highly valued oratory. Good orators commanded respect from the rest of the society. It was for this reason, that one of the objectives of education and learning, was becoming an astute orator.

  
  

  Activity 6.11

  In groups of five, discuss the measures taken by the Rwandan government today to promote the education of the girl-child. Which are some of the problems facing children education in the society today? How can we overcome these problems? brainstorm and discuss.

  
  

  Language

  
  

  The Romans’ native language was Latin. This was a form of Italic language in the Indo-European family. There were several forms of Latin spoken in the empire. Silver Age Latin was the most popular. The language’s alphabet originally came from the Greek one.Greek was spoken by the well-educated elite. Most of the literature studied by Romans was in Greek. Latin in this area was mostly used by the Roman administrators and soldiers.

  
  

  Eventually, Greek replaced Latin as both the official written and spoken language of the eastern empire. The western empire used Latin. Later Latin was to spread in various dialects to Western Europe as a distinct Romance language hence giving birth to Portuguese, Romania, French, Italian and Spanish.

  
  

  Literature

  
  

  Roman literature, like, its religion, was greatly inspired by the Greeks’. The earliest were historical epics which told the early history of Rome e.g. Augustus sponsored the historian, Livy, to document the history of Rome from its founding to the rule of Augustus. He did this in 142 Roman style books. Generally, Latin literature took many forms.

  
  

                            
  

  
  

  The expansion of the empire culminated to expansion in the type of literally works. Writers began to produce poetry, comedy, history and tragedy. Some of these works have survived in today e.g. “Histories” of Tacitus, Julius Ceasers’ “Gallic wars” and Livy’s “History of Rome”.

  
  

  During the reign of Augustus, the literature of the time is generally referred to as works of the Golden Epic. Most literature of the “Golden Age” were vigorous, affirmative and uplifting. It mainly served political and propaganda ends. Whereas that of the silver age was characteristically less calm and balanced. Its effects, are said, to have derived more often from self-conscious artifice. Most were intended to entertain than instruct or uplift the mood of the reader.

  
  

  Visual art

  
  

  Roman art was greatly influenced by Etruscans – especially in portrayal of political issues. Greek art also influenced Roman art from the 3rd BCE. It surpassed the influence the Etruscans had exerted on the Romans. Many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.With time the Romans came up with their own styles. Some remarkable ones were: “Incrustation” in which the interior walls of houses were painted to resemble coloured marble.
  

  
  

  A second style involved painting interiors as open landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals and buildings.The Romans learned the art of sculpture from the Greeks. From the knowledge, they were able to create realistic portraits in stone. Much of the Roman art was practical in purpose. It was intended for public education.

  
  

  The Roman artists were especially good in creating mosaics. These were pictures or designs made by setting small pieces of stone, glass, or tile onto a surface. Most villas, the country houses of the wealthy, had at least one coloured mosaic. Romans also made good works of painting. Most of the wealthy people had bright, large murals, called frescoes, painted directly on their walls.

  
  

  Music

  
  

  The society in Rome recognised and appreciated the vital role played by music in life. In the entire empire. They graced both private and public events with music. There was music during nightly dining and in military parades and maneuvers.Romans used a variety of musical instruments in their songs. Some of the main ones included; tuba, cornu, aulos, askanles, flute, panpipes, lyre, lute, cithara, timpani, drums, hydraulis and the sistrum.

  
  

  Economy

  
  

  In Imperial Rome, agriculture was the main economic activity. All else depended on the industry. About 90% of the population engaged in farming. Most people survived on produce from their farms. Additional food stuffs (when needed) and luxury items for the rich were obtained through trade.

  
  

  From the time of Augustus reign, a silver coin called a denarius, was used as a medium of exchange. Existence of a common currency made commercial transactions throughout the empire. The coins often carried the likeness of the emperor or depicted a Roman achievement. A standard system of coinage developed in 269 BCE.Transportation when carrying out trade was made easy by the existence of the Mediterranean Sea. Ships from the east travelled along the sea under the protection of the Roman’s navy. Trade made cities on the eastern Coast of the Mediterranean to expand and become rich. Examples of these cities were: Corinth, Ephesus and Antioch.

  
  

  A part from water transport, the empire had a good network of roads. Roads linked various places in the empire. The roads were originally built by the Roman army for military purposes. The most important were the silk roads, named for the overland routes on which silk from China reached the Romans. Other luxury goods also passed through the same routes. There were numerous trade goods which changed hands in the empire.

  
  

  Religion

  
  

  The earliest Romans worshipped powerful spirits or divine forces, called Mumina. These spirits were thought to reside in everything around them. Closely related to these spirits were the Lares, for each family.Interactions with the Greeks and Etruscans, made the Romans begin to associate the spirits with human like forms and individual personalities.
  

  
  

  The spirits now got Roman names and were honoured through rituals. People expected the gods and goddesses to give them favour and ward off misfortunes from their midst.In the empire, the state and religion were linked. The deities were symbols of the state. Individuals were expected to honour them in private rituals and in their homes. Priests also conducted public worship ceremonies in temples.

  
  

  Polytheism or belief in more than one god, thrived in the Roman Empire. Among the most important gods and goddesses were Jupiter (father of the gods), Juno (Jupiter’s wife who supposedly watched over women), Minerva (goddess a wisdom and of the arts and crafts) and Vesta (goddess of home). Emperor worship also came with the creation of the institution. It became part and parcel of the state religion of Rome. Priests were appointed to work for the governor.

  
  

  Their religion depended on knowledge and the correct practice of prayer, ritual and sacrifice. They also never placed great emphasis on rewards and punishments after death. But unlike the Greeks, the Romans revered their ancestors, their “household gods” included deceased members of a lineage who were worshipped in order to ensure a family’s continued prosperity. Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations were offered to the family deity.

  
  

  The Romans looked on their gods to bestow upon their households, city and empire, with the blessings of prosperity, victory and flexibility. There was religious toleration in the Roman Empire. This witnessed varied religious traditions. People were expected to honour Roman gods and acknowledge the divine spirit of the empire and upon meeting these conditions, they had freedom to observe their other religious practices as they pleased.

  
  

  Sports

  
  

  In the ancient city of Rome, there was a place called the campus. Here, Roman soldiers conducted drills. Later the campus became Rome’s track and field playground. Other urban centres in the empire copied the campus in their centres and military settlements.The youth in the urban centres, assembled in the campus to play, exercise and perform inappropriate acts. These acts included: jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing, riding, throwing and swimming.
  

  
  

  In the rural areas, people also participated in fishing and hunting. Women were prohibited from partaking of these activities.There were several ball games which could be found in Ancient Rome. These included: dice (Tesse-rae or tali) Roman Chess (Latrunculi) Roman Checkers (Calculi), tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli) and Ludus duodeeimScriptorum and Tabula.

  
  

  Philosophy

  
  

  Roman philosophy heavily borrowed from its Greek predecessor. Two major philosophical schools – Cynism and stoicism – derived from Greek religion and philosophy became prominent in the Roman empire in the 1st and 2nd Century A D. These two philosophies were fairly merged in the early years of the Roman Empire.The two philosophies expressed negative views on civilisation, something which was reflected in their adherants way of life. Cynicism upheld that civilisation was corrupt and people needed to break away from it and its trappings while stoicism, on the other hand, taught that one must surrender all earthly things and assist others.

  
  

  Apart from the three philosophical schools we have mentioned above, there was also Epicureanism. The most renowned of its Roman exponents was Lucretius (98-35B C). He expresses the view that everything is a product of mechanical evolution, including human beings and their habits and beliefs.

  
  

  He nonetheless admitted the existence of the gods but saw them as living in eternal peace, neither creating nor governing the universe. Lucretius and Cicero led the other Roman philosophers in advancing Greek thought in the Roman Empire. Their teachings resonated well with the upper classes.

  
  

  Cicero wrote in a rich and elegant Latin prose style that has never been surpassed. His prose became a standard for composition and has been up to today.

  
  

  

  
  

  Militarisation

  
  

  The Roman society was highly militarised. Citizenship for provincials could be obtained after 25 years of military service. The army doubled as an army corps of engineers. They built roads and other forms of infrastructure such as aqueducts.Rome fought mercilessly with its neighbours. It had most of its male population pass through military service. This made it a highly militarized state. Even leaders had to have passed through the military to be accepted to lead. Political career of an individual could only commence after ten years of service in the military.

  
  

  The Roman Civilisation spread to all the lands they controlled. This happened through trade and conquest. Its location along the Mediterranean region enabled people to pursue their commercial interests while their military nature, allowed them to register victories in their enemies’ camps. Once they had brought an area to their fold, the Roman administrators helped to spread their civilisation in the areas.

  
  

  Contributions of the Roman Civilisation to modern society

  
  

  Activity 6.12

  Highlighting Rwanda, discuss in groups of five how we have benefited from early civilisation of Rome. Come up with at least ten ways.

  
  

  The saying “all roads lead to Rome” attests to the fact of Rome’s contribution to modern society. They made countless contributions to us in virtually all the fields. Today, we use some of the inventions and innovations. The main ones include:

  
  

  Christianity

  
  

  Rome allowed Christianity to spread and flourish in her empire. Ideas about the faith spread easily inspite of persecution from some rulers and even citizens. Today, Christianity is one of the major world religions. We owe it partly to some Roman emperors. The same can be said on monotheism e.g. emperor Constantine made Christianity legal thus elevating it above other religions. This gave it an upper hand. Rome thus helped spread Christianity to other parts of the world.

  
  

  Government

  
  

  Representative democracy was reflected in the Roman republican system. Senators represented groups of people thus bringing an element of democracy. The people’s representation injected some checks and balances in the governance process. Power was distributed and not concentrated in one office.This form of government has been emulated by governments in the world today.

  
  

  In a way too, the Roman division of their republic into three branches: the Consuls (who served as judges and army leaders) the Senators (who acted as political advisers) and the Assembly (made up of army members whose role was to approve or reject laws) mirrors the separation of powers found in democratic governments today.Like modern democracies, the Romans through their “Twelve Tablets” had something akin to a written constitution. The rules, like today, applied to all citizens alike. They also referred to property, marriage, family, crime, theft and inheritance.

  
  

  Architecture

  
  

  Architecture is one field in which the Romans made great strides in. Their knowledge and skills have been acquired in the modern world. Their architectural styles were evident in use of improved arches and columns of the Greeks; the rounded domes, sculptures, frescos and mosaics. They also used concrete, mortar and cement. This enabled them to develop some structures which have withstood the test of time such as the pantheon and the colosseum.

  
  

                            
  

  
  

  In their architectural work, we are able to witness symbols of their power and creativity in mixing materials and creating masterpieces using new building techniques for visual effect and structure enforcement.

  
  

  Roman engineering skills were also evident in the construction of aqueducts. These structures were made across rivers, and included large networks of underground channels which supplied water to cities and valleys. Later, through the aqueducts, households benefited from indoor plumbing, an efficient sewer system. Central floor heating or hot baths were also spread by the Romans even though they were not inventors.

  
  

  Today all the innovations of Romans have made our life easy. Buildings, bridges and harbours and pipeline transport for water are in use in virtually every part of the world. The Roman architectural styles have also been copied in many parts of the world e.g. the US capital building, the Lincoln memorial and most state capitals in the USA.

  
  

  Entertainment

  
  

  Our idea for mass entertainment came from the Romans. People were entertained in the forum and in the colosseum, Rome’s amphitheatre which had a capacity of accommodating 60,000 persons. Games were played, sports were held, musical and theatrical performances, public executions and gladiatorial combat performed. The colesseum’s floors also hosted mock naval battles for public watch. Today mass entertainment is a feature of modern humanity.

  
  

  Roads

  
  

  Roman roads have greatly influenced our modern road construction. Some of these roads are still in use today e.g. via Appia, an old road that connects Rome to Brindisi in southwest Italy. Their highways were straight, plane and resistant to damage. Like today’s highways, these roads use the most direct route to connect cities. In fact, several of the modern roads connecting what were Roman cities have followed routes that were chosen by the Romans.

  
  

  Calendar

  
  

  The Julian calendar (named after its inventor, Galus Julius “Ceasar”) gave a lot to the modern calendar. (Which was reformed by Pope Gregory 1600 years later). The calendar is still being used the way it was in many Greek Orthodox churches.Our modern calendar has retained the names of the months as they were in the Julian calendar. All the months’ names are derived from Latin e.g. January (from “Janus”, god of the beginning of times) February (from “Februa” a Roman festival), March (from “Mars” the god of war), April (from “aspire” meaning “open”, referring to the blossoming of plants in spring), May (from “maia,” goddess of fertility), June (from “Juno”, goddess of women and marriage, hence the expression “June bride”), July (from Julius Ceasar himself), August (from emperor Augustus), September (7th”as March was the First month at the time), and, October (8th), November (9th) and December (10th month). The use of calendar has remained in today’s society.

  
  

  Meal system

  
  

  Ancient Romans invented the three-course meal that is popular in the world today. Their meal was made up of starter, main dish and dessert. This tradition was prevalent in the empire.

  
  

  Law

  
  

  The modern world has also borrowed a lot from the Roman law. The Justinian Dynasty opened the eyes of the world to the need for legal reform. This had followed the Twelve Tables. But the ascendancy of the Justinian dynasty saw steps being made towards reforming the Roman law. Beginning AD 528, a panel of experts was assembled by the emperor to reform the law. They came up with the codex, an updated collection of the laws. Later, the Digest and the institutes were completed. All these saw the bringing to an end of the legal reforms in AD 534. Together, these writings were called the “Corpus Juris Civilis” the body of civil law”. They have greatly influenced law, first in the western world and secondly, by extension to the whole world.
  

  
  

  Literature, philosophy and history

  
  

  Poetry and use of satire in verse in literature were popular in the Ancient Roman empire. Use of history to achieve nationalistic and patriotic ends was a major feature among Roman historian’s works’ Like today, historians equally criticized aspects of governance or regimes they felt took away the peoples’ liberty. The Romans respected philosophy’s contribution to society. They were guided by Greek philosophical schools. The Romans spread ideas of these philosophies to the areas they controlled.

  
  

  Today, the world owes a lot in these three fields to the Romans. Even some of the books they wrote in literature, philosophy and history have been interpreted in other languages and are still being used today.

  
  

  Art

  
  

  Art was another area where the Romans have left an indelible mark. Uses of realism, idealism and revealing of an individual’s character in a piece of art have their origin in Ancient Rome. Today, art is dominated with these qualities. We can also not forget the idea of beautifying homes with works of art in the modern society. This was also popularized by the Romans. Uses of frescoes and mosaic have also their roots in ancient Rome.

  
  

  Science and mathematics

  
  

  This is an area where the world today also owes something from the Romans. Although the Romans generally left scientific research to the Greeks, these were their citizens hence their contributions are treated as Rome’s. In Egypt, the Romans left the Hellenistic scientists to exchange their ideas freely. This made scientists like the astronome – mathematician Ptolemy, to come up with his theory that the earth was the centre of the universe, a mistaken idea that was accepted in the western world for nearly 1,500 years.
  

  
  

  The Greek doctor Galen made advances in the medical field. He insisted on experiments to prove a conclusion. This medic, compiled a medical encyclopaedia which summarised what was known in the field of medicine at the time. This book remained a standard text in the medical profession for more than 1,000 years.In addition, the Romans, popularised the use of science. They applied geography to make maps, and medical knowledge to help doctors improve public health

  
  

  Currency and trade

  
  

  Throughout their reign, the Romans maintained a stable currency and a prosperous international trade. Stability of currency and promotion of international trade, are today still vital economic issues.

  
  

  Unit summary

  
  

  This unit deals with the ancient civilisations in the medieval and modern times and their contribution to the modern world. The earliest inhabitants of Greece during the time of its civilisation were the Dorians, the Cretans and the Archeans. The Greek Civilisation contributed greatly in the areas of literature, philosophy, mathematics and architecture in the modern world. The olympic games also originated from ancient Greece.The Roman Civilisation grew along the Tiber River in Central Italy. The early Roman republic had a written code of laws known as the ‘Twelve Tables or tablets’, which was heavily based on custom. The Roman republican system practiced representative democracy, setting the pace for other countries in the world. The ancient Roman Civilisation had great contributions in christianity, architecture, government, entertainment, roads, calendar, literature, philosophy , history, art, mathematics, science, law, currency and trade.

  
  

  Unit assessment

  
  

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to discuss and explore the activities of various colonial agents, their roles, problems and their consequences in Africa.

  
  

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. Name at least three earliest inhabitants of Greece.

  
  

  2. Name any five gods of the Greeks and Romans and state what they were associated with.

  
  

  3. What achievements is the Greek philosopher Pythagoras credited with?

  
  

  4. Which language did the earliest inhabitants of Rome use?

  
  

  5. Compare the achievements made in Greek and Roman civilisations.

  
  

  6. Discuss at least ten contributions of Greek and Roman civilisations to the worl
  

  
  

  
  

  
  
• Unit 7: Political, economic and intellectual developments in medieval and modern times

  Topic area: World history

  
  

  Sub-topic area: Ancient world civilisations, medieval and modern times
  

  
  

  Key unit competence

  Analyse the political, economic and intellectual progress in medieval and modern times.
  

  
  

  Introduction
  

  
  

  Activity 7.1

  using textbooks and other historical materials;

  
  

  1. Find out information about the religious life in the medieval and modern times.

  2. Research with regard to christianity and Islam.

  3. Write down your findings in your notebook.

  4. Present them in a class discussion.
  

  
  

  The medieval times was the period around AD 300 to AD 1500. During the medieval period, major developments were undertaken in different parts of the world. These developments covered all the areas of life.Major developments were further to be witnessed in the modern times. The period begun from 1500 AD to date. Like in the earlier ages, modern humanity has equally made great strides in virtually all fields of life.

  
  

  The Middle Ages, as the medieval period was also known, saw two major world religions adopting their towering position over their competing counterparts. These are Christianity and Islam. The church rose in Europe in a period of the Medieval Age known as the High Middle Ages. Islam was to follow hot on its heels. The two religions attracted many followers in different parts of the world. The same has been witnessed in the modern times.
  

  
  

  Christianity

  
  

  Christianity emerged from a Jewish background. It marked an important break with the dominant values of the Greek and Roman worlds. The Jews looked forward to a Messiah who would save Israel from oppression, bring the kingdom of God and establish a true paradise on earth. Judaea which was the centre of the Jewish kingdom was made a Roman province and placed under the direction of a Roman official called a procurator by 6 AD.Many Jews revolted because they hated being under foreign rule. But there was little room of freeing themselves from the Romans. They found themselves in the midst of confusion and conflict. It was in this background that Jesus of Nazareth, the founder of Christianity emerged. His teachings (done through parables) were to some extent contrary to those of Judaism.
  

  
  

  This made him to be at loggerheads with the followers and leaders of the faith. Nonetheless, he attracted many followers. They believed he was the Messiah who would bring an end to their oppression and found God’s kingdom on earth. However, Jesus spoke of a heavenly kingdom, not an earthly one. In John 18:36, in the Bible, he captures this thus ‘my kingdom is not of this world’. His teachings brought him a lot of trouble with radicals who thought his would be an earthly kingdom.
  

  
  

  Conservative religious leaders alongside the Roman authorities too had a bone to chew with him. While the Roman Empire weakened and crumbled, a new force – Christianity developed though at first the efforts of Jesus Christ (BBCE- 29 CE) and later his disciples.Today, most of the world’s population asserts that Christ is the son of God and redeemer of mankind. He was born during the reign of Emperor Augustus Ceasar of Rome. This was about a generation after Emperor Pompey had brought Judaea into the growing Roman Empire. Christianity, unlike many of the other Jewish factions talked of love and forgiveness. After the death of Christ, the Christian cult spread slowly in Judaea and was nearly unknown outside it. Two factors were to change the situation drastically.

  
  

  First, was the conversion of Saul (Paul), a Roman citizen of Jewish origin. He spread the faith in the non-Jewish lands (non-Jews were known as Gentiles). Second, was the rebellion by the Jews against their Roman overlords in the Jewish war (67-71 C .E).The Roman authorities decided to punish the culprits by dispersing them in what came to be known as the diaspora.
  

  
  

  This, among others, resulted in establishment of Jewish settlements outside the Jewish lands. This enabled the faith to spread throughout the eastern Mediterranean basin and soon in Italy itself. Stimulated by the strenuous efforts of the apostle Paul and his missionaries, the Christian doctrine was spreading rapidly and steadily among the Jews and Gentiles alike by the end of the first century. These set the faith on the road to becoming a world religion.
  

  
  

  Religious life of Christians in medieval and modern times

  
  

  Christians in the medieval and modern times have been greatly influenced by the teachings of the founder of the religion, Jesus Christ. In between, other cultural influences have equally impacted on Christianity.Early Christians shared a common faith in the teachings of Christ. They also had a common way of worship. Gradually the communities organised a structured church.Jesus of Nazareth was a historical person unlike mythic heroes who were said to have founded the other religions e.g., the Egyptian Osiris or the Greek Cybele.

  Later, Jesus’ followers called him “Christos” or Messiah.Around, 26 C.E, Christ was introduced to the teachings of John the Baptist. The same year, Pontius Pilate was appointed governor of Judaea. The following years saw Christ get many followers who believed he was the son of God and the long awaited Messiah, as he claimed to be. He followed the Jewish traditions and law where it did not conflict with his conscience. On the law, he differed with the traditional rabbis by following the spirit than the letter of the Jewish law.

  This was further compounded by Jesus’ insistence that although he was a messiah, his, was a heavenly kingdom rather than the earthly one expected by most Jews.Jesus’ message revolved around faith in God, hope in his mercy to secure salvation and love of one’s fellow human beings.The Gospels (Good News) of Mathew, Mark, Luke and John, the four evangelists, were the original foundations of Christianity.

  These books were written and collected in the late first century C.E along with the letters of Paul which had been written to the communities he had founded in the eastern Mediterranean. Paul’s letters incorporated Greek philosophy – ideas of Plato, Stoics and other Greek thinkers – something which made them be popular with the educated Romans. These joined to the poor, humble and oppressed persons who had found Christianity’s teaching appealing. By the second century, a written New Testament had appeared that was accepted by all Christians.

  This largely superseded the Old Testament which had formed the core of the Jewish religious practices. Apart from the gospels, and the other books in the New Testament the writings of Bishops, such as Augustine of Hippo (North Africa) and Ambrose of Milan, formed the secondary foundation of the Christian faith. The gospels, of course were the primary one.

  For example, Augustine’s “confessions” and “The city of God” have been the most important repositories of Christian teaching after the Gospels.By the early fifth century, Christianity was quite influential in the declining Roman Empire.

  It provided the land with a new system of morality and ethics that challenged the previously widely held view in the empire. After Theodosius’s reign (378-395), the Imperial government became a Christian entity. The faith thus controlled the earthly kingdom as it equally laid claim to the heavenly one. This brought a blending between the Christian and pagan world views. Roman influences were thus to find their way into Christianity.

  Generally, the Early Christian church had the following hallmarks:

  Patterns of life and worship

  For one to be a Christian, he or she had to renounce evil in the rite of baptism. This is what is referred to by Christians today as ‘being born again’. Early Christians, like today, believed that by undergoing baptism, their sins were forgiven by the grace of God. All Christians viewed themselves as equal, and addressed one another as ‘brother’ or ‘sister’.

  Christians gathered each Sunday for a ceremony of giving thanks to God. Those who had undergone through baptism ate bread and drank wine in a sacred meal called the Eucharist. This was done in memory of Jesus, whose last supper was described in the gospels. Such practices made many educated Romans, who still could not bring themselves to adopt the new faith, to regard it as a mixture of superstition and cannibalism (the host, or Eucharist).

  Role of women

  Christianity taught equality of the sexes. This made many women to find it attractive. The church teemed with women who had been attracted by its teaching of that in it. According to Christianity teachings, all people whether male or female are equal in the eyes of God.

  As a consequent, women served in the church as teachers and administrators. Later they were barred from carrying out any official role in the church. Within its first two centuries, the church restricted membership in the clergy to men. This did not discourage women from helping in the expansion of the church.

  Structure of the church

  Each Christian community had its own priests who in turn were under the authority of a bishop who controlled a diocese. At this early time, only men were allowed to become members of the Christian clergy. Out of the many bishops, with time, those of the big cities (such as Rome, Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem and Constantinople), gained greater authority. This made them to get the honorary title of patriarch. They exercised authority over other bishops in their area even though all the bishops traced spiritual authority from the apostles, and ultimately to Jesus himself.

  Belief system

  Christians believed that Jesus was the Messiah they had been promised by prophets in the Old Testament. They also believed that upon crucifixion, the “son of God” as they called him, resurrected. This strengthened their belief in life after death. Christianity was thus seen as a ticket to eternal life. Many people wanted this life. People could get salvation or be saved from sin and allowed to enter heaven where they would join God in everlasting life.

  There was a strong faith in Jesus among the early Christians. This made them to begin to understand God in a new way. Like other Jews, Christians believed in the God of Israel and studied the Hebrew Bible. Unlike the Jews, Christians believed that God existed in three persons: Father, son and Holy Spirit. This is what today is known in the Church as the Holy Trinity. Further, Christians, unlike the other religions with the exception of Judaism, believed in the existence of one God. This was in sharp contrast to what was in practice in Rome, where an emperor was considered to be god and therefore could be worshipped.

                               

  Christians, like Jews, could not accept this. Christians also refused to serve in the army or hold public office. This was to the annoyance of the Roman authorities. Added to the Christians’ criticisms of Roman festivals and games, the Romans saw them as traitors who should be punished. Their call of each other as “brother” and “sister” was interpreted as a sign of sexual pervasion. This is what opened the floodgates to their persecution from 64 A.D by the Roman government during the reign of Emperor Nero. Christianity was banned and many of its followers were killed.Undeterred, many Christians accepted to die due to their faith. People who give themselves to be persecuted or die for their faith are called martyrs.

  The martyrs swelled in numbers day in, day out. As if this was not enough, in Rome, the authorities forced them to bury their dead in catacombs (underground burial places). The faith still spread in spite of all these hardships. As a result, after A D 250, many Romans grew tired of war and feared the end of their empire. They began to admire the faith and courage of Christians. Interestingly, many Christians equally began to accept the empire. It was in this background that Emperor Constantine accepted Christianity in A. D 312.

  Use of icons by Christians

  The division of the Roman Empire into East and West also affected the Christian community. Each side saw the development of the church differently. The empire in the east was known as the Byzantine. In 700s AD, a major dispute divided the church. This was brought by the use of icons. The icons in dispute were pictures or images of Jesus, Mary (mother of Jesus), and the saints, or Christian holy people. Many in the eastern empire honoured icons. These were used in covering the walls of churches. A few important icons were even believed to work miracles. To some people in the Christian community in the east, icons were a form of idol worship.

  They needed to be expunged from the church as Christianity had no room for such worship. There was thus two opposing camps. To the supporters of icons, they were symbols of God’s presence in their daily life. They also argued that the icons helped explain Christianity to the people. To the other side, they were a form of idol worship – something unacceptable in Christianity.

        

  The issue of icons in the church sucked in even the Roman authorities. Emperor Leo III was against the use of icons in the church. He banned them in A D 726. Many people in his eastern empire, church leaders and even the pope and patriarch of Constantinople did not approveof the development. It affected the relationship between the churches in Rome and Constantinople. Use of icons in the church only became acceptable throughout the Christian community over the next 100 years after A.D 726.

  Emergence of monasteries and convents

  
  

  Monasteries emerged in the eastern Roman Empire in AD 300s. Men called monks stayed together in religious communities called monasteries. Some of these developed near cities while others sprung in isolated places.

  Monks led a spiritual life detached from the temptations of the world. Many also tried to do good deeds and be examples of Christian living. Women soon followed the example of monks and formed communities of their own called convents. Women who lived in convents are known as nuns. Some even built churches and hospitals as they spread the faith in different parts. Monks and nuns were a feature of Christianity in both the western and eastern empires. Those living in the monasteries and converts gave up their belongings, lived simply and spent their time in prayer and work. They also began to play important roles in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox life. Many ran hospitals, and schools and even helped the poor. Other than these responsibilities, one of their important duties was to serve as missionaries. This led them into helping to spread the faith.

  Changes brought by Christianity

  
  

  Activity 7.2

  Split yourselves into two groups;

  1. In your groups discuss the changes brought about by christianity.

  2. Write down your findings.

  3. Present them in class followed by questios and answer sessions.

  Christianity visited many changes in peoples’ lives from the medieval period to the present. Some fundamental ones include:

  • Belief in one God.

  • Belief in the Trinity – God the father, the son and the Holy Spirit.

  • Loving God and your neighbor (i.e. others) the way one loves the self.

  • Belief in salvation and eternal life to those who accept the faith.

  • Forgiveness to ones’ enemies.

  • Observation of justice in an individual’s life.

  • Following a morally upright life and ending wickedness.

  • Belief in life after death.

  • Belief in punishment for those who fail to repent and death for sinners.

  • Leading a humble life i.e. humility.

  • Equality of humanity.

  • Promotion of social justice by providing a combination of spiritual food, education and medicine to people.

  Origin, spread and effects of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world

  
  

  Activity 7.3

  Using the Internet and textbooks;

  1. Research on the origin, spread and effects of christianity in Europe and the rest of the world.

  2. Summarise your points and write them down in a notebook.

  3. Share them in a class discussion.

  Origin of Christianity

  
  

  Christianity was founded by Jesus Christ of Nazareth over 2,000 years ago. Jesus was a Jew who was born in Bethlehem. Upon attaining 30 years of age, he began his public life which involved preaching about the way God wanted human beings to act towards one another. He made many followers who believed in his teachings and actions. He was the Son of God but born through Mary and Joseph. Jesus was born at about 4 BC at almost the same time Rome took over the Jewish Kingdom. He was thus both a Jew and a Roman subject.

  He was born during the reign of Emperor Augustus. Information on him is found in the four Gospel books in the Bible, which are; Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.According to the gospels, Jesus grew up in the village of Nazareth in northern Palestine. It is said that each year he went with his parents, Joseph and Mary, to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. This is a Jewish ceremony which commemorated the Israelites’ exodus from slavery in Egypt. During the visits, Jesus displayed an amazing knowledge of religious matters which impressed Jewish scholars of the time.

  Jesus began to attract large crowds through his teachings, especially when word went round that he performed miracles of healing. This made his followers to equate him with the legendary Messiah or anointed King sent by God to lead the Jewish people to freedom. They even said that before conception, an angel called Gabriel told Jesus’ mother that she would give birth to the Messiah. “He will be great,” said the Angel, “and will be called the Son of the Most High God.”

  Mary’s pregnancy was believed to have been supernatural. She did not conceive with Joseph because she was a virgin.Paul of Tarsus, a Jew and a Roman citizen did much to spread Christianity in the Roman Empire. He travelled extensively in Eastern Mediterranean spreading the faith. The letters he wrote constitute the earliest Christian writings. His interpretation of Christ’s teachings, which divorced it from following the Jewish traditions, enabledit to spread widely in the non Jewish communities. He argued that Christ had brought the one detailed in the Hebrew Bible.Christianity was further buoyed by Emperor Constantine’s conversion to the faith.

  The emperor made efforts to see the faith embedded in the Roman Empire e.g. through the Edict of Milan, all forms of religious worship were legalized in the empire. Constantine reached the decision with his co-ruler, Licinius. The Edict made the faith be granted imperial recognition in the Roman world. Many Roman emperors took to Christianity after the end of Constantine’s’ reign. The faith thus received official support, and spread in most parts of the empire – Europe included.

  Spread of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world

  
  

  The support Christianity get from the Roman emperors greatly contributed to its spread in areas under Roman Ruler. Most of these lands were in Europe and to some extent Asia and parts of Africa. Christianity with the political backing from the Roman rulers grew rapidly with time. It was the religion of choice of people in various parts of the world.When Christ died, the Church was thrown into a moderate inactivity. But the news of the resurrected Christ and then the Pentecost event, transformed disciples into bold evangelists.

  The disciples gave the church the solid foundation upon which later, apostles like Paul were to spread it beyond the Jewish lands. The church penetrated deeply into Europe, Asia and Africa, only those land masses and Islands which could not be reached easily by sailing ships could not be reached by Christian missionaries.The history of Christianity can be divided into three periods – expansion, persecution and consolidation.

  Expansion (30 - 65 AD)
  

  This period witnessed spread of Christianity from Jerusalem to other parts of the world starting with Rome. They took a threefold approach at this time: Kerygma(proclamation of gospel message),did ache (further teaching and explanation of Christianity to new converts who had accepted the Kerygma) and finally, the worship and liturgical activity of the early communities gathered together especially to celebrate the supper of the Lord.

  Persecution (AD 65 -90)
  

  The first period of expansion ended in 65 AD. By 70 AD persecution of Christians commenced. Life for Jews and Christians alike become unbearable in the Roman Empire. Inspite of this, Christians were buoyed by the belief in Christ. They soldiered on.

  A host of Roman emperors led in Persecution of Christians. It began with emperor Nero (54 -68 AD) then came Decius (250 -251 AD), Galerius (who was in charge of the Eastern part of the Roman empire during the reign of emperor Diocletian (284- 305 AD). There were equally those emperors who supported Christianity. The most notable one was Constantine (312 -337 AD). Others were Valerian (251-260 AD) Diocletian (284 -305 AD) and lastly Theodosius I.

  The emperors who supported Christianity greatly contributed to its spread in the Roman Empire which strode Europe and some parts of Asia and Africa.During the period of persecution, the Christians were outlawed and hunted down like criminals. Many were killed due to their faith. Many Christians were undeterred by the persecutions and they remained steadfast in their spread of the faith. They produced written gospel literature during this time. The presence of eyewitnesses and the excellent uncluttered memories of those times were sufficient enough.

  The recording of the teachings of Christ was partly necessitated by the disappearance of the eyewitnesses due to persecution of Christians thus making them disappear at an alarming rate. Peter and Paul, who were some of the disciples of Jesus Christ, were killed in Rome for their faith and another disciple by the name of James was killed in Jerusalem. Apart from the killing, Christianity was also under the threat from new ideas and heresies. All this made recording of the story and teachings of Christ very important. It would provide a fixed, written definitive account, which would be available for the increasing number of converts.

  The Gospel of Mark opened the floor to others. Mark was the disciple and interpreter of Peter. He thus recorded Peter’s preaching. Luke was also to do the same for Paul. The Gospel of Luke and Mathew were written towards the end of A.D 96. Mathew had a Jewish audience in mind while Mark, had a Roman one. Luke on the other hand had a Gentile world in mind. He sought to put straight on Christianity amidst the hostility, false accusations and misunderstanding which Christians aroused.

  Consolidation (AD 90 on wards)
  

  The early Church survived the first persecutions and now settled down to the long centuries of consolidation and development. During this period, the church was growing rapidly.By the mid-second century, it had reached the north coast of Africa at least as far as Carthage. This was a time for deeper reflection on the meaning of the Gospel as is recorded in John’s Gospel.

  It was also time for concern about matters of order and discipline for correcting irregularities, both of belief and of conduct in the church.After the fall of Jerusalem, the Jewish Rabbis (scholars and teachers of law) established a school for intensive study of the Torah or Jewish religious laws and doctrines at Jamnia about ten miles south of Joppa. At this time Christians were excluded from the Jewish Synagogues. In addition, there was no fixed Hebrew Canon or list of Old Testament books, already in Palestine there was popular acceptance of 22 or 24 books.

  The early Christians who spoke Greek used the Greek translation of the Bible (the Septuagint) which included the Deuteronomical Books (the Apocrypha). The New Testament document began gradually to be collected together and to be accepted as part of scripture with the OldTestamentChristians soon spread and reached far flung areas. Acts 2:9 observes that it was soon in the lands of Parthians and Medes and Elamites and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya belonging to Cyrene and visitors from Rome, both Jews and Prosilyyes, Cretans and Arabians. These were people of diverse cultures but Christianity gained ground in spite of the cultural differences.In the non-Jewish areas the early Christians did not impose Jewish traditions on the new converts. The Christian message was thus quite distinct from its cultural envelope.

  Christianity was established from roots in the Roman Empire before it spread to other areas.The empire was vast and quite expansive. It stretched from Spain in the west to Armenia in the East, from Britain in the North to Egypt in the South.Alexander the Great’s conquest of the Persian Empire around 4th Century BC, saw Christianity reach new lands. Pax Romana (Peace brought by Romans) gained a foothold in virtually all the areas where the Roman rule was experienced. They also brought law and order, which enabled harmony and prosperity to be a regular feature in the areas.Jesus Christ’s command to his followers to “Go into the world and preach a Gospel to every creature” has greatly informed the spread of Christianity.

  The command has been accomplished through missionary work from the medieval to modern era.Missionary activity became fully established in Asia in the 13th and the 14th centuries. John of Montecorvino (1247 -1328) was among the earliest missionaries to spread Christianity in India and China. He belonged to the order of Franciscans hence strictly followed the teachings of St Francis of Assisi. John took time to spread the faith in the Madras region of India.

  Later he travelled to Beijing in China. Through the efforts of Missionaries, the Catholic Church was already establishing a foothold in Japan by the 1500s. The Jesuits (members of a Catholic group called the society of Jesus) were a powerful force in the Missionary work in Asia and New World.In the New World, Spain and Portugal led in missionary activity. Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries had a strong preserve in Latin America. They evangelized to the Maya, Aztecs Inca and other Native American groups.

  Like it was later to happen in Africa and in most of Latin America, the flag followed the cross. Christianity was thus intertwined with Imperialism. Through this, the whole of the American continent witnessed the spread of the faith.Europe saw the emergence of Monasteries. These greatly helped in the spread of Christianity in the continent. Monks and nuns (the latter lived in converts) were actively involved in spreading the faith in Europe.

  Priests also joined them. The three groups were responsible for the development of the Church after the fall of the Roman Empire. A few examples of personalities who contributed to this area: St. Patrick who set out to convert people in Ireland; Pope Gregory I who in 597 AD decided to send Christianity to England. The English King’s Conversion to Christianity made the subjects to follow suit over the next century, most of England became Christian. Conversion of England owed more to Irish monks. In Eastern Europe, in the 700s and 800s, Roman Catholic monks competed with orthodox missionaries to convert the Slavic. Through the initiation of Kings and rulers, Christianity was spread by missionaries to Bohemia, Bulgaria, Poland, Hungary, Russia and Prussia.

  This made the Celtic Germanic and Slavic people.Netherland and Germany saw St Boniface spread the faith in the areas. The people embraced the message of both hope and fear that the Christians brought. This with time made most parts of Europe to adopt the faith. The church divided in 451 AD into oriental Orthodoxy and Chalcedonian Christianity. The latter further divided into the Roman Catholic Church division in 1054.

  Later, in the 1500s the protestant Reformation created new Christian communities that saw further division of the Catholic Church into different denominations. The spread of Christianity was greatly facilitated by the explorations which took place from the Renaissance onwards. Crusades which were waged by Europeans enabled the faith to spread to several non-Christian lands, mostly those with Muslims in Europe and beyond.

  Effects of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world

  
  

  Christianity gained a foothold in Europe and later the rest of the world. Originally a Jewish based faith; it was embraced by many non-Jews in Europe, Asia and later other lands. Its effects in Europe include the following:

  Emergence of monotheism

  Previously communities were polytheists. It was Christianity which brought the belief in one supreme God. It preached against the existence of many gods and goddesses. The Christian God was all-powerful and was believed to have been the creator of everything in the universe and beyond. The God also controlled the world and its inhabitants.

  Belief in salvation

  Christianity brought individualism in humanity’s relationship with God. An individual was required to receive salvation in order to enter the heavenly kingdom. This was to be seen in ones’ behaviour both to God and secondly, to fellow human beings. Good behaviour thus became a practice in society.

  Promotion of justice in society

  The pillar of Christ’s teachings was justice. All Christians were expected to be just in all their dealings. As a result, Christians developed a just society where the interests of all were respected.

  Promotion of equality in society

  Christians did not tolerate discrimination. Discrimination of women slaves, non-Jews and later racism, was not encouraged. People were treated as equals in spite of their differences.

  Promotion of social services

  Christians strongly believed in serving others. From an early time, Christian monks and nuns traversed different parts of the world spreading spiritual, physiological and mental food. They spearheaded provision of medical, educational and other social services in lands where they spread their faith. In Africa and many parts of Asia, it was the missionaries who opened up services. In both the Middle Ages and later, education became a path for upward mobility and employment. This was first done by Cathedral schools which later developed into universities e.g. University of Paris.

  Development of infrastructure

  Christianity played a big role in infrastructural development. Roads and buildings were constructed in different parts of the world courtesy of the missionaries. Christians travelled to remote areas which were lacking infrastructure. They helped stimulate the making of such areas accessible. Christianity’s working closely with government from the Roman era into the later years made infrastructural development possible. Christians also pioneered the development of new architectural designs. Some of these were especially noticeable in the church development. For example Gothic architecture in France. This style is noted for vertical height, flying arches and supporting buttresses. There were many Gothic Cathedrals in different parts of Europe.

  Promotion of Western culture

  Originally, Christianity was Jewish in cultural orientation. This however changed when most of Europe embraced the faith. The western world gave Christianity some aspects of its culture. These came to be part and parcel of the faith. Today, most of these cultural practices have been adopted by Christians in different parts of the world. Christianity equally evolved its unique culture, e.g., it came up with the Eucharist – these involved converts taking the blessed bread and wine. It was a symbol of God’s sacrifice for unity with his people.

  Encouragement of trade and urbanisation

  During the crusades, Christians evolved commercial relations with the Muslim states they waged the war against. Mostly, the crusades stimulated the demand for luxury goods. Population of towns increased thus leading to rapid urbanization.

  Adoption of new ideas

  The interaction between the Christians and Muslim groups during the crusades enabled Muslim ideas to find their way in Europe. In an equal measure, western ideas found their way in the areas traversed by the Christian traders, e.g., New translations of texts by Aristotle, texts on astronomy, numerals and paper, made their way across the trade routes.

  Apart from the positive consequences, Christianity also visited negative consequences to Europe and the rest of the world. The following were the main ones:

  Loss of lives and destruction of property

  Christians organized crusades against the non-adherents to the faith. This involved waging wars which brought untold suffering, loss of lives and destruction of property to the victims. The crusades took place in the 11th and 12th centuries. They were holy wars sponsored by the Pope to recover holy land from the Muslims. These crusades grew partially out of long conflicts between Muslims and Christians in Spain. The crusaders believed they would receive spiritual merit and earn a place in paradise.

  Discrimination in society

  Even though Christianity taught on equality of persons, the Christians discriminated the non-Christians in variously ways. Many non-Christians were excluded from certain privileges. This in itself was discriminative hence encouraging inequality in the society.

  Rise in religious fundamentalism

  Christianity bred a feeling of fundamentalism in its membership. This partly explained the crusades waged against the non-believers. Christians looked down upon other religions and even went to great lengths to try to wipe them out. This was against the spirit of mutual co-existence that had seen it develop and spread in the Roman Empire.

  Souring relations between Christians and Muslims

  There was a bitter struggle between the Christians and Muslims. This has survived to date. Persecution of Muslims by the Christians increased. The Christians also came up with literature which dehumanized Islamic faith. In addition, Christianity equally struggled with Judaism. This spoiled the Christian-Jewish relations considerably. Many Christians viewed Jews as inhuman “others” and every crusade witnessed violence meted out on the Jews.

  Islam

  
  

  Activity 7.4

  Using information from the Internet and textbooks.

  1. Trace the origin, spread and the effects of Islam in Europe and the rest of the World.

  2. Summarise your points and write them down in a notebook.

  3. Share them in a class discussion.

  Origin

  Islam sprang up in Palestine alongside Christianity and Judaism. The three religions are interlinked and all worship one God, though with different names. In historical terms, Islam is the youngest of the three. The word Islam means submission to Allah (Arabic word for God). The followers of Islam are known as Muslims (ones who submit).

  The birth of Muhammad

  Muhammad was born in Mecca around AD. 570. In his youth, he worked as a shepherd among the Bedouin Arabs. Later, he led caravans across the desert and became a successful merchant at the age of 25. He married Khadija, a wealthy widow who ran a prosperous caravan business. Islam developed in two cities – Mecca and Yathrib (Medina). Most people in Arabia at the time were nomads and lived mainly around oases and wells.

  These were later to develop into cities and towns. They mainly engaged in trade as they used camel caravans for transport. Mecca became an important commercial and agricultural centre in the 6th and 7th centuries. It was located along the caravan route. The city was also a vital religious centre. It had a religious shrine called Kaaba. This made the dominant tribe in town, Quraysh, to prosper economically.

  Muhammad received a series of spiritual revelations from God. These were to form the religious basis of Islam. He met with opposition to the new faith but managed to place it upon firm foundations. The prophet was very religious.He often went to a cave outside Mecca to quietly contemplate spiritual matters. At about the age of 40, he had a spiritual vision. While meditating in the cave, an angel spoke to him. Angel Gabriel was communicating with him. This happened from time to time and Muhammad discussed it with his wife Khadija and close friends.

  These people accepted the seriousness and truthfulness of the revelations. They were later written and are today what are contained in the Quran, the Muslim holy book. Muhammad started to convey the content of some of his revelations to a wider public around AD 613. Some people found the message appealing, particularly that a single god was the source of all power and goodness in the world. The message was especially attractive to the poor and those who were not in power. It was attractive because it transcended tribal groupings hence a challenge to the tribal leaders.

  Spread of Islam

  Islam spread rapidly in Europe, Middle East, other parts of Asia and Africa.Muhammad and his followers spread the faith by conquest and persuasion. The prophet organised his community in Medina into the Umma which means the community of the faithful. He led daily prayers and saw to the economic welfare of the community. Of particular interest in his focus was provision of relief for orphans, widows and the poor.It was at Medina that the tenets of the faith were more fully articulated.

  The community organised raids on merchant caravans on their way to Mecca.After the sojourn in Medina, the prophet and his followers returned to Mecca in 630 CE. They attacked and conquered the city. As a result, they forced its inhabitants to embrace Islam. All the pagan shrines were destroyed and replaced with mosques, except for the Ka’ba. The Ka’ba was retained as a symbol of greatness of Mecca and a place for yearly pilgrimage for Muslims.

  They denied the Ka’ba housed a deity as the pagans had believed. By 632, Arabia fell into the hands of the Muslim. Prophet Muhammad died in the same year.After the death of Prophet Muhammad, Abu Bakr, the first caliph, took the mantle of leadership. He was not a prophet but the head of state and chief judge, religious leader, and military commander. Bakr led fierce battles on the groups which renounced Islam after the death of the prophet. This made the faith to spread rapidly into even new lands. His armies conquered the Byzantium and Sassanid empires, both of which had been weakened by fighting one another.Upon Abu Bakr’s death, a new caliph took over.

  This one and two others followed in the mould of Abu Bakr. They expanded the territory under Islamic control as they made one success after the other in their quest for expansion. The period of the first four caliphs lasted from 632-661 CE. In 636 CE Arab armies conquered Syria, took Jerusalem in 638 CE and by 646 CE had overrun most of Egypt. Iraq fell from the Sassanid Empire in 651 thus officially bringing to a close the 400-year-old Sassanid Empire.

  The Islamic forces were not contended with the gains they had made upto 651. In 711 CE, they took the Hindu kingdom of Sind. Between 711 and 718 CE, Islamic forces moved into Iberia (Spain). They conquered the Peninsular and had their eyes focused on Gaul (France). All the conquered territories were ruled with efficiency and flexibility from a central location. Converts were numerous and came from diverse backgrounds. To get revenue, the Islamic rulers imposed a head tax on non-Muslims. The tax was called the “Jizya”. Jews and Christians were tolerated in the Islamic empire but were taxed.

  Later divisions over leadership rocked the Islamic community. The main one came in the acceptance of the caliphs. A group recognized all caliphs regardless of their descent from prophet Muhammad while the other refused to accept (recognize) the caliphs without blood relations to prophet Muhammad. The former became known as Sunni Muslims while the latter were Shi’a. The Sunni were the majority. These internal divisions weakened the Muslims that by early 11th Century, they were vulnerable to Turkish peoples’ attacks from central Asia. The Turks brought to an end the Islamic Abbasid dynasty. They embraced Islam but took control of some of the lands which previously had fallen into the hands of the Muslims.

  Factors that led to the rapid spread of Islam

  
  

  There were various factors that contributed to the rapid spread of Islam. The main ones were:

  (i) Prophet Muhammad’s military expeditions:The prophet was a good military organiser. He led his army from Medina to many successful excursions in Mecca and other areas, for example at Badr in 624 AD, the battle of Uhad in 625 AD and Ditch in 627AD. These victories made Muhammad to gain prestige and trust of many in the region. Many tribes entered into agreement with him. Such groups had no alternative but to accept Islam. Other than Mecca, the Arab armies easily conquered the Middle East and imposed their religion on these areas.

  (ii) Signing of treaty between Muhammad and Mecca AD in 628: He signed a treaty with the Meccans which brought the status of his community at par with Mecca. This was further helped by his taking control of Mecca by AD 630, with little resistance from its inhabitants.

  (iii) Role of merchants: Muslim merchants spread their religion during their commercial activities in other areas. Islam thus easily spread along the busy trade routes of western Arabia.

  (iv) The Hajj ceremonies: Every Muslim, as we have already learnt, was expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. This ceremony brought Muslims from various places together. It bound them and made them to put all efforts at spreading the faith.

  (v) Establishment of a federation of Arab tribes: Muhammad managed to create a federation of Arab tribes before he died. This federation strengthened the tribe and enabled them to defeat the Eastern Roman Empire and later the Persian Empire. With time, it controlled the lands between Libya and Persia. The federation transformed itself into the Arab empire which was instrumental in spreading the faith to the whole region.

  (vi) Organisation of the Arab empire: The empire was structured in such a way that it had a successor who took over from Prophet Muhammad. This person was known as Caliph. The individual was the Caliph of the prophet of Allah, Muhammad. During the prophet’s lifetime, people close to him and ready to protect him (known as companions) were the ones who upon his death, held the office of the Caliph. The first was Sayyidina Abu Bakr who was regularly asked by the prophet to lead the prayers in the Grand Mosque whenever he was unable to do so.

  He thus assumed leadership upon the prophet’s death. Caliphs were behind the successful defences and offensive raids to those perceived to be enemies of Islam after the death of Prophet Muhammad. For example, Caliph Abu Bakr was said to have sent expeditions against rebellious tribes where the tribes were warned before hand to abandon the rebellious and embrace Islam and only those who refused were attacked.He assigned the task of attacking the enemies of Islam to able military commanders who managed to bring Islam to Persia, Syria, Yemen and Iraq.

  By the time he died in AD 634, he had tried to bring the whole of the Arabian Peninsula to Islam’s fold. This fete was later achieved by his successor, Sayyidina Umar. These leaders ran a bureaucratic system with well-defined offices. There were officers managing all vital sectors including treasury, military and administration.

  (vii) Decline of the Eastern Roman and Persian empires: The fall of the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) and Persian Empire created a power vacuum which was easily filled by Islam.The Islam caliphs used bases from these empires to spread further into territories that were formerly under their control. Through this, they controlled Egypt, Syria, Iraq, Libya, Afghanistan, France, Spain and Pakistan among others. In each of these areas, serious efforts were made to convert the inhabitants to Islam by all means. The two empires were said to have registered weak resistance because their armies were exhausted by the time the Arab army faced them. Many inhabitants of these empires welcomed the Arabs as liberators from the harsh Byzantine or Persian rule.

  (viii) Use of a mixture of force and diplomacy to win converts: Muslims used jihads and diplomacy to spread the faith. Minorities in the conquered territories readily embraced Islam. Force which involved using jihads was employed on large un-cooperative groups. The Muslim traders used diplomacy to spread Islam. The merchants spread Islam to West and East Africa, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines. There were numerous instances where people from these areas were impressed by the apparent complexity and excellence of the Islamic culture thereby getting attracted to the religion.

  (ix) Intermarriages between Muslims and non-Muslims: Muslims easily married non-Muslims. The latter were required to accept the Islamic faith. Those who married Muslims were nonetheless not required to abandon their customs instantly. The converts were allowed a slow Islamisation that took several generations to develop to universal Islamic standards. Intermarriages thus helped to spread the Islamic faith.

  (x) Teachings of the Quran: The teachings of the Quran also contributed to the rapid spread of Islam. Arabs were passionate in their new faith. This was strengthened by the teachings of the Quran which held that wars fought for God were just. A warrior killed in a jihad or holy war, was promised immediate entry into paradise. With this belief, Muslims rushed fearlessly into battle hence crushing the enemy forces in battle. Islam thus closely knit its followers together regardless of inter-tribal or other inherent differences among the members. Added to the simple and direct message, it had no religious hierarchy or class of priests. In principle, it vouched for equality of all believers regardless of sex, race, class or wealth. This was appealing to many people.

                                             

  (xi) The nature of the Arabian Peninsula: The arid Arabian Peninsula was densely populated in the AD 600s. Arab armies were full of warriors eager to move into less populated lands. As new converts accepted Islam, their numbers swelled making them register easy victories against their enemies.

  (xii) Good military tactics and equipment: Comparatively, Arab armies were bold and used efficient fighting methods. They were also well-equipped.The Bedouin camel and horse cavalry mounted aggressive and mobile offensives which overwhelmed many armies in the region. There were, however, some areas where Islam was met with resistance. It was unable to establish a strong foothold in India, while in Europe, it withered after some time.

  Effects of Islam in Europe and the rest of the world

  Islam like Christianity had both positive and negative consequences in Europe and the rest of the world. Some of these consequences were identical while others were unique to Islam. The main ones were as follows:

  Liberation of women

  In Arabia women had rights not enjoyed in all the other lands. They could legally inherit property, divorce husbands, and engage in business ventures.The prophet outlawed female infanticide which was common prior to entrenchment of the faith in Arabia and the conquered lands. Dowries went to women not men. Women were also seen as equal before Allah and recognized as having own needs and rights. This was in spite of the fact that men were allowed to marry upto four wives and that when Islam moved in to the Byzantine and Sassanid empires, they adopted the veiling of women- a practice still practiced among Muslims today.

                                               

  Division of muslims

  At first Islam had uniform adherents. But due to interpretation of the faith vis-à-vis leadership, divisions occurred. This led to the emergence of the Sunni and Shi’a. Each has interpreted the teachings of the prophet differently.

  Formation of dynastic rule

  Islam was responsible for the emergence of various dynasities in areas controlled by the religion. Both the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasities came and emerged as strong dynasties after the death of Prophet Muhammad. The two dynasties brought centralization of authority in areas where they exercised control.

  Urbanisation

  Muslims equally contributed to emergence of urban centres in areas under their control. Populations increased at the same time with business opportunities. This directly led to emergence of urban centres. Old centres were also expanded e.g. Bagdad during the Abbasid dynasty was a symbol of authority, wealth and power. The Abbasid rulers in the city, adopted traditional, ancient style of Persian court with a high degree of luxury.

  Belief in monotheism

  Muslims believed in only one God – Allah and his prophet was (is) Muhamad. People reached Allah through prayers. Islam also brought to an end paganism in areas it controlled.

  Loss of life and destruction of property

  This issued from the Jihads. It involved waging a physical struggle against non-believers who threatened Islam. The wars led to massive loss of lives and destruction of property.

  Change in dietary habits

  Islam brought some dietary regulations on its adherants. Acceptable foods were (and are) called ‘Halal’ while forbidden ones are called “Haraam”. Muslims have since stuck to these dietary regulations.

  Religious life of Muslims in medieval and modern times

  
  

  The teachings of Islam

  Islam is based on two basic truths in what is called the Islamic creed. The creed of Islam is a simple statement in two parts.

  1. The first part is “La ilaha ilalah wa muhammadur rasuk al-lah,” meaning there is no God but Allah the almighty.

  
  

  2. The second part of the creed is that Muhammad is the messenger of God. Muslims accept these two basic statements in the heart, that there really is one God, supreme and unique, and that the revelation given through Prophet Muhammad by Allah is genuine, final and complete, and supercedes all revelations that came before it.

  
  

  The teachings of Islam are based on the revelations Prophet Muhammad received from God. They were first memorised by the prophet before they were written in the Quran. Muslims believe that the original books from where these revelations were got are in heaven with God. To Muslims, God will not reveal anything else beyond the Quran. They regard Muhammad as the medium through which God’s revelations reach humanity. Muslims believe that the Quran is the direct word of God. It contains 114 chapters, or suras. The chapters are divided into verses called Ayat. Adherents of Islam have five principal duties which they are obliged to fulfill as part of the faith. These are usually termed the five pillars. They constitute the main teachings of the Quran. The five pillars are discussed below.

  
  

  1. Profession of faith (Shahada): All Muslims are expected to utter the following statement: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is themessenger of the God.” This statement is to be uttered by new converts and is also the principal means by which an individual asserts his or her adherence to Islam. It stresses that for Muslims, there is only one God and the belief in one God (monotheism) is central to the Islamic faith.

  
  

  2. Giving of alms (Zakat): Zakat is regarded as a requirement in Islam. It does not stop Muslims from giving money or goods to charity at any time. The alms usually consist of giving two and a half percent of one’s income, and perhaps other assets to charity or deserving causes. There are however, variations in the income and goods which form its basis, how it should be donated and how it should be collected. Communities may differ on who is required to give the alms. The zakat collected is often used not only to support those in financial need, but also to help with passing the message of Islam onto others.

  
  

  3. Ritual prayer: It requires that Muslims – who may pray to God at any time of the day – to pray five times a day, using certain words while facing Mecca. The prayers are also accompanied by certain forms of kneeling and bowing (prostrations). This form of prayer is known as Salat and should be preceded by ritual washing to create a sense of spiritual cleanliness prior to prayers in what is known as wudu. Where there is no mosque, a clean and peaceful place is used and a prayer mat is placed on the ground as a symbol of spiritual cleanliness.

                         

  e ritual prayers take place on five occasions during the day: at daybreak, midday, the middle of the afternoon, at sunset and during the evening. The main prayer time of the week is at noon on Fridays. These prayers are said by the Imam, who also gives a sermon based on a few verses from the Quran.

  
  

  4. Fasting during the holy month of Ramadhan: Ramadhan is usually marked in the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. The fast is observed from sunrise to sunset for a total of 30 days. All Muslim adults are prohibited from taking food or drink during the day. This occasion is a period which Muslims demonstrate great discipline, both in a physical sense and in a spiritual sense. They also contemplate God and the religious life. At sunset each day during Ramadhan, Muslims eat a light meal to break the fast.

  
  

  Later in the evening, there is a much more substantial meal taken together with family members. People visit the mosque in the evening for prayers and to take part in the special events marked during the holy month. After a night’s sleep, people wake up early to take a light meal which they will survive on up to evening. Towards the end of Ramadhan there are special celebrations. One important celebration is celebration symbolises the first night during which Prophet Muhammad received revelation from God. The conclusion of the fast of Ramadhan is usually graced by great celebration, when family members gather and offer each other presents. This festival is known as Eid-Ul-Fitr.

  
  

  5. Making of pilgrimage to Mecca: This is also known as hajj. A Muslim is expected, where possible, to make the pilgrimage at least once during one’s lifetime. The event is held every year at approximately the same time. This date is usually between certain specific days on the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. Prophet Muhammad made a hajj in AD 632. Most of the tradition and celebratory features of the hajj are based on this visit.

  
  

  During the pilgrimage, people visit Mecca, the neighbouring towns and sites of religious significance in the history of Islam. There is a particular dress code for men and women. The first place to be visited is the Kaaba (a large cube-shaped building covered in black cloth at the time of the Hajj). In one corner of it, there is a black stone which was said to have been given to Ibrahim (Abraham) by Angel Jibril (Gabriel). The Kaaba is situated in the grand mosque in Mecca. Pilgrims walk around it seven times, moving in an anti-clockwise direction.

  
  

  All Muslims are expected to “fight” to further the faith and to defend it against any acts that might seek to undermine Islam. Jihad may at times involve a physical struggle.

  
  

                         

  
  

  Changes brought by Islam

  
  

  Activity 7.5

  Split yourselves into two groups;

  1. In your groups discuss the changes brought about by Islam.

  2. Write down your findings.

  3. Present them in class followed by a question and answer session.

  
  

  As a religion, Islam greatly influenced the lives of its adherents. Upon embracing the faith, one was expected to lead a life that agreed with the teachings of the faith. Some of the changes which came included:

  
  

  Belief in Allah as the only God

  Muslims did away with belief in paganism which was characterized by many gods. There was now a strong belief in one supreme God - Allah and Mohammed his prophet.

  
  

  Change in dressing

  There was a change in dressing for both men and women. Men wore robes while women were expected to wear veils covering their heads. They were also to be in long dresses which covered the whole of their body except for the feet.

  
  

  Dietary habits

  As we have observed elsewhere, Muslims were forbidden from eating some types of food. Their dietary habits were regulated strictly by the faith e.g. fasting during the month of Ramadhan was observed strictly. Muslims are also prohibited from taking pork, grasshoppers etc.

  
  

  Prayers

  To obey the five pillars, Muslims now prayed five times a day facing Mecca. Facing Mecca was (is) a sign of respect for the holy city. The adherants strictly followed this rule.

  
  

  Provision of charity

  Muslims were charitable. This was done as it was one of the five pillars. Alms were given to help the needy members of the society. By giving the alms, one also showed that he or she understood that material wealth were (are) a gift from God. It was thus a way of showing gratitude to the almighty.

  
  

  Jihad

  Jihads became a regular feature of the Muslim faith. This was an obligation undertaken by a Muslim(s) to combat vice and evil, struggle against ignorance and disbelief of the faith, and the last one which has appeared as its main one, a war against unbelievers who are a threat to the faith. Due to the last obligation, the world in the medieval and even modern times has been exposed to violence.
  

  
  

  Education
  

  Muslim scholars emerged with the advent of Islam. These people spearheaded learning in various parts of the world. Madrassa classes are today a regular feature of Islamic faith in the world.

  
  

  Promotion of Arabic
  

  Islam was (is) associated with the Arabic language. It has helped in the spread of the language in different parts of the world. Today, Arabic is one of the dominant languages spoken in the world.

  
  

  Culture

  Islamic naming, initiation and marriage practices have been adopted by people in various parts of the world. The faith has also influenced architectural works in virtually the whole world. This has been seen in the type of houses and mosques that have been built. Islamic law (sharia) has equally been adopted by Muslims in different parts of the world.

  
  

                       

  
  

  
  

  Pilgrimage

  Muslims who are able and in good health have always made pilgrimage to Mecca during the Hajj. This has seen people on a yearly basis visit the Holy city to circumambulate the Ka’ba. The visits have brought a sense of unity and fraternity of Muslims from across the world.

  
  

  Generally, Islam like Christianity has greatly influenced the life of humanity. The two religions are today, the major world religions. They have followers in virtually all the continents. The two religions emerged in Palestine and agree in some areas in their teachings. They have also been influenced heavily by Judaism.

  
  

  Divide yourselves into two groups. Let one group discuss and evaluate the influence of Islamic life in medieval and modern times; and the other group do the same for Christianity. Note the changes that have resulted from these two religions in both medieval and modern times. After your group discussions, have a class discussion and debate your findings.
  

  
  

  Causes and effects of early explorations

  
  

  Activity 7.6

  Work in pairs.Using the Internet and textbooks;

  1. Find out the causes and effects of early explorations.

  2. Summarise your points and write them down in your notebook.

  3. Discuss them in class

  
  

  To explore refers to searching for the purpose of, or obtaining information or resources. Europe led the rest of the world in early explorations. Various countries made voyages of exploration to distant lands away from Europe. Europeans sailed and explored the rest of the world. They were mainly searching for material wealth. Explorers came mainly from Portugal, Spain, Netherlands, Britain, and later, France.

  
  

  

  
  

  Early exploration is also known as the age of discovery. This was a time characterised by the explosive overseas expansion of European civilisation. The European nation-states of Western Europe, led by Portugal, embarked on a series of explorations and colonisation whose impact was felt in virtually every part of the world. This development represents the first and earliest manifestation of globalisation.The explorations were made possible by advances in science which had been occasioned by discoveries during the renaissance period. The main advances in science and technology were:

  
  

  • Widespread dissemination of newly rediscovered geographical knowledge about the earth; especially the realisation that it was round and not flat.

  
  

  • Much improved and detailed maps, sea charts and star charts used for navigation.

  
  

  • The application of an improved compass for establishing direction.

  
  

  • Effective use of the astrolabe used in determining latitude.

  
  

  • The development of the ship’s rudder and geared steering system.
  

  
  

  • Construction of larger and sleeker ships for speed and safety such as the three masted caravel and larger galleon.

  
  

  • Improvements in cannon fabrication and use aboard ships; used for offensive and defensive purposes.

  
  

  • Basic education and marine training instituted for ship’s officers and sailors.

  
  

  Causes for early explorations

  
  

  The early explorations were caused by many factors. The main ones were:

  
  

  Commerce

  
  

  There existed a lucrative commerce between European states and the regions of Asia. Europeans had a high appetite for goods from the Asian countries. However, the trade was dominated by traders and merchants from Asia, the Near East and Italians. These people grew rich and powerful by selling a variety of goods to Europe. Spices were the most valued goods at the time.The European powers wanted to equally benefit from this trade from the 15thCentury.
  

  
  

  Spain and Portugal wanted to break the monopoly enjoyed by the Asiatic states and the Italian traders. To achieve this, they financed voyages to try and find sea route to the Far East and therefore, to completely bypass the overland route through the middle East to Asia. Apart from the goods from Asia, cloves from the coastal regions of East Africa, pepper, curry, nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon and other spices added new and very popular elements to the food consumed by the Europeans who could afford such luxury items.

  
  

  Curiosity to understand the nations and civilisations of Asia

  
  

  Europeans are said to have become increasingly curious and interested about the nations and civilizations of the orient. They wanted to get more information about the regions especially in India and China. Many Europeans were eager to get information about the “strange” and unknown worlds beyond the boundaries of Europe. The thirst and quest for knowledge about people, civilizations, continents and other dimensions, greatly encouraged the spirit of overseas travel and exploration.

  
  

  Desire for colonies

  
  

  Monarchs in Europe desired to get colonies in other parts of the world so as to shore up trade and wealth. They were also aware of the capacity of the colonies to provide their states with prestige. This made the rulers to go out of their way to support the voyages of exploration. Rulers took great risks to channel capital investment and manpower necessary to make the missions successful.

  
  

  Spreading Christianity
  

  
  

  Although not a major factor, the Europeans also expected to spread Christianity to other parts of the world. Many Portuguese and Spaniard traders remotely intended to convert those they came into contact with during their commercial excursion.

  
  

  National prestige and power

  
  

  Exploration was also influenced by power politics. European states were led by desire for prestige and power. This made the search of God, Gold and Glory be intertwined in the countries’ quest for knowledge and wealth.

  
  

  Effects of early explorations

  
  

  The early explorations had long lasting effect on the history of the world. These were both positive and negative. The main ones included:

  
  

  1. Expansion of empire

  
  

  All the European powers which participated in the explorations built themselves large empires. Portugal acquired Brazil in the New world and had numerous territories in Africa and Asia. Portugal controlled most of the African Atlantic and Indian seaboards, India and other parts of Asia.

  
  

  Spain took most of the territories in the New world. She had settlements in the West Indies, Mexico, Central America, Florida, the south west areas of what later became the USA and California. Her riches in these areas made her the envy of rival powers.

  
  

  The Dutch equally had colonies in the west. She took colonies in the trading factory in Brazil, northeast coast of South America (Suriname), some parts of North America, such as the colony of New Netherlands (which was centred on New Amsterdam – New York), and the adjacent lands of New Jersey, the Hudson River valley up to the site of Albany, Long Island to the east of New York city and southward to Delaware. These settlements later fell to England through Anglo- Dutch wars.

  
  

  England although a late entrant in the early exploration, managed to acquire some colonies. She first took ten, later 13 colonies along the Atlantic Coast. England captured the New Netherlands’ settlements from the Dutch thus creating the colonies of New York, including Long Island, New Jersey and Delaware. She managed to found colonies in the whole stretch from Massachusetts to Georgia along the Atlantic Coast.
  

  
  

  France could also not be left out in the early exploration. She established colonies to the north of the English ones in Canada along the St. Lawrence River and at Louisburg on the Atlantic coast. The cities of Quebec and Montreal were founded at the time. Her explorers established trading posts along the Great Lakes and the Mid-west areas of the Mississippi, Ohio and other tributary rivers, St. Louis and the port of New Orleans.

  
  

  2. Spread of war in the colonies
  

  
  

  As the quest for colonies intensified in the new lands and areas outside Europe, colonial rivalries and economic competitions forced the major European powers into many conflicts. More often than not, these led to wars between the 16th to the 18th centuries due to overseas hostilities. Each power built its army and navy to safeguard or expand its colonial acquisition. England, for instance, fought bitter wars with Holland, France and Spain. Her Royal Navy was built on the traditions made by its famous seafaring captains like John Hawkins, Sir Francis Drake, Martin Frobisher, Captain Cook and others. By 1763, England, now called Great Britain, had emerged as the world’s first modern super power.

  
  

  3. Introduction of new products in Europe

  
  

  Expanded global trade brought many new products into European markets, commerce expanded as the quantity and type of imports increased. Some of the new food products were: maize, tobacco, chocolate, tea, quinine, tomatoes, peppers, indigo, rice and the king of them all, sugar.

  
  

  There were also products that the Europeans could not get enough of. Examples were: Chinese porcelain, silk and Indian cotton or calico cloth. These items were in addition to what had become known as “the spice trade” of the East Indies. These goods, coming in large numbers, improved the standard of living in Europe.

  
  

  4. Slave trade

  
  

  Although slaves were considered goods, it is vital to treat it independent of the new products. At first a few slaves were captured by the explorers, but later armies and navies got involved. This saw large Africans being captured and sold as slaves to go and supply labour in the New world. The New world’s appetite seemed insatiable in the demands for slave labour in sugar, rice, indigo, tobacco and cotton plantations now dotting various parts of the continents.

  
  

  The demands for European markets and the lust for profits superceded any ethical or moral considerations when it came to slavery. Even the so called Christians turned a blind eye to the practice. It didn’t prick their conscience at all from the 15thCentury when the Atlantic slave trade begun in earnest. Africans were exposed to the horrors of the “middle passage”–the pain and suffering slaves underwent as they crossed the Atlantic Ocean. This only stopped in the 19th Century. Slavery had grave consequences on the victim population.

  
  

  5. Cultural exchange

  
  

  Exploration led to cultural exchange. People exchanged ideas, products, languages, and many other aspects of culture between Europe and the other civilizations. This is what has been referred to as the ‘Columbian Exchange”. Subsequent world history remains essentially the story of the results of the Columbian Exchange. Today, this is what underlies globalization. During the early exploration, both the European and the new communities were not spared the vagaries of cultural exchange. Each borrowed from one another.

  
  

  6. Mineral exploitation

  
  

  The new world and areas outside Europe which were of interest to the explorers, had large deposits of minerals. When the European countries realized this, they embarked on a serious exercise of mineral exploitation in the New World. This was done by slave labour while in other areas, the indigenous communities were engaged forcefully.As a result, large quantities of minerals were shipped to Europe. Such minerals include: gold, silver, tin, copper and diamond. Gold and silver were minted into coins and used as currency.

  
  

  7. Invention of the concept of insurance

  
  

  Governments and merchants tried to reduce and control their risks and losses due to overseas ventures by contributing a restricted amount to help in case of loss due to inflation or theft or accident. The amount paid into the fund was termed the insurance premium. This was the genesis of the insurance industry as we have it today. Investors thus received compensation from loss due to piracy, war, fire, storm, etc.The most famous of these insurance companies has survived to today. This is Lloyd’s of London, founded in the 17th Century.

  
  

  8. Shift of economic power base

  
  

  Commercial activities and trade networks shifted from the Mediterranean Sea and its bordering countries to the Atlantic Coastal nation – states. The Ottoman Empire, the Italian city states and the countries of North Africa entered a period of economic decline in economic and therefore, political in significance. Trade fell sharply across the Sahara Desert, Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and even in the Baltic Sea.
  

  
  

  This made all these areas to witness both economic and political decline.This was in sharp contrast to developments in the Atlantic Coast. Here, there was an increase in power, wealth and importance. Infact, new nation-states emerged. These were mostly based upon powerful absolute monarchies – a feature which was to be dominant in western civilisation from the 16th to the 18th centuries.

  
  

  9. Increased population

  
  

  Early explorations also occasioned widespread demographic and social changes. There was increased migration while due to education, abundance of food and security, peoples standard of living greatly increased. All these factors contributed to increased population. Job opportunities equally expanded the middle class. People moved to secure employment. With time, distinctions between classes – middle class, nobility and lower class, and even slaves became blurred.
  

  
  

  This was to be with time, lead to an end to distinctions of population along classes. All races found home in the New world. Some in favoured status while others, like Africans, as slaves. Nonetheless, all contributed to the rise in population.

  
  

  10. Development of mercantilism

  
  

  The governments of European states developed a doctrine of economics called mercantilism. This was geared towards obtaining wealth from the new lands. The benefits would be felt by the ordinary citizens and rulers. This doctrine was pursued by virtually all the European powers. It was based on certain interrelated elements. They were:

  
  

  • Nations must adopt economic policies that attract the most amounts of gold and silver.

  
  

  • A nation should arrange its trading matters so that it exports more than it imports.

  
  

  • A nation could increase its exports most advantageously if it subsidized and supported domestic manufacturing.

  
  

  • Tarrif levying on imported goods.

  
  

  • To obtain as many colonies as practically possible.

  
  

  • Limit or forbid the rise of colonial industries and the production of manufactured goods in the colonies.

  
  

  • Prohibit colonies to trade with any other rival power except the mother country and ensure that any raw material from the colony is supplied by vessels from the mother country.

  
  

  • Require the colonies to pay taxes to the mother country

  
  

  Colonies lived to satisfy the economic needs of the mother country. Mercantilism preceded the emergence of capitalism by about 200 years but it bore all the hallmarks of the latter. A free market economy was encouraged with strict government control. Business persons paid large fees to the government to enable it control monopolies over a particular product in even an entire sub-continent. Trade was thus undertaken by joint-stock companies.

  
  

  11. Emergence of the banking industry

  
  

  The early explorations directly led to the accumulation of capital which necessitated the development of the banking industry. Banks sprung up to support business enterprises. They provided the services that were required to accommodate the increased supplies of gold and silver to the nation-states. Lending money to reliable customers in return for interest charges and bank services commenced. Banks also gave loans to governments to run their services, examples of outstanding banks were The Medici family of Florence in Italy and the German family of the Fuggers. These were family-ran banks.
  

  
  

  They were very successful.To reduce the challenges of the use of gold and silver, banks adopted innovative systems of exchange. This included the use of new ideas as bills of exchange (used in international trade) and adoption of bank notes (a kind of paper money printed by the primary bank involved in the transaction). Later banks also came up with cheque system. Cheques were mainly used in national, regional and local business transactions. Their use then, has not changed much as we have them today.

  
  

  12. Emergence of the factory system

  
  

  Production moved from the guild system to factories. Large manufacturing industries were shifted to factories. Here products were produced in large quantities to satisfy the demands of the nation- states. These factories were the precursors of the factory system of the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries. Apart from the factory system, the guild system was also bypassed by the use of the cottage industry. This involved people producing the goods in the comfort of their homes. The raw materials were brought by the rich business persons to the homes of the workers from where the latter made them into various products in exchange for payment for his or her labour.

  
  

  13. Discovery of bio-diversity

  
  

  Early exploration led to the discovery of various animals and plants. New animal and plant species were now studied thus contributing to the field of scientific knowledge.

  
  

  14. Spread of Christianity

  
  

  The explorers were partly driven with the motive of spreading Christianity. This was true of the Portuguese in East and Central African Coast. However, the Portuguese made little mark in as far as the spread of Christianity was concerned. They were more driven by the trade motive. Nonetheless, there were some areas away from the Portuguese dominated coastal regions of East and Central Africa where Christianity made a foothold. It became a dominant religion in the new worlds and in Goa, India.

  
  

  Age of Enlightenment

  
  

  This period is also known as the age of reason, the Enlightenment took place between 1720 and 1790. The Enlightment was a period in European history in the mid-18th Century when scholars believed in the use of reason and in the scientific method. It was started by Voltaire and other intellectuals, who believed that in a society, ruled by reason, injustice would not be present.The scholars applied the methods of new science which had been developed during the scientific revolution to study human behaviour and provide solutions to political and economic problems facing them.
  

  
  

  The age of Enlightenment was more of a state of mind than an actual movement.In general, the Enlightenment was founded on the principles of naturalism, rationalism, progress and humanitarianism. Naturalism was a belief in science and natural law. Rationalism held that reason could determine the principles of natural law and people should live according to the progress.

  
  

  Humanitarianism, on the other hand, was based on the belief in the rights of the individual and the possibility for the perfection of society. To them, society could become perfect if people always used reason because they could gain a greater knowledge of the natural law. From these principles thus, came serious efforts to promote peace and to reform government, society and education.

  
  

  Impact of the Enlightenment to the modern world

  
  

  Activity 7.7

  In groups of five, find out what various men and women contributed to the Age of Enlightenment to make on impact in the modern world. Discuss the results of your findings in class. Summarise and make conclusions.

  
  

  
  

  We have already discussed at length the contributions of selected personalities during the age of reason to the modern world. Below is a summary of the contributions of Enlightenment to the modern world.

  
  

  1. Emergence of modern European feminism.

  2. Promotion of individual rights.

  3. Separation between the Church and the State.

  4. Promotion of democracy in the governance process.

  5. Promotion of the capitalist ideology (Adam Smith and Marquis deMirabeau). It encouraged individual ownership of wealth.

  6. Separation of power of the three arms of government for efficiency in the governance process.7. Provision of equal educational opportunities for both boys and girls.

  8. Creation of an enabling environment for the child (learner).

  
  

  9. Role of education in liberation.

  
  

  10. Broadening of historiography (writing of history) so as to cover political, social and cultural aspects of humanity’s life. They advocated for total history.

  
  

  11. Promotion of aesthetics – This was marked by treatises and debates over abstract questions such as the nature of taste, beauty, the sublime, imagination and creativity, and by speculation on the relations between the arts.

  
  

  12. Morality – The problem of moral values was central to the Enlightenment period. Revelation and traditional Christian doctrine were rejected. The demand for happiness and pleasure set the standards for morality. The Enlightenment period marked a turning point in human development. It made people to be rational. It had both moral and intellectual significance to humanity. This period was revolutionary. It destroyed myths by which people lived and proposed new myths of its own; many of which were later to be challenged in the second half of the 20th Century.

  
  

  Activity 7.8

  In groups of five, analyse how the contributions during the Age of Enlightenment have impacted in the modern world and especially our country.

  
  

  Unit summary

  
  

  This unit examines with the political, economic and intellectual developments in medieval and modern times. The medieval time is estimated to be the period between AD 300 to AD 1500. Christianity is believed to have been founded by Jesus Christ of Nazareth over 2,000 years ago. Early Christians shared a common faith in the teachings of Jesus Christ.

  
  

  The word Islam means submission to Allah (Arabic for God). Muslims believed that Muhammad was the messenger and the prophet of God. Every Muslim was/is expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime.
  

  
  

  The Age of Enlightenment was a period in European history in the mid-18th Century when scholars believed in the use of reason and in the scientific methods. The scholars in the Age of Enlightenment applied the methods of new science which had been developed during the scientific revolution to study human behaviour and provide solutions to political and economic problems facing them.

  
  

  Unit assessment

  
  

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to explore the political, economic and intellectual developments in medieval and modern times especially focusing on developments in Christianity, Islam and the Age of Enlightenment, and make judgment about their impacts.

  
  

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. (a) Which period is referred to as the medieval time?
  

      (b) Describe the origin of:

               i) Christianity

               ii) Islam
  

  
  

  2. Compare the lives of Christians on the medieval times and the modern world.

  
  

  3. List at least ten changes brought about by Christianity.

  
  

  4. Discuss the effects of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world.

  
  

  5. Who is Muhammad in Islam?

  
  

  6. Discuss at least five factors that led to the spread of Islam.

  
  

  7. Describe the religious life of Muslims in medieval and modern times.

  
  

  8. List ten effects of exploration.

  
  

  9. Describe the age of enlightenment.

  
  

  10. How did the age of enlightenment impact to the modern world?
  

  
  

  
  

  
  
• Unit 8: Major European events between 1789 and 1835

  Topic area: World history

  
  

  Sub-topic area: Great revolutions in world war
  

  
  

  Key unit competence

  Evaluate the major events that took place in Europe between 1789 and 1835; their causes, course and effect.

  
  

  Introduction

  
  

  The years between 1789 and 1835 marked a milestone in the history of the world. It witnessed Great Revolutions and world wars. These events were turning points in the history of human political, social and economic development. First came the French Revolution in 1789. It was followed by the rise of the Great Napoleon Bonaparte, the man who believed that, ‘impossible only existed in the dictionary of fools’. Napoleon brought a semblance of peace and order in Europe for some time. However, things changed and Europe found itself in the middle of revolutions again in 1830.
  

  
  

  These revolutions were preceded by the entry of Prince Metternich of Austria. Metternich led other statesmen such as Alexander of Russia, Lord Castlebreagh of England, Talleyrand of France and the king of Prussia into coming up with a system of congresses between 1815-1825.

  
  

  The congresses catapulted the Austrio-Hungarian Empire to prominence in European diplomacy. This was through the work of Prince Metternich; the Austrian chancellor. It marked the end of the Great Napoleon’s reign in France and by extension France’s domineering influence in Europe.

  
  

  Conditions in Europe and France in particular before 1789

  
  

  Activity 8.1

  Join into groups of five each and visit the library to research from resources such as textbooks and the Internet for:

  1. Information about conditions in Europe and France in particular before 1789.

  2. Examine the roles played by women leaders (queens) in this period. Name at least three queens and state their contributions.

  3. Asses the contribution of women in socio-political and development in our society

  
  

  Conditions in Europe and France in particular, before 1789, were quite appalling. European society was divided down the middle in various ways. The rulers and a few in the upper class enjoyed plenty and led an opulent life. They cared little or not at all over the miserable conditions and hopelessness that characterized the middle and lower levels of the society.

  
  

  The picture of Europe in most states, was identical. However, western European states were more advanced than their counterparts in Eastern Europe. In the latter, Russia and the Ottoman empires were the extremes. The two empires were backward than all the others.

  
  

  Sweden

  
  

  This was the most important power in the north. By the 1780s, she had exhausted herself and had become satiated with conquests. Sweden had by this time, given up her continental ambitions. She only clung to Finland and some territory in Germany. The country had a strong monarchy. It had managed to control the parliament and nobility. Here, peasants were free and were not bound to the land on which they worked.

  
  

  Swedish power had been humbled by Russia which although backward, enjoyed a military strength (due to her population) which was unmatched by many powers on the eve of the French Revolution. This was an asset at the time. The states of Europe faced one another as armed and distrustful rivals. They recognised no rule of conduct except their own advantage. All entered into transitory alliances on the prompings of fear or gain. In all situations, the powers ganged against and brought down the single power amongst them, whom they thought was the most powerful. So from the 16th Century, any state that seemed to exercise or claim supremacy in Europe, with time saw the others gang against it. This was the situation Spain, France and Great Britain fell into in the 16th, 17th and 18th Centuries respectively. The end of the 18th Century had nothing of international action or aspiration thus to talk of for the European powers.

  
  

  Denmark

  
  

  This was the second strongest power in the north. It had a large navy and controlled Norway. Like many European powers at the time, her monarchy was autocratic. Many of her peasants were serfs (were forced to stay on the land of the master). However peasants of Norway were not serfs. Like other Scandinavian states, Denmark and Norway supplied Europe with naval stores, fur, fish, grain and minerals. They exercised little influence beyond the Baltic region.

  
  

  Russia

  
  

  Russia controlled the East. It was a vast empire whose territories went beyond Europe. She had risen as one of the strongest empires in the continent. Through Tsar Peter the Great (1696-1725) she had expanded and even won an outlet to the Baltic sea and built a new capital, St. Petersburg, at the head of the Gulf of Finland. Peter had also for a time, carried Russia’s frontiers to the Black sea and even had offered to her the “civilizing agency of maritime intercourse”.
  

  
  

  The Tsar had also encouraged aspects of the western culture in his empire, especially language and science among the aristocracy. Czarina Catherine (1762-1796) continued Tsar Peter the Great’s work. The Czarina was a German at birth. She expanded the empire and encouraged aspects of western civilization in her empire. Czarina Catherine was a product of “the Enlightenment” and this is what informed the reforms she tried to introduce to the Russian society. However, Russia still remained a complete autocracy.

                              

  
  

  The Tsar enjoyed absolute power; the Nobles enjoyed privileges denied other groups while the peasants remained serfs as they had been in the previous centuries. In fact, Catherine the Great, extended Serfdom to many areas where it hadn’t existed. She gave the nobles large grants of crown lands and estates in newly acquired territories. Catherine, like her Predecessor, was equally an empire builder. She extended her empire southwards to the Black Sea and into the Crimea by silencing the remaining Tartar people and their supporters, the Ottoman Turks. Catherine further, by joint action with Prussia and Austria, took part of Poland. She took the lion’s share of the spoils.

  
  

  The Ottoman Empire (Turkey)

  
  

  It was a Muslim power, was in the south. She was Russia’s neighbor. The empire had reached the climax of its power in the 17th Century. She controlled many European communities in her vast empire. Most of these were the Christian groups in south east Europe such as the Serbs, Wallachians, Bulgars, Greeks and others. The Turks only occupied these lands and did not establish a firm rule over the communities. They only collected taxes or quelled resistance whenever it occurred. Apart from the European groups, the Ottoman rulers also controlled Asia Minor, the Levant and North Africa. People under Turkish rule were allowed independence except for tax payment. By the late 18th Century, the Turkish Empire was ripe for division. Russia and Austria’s appetite to get the spoils reigned supreme.

  
  

  The Kingdom of Hungary

  
  

  It was found to the south east of the Ottoman Empire under the rule of the House of Hapsburg whose capital was in Vienna, Austria. The kingdom brought together Hungary, Austria, Bohemia, Moravia, Galicia, Croatia and Belgium. All these territories were ruled by the head of the House of Hapsburg. The official by custom, was also elected the emperor of what was officially called “The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation”.

  
  

  This was a loose grouping of more than 300 states which in the 18th Century covered modern Germany and more areas. Although the emperor had a lot of stake in German inhabited territories, most of the territories in the empire were not German. It brought together many nationalities with diverse religions. Her reasons became known as the Austrian Empire in 1804 and as Austria-Hungary in 1867. Austria-Hungary was the main rival of France before 1789.
  

  
  

                                     

  They fought many wars and experienced many realms towards one another.These many nationalities in the Austrian empire were products of inheritance, diplomatic marriages, conquest (war) and even by purchase. This presented a big challenge to governance. Centralization of power which was in vogue in Europe at the time was untenable here. Resistance after resistance was the norm in this large territory. If it was not religious, it was ethnic, where it was not ethnic it was over governance. The people could even not agree on a common language. Like in other parts of Europe, the Austria-Hungarian emperor was autocratic.

  
  

  The outbreak of the French revolution coincided with the reign of Joseph II (1765-90). He was an “enlightened despot”. Joseph tried to introduce some reforms in his empire but finally had to withdraw most of the reforms. He is described to have died in 1790 “bitterly conscious of his failures”.An interesting empire was the so called the Holy Roman Empire of which the ruler of Austria as we have already noted, was traditionally elected head. It brought together all Germanic states.
  

  
  

  The empire exercised very little authority. Power rested with the various German states of which the most outstanding was Prussia. Others were Bavaria, Saxony and Hanover. Prussia had a strong army and enjoyed a long military tradition. Through the efforts of Emperor Fredrick II The Great, an enlightened despot, the state grew at the expense of Austria and Poland. Even though Prussia lacked any geographical advantages, the state emerged as a powerful one, through force and diplomacy. Under Fredrick, Prussia prospered but unfortunately the monarch never carried or extended the benefits to the majority of the population.

  
  

  Poland

  
  

  Poland was another power in Europe. Unfortunately, she provided a record of political and military decline. So in the 18th Century, she provided a constitution that legalized anarchy. The country allowed any nobleman the power to veto in legislation. This was a social system that maintained the worst abuses of the feudal system in the middle ages. The system condemned its peasant population to the worst serfdom. There was great moral degradation. She had a weak army which made it vulnerable for prey by her neighbours. Both Austria, Russia and Prussia got territories from her. The country on the eve of the French Revolution was under King Stanislas Poniatowski.

  
  

  Italian Peninsula

  
  

  No single authority ruled the whole of Italy. There were many kingdoms, duchies and Republics in the peninsula. By the late 18thCentury Naples and Sicily were the most important states. Others were Rome and Bologna–the states of the church. The two were noted mainly for poverty, backwardness and malaria. In the north of Italy was Piedmont, arising power among the Italian states. Piedmont’s territory also included Sardinia which gave its name- Kingdom of Sardinia – to the kingdom. It was ruled by the House of Savoy. There were many other states in the Italian Peninsula but as Metternich was later to remark, Italy was a geographical expression – there was no single state going by that name and bringing all the Italian territories under one ruler. Like in other European states, in these states, “Cities of great prosperity and artistic magnificence existed side by side with areas of appalling poverty”. It was thus a time bomb just like in the other areas.

                                                

  Spain

  
  

  Although her power had declined, Spain was still a vital power in Europe. She was under the Hapsburg Monarchs, the house which equally was in power in France. They had taken on Spain and ruled up to the 17th Century before the new Bourbon Kings had taken charge in the 18th Century. The country had vast lands in Central America from California and Texas downwards, most of South America with the exception of Brazil and several of the West Indian Islands, besides other outposts in the Philippines. The Spanish society, although united by religion and to some extent national unity had problems from sections of her population. The Catalonians, Aragonese and Basques were against the supremacy of Castile. Like other European states, part of her population lived in opulence while the majority were mired by abject poverty.

  
  

  Portugal

  
  

  This was Spain’s neighbour. She had survived a period of Spanish annexation and regained her independence in 1640. Portugal was still a colonial empire, but like Spain, she had however lost some of her territories to the Dutch. Portugal despite being a colonial empire was one of the poorest and most backward states in Europe. In spite of her poverty, she spend colossal amounts of finance building churches. She was able to maintain her colonial possessions because of British naval assistance. Portugal forged an alliance with Great Britain based on commerce and politics. She mostly sold wine (at lower taxation) as she received woolen products from Britain.

  
  

  Netherlands

  
  

  To the north-east of France was the Netherlands. This territory had been sharply divided since the 17th Century. Some parts were under Austrian rule (these were following Catholicism), then there was the united provinces (Holland) which were independent (they practised Protestantism). Holland later were British allies. They were successful agriculturalists and business people. They managed to maintain a colonial empire due to their naval might. The Dutch engaged themselves in many colonial wars which weakened them drastically. She had also been rocked by internal strife over Holland’s attempts to dominate the other Dutch provinces.

  
  

  Switzerland

  It was a large country bringing together people from diverse nationalities. They all formed the Swiss Confederation. It had secured her independence from the Hapsburgs in the 15th Century.

  
  

  Great Britain

  
  

  Out of all the European powers, none led all the others in as many fields as Great Britain. Although France’s neighbor across the water, she gave the former more trouble than her land neighbours. Britain was extremely strong. She was united under one king and parliament. Her citizens were comparatively freer than in all the other European states. The country was governed through the rule of law, led in commerce and was a front runner in the industrial revolution. Britain thus enjoyed many advantages which lacked in the other powers.

  
  

  France

  France pursued a monarchical system of government. She was one of the dominant powers in Europe. She had enjoyed this status for long. This made her the envy of many powers. Her greatest rival was Great Britain. As a country, she found herself in great difficulties as shown below:

  
  

  The Enlightenment period

  The age of reason had opened the people’s eyes. In France, where most of the philosophers were found, Enlightenment ideas made people to question the inequalities of the old regime which still operated on the basis of divine rights of kings. The biased treatment by the government of sections of the population did not go down well with the majority of the citizens. To them, the favoured position of the clergy and nobility went against reason. Therefore, there were calls for fair treatment of all classes throughout France.

  
  

  Colonial wars among European nations

  There were increased wars among European countries to acquire colonies in different parts of Europe and the Americas. Weak European nations wanted to acquire colonies so as to conquer them hence increase their power and prestige. Interestingly, on the eve of the French Revolution, Europe was very varied. Western Europe was generally more advanced than Eastern Europe. In the north, Sweden was the most important power. It controlled Finland and some territories in Germany. Denmark in the North was equally powerful. It controlled Norway and had a large navy. In Eastern Europe, Russia and the Ottoman Empires were the most backward. Russia nursed feelings of territorial expansion in the Baltic Sea and Asia. It had, prior to the revolution, allied with Prussia and Austria to divide Poland among themselves. This was done under a Russian ruler, who was a true product of the Enlightenment, Empress Catherine II, the Great. The Turkish (Ottoman) empire held power over the Christian people of south-east Europe (the Serbs, Wallachians, Bulgars, Greeks and others). It also controlled Asia Minor and North Africa. Russia wanted lands in this empire. In south east Europe, there was the kingdom of Hungary. It controlled modern-day republics of Czecholslavia (Moravia and Bohemia), Galicia (today part of Poland) Croatia and some territories in Northern Italy. It also controlled Belgium. All these territories were controlled by the head of the Hapsburg family in what was known as ‘The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation’. This was a loose grouping of more than 300 states covering modern Germany and some areas beyond. Most of these territories, although controlled by Germany, were not made up of Germans. Like Russia, it was ruled, by a ‘disciple of the Enlightenment’ known as Joseph II when the French Revolution occurred. Another powerful empire was Prussia. Like other empires, it had interests of colonial acquisition. It was interested in territories controlled by Austria and Poland. By the time of the French Revolution, Prussia had been under the rule of Fredrick II. He died just before the revolution. The powerful European powers even wanted territories in Italy, which at this time was still a combination of kingdoms. Spain was another great power. It had many colonies in the Newlands. Britain wanted these colonies, too. Spain thus formed an alliance with France to keep away British advances. It, however, fought with Britain from time to time. Portugal was another European power. It still had a large colonial empire although it had lost most of her colonies to the Dutch. Portugal formed an alliance with Britain to safeguard her territorial interests. Generally, the period towards the French Revolution came at a time when colonial wars among the European states were being experienced. It was characterised by war and rivalry.

  
  

  Political problems in France

  France faced numerous problems by the time revolution took place. These problems can be traced back to the 17th and early 18th Centuries and some even much earlier. The ancient regime had a chaotic legal system. For example, in 1789, there still existed 360 different feudal codes of law in different parts of the country (there were numerous feudal courts in a town). The government tried to regulate affairs in over 40,000 townships but things were very slow as they were controlled from a central authority – Paris. Nearly all powers in national matters were in the hands of the king and his personal advisers. The kings were absolute monarchs. They cared less about the welfare of the people. The king’s word was law and the state was like his personal property. France was thus under an undemocratic and repressive regime that cared less about the welfare of the bulk of its population. People detested the government but they could do nothing about it. It was just a matter of time before they rose up in arms against the regime.

  
  

  Deterioration in economic conditions

  It is estimated that peasants at the time of the revolution were 23 million out of a population of 25 million. Most of the peasants were poor and heavily taxed. They were thus very discontented and depressed. Most of them lived in the rural areas. There were direct taxes on land and households (poll). These were collected by government officials. There were also a myriad of indirect taxes. The way these taxes were collected was ruthless and inhuman. Many peasants, unable to pay, were severely punished. Things were not different for the bourgeoisie.
  

  
  

  Although they mainly lived in towns, they were equally weighed down by the heavy taxes. Besides having political grievances, the middle class had several economic grievances other than heavy taxation. The finances of the government during the reign of the King Louis XVI were deteriorating. This was of the cost of France’s support to Americans in their war of independence (1775–1783). There was extravagance and luxury of the court at Versailles which housed the royal family and bad financial management made the government expenditure to exceed its income.
  

  
  

  To address the issue, the government resorted to domestic borrowing. It took loans from the nobility, the bourgeoisie and the church. The bourgeoisie were unsure whether they could get back their money because the government had been bankrupt long before 1789. The middle class was further angered by the government’s policy to exempt the nobility and the church from taxationIn the clergy class, the parish priest was just like the peasant.
  

  
  

  He was poor and not entitled to those privileges enjoyed by the higher clergy such as bishops. In the army, the same fate befell the ordinary soldier. In a nutshell, before the outbreak of the revolution, the French society had serious economic problems which made the life of a majority of the population difficult. There was also a general economic decline from the 1770s. Later, in 1780 there were bad harvests which made food prices to rise.
  

  
  

  Social problems in France

  
  

  Many social problems faced the French society before the revolution. Segregation in virtually all the fields – government, army and the church was the most annoying. There was also abject poverty among the peasant, priests, ordinary soldiers and some sections of the middle class. Life to these groups of people was very difficult yet the authorities did little to address their problems. Poverty brought great hunger, especially in the urban areas.
  

  
  

  The division of people according to classes was another major social issue.Those who were not favoured felt unwanted. Many were therefore; ready to join opposition against the government whenever such an opportunity presented itself. In spite of these challenges, France, for more than a century, since the early days of Louis XIV, had remained the undisputed leader of European civilization. It gave Europe its ideas, fashions, language and even its codes of polite behaviour.
  

  
  

  The country enjoyed stability of leadership unmatched by any European power; she had a line of kings which with its branches had continued for 800 years. The country possessed a wealth and a culture far beyond all the other European powers.

  
  

  The causes, course and consequences of the French Revolution

  
  

  Activity 8.2

  In groups of five:

  1. Analyse the causes, course and consequences of the French Revolution and discuss how it increased democracy in the society.

  2. Does the democracy that resulted from the French Revolution compare with the democracy in our country Rwanda? Discuss.

  3. Do you think the French Revolution was necessary? Assess its contribution in the modern society.

  
  

  This was one of the greatest revolution witnessed in the history of humanity. It had ramifications in virtually all sectors of life. Its causes were as varied as its consequences.Its aims were crystallized after it had brought change in the society.
  

  This was brought out in the triple watchword of “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”

  
  

  Causes of the French Revolution

  
  

  The French revolution had both long and short-term causes. Its origins are said to have stretched back into the 17th and 18th Centuries. The outstanding causes were as follows.

  
  

  1. The existing government: It had very poor practices. The government ran systems that were so chaotic in virtually all areas. It closed its doors to political reform, which was taking place in other parts of Europe, especially Britain. The king enjoyed absolute power and cared less about what took place among the population. Common citizens had no say or share in the government. The peasants were underprivileged while the educated were unhappy with their exclusion from official position at the head of the army, the navy and the diplomatic service.

  
  

  2. The influence of the philosophers: The ideas of the philosophers of the Enlightenment period had great influence over the middle class and other people of the French society. Ideas of key outstanding personalities such as Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and Rousseau had a strong impact on the people. According to the people, it was time such great ideas were put in practice. This was part of the causes of the French revolution.

  
  

  3. Example of the American revolution: America provided a practical example of how a revolution could be organised and its benefits. The French rulers had supported the Americans against their masters, the British. She did this to revenge her loss of colonies in Canada and India to the British during the seven-year war (1756–1763). When Americans won, the French rulers were really happy about the victory. Little did they know that it could influence a revolution in France. French soldiers who participated in the war were influenced by oppressive democratic ideas. They reflected on why the Americans rose up in arms against the British.It dawned on them that the conditions back in France were worse and equally oppressive. Americans rose against heavy taxation, yet the French were also heavily taxed by the government.

  
  

  4. Bankruptcy of the French government: The French government, as we have already observed, had been bankrupt for many years before the revolution. This was caused by the luxurious lifestyle of the kings and members of the royal family. Exemption of the nobility, higher clergy and the church from taxation led to loss of Canada and India to Britain. French involvement in the American War of Independence also contributed to its bankruptcy. All these forced the government to live on debts, which were a costly affair altogether. The bankrupt government could not provide essential services to its citizens. The bankruptcy made successive government ministers for finance to advise on taxing the exempted groups. This was first never supported by the king (due to opposition from the groups concerned) but the worsening economic conditions, made the king to accept the idea in May 1789. To enforce the recommendation, a meeting of the estates-general was to be summoned. It was this meeting that began a revolution. The third class had to be handled well for things to move according to plan. This meant removing some of the burden of taxation from their shoulders and putting it onto those of the first and second classes. This was not to be.

                                      
  

  5. Character of King Louis XVI: Louis XVI was weak and indecisive. His personality contributed to the revolution. Louis was inconsistent in his actions. At every stage in the revolution he encouraged reform and then drew back. This was dangerous and things were made worse because he was influenced by his wife, Marie Antoinette.Being an Austrian, she was viewed with contempt because it was the French alliance with Austria which made France to fight in the seven-year war, which led to the loss of Canada and India. Marie had partly contributed to the people’s hatred of her. She was ignorant of the need for reform, and was unsympathetic to her people’s situation at the time. The queen is said to have misadvised the king into making unpopular decisions.

  
  

                                   

  
  

  6. Inflation: There was high inflation which led to increase in the price of various goods.However, the rise in prices did not have a corresponding increase in salaries. The result was widespread poverty among the peasants.

  
  

  7. Bad weather of 1788: Climate equally contributed to the revolution. There was bad weather in 1788 which ruined the harvest. This eventually raised the prices of maize, bread and other foodstuff, bringing about widespread starvation. There also followed a severe winter in early 1789, which besides the unbearable cold conditions, froze all rivers and ports in the country.

  
  

  The result was even greater distress. Coupled with a treaty France had signed with Britain in 1786, which allowed cheap British manufactured goods into France in return for corresponding concessions on French wine, there was much suffering in the society. Unemployment increased and people moved to towns, hoping to get better conditions. These people brought into being the characteristic Paris mob of the revolution – idle, desperate, ready to cheer on the most extreme measures and destined to sway the fortunes of events on several vital occasions.

  
  

  All these factors jointly contributed to the breakout of the revolution in 1780. The process began with the king’s, summoning of the Estates-General meeting on 5 May 1789.

  
  

  Course of the French Revolution

  
  

  The major developments of the French Revolution are discussed below.

  
  

  Summoning of the Estates-General meeting by the king

  
  

  This meeting which brought together representatives of all the three estates was called due to bankruptcy that faced the country. Bread riots were spreading in the country. Nobles, who were fearful of taxes, were denouncing royal tyranny. These conditions forced King Louis XVI to summon the Estates-General to meet in Versailles.

                                         

  
  

  All the representatives of the Three Estates prepared their grievances in readiness for the meeting. Many grievances revolved around the deteriorating economic conditions facing the country and the need for reforms such as fair taxes, freedom of the press and regular meetings of the Estates-General. There were also local issues which were specific to trades such as shoe makers, peasants and servant girls among others. Generally, the grievances narrowed down to serious issues of class resentment. The Third Estate mainly targeted the First and Second estates. They listed the issue of abolition of all feudal rights and dues among their many grievances. The first point of disagreement among the delegates was on whether to meet jointly or separately in their respective classes. The meeting as individual estates would be against the favour of the Third Estate as the clergy and nobility would outnumber it. Meeting jointly was against the clergy and nobility as Louis XVI had allowed double representation for the Third Estate. Louis XVI ruled that until such time as the estate should propose agreed schemes for joint session, they would hold meetings separately.

  
  

  This was not welcomed by the Third Estate. Led by Comte de Mirabeau (a rebellious noble who stood and was elected to represent the Third Estate), the Third Estate rejected the policy of separatism. Instead, it voted to call itself the ‘National Assembly’ and invited the other estates to join the body. Some of the parish priests had already crossed over to the Third Estate and now the majority of the clergy voted in favour of the Third Estates’ declaration. Two or three days later, the king ordered the hall where the National Assembly was meeting to be closed for alterations. The Third Estate took the worst possible misinterpretation of the King’s action. Immediately they moved to an adjacent tennis court and solemnly swore never to disperse until a constitution was firmly established. This already was an act of defiance to the monarchy. The Third Estate voted on 17 June 1789 and created the National Assembly. All this was the work of a clergy, Abbe Sieyes, who was sympathetic to the Third Estates’ cause. The vote was the first deliberate act of the revolution.

  
  

  Tennis Court Oath

  
  

  Upon moving to the Tennis Court after the meeting hall had been ordered closed by the king, the delegates of the Third Estate who were mostly lawyers, members of the middle class and writers took an oath. This is what came to be known as the Tennis Court Oath. In the oath, they swore ‘never to separate and meet whenever the circumstances might require until they had established a sound and just constitution’. Soon, they were joined by a majority of the clergy and some nobles and on 27 June 1789, the three Estates amalgamated officially through the king’s command.But the gathering of troops around Paris sent mixed signals.

  
  

  141The people thought the king planned to dissolve the Assembly. Suspicion and rumour continued to poison the atmosphere. In the countryside, violent crimes took an upward trend. The government, gripped by fear, could not maintain law and order. As a measure of self-defence, the Parisian electors at the end of June set up a committee in the hotel known as the National Guard. The media was also ready with revolutionary pamphlets and journals while speakers with good oratory skills fired up the people with their oratory eloquence which was based on reform related issues.
  

  
  

  On 1 July 1789, on the advice of the queen, the king fired his reform-minded minister, Necker, from his post of controller, in his court. This action angered the Paris people. The people sought weapons to defend themselves, against the army which was in the Paris suburbs. They raided gunsmith’s shops and surrounded the Hotel de Ville, making loud noises. In the hotel, the committee of electors found themselves in a state of uncertainty. They hastily voted for the creation of a citizen’s militia. It was also forced to hand its stock of weapons to the people.On 14 July 1789, the people moved to the great military hospital at Les Invalids, from where they seized 30,000 guns. From Les Invalids, they planned to move to the great fortress prison of Paris (the Bastille). The prison was known to have a huge stock of weapons.

  
  

  Storming of the Bastille, 4 July 1789

  
  

  About 800 people moved to the Bastille. Their intention was to seize the weapons which were stored in the prison so as to use them against the army. They also wanted to prevent the army from using the weapons against them. The mob was very unruly. This scared the prison commander who asked the guards to open fire on them. Finally, the furious mob stormed the prison, killed five guards and the institution’s commander and released a handful of the prisoners. They, however, found no weapons.This storming of Bastille became a symbol of the French Revolution.
  

  
  

  Supporters of the revolution saw it as a step toward freedom. With the storming of Bastille, the rebels were now in full control of Paris. The committee at Hotel de Ville became a regular town government (commune). It was headed by a major Marquis de Lafayatte, who had learnt liberal ideas from the American Revolution, and had been elected vice-president of the National Assembly. He was now made the commander of the National Guard.
  

  
  

  They now checked law and order in Paris. The king’s support for the changes so far was necessary. He had no alternative. Consequently, he reinstated Necker, withdrew his troops from the Paris suburbs and came to Paris, escorted by fifty members of the Assembly on 17 July 1789.He was forced to recognise the new municipal government of Paris and the National Guard. He was also forced to wear a tri-coloured cockade hat, the emblem of the revolution.
  

  
  

  Other than Paris, rebellions also took place in other towns across France. Committees were assembled and self-governments along the Paris model instituted. Nobles, in the National Assembly, rose to propose the abolition of all feudal rights and dues. With time, all feudal privileges were abolished by the National Assembly on 4 August 1789. The peasants had won a major demand. This was an important goal of the Enlightenment; the equality of all citizens before the law.

  
  

  Declaration of the rights of man and citizen

  
  

  On 27 August 1789, the National Assembly adopted a set of revolutionary ideas called ‘A’ declaration of the rights of man and of the citizen’. This document had various articles.

  
  

  1. The first article declared that ‘men are born and remain free and equal in rights’.

  
  

  2. The second article stated ‘the aim of all political association is the preservation of the natural rights of man’. These rights included liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.

  
  

  3. Other articles of the document touched on equal justice, freedom of speech and freedom of religion. As a whole, the document echoed the influence of American ideas and teachings of Rousseau on its drafters, who were the deputies to the National Assembly. It, however, excluded women from politics. A part from the rights of man and of the citizen, the National Assembly debated and passed other crucial motions. Most of these motions affected the government and society. They included:

  
  

  • a limited monarchy

  • division of the country into departments

  • abolition of the provinces which had existed since the Middle Ages

  • establishment of a state controlled-church (the church lost both its political independence and lands to the government).

  
  

  The peasants did not support the changes in the Catholic Church. There was thus a wedge between them and the bourgeoisie. From this time on, the peasants often opposed further revolutionary changes. On his part, the king reluctantly approved the constitution and the declaration of the rights of man. He was, however, slow to accept the reforms. The people of Paris grew suspicious as more troops arrived; nobles continued to enjoy banquets as the poor people starved. Anger again led to action.

  
  

  March of women in Versailles, 5 October 1789

  
  

  The King’s lukewarm acceptance of the reforms and the deteriorating economic conditions angered many people in Paris. Famine and unemployment reached record highs. The king made matters worse by calling a regiment to Versailles where they met with their counterparts, the Royal Bodyguard. The two regiments greeted each other with a banquet at which the tri-coloured hat was insulted. Extremists in the National Assembly and in the Paris commune were angered by this act and led the people into protest. The protest involved staging a march to Versailles to press the peoples’ grievances. They settled on the women to make the march. Women were chosen because the effect would be greater and their hunger cries shriller.

  
  

  However, a number of men also joined the march. As they moved, thousands of citizens also joined the march. Among the marchers were members of the National Guard under Lafayette. The guards were to control the crowd from engaging in any ugly incidents. They were also to bring the king to Paris from Versailles.They reached Versailles and made audience with the king. The latter promised special food supplies for Paris, accepted the decrees (laws) which had been passed on August 4 and the declaration of the Rights of man and citizen.
  

  
  

  When Lafayette appeared, the king due to harassment by the mob also agreed that the National Guard, instead of the Flanders regiment, should be entrusted with the defense of Versailles. But the mob had not finished with the king. When Lafayette was asleep, they stormed the palace and demanded that the king accompany them back to Paris. The king agreed to move to the royal palace of the Tuileries in Paris on 6 October 1789.
  

  
  

  The king was now virtually a prisoner of the mob. The assembly also moved to Paris. Like the king, it also fell under the control of the mob. Its activities were public and even non-members addressed the deputies (assembly members).The assembly took a decisive step in the progress of the revolution. Desperate for revenue; it turned to the vast wealth of the church. All church estates were nationalised and put to auction to secure funds. Interest bearing bonds known as assignats were given to creditors of the government; bonds were to be a form of general currency. The assembly had thus gone for paper money. Like today, it is usually tempting for governments to print it, so was it for the French government during this time.
  

  
  

  This resulted in inflation. The value of the paper money dropped so much that it was soon useless.Since the State had taken church property, it had to find a way to pay the clergy’s salaries. It passed the civil constitution of the clergy which undertook among other things, responsibility for paying the clergy who now became state officials; bishops and parish priests were appointed through a form of election. The pope, though still the head of the church had no power over the church in France.

  
  

  Devout Catholics, including the king, were against the whole arrangement but could do nothing.The king gave in to the new scheme, but secretly resolved to stop the revolution through external assistance. He decided to flee to eastern France, where he would be well received by loyal French troops and get help from his brother-in-law, the Austrian Emperor, Leopold. He left at night, but was unfortunately caught at Varennes (a little town that is a few miles from the Austrian border).

  
  

  Together with his wife and other members of the royal family, they were arrested and on Lafayette’s orders, were brought back to Paris. They were humiliated, insulted and even spat on by the people.In practice, the monarchy had died because of the incident. Extremists in the revolution advocated for the establishment of a Republic.
  

  
  

  They greatly reduced the king’s powers and even came up with a new constitution which changed not only the working of the National Assembly, but also its membership. They even changed its name to Legislative Assembly. In the meantime, outside France, the changes were receiving mixed reactions.Supporters of the Enlightenment applauded them while the rulers were against them. The rulers termed it as the ‘French plague’.
  

  
  

  The revolutionaries were condemned for their violence by even those who had supported the American Revolution such as Edmund Burke. In Prussia and Austria, the rulers issued the declaration of Pilnitz in which they threatened to come to the aid of the French king. Although intended by the rulers to be a bluff, it was taken seriously by the revolutionaries who now prepared for war. The Legislative Assembly, now under the control of members of a revolutionary political club, the Jacobins, declared war on Austria, then Prussia, Britain and other states in April 1792.
  

  
  

  The leaders of the revolution were Georges Danton, a leader of the Paris commune who was fearless and devoted to the rights of the poor, and Jean Pau Marat, a thin, high strung man, who also hoped to win fame for his scientific research. Alongside others, they set the Paris mob on a new and more violent path. The National Convention (Legislative Assembly) met in Paris in September 1789 and immediately abolished the monarchy. Next, it declared France a republic in which every male adult citizen had the right to vote and hold office. Women, although having played a vital role in the revolution, were not allowed to vote. Louis XVI was no longer king.
  

  
  

  Under the new republic, he was just a common citizen and a prisoner. The republics new motto was liberty, equality and fraternity. The king was tried for treason by the National Convention and found guilty. The radicals demanded that he be condemned to death. On 21 January 1793, Louis XVI was beheaded. The new republic’s first challenge was handling the hostile armies of Austria and Prussia. Towards the end of 1792, more threats faced the republic.Britain, Spain and Portugal joined Austria and Prussia in forming an alliance known as the First Coalition. The Jacobin leaders took extreme steps to meet the new danger. They drafted into the army 300,000 men in February 1793.
  

  
  

  Women also asked for the right to form regiments to defend the country. By 1794, the number of recruits had reached 800,000. Even though the government denied women permission to form regiments, many women fought alongside men during the revolution. Most armies in Europe at the time were made up of mercenaries, but the new French army was a people’s army made up of loyal patriots. It was under dedicated officers.They managed to register victory against their enemies.

  
  

  They began with defeating the armies of the motherland and later invaded Italy. At home, they quelled the peasant revolts. They were also battling with counter revolutionaries at home. The leadership of the revolution was now under a shrewd lawyer and politician, Maximilien Robespierre. He took the leadership of the Committee of Public Safety. Robespierre was selfless and dedicated to the revolution. He was a great disciple of Rousseau’s ideas, promoted religious tolerance and wanted to abolish slavery. He was popular with the working men and women called Sanculottes; they had a deep hatred for the old regime. He believed that France could achieve a republic of virtue only through the use of terror, which he defined as ‘prompt, severe, inflexible justice’.

  
  

  The reign of terror

  
  

  Robespierre as we have already observed was honest in money matters. With others, he believed that terror was a virtue. He was responsible for what came to be known as the ‘Reign of Terror’. Under him, the revolution leaders unleashed terror on perceived enemies. Many people were beheaded as the Paris mob cheered. A majority of the victims were supporters of the ancient regime, counter-revolutionaries and enemies of the new leaders.
  

  
  

  Away from Paris, representatives of the Committee of Public Safety (as the leadership of the revolution was known) in the provinces, killed many people. France had now been turned into a police state.There were divisions in the leadership of the revolution at this time. There was a section led by extremists in the Paris Commune under Hebert who wanted the revolution to assume a socialist dimension in the interests of the poor. They also sought to destroy Christian worship. There was the other side led by Robespierre. It was opposed to what the extremists in the Paris commune stood for.Robespierre and the convention thus went to great lengths to stop them.
  

  
  

  They passed the ‘Law of the maximum’ which controlled the price of bread and other foodstuffs in order to check the growing inflation. Like he had done with others, Hebert and his key supporters were arrested and beheaded in March 1794. The Paris Commune was now made up of pro-Robespierre members. Divisions creeped into the committee of public safety. Robespierre disagreed with his other colleagues, Danton and Desmoulins. The latter wanted an end to the reign of terror. They argued that it had served its purpose. Robespierre could not listen to that.

  
  

  He organised for their arrest blaming them for counter-revolution and had them beheaded. Robespierre established the worship of the Supreme Being (his own particular form of religion) and stepped up the reign of terror. He also created laws which denied suspects representation by lawyers (Law of 22 Prairial) on 10 June 1794. He left only one possible punishment, death on the reputation of a bad moral character. Many people were condemned to death through these laws, but his turn was approaching.
  

  
  

  Those around him feared that Robespierre would equally sentence them over unconvincing reasons under the new law. They planned for his execution and beheaded him. This happened on 28 July 1794. The group (known as the Thermidorians) which took over ended the reign of terror. They destroyed the war dictatorship organisation which had made the war possible. The new group also weakened the powers of the Revolutionary Tribunal (committees of public safety and general security).
  

  
  

                                         

  
  

  They also abolished the Paris commune, closed the Jacobin clubs and repealed the Law of 22 Prairial.The convention eventually voted another new constitution. In the new document, the electorate would be restricted to taxpayers (to prevent everybody from voting). It also split power between a two-housed assembly and a Directory of five men.

  
  

  One of the leaders who had eliminated Robespierre, Barras, found his way to the Directory. Still there were pockets of uprisings in Paris. Most were done by royalists. Such uprisings occurred just before the new constitution could be implemented. The Directory ordered troops to suppress it. The troops were led by a Corsican named Napoleon Bonaparte. He saved the Directory and later assumed its leadership.

  
  

  Consequences of the French Revolution

  
  

  The French revolution had far- reaching consequences to the French society, Europe and to the rest of the world. Some of these included:

  
  

  Loss of lives

  Many lives were lost in the confusion that characterized the revolution. At first it targeted the privileged sections of the society. Mobs killed those they felt had in one way or another been responsible for their suffering during the ancient regime. With time, the introduction of the guillotine, saw many perceived to be against the revolution being killed. The guillotine even consumed some of the revolutionaries as rivalry and suspicion hit their camp. Aside from France, counter revolutionaries in other parts of Europe joined the war. From 1792, Europe was thus enmeshed in war for a generation. Many lives were lost.

                                       

  
  

  Overthrow of the ancient regime

  The reign of Louis XVI came to an abrupt end. This marked true end of the reign of the Bourbon family which had ruled France for over 800 years. The revolutionaries experimented with one form of governance after the other until the Great Napolem Bonarparte usurped the reigns of power thus establishing his rule.

  
  

  Spread of revolutionary ideas

  Revolutionary ideas spread to other parts of Europe. Everywhere in Europe, people talked of and wanted equality, liberty and fraternity the three things that crystallized in the course of the revolution as its aims. Generally, there was a clamour for democratic ideals. The revolution heralded a period of political liberalism hitherto witnessed in European mainland.

  
  

  Promotion of human rights

  The declaration of the Rights of man at the infancy stages of the revolution may be looked at as a way of promoting human rights. This is definitely a precursor to human rights as they exist today. As we have observed, the rights asserted the equality of human beings and right of people to rule. In an equal measure, it also brought out the fundamental freedoms: freedom of speech (expression) and choice individual ownership of property, religious rights to minorities e.t.c They also vouched for fair trial (justice) and acceptable taxation system. All these are issues that dominate the issue of human rights today. The same can be said on the rule of law. However, the society failed to address the issue of women rights as it gave men rights prominence.

  
  

  Lawlessness in the society

  From 1789 to the time Napoleon Bonarparte came to power on 9 November 1799, there was a state of disorder and discontent in France. There was lawlessness and anarchy in the rural and urban areas alike. Citizens were not subject to any known law as once the Ancient regime had been overthrown, there lacked a centralized system of power. The situation was aggravated by the poor financial situation the country found itself in.

  
  

  Delinking of the church from state

  There was a strong link between the church and state. As we have already observed,, the two institutions were marred with massive divisions within their ranks. Class system was a common feature in both. The French revolution led to a clear line between the two institutions. The church was now left handling spiritual matters as the state dealt with political, economic and other social issues. The church had its massive estates of land taken over by the government in 1796. Prior to this development, on July 1790, the civil constitution of the clergy which made all clergy servants of the state was promulgated. This development was to later lead to separation of the two institutions as the revolution came to an end. However the state had now reduced the power of the pope in the church in France. It now exerted a lot of power over the institution in France.

  
  

  Rise in nationalism

  The French Revolution and the war the country waged against other powers, instilled in the French people a strong sense of nationalism. They developed a strong sense of identity. This was in sharp contrast to the pre-revolutionary years when people closely identified with their local authorities. The government partly contributed to this new development by rallying citizens to the defence of their country against its enemies. There was a strong sense of nationalism. People attended civic festivals which celebrated the nation and the revolution. A variety of dances, and songs on themes of the revolution and French identity became popular. A song “La Marseillaise” which urges the “children of the father land” to march against the “bloody barrier of tyranny” was so popular that it became the French national Anthem. Its second verse and chorus goes ...

  
  

  La Marseillaise

  
  

  
  

  In sum, the revolution encouraged the growth of nationalism in both liberal and authoritarian forms.

  
  

  Promotion of social reforms

  The revolutionaries pushed for social reforms and religious toleration. State schools were set up to replace religious ones. Systems were also put in place to help the poor, old soldiers and war widows. A major slave revolt in St. Dominique (Haiti) also made the government to abolish slavery in its Carribean Colonies. The first in Haiti and the second in France so that property could now be inherited among all immediate heirs equally and not only the oldest son as it used to be the tradition and practice.Attempts were also made to de-Christianize France. The government created a secular (non-religious calendar with 1793 as the first year of the new era of freedom) many religious festivals were also banned and in its place came secular celebrations. The social reforms introduced by the revolution outlived it.

  
  

  Emergence of new artistic styles

  A new grand classical style that echoed the grandeur of Ancient Rome emerged. Among its notable proponents was Louis David. This artist immortalized on canvas such stirring events as the Tennis Court Oath, and later, the coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte. He contributed heavily to the way future generations understood the French Revolution.

  
  

  Activity 8.3

  In groups of five, use the Internet and relevant resources in the library to find out how the French revolution of 1879-1895 increased democracy in Europe and the contributions of the French revolution to the modern society, paying attention to Rwanda. Thereafter summarise your findings and discuss them in class.

  
  

  Napoleon (I), Bonaparte

  
  

  Activity 8.4

  Form groups of five to discuss the rise of Napoleon (I). Examine the factors for the rise, performance and downfall of Napoleon (I) in 1814. How did this influence modern French politics? Write a group essay and discuss your findings in class.

  
  

  Napoleon Bonaparte La Marseillaise was born in 1769 on the Island of Corsica in the Mediterranean sea. The young Corsican, was to cast a long shadow over the history of the world. In only four years (1795 – 1799) he rose from obscurity to mastery of France. He had joined the military upon finishing studies in a military school outside Paris. The young soldier was only 16 years old when he became a lieutenant. When the revolution occured, he joined the army of the new government. Bonaparte was a military genius. He was later to use his skills to sweep aside any political opposition and perch himself at the pinnacle of the French leadership where he rose to become an emperor.

  
  

                                 

  
  

  Factors for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

  
  

  There were various factors which lay behind Napoleons meteoric rise to power in France. Below are the main ones.

  
  

  His military genius

  From a very young age, Napoleon developed interest in military education. When his father enrolled him at the military school outside Paris, he devoted himself to mastering military tactics. These were to be an asset in his professional career. He kept on winning victories in battles hence wining the admiration of people in both the military and civilian population a like e.g. in 1793, he routed British forces from the French port of Toulon while in 1798 he made unsuccessful attempt to conquer Egypt (he kept the outcome away from the French ordinary public). He also registered victories against the Austrians success in the military excursions and this fueled his ambition.

  
  

  In politics, he was very calculating and measured. Most of the time, he joined the winning side. No wonder, he has joined the ranks of military geniuses in history. Bonaparte is in the league of Alexander the Great of Macedonia, Hannibal of Carthage and Julius Caesar of Rome. No one captures Bonaparte military genius than a British general called Wellington. He said that Napoleon’s “presence in the field was worth a difference of 40,000 men”.
  

  
  

  There were various factors which lay behind Napoleons meteoric rise to power in France. Below are the main ones.

  
  

  Weaknesses of the Directory

  The French government that ruled in the period 1795-1799, just before the occurrence of the French Revolution was known as the Directory. It had many weaknesses that crippled it from creating stability. First, its leaders were rich speculators and war profiteers who rose to prominence during the first two stages of the revolution. The leaders were also torn between pleasing the radical and conservative divide in the French society. Things were made worse by their opulent lifestyles, which flew in the face of the more democratic legacies of the revolution. Lastly was that they fought against any moves to abolish private property and parliamentary style government. The Directory even went to the extreme by annulling election results where people had voted for monarchists in march 1797. The body was also accused of corruption. It only remained in power through the help of the army. Citizens had lost confidence in it.

  
  

  Poor economic conditions

  Prices of wheat and other foodstuffs skyrocketed day in and day out. French citizens found themselves in severe economic conditions. The poor political climate made the situation worse. People yearned for a leader who could bring the situation to an end. Such a leader lacked from the group in the Directory. It was just an issue of when and not if he could come from outside. The leader came in Bonaparte.

                                         

  
  

  Napoleon’s personality

  Napoleon was a man of strong personality. He was the answer to the prayers of the Directory and many a French citizen alike. Being a strong and popular leader endeared him to his countrymen. He is quoted saying that “impossible only existed in the dictionary of fools”. This demonstrated his strong belief in his ability to accomplish a task he set to achieve. It was such a personality that most French people had yearned for. Bonaparte even got the support of Abbe Sieyes, the great supporter of the revolution. Sieyes had in endorsing him thus said “confidence from below, authority from above”.

  
  

  Napoleon’s support for the revolution

  Napoleon presented himself as the son of the revolution. he borrowed freely from many different regimes. This made Bonaparte to fashion himself as the heirs to Charlemagne (Roman Empire). Many Frenchmen were thus attracted by Bonaparte’s political tactics. These were clear at a very early period, e.g. in 1793, he wrote a letter to his brother in support of the Jacobins and republican rule but gave a veneer of his thought about the course of the revolution.

  
  

  Military support

  Closely related to Napoleon’s military genius was the support he got from the army. He commanded respect which made him to be overwhelmingly be supported by the officers under his command. Napoleon led from the front and mixed freely with the rank and file of the military.His calculating nature made him to strike at the Directory at the aporture time. He had realized that the Directory only survived from the support of the army. It was for this reason that on 9 November 1799, Napoleon ordered his troops to occupy one chamber of the national legislature and drive out its elected members. The second chamber, terrified by this development, decided to vote to end the Directory. After it had accomplished its intention, it decided to turn over power to three officials known as consuls. Bonaparte was one of the three. Soon he assumed dictatorial powers as the first consul of the French Republic.

  
  

  Attacks from French enemy powers

  Nationalism was boosted by the persistent attack from France’s neighbours. Austria, Russia Prussia and Britain each attacked France at one time or another during the revolution. These attacks made the French to look inwards. They saw themselves as being under attack from the neighbouring states hence needed a leader who could flex the country’s muscles in the enemy territory. Bonaparte was such a person, a general who led his troops to battle, one who had demonstrated his ability against the foreign powers.

  
  

  The people, in a referendum held in 1800, showed overwhelming support for a strong leadership. This was clearly shown in the type of the constitution which they voted for. It was this constitution which made Napoleon the first consul, the stepping stone upon which he towered above the other two consuls. Towards his rise to the summit of power, he organized another referendum in 1802 which made him consul for life and in another two years, he decided to make himself emperor. The Coronation to emperorship was marked with an interesting scene. Dressed in a splendid robe of purple velvet, Bonaparte walked down the long aisle of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris on December 2, 1804. He had invited the pope to grace the occasion. As the pope waited for the new emperor with a glittering crown, as thousands of people watched, the new emperor grabbed the crown from the plaintiff’s hand and placed it on his head. Napoleon did this to signify that his powers did not emanate from the pope but himself and the French people. It thus had secular origin. Such a daring move was unprecedented in the history of coronation of rulers.

  
  

  Reconciliation with the Catholic Church

  The French society was largely Catholic. Napoleon realized that he could only succeed if he commanded the support of the pope. The church had been a great enemy of the revolution and thus had to be brought to support the revolution. To achieve this, Bonaparte made an agreement with the pope in 1801. The agreement recognized Catholicism as the religion of a majority of the French people. In return, the pope agreed not to ask for the return of the church lands which had been seized by the state. The agreement brought the state and church into a friendly deal. This achievement also brought the beneficiaries of the church lands into supporting Bonaparte’s leadership. With the support of the church, Bonaparte’s path to greatness was assured.

  
  

  Many factors conspired to bring Napoleon to power in France. Some of these were occasioned by Napoleon himself while others were a product of forces external to him. Anyhow, the factors all worked to make Napoleon attain power in the French republic. As a young man (he was only 30), he was expected to steer the French nation to greater heights. This was the great expectations the French people had on their new emperor. True to their expectations, he was to make France a great power in Europe.

  
  

  Napoleon (I) Bonaparte’s performance

  
  

  As already hinted, Napoleon was up to the task he had been bestored with by his fellow country persons. He made great strides in both domestic and foreign fronts within almost the sixteen years he was at the helm of the French leadership.Some of his outstanding achievements and achieved as follows:

  
  

  1. Military success: Leading the French army to military success against the foreign armies: He led the French army in battles against the foreign troops. He:

  
  

  • drove British forces out of the French port of Toulon

  
  

  • won several victories against Austrians• captured most of northern Italy

  
  

  • forced the Hapsburg emperor to sue for peace.

  
  

  • led an expedition to Egypt in 1798 in the hope of disrupting British trade with India

  
  

  • led troops against feudal and peasant revolts on behalf of the revolutionaries.

  
  

  2. Establishment of the Consulate in 1799: His military success encouraged him to assume political responsibilities in 1799. He overthrew the weak directory and set up a three-man governing board known as The Consul. This body was now to lead the revolution. Napoleon was its leader. He took up the title of First Consul. The Consulate drew a new constitution.In 1802, Napoleon made himself Consul for life. Two years later, he transformed himself to Emperor. He invited the pope to preside over his coronation ceremony. During the ceremony, he took over the crown from the pope’s hands and placed it on his head to signify that he owed the throne to no one but himself.

  
  

  3. Effected economic reforms: Napoleon developed economic reforms to address the deteriorating economic conditions that faced France. He controlled prices, encouraged industrialisation, established the first bank of France in 1801 and built roads and canals to improve transportation. He even sold France’s vast Louisiana land territory across the Atlantic to the American government in 1803. This action doubled the size of the USA and ushered in an age of American expansion.

  
  

  4. Strengthening of the central government: Under Napoleon, power was consolidated in an effort to strengthen the central government in which he was the supreme power. Through these measures, ‘order, security and efficiency’ replaced ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ as the slogan of the new regime.

  
  

  5. Establishment of schools to train military officials: The revolution was characterised by ill-trained military personnel. This affected the operations of the army. Napoleon addressed the problem by setting up a system of public schools under strict government control. The military was trained in these schools. Members of the public also benefitted from good education.

  
  

  6. Restoration of relations with the church: He backed off from some of the revolutions’ social reforms, especially those that pricked the church. He made peace with the Catholic Church in the Concordant of 1801. This law kept the church under state control but recognised religious freedom for Catholics. It was welcomed by Catholics but opposed by revolutionaries.Other religions were also recognised.

  
  

  7. Appeasing all classes in the society: Napoleon took measures to appease all sections of the society. He encouraged Emigres to return so long as they took an oath of loyalty. Emigres were members of the nobility who had fled the country during the revolution. Peasant’s right to land ownership was also made. He also made jobs open to all talent. These people were the new nobility. He created them through the legion of honour which he founded in 1802.

  
  

  8. Development of a new law code (the Napoleonic code): He wrote the French laws leading to the civil code of 1804. The code embodied Enlightenment principles such as the equality of all citizens before the law, religious toleration and advancement based on merit. It touched on rights and duties, marriage, divorce, parentage, inheritance and property, and a statement of the general legal principles concerning them. However, the code was weak in certain respects. For example, it did away with the gains women had made as citizens of the country. Male heads of household were given complete authority over their wives and children. Another weakness of the code was its valuing order and authority over individual rights. The code was adopted in other countries in Europe and South America.

  
  

  9. Spread of the revolution to other parts of Europe: By 1810, his empire had expanded greatly in Europe. As the empire grew, it took the ideas of the revolution to the new territories. The areas he conquered included the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of Italy and Germany. All these became part of the grand French empire. He also abolished the Holy Roman Empire and created a 38-member confederation of the Rhine under French protection. It later led to the formation of Germany. Napoleon also cut Prussian territory by half. This turned part of old Poland into the grand Dutch of Warsaw.

  
  

  10. Forceful diplomacy: Napoleon had another tactic. He used forceful diplomacy to install his relatives to power in various European countries. For example, after removing the Spanish king; he placed his own brother Joseph Bonaparte, on the throne.
  

  
  

  He also forced alliances on European powers from Madrid to Moscow.At various times, the rulers of Austria, Prussia and Russia reluctantly signed treaties with Napoleon.

  
  

  He came up with the Continental System which brought the whole of mainland Europe into an alliance headed by France. He tried to use the alliance to bring Britain to its knees but did not succeed. The French army spread the ideas of the revolution and helped to install code Napoleon in the areas.

  
  

  11. Boosting the spirit of nationalism: The successes made by Napoleon enhanced the spirit of nationalism in France. Great victory parades filled the streets of Paris with cheering crowds. French citizens were proud of their king’s successes. They celebrated the glory and success of their country.

  
  

  However, although his activities were supported by French citizens, he talked of building a family of kings. He had the ripple effect on other nationalities. He was also accused of nepotism. His activities sparked nationalist feeling across Europe. They resented the continental system and the French culture forced on them. There were revolts everywhere against French control. The army kept on fighting one rebellion after another until when the French force tried to invade Russia in 1812.

  
  

   

  
  

  Many soldiers died in the Russian winter due to harsh climatic conditions, inadequate food and inadequate military supplies. This was the beginning of the downfall of Napoleon. In a new alliance, Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia came together against France. In 1813, they defeated Napoleon in the battle at Leipzig.

  
  

  Downfall of Napoleon (I) Bonaparte

  
  

  Napoleon’s decline begun from the continental system. He had managed to bring Europe under his control with the exception of Britain yes, but this feat was to be interestingly his Achilles’ heels. The economic weapon meant to punish Britain thus did not achieve its goal. It was to be the source of his decline.
  

                                                    

  
  

  He thought of controlling the whole of Europe in order to bring Britain to her knees by preventing her exports into Europe. Britain made retaliatory measures through Orders in Council. From 1807, she blockaded any country which followed Napoleon’s orders. Such a country was prevented from receiving any ships. This made life unbearable thus irking citizens. The end result was Bonaparte’s unpopularity in such areas as commerce.

  
  

  France could do little as she never had a navy which could measure to the British one. Portugal was the first country to revolt. Napoleon successfully utilized the services of the French forces on Spanish soil and went ahead to bully the Spanish monarch. The latter was forced to abdicate and in his place was put Napoleon’s brother. This angered the Spaniards.They went to great lengths to stop Napoleon’s brother from ruling them. Alongside the Portuguese, they now joined the British in fighting France.
  

  
  

  Austria was later to also rebel. But other than Britain, the other powers, prior to 1810, were still forced by France to capitulate. Austria was even forced to supply the emperor with a new wife, the princess Maries Louise. Josephine, Napoleon’s first wife had failed to provide a heir and “was now conveniently divorced”. However all these, was just a calm before a storm.
  

  
  

  Things were to take a completely different direction from 1810.Britain’s efforts at blockading exports to countries under French control were bearing fruits at alarming rates. Trade stagnated as most products became scarce or extremely expensive. Bonaparte was even at times forced to issue licences of large-scale importation of certain British goods into France, such as boots for his army.

  
  

  The conscriptions and taxes placed on other countries worsened the situation. First to react was Russia.

  
  

  Moscow campaign

  
  

  In 1811, Russia rebelled. This action was to mark the beginning of the end of Napoleon’s rule. The Tsar was riled by four things. He was tired of doing without British goods, annoyed at annexation of a relative’s territory (Oldenburg) , slighted by Napoleon’s marriage to Marie Louise, an Austrian rather than a Russian princess, and dissatisfied at Napoleon’s failure to help him in his Eastern ambitions to expand.In addition, the issue of Napoleon’s enlargement of the Grand Duchy of Warsaw, which bordered her on the east equally disturbed Russia thus making it another issue of concern.

  
  

  All these made Russia to break from the continental system. In response, Napoleon took what became known as the Moscow campaign from 1812. It was to prove most disastrous.Scared by an army of 610,000 men which was marshaled by Napoleon, Russians were forced to make tactical retreat. As they retreated, they employed the scorching earth policy thus starving the French force of food and other essentials.
  

  
  

  The vast invading army could thus not be fed, many died due to starvation, while others disserted the army. On his part, Napoleon marched to Moscow. He had miscalculated that once overran, the whole of Russia would surrender. This did not happen and when the forces reached Moscow. Russians burnt the city. French forces found a city reduced to a shell.
  

  
  

  Napoleon tried unsuccessfully to bring the Tsar into suing for an armistice. The French forces were eventually forced to retreat. Unfortunately, they were to take the route they had come from. Many dreaded the action. Only one soldier, the General (Emperor Napoleon) enjoyed. The weather had now conspired with Napoleon’s enemies. It completed the catastrophe. The Grand army was no more. A French General Mitchael Ney was sadly to conclude “General famine and General Winter, rather than Russian bullets, have conquered the Grand Army”, While a French army officer wrote to his wife “The army marches covered in great snowflakes it is a mob without purpose, famished, fevered”.

  
  

  The Russian forces attacked, killing many soldiers as the weather also took a heavy toll on some. Napoleon realizing the impact of the campaign on his military decided to rush back to Paris to help rebuild his shattered army. He left command of the army to Ney. Only 20,000 men managed to reach France. Out of these number, less than 1,000 could be of military service. Napoleon had completely failed to achieve his mission in Russia.The result of Russian campaign was received well by the other powers. In 1813, Prussia and Austria formed a coalition with Britain and Russia against France.
  

  
  

  The coalition was known as the Fourth coalition. Prussia had been strengthened by reforms undertaken by two of its leaders stein and Hardenberg. She felt strong and able to resist France. Unbeknown to Napoleon, all these powers had begun the war of liberation from 1813. Other countries such as Sweden, which under Bernadotte, had been loyal, declared that it was “not going to be one of the emperors customs officials.” It had thus refused to apply the continental system. The five powers managed to defeat the French forces at the battle of Leipzig in 1813.

                               

  
  

  This battle is sometimes known as the Battle of the Nations. They managed to invade France. Spain and Portugal had now joined the five powers. France was under attack from the south and east. On March 31 Tsar Alexander of Russia and King Frederick William of Prussia, made their triumphant entry into Paris.Things clearly indicated the fall of France. Realizing this, the French Marshals compelled Napoleon first, to accept the terms of the allies and secondly to abdicate the throne. This was done through the treaty of fountainebleu of April 1814 which Napoleon is said to have ratified after attempting suicide. He gave up the throne but was allowed to retain the title of emperor, an income of about $ 200,000 and given Elba an Island in the Mediterranean as his Kingdom.

  
  

  The terms of surrender were drawn up by Alexander I.France went back to the Bourbon monarchy. This was according to the wishes of the Allies. King Louis XVIII, the elder surviving brother of Louis XVI now took the throne (The young prince Louis XVII died in Prison). He signed what became known as the first peace of Paris in May 1814. This treaty stripped France of her great conquests, such as Belgium, Holland and the territories in Germany and Italy. France returned to her old boundaries of 1November 1792.

  
  

  No indemnity was slapped on her nor an army of occupation imposed. She was even allowed to retain most of the great works of art Napoleon had pillaged from the European capitals.As a post-war settlement, France had to agree to the enlargement of Holland, formation of a new confederation of the German states, guarantee Switzerland’s independence and accept Austrian’s gains in Italy. She also had to accept a colonial settlement with British.
  

  
  

  France had to recognize British retention of Malta Mountains and two of the French West Indian Islands. The Allies agreed that all other questions he referred to a great European congress to be held in Vienna. At this congress, the French would be allowed to attend but had to promise to accept all decisions about the redistribution of territory.
  

  
  

  The Congress of Vienna was held from November 1814 to June 1815. The main powers were Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia. Other European powers, even France, attended. Dispute over the future of Poland and Saxony proved heated and thorny. They divided the main powers down the middle. Russia and Prussia were not in agreement with the other two powers. This made France to come back as an equally major player. She joined Britain and Austria against the Russian and Prussian demands. But sensing danger, the latter moderated their proposals thus bringing back the congress to agree.Napoleon learnt of the divisions and escaped from Elba in February 1815.
  

  
  

  This happened when the congress was still in progress. Alarmed, the Allies swung into action instantly. Within about an hour, they had made their minds on the action to take against Napoleon. They declared him an outlaw and renewed hostilities against him. The smaller powers also joined them. In the mean time, Louis XVIII sent a force to capture Napoleon. But this never happened. Napoleon’s second defeat led to the second peace of Paris in November 1815.

  
  

  France was punished this time around. It was made to revert to her 1790 boundaries (thus taking from her savoy which had been taken during the revolution’s early stages) Some frontier areas in the east also went. France was also asked to pay an indemnity, suffer an army of occupation and return some of the treasured works of art it had taken at the height of its power from the capitals of other Europeans states. To control her, the four Allied powers came together into an alliance – Quadruple Alliance.
  

  
  

  Napoleon‘s military quarrelled among themselves e.g. in Spain, they refused to help each other’s armies, and in Russia, one even tried to murder another. Though talented and brave, their weaknesses made them vulnerable for defeat.

  
  

  • Rise of liberation and patriotism in the lands which were under Napoleon’s control. For example, the King of Prussia raised national feelings in his people by using Napoleon’s own “ideological weapon” to arouse national spirit in his country, thus setting his people against Napoleon. Nationalism thus heavily played a role in Napoleon’s downfall.

  
  

  • Napoleon’s excessive ambition and growing sense of self–importance made him to have increasing pride and self-confidence in himself. Napoleon wanted to remake Europe as a new Roman Empire.

  
  

  • Lack of an adequate naval power which could rival the British navy. This made any chance of attacking Britain, her great rival, remote.

  
  

  • Loopholes in the continental system favoured Britain at the expense of the territories under French control in Europe. Britain’s survival due to her sea power thus contributed heavily to the collapse of the French empire under Napoleon.

  
  

  • Economic woes – France’s economy was experiencing a downturn due partly to the many wars she engaged in and loss of colonies in the Americas such as St. Domingue. This even had forced Napoleon to sell to the USA some French territories along the Mississippi.

  
  

  The congress system (1814-1830)

  
  

  Activity 8.5Work in groups of three. Using the Internet and textbooks;
  

  
  

  1. Find out the terms, forms, reasons for the convention, achievements and failures of the congress system.

  2. Summarise your points in a notebook.

  3. Discuss them in a class presentatio

  
  

  This was a period in Europe in which diplomacy was dominated or regulated by meetings (congresses) of the powers at the time. The period was also referred to as the ‘concert of Europe’. It saw the European powers come up with a genuine effort to produce a unified policy on issues that confronted them at the time. The congress system was conceived and popularized by the Quadruple and Quintupple Alliances which brought the main powers together.

  
  

  The latter had been brought during the second treaty of Paris and it witnessed Russia, Britain, Austria and Prussia agreeing to meet in future congresses to discuss problems as occasion arose besides agreeing to ally if necessary in defence of the post war settlement. This saw the formation of the Alliance in 1815. It was the main alliance.
  

  
  

  Others were the Quintuple and the Holy Alliances. The latter brought together the members to promise to rule according to Christian principles, acting as fathers to their people and as brothers to each other. It was opposed by other members –Britain and Austria through their leading diplomats Castlereagh and Melternich. It thus had little effect on European diplomacy at the time. The Quintuple alliance originated from the French entry to join the “Big” four powers at the congress of on an equal.

  
  

  In sum, the congresses held were: Congress of AIX-Chapelle (1818), Congress of Troppau (1820), Congress of Laibach (1821), Verona (1822) and London (1827). All these congresses were convened to help settle an issue on European diplomacy.The congress called in November 1814 set the stage for the other congresses. In attendance and the most important personalities were Tsar Alexander for Russia, Prince Metternich for Austria, Lord Castlereagh for Britain. The King of Prussia Fredrick William III and Talleyrand for France.

  
  

  Although smaller powers were also represented, the representatives of the Great powers made vital decisions. The king of Austria Francis I attended but was overshadowed by Metternich.

  
  

  293Issues on the table for the congress were:

  
  

  • How to insure against any further aggression from France.

  • How to divide among the Great powers, certain disputed territories in a way acceptable to all.

  • How to maintain the effective Alliance of the Four Great powers.It was in this background that the congress system was to evolve in Europe. From it thus, came the pursuance of defensive arrangements against France, the principle of legitimacy, the principle of balance of power in Europe and the almost complete ignoring of the principle of nationality. Nonetheless, Europe had begun a journey of the congresses. She hoped to take a common stand on important European matters.

  
  

  Reasons for the convention

  
  

  The “concert of Europe” was held due to several reasons. The main ones included:

  
  

  1. Prevention of aggression by France

  France preoccupied the minds of the conveners of the congress. This was right from the first congress held in Vienna in 1814 to most of the latter congresses. Kingdoms were formed as others were strengthened to help check France’s power e.g Belgium and Holland were united into the kingdom of the Netherlands to check France on the north-eastern frontier. Holland was the dominant side in the kingdom. It was hoped, it would check the revolutionary pro-French movement in Belgium. Another example was the restoration to power of the king of piedmont in northern Italy. Piedmont had the valuable part and formerly Free republic of Genoa. Prussia take over of the Rhine provinces was also informed by the need to check France’s aggression. A strong ring of states was thus created around France.

  
  

  2. Division of disputed territories

  Another issue of concern to the Great powers was how to divide among themselves, in an acceptable way, the disputed territories. There were two main contentious territories Poland and Saxony. Russia, during the congress expressed her desire to get the whole of Poland. This was not acceptable to Prussia (which wanted to retain some polish territories or to be given the whole of the kingdom of Saxony as compensation for the loss of the polish territories to Russia).

  
  

  The two states’ demand caused a major division among the Great powers. This enabled France, through Talleyrand to intervene. She was able to form an alliance with Britain and Austria to fight Prussia and Russia if they went to war. Talleyrand was thus able to bring France into the centre of European diplomacy by showing that any attempts at balancing power here, had to include France.

  
  

  It was by learning the differences of the Great powers that Napoleon made his come back to France. Nonetheless, the powers soon saw the need of abandoning their differences and forging a common front against Napoleon. This was done successfully.After confronting Napoleon, the Polish and Saxony’s problems were settled peacefully. Most of the Grand Dutch of Warsaw, was given to Russia. Prussia benefitted by retaining Danzig and Posen (the areas had 2,000,000 polish inhabitants). She also got two-fifths of the kingdom of Saxony, western Pomerania (an important Baltic territory taken from Sweden) and a considerable territory along the Rhine valley.
  

  
  

  Austria got Lombardy and Venetia in northern Italy (these were compensation for her loss of Netherlands and territory along the Adriantic coast). Sweden lost Finland to Russia but was given Norway which had belonged to Denmark but was now taken from it because of her continued alliance with Napoleon. Britain mainly benefitted in the colonial field. She took final possession of Cape Colony, Ceylon, some islands in the West Indies and got valuable naval bases of Heligoland in the North Sea, Malta in the Mediterranean and a protectorate over the Ionian Islands.
  

  
  

  The latter gave her command of the entrance to the Adriatic Sea. Britain was now strongly placed as a major world power as she led in colonial acquisitions.Another quest at creating a balance of power in Europe was made through the formation of a German Confederation. This brought 39 German states together. Peacock thus observes over the principle of balance of power that was an old feature of European diplomacy thus:Thus, through the working of the principle of the Balance of Power, all the four Great powers emerged from the congress of Vienna stronger than before, without any one being able to exert complete dominance. This principle in a way was thought to help prevent an outbreak of war.

  
  

  3. Re-introduction of legitimacy in Europe

  This was to be undertaken through the principle of legitimacy. The principle implied bringing back to power the monarchs who had been in power prior to 1789 in various states back to the throne. This principle saw the coming back of monarchs to lead territories in Europe. As a result, Ferdinand VII came back to Italy while Ferdinand I went to Naples.

  
  

  Other rulers who got back their former thrones were the rulers of Parma, Modena and Tuscany – all who were related to the monarchy in Austria. It was also in pursuance of this principle, that Louis XVIII got back France. The principle was seen as a safeguard against the doctrines of the French Revolution. Monarchs were known to be unable to encourage the revolutionary movements in any guise, regardless of the wishes of their subjects.

  
  

  4. Promotion of brotherhood

  The spirit of fraternity reigned behind the concert of Europe. Both the Quadruple Alliance and the Holy Alliance were intended to help preserve peace and create an atmosphere of brotherhood.

  
  

  5. Compensation

  Partly, the congress system was meant to compensate the powers which did a lot to remove Napoleon from power. Prussia, Russia and Austria largely benefitted from this. Britain as we have seen also did through getting of new colonies. Sweden and other European states also got territories due to their contribution to the demise of Napoleonic rule. France, Denmark and Saxony on the other hand, were punished for the sins of Napoleonic rule.These were generally some of the reasons for the conventions held in Europe between 1814-1825. The systems, however, went upto 1830 when Europe was engrossed in a new wave of revolutions.

  
  

  Forms of conventions

  Different european powers held a series of conventions between 1814 and 1830. Mostly, the conventions were called to try and deal with issues which threatened European peace, in one way or the other. Some of these congresses were:

  
  

  The congress of Vienna (1814-15)

  This congress was the pioneer of the congresses. It was called to make or approve detailed arrangements for sharing the spoils of victory and to create stability in Europe. It brought together seven allies and France. Decisions were however made by the Four Great powers whose delegates met regularly in Metternich’s house to discuss the range of congress business. The smaller powers were confined to more restricted matters and their own particular problems. France, through the efforts of her diplomat Talleyrand, was towards the end of the congress able to bring herself to the fold of the Great powers. She was later to become a fifth power. However, the coming back of Napoleon to France made the issue of punishing her to be undertaken. Nonetheless, she enjoyed her new status of being brought back to the ranks of the Great powers in 1818.

  
  

  The congress of Aix-la-Chapelle (1818)

  This congress was majorly called to deal with the issue of France. The four powers met and agreed to withdraw the army of occupation they had stationed in France. It was in this congress that a new alliance – the Quintuple Alliance – was formed. France now joined the other Four Great powers. She was consequently invited to cooperate in future congresses. The Great powers had managed to prevent France’s enmity from being long-lasting. They, however, took precautions. Secretly they renewed their Quadruple Alliance to operate against France if need be.
  

  
  

  They confidently informed the leading French diplomat about this. The Great powers also repeated their determination to uphold their close union and to maintain peace by enforcing respect for treaties.The congress was the most important meeting under the terms of the Quadruple Alliance. It was attended by Francis I (Austria), Fredrick William III (Prussia), Castlereagh (Britain) and Richelieu who represented France. Metternich also attended.The congress was on the negative side, rocked by divisions and mistrust among the European powers.
  

  
  

  Austria was wary of Russian expansions and thus wanted Russia to keep within the system of Quadruple Alliance and not be allowed to persue own policies. Britain rejected proposals made by Prussia for the stationing of a permanent army in Belgium to nip revolutions in Europe. Another division came based on how to deal with the slave trade. Britain’s proposal for the formation of a naval fleet with a right to check vessels for slaves was rejected on the grounds that it would interfere with the commerce of other states. The powers opposed the creation of the fleet because it would give the British navy, an advantage over the others.

  
  

  The Congress of Troppau (1820)

  This congress was held in October, 1820 in Silesia, Austria. It was called to tackle the issue of democratic revolutions in Spain, Naples, Piedmont and Portugal. Each of these areas saw the people demand the restoration of the 1812 constitution. The people were rising against despotism. Even in Germany, anti-Metternich and Princes demonstrations by students occurred. Political assassinations also occurred e.g. in 1891 Kotzebue, a journalist and dramatist and a spy to Alexander I was assassinated. Further afield, Portuguese and Spanish colonies in the new world also rebelled from the shackles of colonialism and set up independent governments.

  
  

  In Polish-controlled Russia, nationalist sentiments were equally on the rise. Alexander I with these pressures was convinced to abandon his flirtations with liberal principles.It was against this background that the congress was called. In attendance were Prussia, Russia and Austria with full powers to act. Britain and France sent observers. Meternich was against the revolutions and suggested that the allies only accept revolutions from above–this was that only changes brought or approved by monarchs or an upper class would suffice. To him, any revolution by the people should be crushed. He hoped to create a counter-revolutionary police system for the whole of Europe so as to nip in the bud any revolution. Metternich had already established such a force in Germany and the Austrian empire. Alexander I, having “smelled the Coffee” of the wave of revolutions, now changed, supported the idea at once.

  
  

  It was however opposed by Britain and France. Britain, through Castlereagh was not ready to be involved in internal problems of other powers, especially where her interests were not violated. She also detested European powers crossing the Atlantic to quell revolutions in the New World as it had been proposed by Alexander I on the Portuguese and Spanish colonies.
  

  
  

  
  

  Britain wanted to forge trade links with new independent states. Castlereagh also feared the backlash such a move would cause in the British parliament. In the back of his mind, he also felt that the people of Spain and Naples had genuine grievances. On the issue of Naples, she did not oppose Austria’s intervention but made it clear that she could not be involved. Austria could do it alone. France on the other hand, was more liberal than many continental European powers. This made her to be slightly sympathetic to the liberal cause. A protocol – the Troppau Protocol was thus signed on October, 1820, by Russia, Prussia and Austria.
  

  
  

  
  

  The three powers had thus hit the last nail on the coffin of revolutions. France supported the protocol with some reservations. Castlereagh indicated his opposition to the whole scheme and clearly made her stand known. Britain would never support it. Although Britain did not break away from the Quintuple Alliance, what was clear, was that cracks had already started in it. It was just a matter of time before it ended.In spite of lack of British support, the powers went ahead with their schemes. The congress continued at Laibach in 1821.

  
  

  It had two direct results–Austrian intervention in Naples and Piedmont to restore the monarchies, and the beginning of cracks on meeting was on European Congress system. As the trouble broke in Greece. This presented a big dilemma to Alexander. The Greek issue and that of Spanish colonies were to be tackled in the next congress.

  
  

  Congress of Verona, 1822

  Before the congress was held, Britain got a new chief diplomat, Canning. He replaced Castlereagh who had taken his life due to a mental challenge that he had suffered. The new British foreign secretary was not a supporter of the congress system. He was for its dissolution by all means and held more liberal views like his predecesso, Canning. On the Greek issue, Russia had strong feelings in support of the nationalist revolt. Metternich was against the rebellion. He saw it in a similar light to the earlier problems in Naples and Spain. To him, Sultan Mahmud of Turkey’s empire had to be protected like any other, as failure to do that would endanger the cause of monarchy. Before Castlereagh’s death, he had met with Metternich in Hanover towards the end of 1821, settled their differences and agreed to summon one more congress. Which they hoped to keep off Russia from lending support to the Greeks.

  
  

  Before the congress was held, events in Spain took a worse turn. This made the congress to be occupied with Spain’s issue than Greece. France wanted to invade Spain and sought the support of the Alliance. Canning rejected any idea of invading Spain. The news was relayed by the British representative at the talks, Wellington, on 30 October 1822. Undeterred, France eventually invaded Spain on her own in April 1823 and restored King Ferdinand back to the throne. She also abolished the Spanish constitution. All these took a year to be accomplished.
  

  
  

  France secured the support of Russia, Prussia and Austria. The restored Spanish Monarch proved so ruthless that he, embarrassed France and the other powers which had supported it.Once restored to power, the Spanish monarch nursed the feelings of recapturing the South American colonies which had declared their independence. Britain had traded freely with the territories in the New World during the Napoleonic days. Now in power, the Spanish monarch could not guarantee this favour to her if Spain took back the territories. Britain flatly rejected any attempts at recapturing the colonies. Through Canning, Britain warned Polignac, the French ambassador in London that she would fight France if she attempted to intervene in America.

  
  

  The warning to the Alliance also came from The USA. She had already recognized the independent territories in the American hemisphere- Brazil, Columbia, Chile, and Mexico. The USA was wary of Russia interests in the sphere. She was also buoyed by the crack in the Quintuple Alliance. Consequently, in 1823 President Monroe, in a message to congress, warned Europe that America was not open to further European colonization and that any attempt at such would be regarded “as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition to the United States”. Canning readily supported the USA. He welcomed what came to be known as the “Monroe Doctrine”.
  

  
  

  Britain even went ahead to recognize three of the same four Latin American republics earlier on officially recognized by the USA. These were Brazil, Mexico and Columbia- all former Spanish colonies. Caning even went ahead to make treaties with them. She was now free to trade with them as before. With the might of the USA and Britain, Austria, Prussia, Russia and France developed cold feet towards invasion of the former colonies.
  

  
  

  This brought defeat to the principle of interference. The Quintuple Alliance had been defeated thus portending negatively to the survival of the Alliance system. Canning’s policy of “every nation for itself and God for us all” ran counter to the philosophy of the monarchial powers which were for restoration or maintenance of the status quo as agreed during the congress of Vienna. Britain now clearly supported the idea of nationality and the independence of small nations. This ran counter to the feelings of the Great powers.

  
  

  Events in Greece, which was part of the Sultan of Turkey’s empire were to bring the end of the congress system. Greeks revolted in 1821 forcing the Sultan to seek for help from his powerful Vassal, Mehmet Ali of Egypt in 1824. Ali sent his son Ibrahim Pasha to help crush the Greek revolt. He exercised his assignment with gusto and brutality of unprecedented levels. Russia could not wait and see the Greeks being killed and brutalized by the Muslims.

  
  

  She had to come to the aid of fellow Orthodox Christians. A new development – the death of Alexander I and his being succeeded by his brother Nicholas I in 1825 portended well for the Greek cause. He resolved to provide assistance to the Greeks at all costs and by extension help accelerate the dissolution of the Turkish empire to achieve his country’s selfish interests. Canning knew this and readily supported Russia.
  

  
  

  Britain feared that Russia would go it alone. She thus wanted to equally benefit from the peace settlement which would follow. Britain supported Russia’s invasion in Greece so as to act as its check mate. The Greek problem was to be solved in the treaty of London. It could not be dealt with during the congress of Verona – due to the urgency of the Spanish issue.
  

  
  

  Treaty of London, 1827

  
  

  This treaty brought together Russia, Britain, France, Austria and Prussia. Deliberations were held on the Greek issue but unfortunately the Great powers did not reach a consensus. In the treaty signed in London, Britain, France and Russia agreed to secure independence in all but name for Greece. This was to the chagrin of Prussia and Austria. They protested bitterly. The two powers were against the provisions of the treaty of London for two reasons:

  
  

  i) They never wanted the Balkans to be divided and

  ii) Their distaste for rebellion in Europe was still high
  

  
  

  Undeterred, Britain, France and Russia went ahead and intervened in Greece. Their fleets destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian navy almost accidentally at Navarino Bay in Greece. This was not what they had agreed on in the treaty. They had agreed that Greece be granted self-government under Turkish overlordship. The powers had also agreed to enforce a truce while details of the new arrangement were being settled.It was the latter provision which saw a fleet of the three powers under Admiral Codrington dispatched to cut off supplies to Ibrahim from Egypt.
  

  
  

  This was necessitated by the Sultan’s refusal to obey the terms of the London treaty. He was buoyed in the action by the lack of a common position by the Great powers. Codrington’s instructions were to enforce an armistice, preferably through peaceful means. Things however, took a different turn when as the fleet was staging a demonstration, some Turkish and Egyptian fleets refused to clear the way. The two sides exchanged fire which eventually led to a general battle. The event was regretted by the new British Prime Minister Wellington who had replaced Canning in 1828. The latter had died soon after the treaty of London. Greece won the war due to support she got from the three European powers.
  

  
  

  By the beginning of 1828, a provisional Greek government under Count Capodistrias, a Greek who had been one of Tsar Alexander’s leading ministers took charge. But it was not until after the Russo-Turkish war between 1828-29 and the subsequent treaty of Adrianople of 1829, that Greece became completely an independent kingdom in 1832.On the congress system, events on Greece clearly demonstrated its demise. Canning had thus single-handedly brought the first experiment at international cooperation to its knees. He is quoted saying after the congress of Verona thus “Things are getting back to a wholesome state again. Every nation for itself, and God for us all”.

  
  

  Many historians are thus agreed that the dung hit the fan on the congress system with the Greek Revolt in 1821 and the Spanish colonies issue. The latter saw Tsar Alexander’s of Russia call for a congress declined by Britain in 1824 and the other Great powers breaking from the congress in May 1825 on very bad terms and without any agreement. While on the former, attempts by the restored Spanish monarch’s to call a conference in 30 January, 1824, saw Canning flatly declining to send an English representative. This greatly surprised the other European powers. Britain was later to decline to attend another congress called by Russia as we have already observed.
  

  
  

  Achievements of the congress system

  
  

  Having survived for fifteen years, the congress had a mixed bag. It had successes and failures in equal measure. Some of its achievements were:

  
  

  • Bringing peace in Europe during the period it was in existence. No major European power fought with each other nor any major internal conflict was witnessed in any major power for a period of fourty years.

  
  

  • Defeat of the Great Napoleon and restoration of monarchy in France. They also reached an agreement on how to treat Napoleon on St. Helena.

  
  

  • Creation of stability in most European states at the time.

  
  

  • Promotion of a modicum of international cooperation among the Great powers for fourty years. It was thus a first experiment at international organization.

  
  

  • Granting of independence to Spanish and Portuguese’ colonies in the New World.

  
  

  • Conclusion of an agreement among the Great powers on the protection of Jews in Europe.

  
  

  • Reaching an agreement on Swedish debts to Denmark. This was done on the guidance of the system.

  
  

  • A settlement was reached on the old matter of the British claim to a channel salute.
  

  
  

  • Encouraging the idea of nationality and the independence of small states, especially those of European communities under Turkish rule like Greece.

  
  

  • Entrenchment of use of agreement to settle international affairs in European diplomacy. This was to lead to many important and fruitful conferences during the 19th Century. The congress system thus heralded a period of mutual confidence among the European leaders. This was aptly seen in the idea of personal conference the rulers pursued.

  
  

  Failures of the congress system

  
  

  The congress system, like all other attempts at international cooperation met with several failures. Some of these included:

  
  

  1. Differences of opinion among its key personalities

  
  

  Big differences in opinion among the key personalities rose from time to time during the congresses. Although these involved different issues, they were all the same, dangerous to the collectivity that is a boon to international diplomacy. From time to time, Castlereagh and later Canning found themselves at opposing sides with representatives of the other European powers especially Tsar Alexander and later Tsar Nicholas I of Russia, Metternich and the King of Prussia.The European powers thus disagreed on how to approach various issues that kept on cropping up that needed their united attention. Things were made worse by the personality differences of the key personalities in the congress system e.g. ,Canning harboured liberal sympathies yet all the others were despots who wanted the status quo maintained by all means.

  
  

  2. Failure to support nationalism

  
  

  Nationalistic feelings as shown during the French Revolution and Napoleonic period, were high in Europe. This meant that for stability to be maintained, countries hit by this “bug” had to be allowed to chart their course. This was, however, not in the mind of the Great powers with the exception of Britain. They thought they could suppress the nationalistic feelings and maintain the status quo. This was an uphill task. They were proved wrong. Nationalism, which got the support of Liberal Britain, coupled with the other powers vested interests, contributed in breaking up of the congress system. The congress system would have been in a better place if it gave credence to nationalism and liberalism.

  
  

  3. Dictatorship of the Great Powers

  
  

  Russia, France, Prussia, Austria and Britain at one time or another either individually or collectively dominated the congress system. This completely ignored the smaller powers. Consequently, they felt left out and did not actively play their role in the affairs of the congress system.

  
  

  4. Suspicions among the Great powers

  
  

  Although the Great powers displayed unity, there were deep seated suspicions among them. All the other three powers were wary of Russian intentions in the Balkans while at the initial stages of the congress system, the other powers were pre-occupied with the issue of containing France. The whole issue of the Spanish colonies was also partly driven by suspicion between Britain on the one hand and Spain and her allies on the other.

  
  

  5. Competing interests of the great powers

  
  

  The European powers had a genuine interest to produce a uniform policy but this was hampered by their diverse interests. Each power put her individual interest above that of the organization. This was to prove fatal to the congress system. Britain, for example, pursued its policy of isolation, she never wanted to be entangled in issues of continental Europe yet whenever her interests were threatened, she rushed to protect them. Russia greatly wanted to expand in the Balkans, something which was loathed by all the other Great Powers. Prussia also viewed Austria as a competitor in Germanic leadership. Each power thus had an individual interest she wanted to safeguard at the expense of the continental cause for unity.

  
  

  6. Failure of the congress system to capture European public opinion

  
  

  Unlike the League of Nations and even the United Nations later, the congress system failed to capture the sympathy of European public opinion. This was occasioned by its inability to represent the interests of the small powers in Europe and its pursuance, through its architects like Metternich and Tsar Alexander, of a despotic mission. The league’s constant urging intervention to quell popular revolts did not endear it to the masses.

  
  

  All these factors conspired to bring to an end the congress system. Britain, through its leaders – Castlereagh and later Canning, greatly contributed to the end of the system. Nonetheless, Britain was for liberalism while the other powers still pursued a tyrannical path. The two systems could not in any way pursue a common objective.

  
  

  Rise and fall of the Austrian Empire (1814-1833)

  
  

  Activity 8.6

  In groups of five, debate about the rise and fall of the Austrian eEmpire as well as Peter Metternich.Relate your findings with the reasons for the downfall of the Rwandan kingdom. Note down your findings and discuss them in class.

  
  

  Austria was a Germanic state under the Habsburt dynasty from 1687 when Emperor Leopold I managed to rout Turkey thus bringing Hungary to her fold. This saw the creation of the Austria-Hungary, a mighty empire in Europe. For many years, Austria acted as the defender of Germany against the French, and on the east the defender of Europe against the Turks. The Habsburg rulers made the empire to be a centre of Europe in many areas. They were devoted to music and attracted many musicians to Vienna, encouraged all the decorative arts and architecture thus making the city be a centre of a rich culture, blending East and West. The city was renowned for its music and light hearted charm.

  
  

  The Austro-Hungarian Empire was under the Habsburg rulers. The French Revolution and Napoleonic years found the empire under Francis I (1792-1835). Metternich replaced Johann Von Stadion in 1809 as the empire’s minister of foreign affairs, in 1809. The leadership of the duo was to witness the growing power of the empire in European diplomacy. This was the time that the Austro-Hungarian Empire came to be one of the Great powers in Europe. Although at first napoleon’s ally, Francis I was to later switch camp and join the other European powers to occasion Napoleon’s downfall in 1814. The monarch was to play host to the sovereigns of Europe in the congress of Vienna between September 1814 to June 1815. Under the presidency of Metternich, the congress as we have already observed, accomplished a great deal. This was to propel the country and Metternich, to prominence in Europe. Emperor Francis I was succeeded by Ferdinand I (1835-1848).

  
  

  The Austrian Empire as recognised by the treaty of Vienna in 1815 included: Austrian proper (made mainly of Germanic population), Bohemia and Moravia (inhabited chiefly by Czechs, Slovaks, and Germans), Hungary (mainly Magyar, with many minorities, notably Serb and Croat), Galicia (mostly Ruthenians and poles, acquired during the partitions of Poland), Transylvania (Romans of Latin origin), Illyria and Dalmatia (Serbs and Croats), and Lombardy and Venetia (Italians).

  
  

  Although the name of the empire was Austro-Hungarian, the latter people (Magyars) were not privileged. Austria dominated the political life of the empire.
  

  

  
  

  This empire was led autocratically by the king and prince Metternich. It was characterized with inefficiency and poor economic base. The king on matters internal, ruled single handedly. On the other hand, Metternich had a wide berth on foreign affairs. Aside from autocracy and poor economic base, the empire was based on the class system. Within the nobility itself, there were divisions. The upper nobility enjoyed privileges than the lesser nobility. This was a source of friction between the two groups. The middle class and the serfs equally disliked the discriminations which characterized the political life of the kingdom. Things for the middle class (Bourgeosie) was made worse by the inefficiency in economic and financial matters which kept the industry and trade of the empire backwards that of other European states. As if these poor situations were not enough, the empire slapped strict censorship to keep the people from liberal ideas. It also exercised strict religious intolerance. Catholicism was favoured. Yet other denominations such as the Greek Orthodoxy were pursued by sections in the empire e.g., by the Croats.

  
  

  Factors for the rise of the Austrian Empire

  
  

  The Austrian Empire rose in Europe due to several factors. The main ones were:

  
  

  1. Defeat of the Great Napoleon

  
  

  Austria played a vital role in the defeat of Napoleon in 1814. This was to propel her as one of the major powers in European diplomacy. She used the opportunity to exert a great influence over the affairs in post Napoleonic period in Europe.

  
  

  2. Rise of Metternich in the Austrian Govern-ment

  
  

  Metternich’s appointment as the foreign minister of the Austrian empire largely contributed to the rise of the empire. He held this position for more than a generation. In this time, he made several vital decisions e.g. he was the one who in 1809, successfully maneuvered Austria away from her temporary alliance with Napoleon and brought her in with the allies. It was also his skill in 1814 which inspired the manifesto of the Allies, Invading France, to the effect that their quarrel was with Napoleon, not the French people. Metternich was ashrewd and very measured individual. It was this that was to make Napoleon to later remark of him thus “I know Metternich, only he could have thought of that!” Napoleon observed this due to the Allies ability to paint the war between France and them, as an issue again Napoleon and not the French people. Metternich’s ability to accomplish tasks was not in doubt. This is clearly demonstrated in how his spirit was so active in the congress of Vienna and its aftermath. His diplomacy greatly led to what was known as the Final Act or summary of the arrangements. This Final Act of 121 articles, took twenty-six secretaries all day to write out a single copy/ we should not forget that it was also Metternich and Castlereagh who inspired the congress movement – the movement to establish the concert of Europe.

  
  

  3. The congress system

  
  

  The concert of Europe too greatly contributed to the rise of the Austrian Empire. It made her take a major seat in European diplomacy. The congress also legitimized dictatorship seen in its lending support to monarchism and the subjugation of the smaller nationalities. These two, were the pillars upon which the empire survived on.

  
  

  4. Existence of remarkable rulers

  
  

  Austria was ruled by the royal house of the Habsburg from the 15th Century. This made her a dynastic state which extended, through marriage, hegemony to Spain, the Netherland and Italy. The Habsburgs became a pivotal power in European affairs for long. Francis I, like other rulers of Austria earlier, put in place measures that were instrumental in maintaining stability and expanding the empire. This was clearly noticeable during the concert of Europe. In the congress, Austria for example in the Vienna congress, regained many of its old territories, including Salzburg and most of Galicia. The rulers made Austria a centre of music thus making many great musicians from Europe to round it with spleandour and magnificence. Architecture and all the decorative arts flourished under the Habsburgs. The rulers used both force, and diplomacy to extend the empire e.g., in the treaty of Karlowitz (1699) she acquired all of Hungary except the Banat of Temesvar.
  

  
  

  5. Central position in Europe

  
  

  Most of the empire was located in central Europe. This made it to have an advantage over other European states. For many years this made her be the defender of Germany against the French in the west. On the other hand, looking east, it was the defender of Europe against the Turks. Eventually Austria, drove back the Turks from east Central Europe. This expansion added many other ethnicities such as the Slavic groups, Italians and to her large Germanic population Magyars.The central position and the leadership lending support to the arts, made Vienna, the empire’s capital, to become the centre of a rich culture, blending East and West. The city was renowned for its music and light-hearted charm.

  
  

  6. Support from other Germanic states

  
  

  Upto 1870, Austria was the dominant defender of German interests. She enjoyed for long the support of other states in the German confederation. Prussia was the only Germanic state which rivalred her in the position. But even her, whenever Austria was in conflict with non-Germanic powers, she came to her assistance e.g. in 1683, when a Turkish force which was supporting Hungarians, threatened to take Vienna, Austria got the support of the Germans and polish armies thus defeating the Turks.These factors were to lead to the rise of the Austrian empire upto the 19thCentury when it began to decline. On its part, as Austria was declining, Prussia was gaining hegemony over the rest of Germany. Other factors equally conspired against the empire.

  
  

  Factors for the fall of the Austrian Empire

  
  

  Several factors were responsible for the fall of the Austrian empire in the 19thCentury. The main ones included:

  
  

  1. Rise of nationalism and liberalism

  
  

  The Austrian empire as we have already observed, was made up of different nationalities. The rulers did not entertain any nationalistic feelings rising in the subjugated groups. But as we saw with the Napoleonic wars, nationalistic feelings could not be hidden under the carpet for long.From the 1820s, various groups began to agitate for independence. The Germans also were now for unity. They saw this in Prussian leadership. The high tide of nationalism among the Germans, Italians, Magyars and the Slavish groups were to majorly contribute to the fall of the empire. Apart from the empire having thirteen nationalities, it was also being pulled down by many religions that were held by its citizens. Liberal ideas also reigned supreme among the Austrian’s themselves and the nationalities under their control.

  
  

  2. Class differences in the society

  
  

  The society was divided into three classes. Those classes which felt unrepresented were always yearning for the day they would also enjoy the privilege, witnessed in the nobility. The latter was equally divided between the upper and lesser nobility.There were thus divisions among the population. This weakened the empire. It made liberalism to rise while at the same time, the Austrians could not forge the course of the empire in unity. This was partly the reason which made Hungary, the junior partner in the empire to want to cede. She managed to achieve this through the leadership of Louis Kossuth who led the Hungarian Liberalism. Kossuth represented not only Magyar nationalism, but was also the voice of the downtrodden in the Magyar community, especially the middle class and peasants.

  
  

  3. Rise of the revolutionary tide in Europe

  
  

  Attempts by the Austrian empire to restrict the spread of liberalism in the citizenry did not succeed. University students and professors managed to get liberal literature and ideas from other states in Europe. This made them found liberal movements in their campuses. When they heard of the news of revolutionary tide in other European countries, especially in 1848, they equally organized themselves and rebelled against autocracy.

  
  

  Later, the students were joined by workers who were under socialist influence. They demonstrated in the suburbs against their employers. The violence and anarchy that rocked Vienna made the emperor and his family alongside his principal political supporters to leave Vienna for Innsbruck in May 1848. Later events were to take a negative turn for the monarchy.

  
  

  4. Rise of Prussia

  
  

  The rise of Prussia as the protector of Germanic interests was partly to lead to the decline of the Austrian Empire. Prussia, in the 18th Century gained hegemony over the rest of Germany. She was thus a threat to Austria which equally had a substantial Germanic population. Later (1866) she was to defeat Austria and majorly contribute to her decline. Prussia after the Austro-Prussian war (known also as the Seven Weeks’ War) took the Germanic territories and also gave Italy the Italian territories that had formed the Austrian empire.

  
  

  5. Weakness of Emperor Ferdinand I

  
  

  After the death of Francis I the throne was taken over by his son Ferdinand I (1835-1848). The new monarch was weak and indecisive. Besides, he was an epileptic with an impaired mind. This made it necessary for the key political figures to try cushion the limitations of the monarch. Consequently, a state conference was established. It brought together Arch-duke Louis, Prince Metternich, and Count Kolowrat to manage the affairs of government. Unfortunately, personality differences could not allow the trio to be effective. Metternich and Kolowrat did not see eye to eye. They were great rivals, and partly out of fear of each other, made no effective decisions at the hour of need, most of the time, the king, ignored Metternich’s advice while Metternich on his part, was embroiled in personality wars with Kolowrat.

  
  

  Under Ferdinand thus, Austria fared poorly. The church became powerful and controlled the curriculum in schools. The schools were to be turned into institutions, producing God-fearing, obedient subjects. The Monarch also legalized bodies which had been banned e.g., the Jesuits was allowed back to operate in 1824 yet they had been banned in 1783.

  
  

  Emperor Ferdinand was forced to abdicate on 2 December 1848, he was succeeded by his nephew Francis Joseph, then a youth of 18 years. Joseph ruled Austria from 1848-1916. Metternich, the bad boy of autocracy and monarchy, had been forced to resign on 13 March 1848. He fled to England. The empire started to decline slowly.

  
  

  6. Poor financial state

  
  

  Unlike other empires, the Austrian one was less endowed with a good economic base. It constantly experienced financial problems. Her involvement in numerous wars and suppression of internal revolts further complicated the situation. These proved to be a serious drain on her economy e.g., the war with Italy in 1859 which she lost, did not only see her being routed but also forced her to release Lombardy. It also forced her to acquiesce in the unification of Italy. Although she retained Venetia, she was no longer the dominant power in the Peninsula. The defeat equally exposed her to chronic financial troubles forcing her to chronic financial troubles forcing her to even succumb to demands for constitutional reforms. Later, the unification of Germany in 1870 was further to bring her more financial and political troubles. Infact even when Napoleon as an envoy to France negotiated for the lifting of the 1,500,000 soldiers limit that France had placed on the Austrian army the empire couldn’t because of finance.

  
  

  Back to the 1840s period, Italians were proving to be a thorn in the flesh of the Austrian empire in March 1848, they drove Austrians from Venice and Milan. The empire appeared now to be a sharp decline. Some of the nationalities in the empire such as the Czechs were rebelling in Prague, the capital of Bohemia. The Magyars of Hungary equally pressurized to obtain their independence while the Germans, were eager to join their brethren in forming a United Germanic state under Prussia. All these forces were to lead to the fall of the empire

  
  

  Rise and fall of Prince Klemens von Metternich (1773-1859)

  
  

  Early life

  
  

  Prince Klemens Wenzel Von Metternich was born on 15 May 1773. His father, Franz Georg Karl Graf Von Metternich-Winneburg was a diplomat. The parents were keen on their son’s education. His mother was called Countess Beatrix Kagenegg. They took him to some of the best learning institutions. Upon finishing his elementary education, he joined the universities of Strasbourg and Mainz for his higher education.
  

  
  

  After higher education, he took a keen interest in politics. He was to play an active role during the coronation of Francis II in 1792 and that of his predecessor, Leopold II, in 1790. These brought him to political limelight. He went for a brief trip to England and when he returned, he was named the Austrian Ambassador to the Netherlands. Later he was to serve in the same position in the kingdom of Saxony, Prussia and France.

  
  

  Metternich was a family man. His first wife was Eleonore Von Kaunitz (1792), Antoinette Leykam (1827) and later countess Melanie Zichy-Ferraris (1831). However, although Metternich married each of these women after the death of the one before them, he was not a strict family man. He had numerous affairs with other women. Metternich was also a diplomat. He served in various positions as Foreign minister (1809) and Chancellor (1821 until his fall in 1848).

  
  

  Metternich was a conservative who was keen on maintaining the balance of power in Europe. He was for monarchy but was wary of Russian expansion in central Europe. He disliked liberalism at home and abroad. He worked tirelessly to prevent the outbreak of the Austrian empire. The prince ruthlessly crushed nationalist revolts in the empire. At home, he had a strong network of spies and executed strict censorship.

  
  

  Factors for Metternich’s rise to power

  
  

  There were several factors which he led to Metternich’s rise to power. Some of the main ones included:
  

  
  

  1. His personality

  
  

  Metternich was friendly and calculating. He made very many friends in Austria and outside the empire. His diplomatic skills greatly contributed to this. For example, Upon assuming office, he used his diplomatic skills to negotiate for a defense with France that included the marriage of Napoleon to the Austrian archduchess Marie Louise. But when the tide was against Napoleon, he quickly allied with the forces against the French ruler and joined the war of the sixth coalition which brought the latter to his knees.The prince was also very courageous. This was evident he had openly argued with the great Napoleon at the latter’s 39th birthday celebrations in August 1808 over the increasingly obvious preparations for war on both sides. Napoleon was to later deny him attendance at the congress of Erfurt.

  
  

  2. The fall of the Great Napoleon

  
  

  The fall of the Great Napoleon catapulted Metternich to political limelight. He became a key statesman in the congress of Vienna. Metternich overshadowed his emperor and literally led Austria in the negotiations. He managed to win for his empire a lot of concessions.His dislike for liberalism endeared him to the monarchs of Europe at the time. Most of the rulers were against any repeat of what had happened in France from 1789-1815. They got in Metternich, an individual who could go out of his way to prevent any liberalism in his country and beyond.,

  
  

  3. His closeness to Emperor Francis I

  
  

  Metternich’s closeness to Emperor Francis I, was another factor which made him to rise to prominence. The emperor trusted his diplomatic and political abilities hence left him most of the time to lead the empires’ diplomatic onslaught. This made Metternich to develop a good relationship not only with the European rulers, but also the key diplomats. He was respected in his diplomatic interactions and easily won the other powers to the side of Austria.

  
  

  4. Resignation of Stadion as the foreign minister
  

  
  

  When Austria lost to France in 1809 led to the resignation of Stadion, the foreign minister. The emperor quickly replaced Stadion with Metternich. As a foreign minister, Metternich had an advantage over his rivals.

  
  

  Significance of Metternich in European political affairs

  
  

  (a) Stamping out revolutionary ideas

  
  

  Metternich considered any social equality and political liberty would be a destruction of the privileges of his own class. He adopted political repression against the spread of revolutionary ideas. He passed the Carlsbad Decrees in 1819 after the killing of a reactionary journalist Kotzebue and the the Six Articles in 1832 after the outbreak of the 1830 Revolution.
  

  
  

  These were applied in germany and Austria. After all, there was no freedom of press, speech and association. Universities were strictly supervised and above all, Austria became a police state.Although Metternich tried hard to stop the spread of revolutionary ideas in Europe, the outbreak of revolutions could not be prevented. He applied the method armed intervention, which was declared in the Troppau Protocol in the Congress of Troppau, 1820, in the suppression of any revolution happening in Europe. Based on this policy, Metternich crushed revolutionary movements in Naples and Piedmont in the 1820s and managed to put down revolts in the Three Duchies and Papal States in 1830. He also gave support to other powers in suppressing revolutions. For instance, in the Congress of Verona, 1822, he gave support to France in suppressing the Spanish revolt.

  
  

  However, 1848 was the year to demonstrate the force of nationalism and liberalism and Metternich fell from power that year.Even though Metternich’s policy of stamping out revolutionary ideas could not end in the complete disappearance of revolutions in Europe, at least, the growth of revolutionary ideas had been checked. In addition to this, his urging for the holding of international congresses also helped to ensure general European peace.

  
  

  b) Ensuring general European peace

  
  

  After the Battle of Waterloo and the defeat of Napoleon, Metternich decided that the restored monarch must cooperate. He constituted some mercenaries to take action in that. So he supported the device of periodic congresses, at which the governments of the major powers could agree to a settlement of all disputes that might endanger the peace of Europe. The contention of Metternich was that internal and international affairs were inseparable. In giving the European Alliance its anti-revolutionary, anti-liberal character, Metternich had a very clear sense of serving first of all the interests of Austria, the power most vulnerable to popular attack. So, Metternich was very eager to serve as the host in the Congress of Troppau, 1820 and the Congress of Laibach, 1821 after the Congress of Vienna,1814-15. In fact, the holding of congresses facilitated her implementation of the policy of armed intervention.

  
  

  c) Preventing the upheaval of France

  
  

  To maintain the supremacy of the Austrian Empire and to ensure the European peace, Metternich helped in preventing the upheaval of France. In the Vienna Settlement, barrier states were erected around France so that all states on French frontiers would be strong enough to hold up any recurrence of French aggression long enough for the powers to mobilise their forces. In the 1830s, the danger of France appeared again during the Mehemet Ali Crises. France promised help to Mehemet Ali in order to extend French trade in the Near East. In 1839, a conference was called in London at which Austria together with Britain, Russia and Prussia decided to limit the power of Mehemet. Therefore, the cooperation of the European powers and their threats made France withdraw its support to Mehemet and her aggression in the Near East was checked.

  
  

  d) Checking Russian ambition

  
  

  To check Russian ambition in Europe was another means used by Metternich to maintain the supremacy of the Austrian Empire. In the Congress of Vienna, Russia was prevented from acquiring the whole of Poland. In the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle of 1818, Metternich opposed to the Russian proposal of sending a collective expedition to crush revolts in the Spanish colonies in South America. This would bring the danger of Russian troops across the European colonies. Metternich was also not determined to see Russia dominating in the Balkans because Russia had greatly expanded her influence there during the Greek War of Independence and the Mehemet Ali Crises. Therefore, Metternich intervened with other powers in checking the Russian expansion into the Balkans. In the Straits Convention of 1841, the powers agreed that the Dardanelles was to be closed to the ships of all the nations including Russia during wartime. Therefore, it destroyed the Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi of 1833 which gave exclusive right for Russia to use the Dardanelles during war time; and the Russian expansion into the Balkans was thus checked.

  
  

  e) Imposing firmer grip over Germany

  
  

  Being the President of the German Confederation, Austria, under the leadership of Metternich, imposed firmer grip over the German confederation after 1815 as it was the head of the German Confederation. Metternich secured the presidency of the German Confederation for Austria in 1815. This position was of decisive importance for the president decided upon the business to be discussed and the procedure to be adopted. Leadership of Austria was gradually challenged by Prussia in the German Confederation. Metternich was still competent in maintaining the supremacy of Austria in the German Confederation before his resignation in 1848.

  
  

  Causes and consequences of the 1830 European Revolution

  
  

  Activity 8.7

  Work in groups of four. Using the Internet, History textbooks and other historical materials;

  
  

  1. Find out the causes and consequences of 1830 European Revolutions.

  2. Outline the achievemnt of the revolutions.

  3. Write down your findings and present them in a class discussion

  
  

  The 1830 European revolutions began in France. The French city at the time was riddled with divisions brought by liberalism vs conservatism. Upon being restoted to power, Louis XVII had introduced several reforms in issuing a new constitution, the charter of French liberties. But upon his death, his younger brother Charles X who took over power, rejected the idea of the charter. He suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote and restricted the press. The people responded swiftly by erecting barricades across the narrow streets of Paris. As they did this, they attacked the soldiers and within a few days, they took control of the town. The revolutionary tricolor flew from the towers of Notre Dame Cathedral. All these, frightened the king to abdicate and flee to England. Once more, revolutionaries had overthrown a monarchy. Radicals among them wanted to set up a republic while moderate liberals were for a constitutional monarchy. The latter carried the day. Deputies of the lower House of the French legislature, chose Louis Philippe, a cousin to Charles X, as the new king. Philippe was a supporter of the revolutionary cause. The French called him “The Citizen King” because he owed his position to the people.

  
  

  Events in France ignited revolutions in other parts of Europe. A notable one was in Belgium. She broke out on 25th August 1830 after the performance of a nationalistic opera. The Belgians resented their union with the Dutch which had been brought by the Vienna congress.

  
  

  Belgium

  Belgians dominated by the latter hence they nursed feelings of independence. So when they had of the successful revolution in France; they also took to the streets. It began with students and workers putting barricades in Brussels, the Belgian capital. The Dutch king sought help from fellow monarchs in other countries. Unfortunately, France and Britain supported the Belgians and asked the Dutch king to grant them independence. This was achieved on 4 October, 1831, when Belgium became an independent state with a liberal constitution. A government was formed under Charles Rogier. In December 1831, at the conference of London, the international community recognised the independence of Belgium and guaranteed its neutrality. The Dutch, however, only accepted the terms of the conference in 18 39.

  
  

  Poland

  Nationalism also saw revolutions occur in Poland in the 1830s. they staged an uprising in 1830. They were against being under Russia, Prussia and Austria. The poles wanted their independence in as a single nation and not what the congress of Vienna settlement. So come 1830, Polish students, army officers, and landowners rose in revolt. Unfortunately, they failed to get a lot of support. They were brutally crushed by Russian forces thus forcing survivors to flee to western Europe and the USA. In these countries, although their attempts at getting their independence had crumbled, they kept alive the dream of freedom.

  
  

  Switzerland

  Switzerland was another country which was also rocked by the revolution. Peasants demanded more political say in governance. They thus wanted amendments to be made in the constitution and more representation in the local legislatures (Canons). The peasants held assemblies in various cantons to push for their in peaceful means. They held peaceful protests which eventually forced the Cantonal governments to give in. As a result, the constitutions of the assemblies were amended to expand political space for the peasants and others who had been left out.

  
  

  Italy

  The revolution was also felt in Italy. All along Italians had yearned for a united state. They saw this coming in the 1830s revolution. The Duke of Modena, Francis I, was driven by ambition to provide explicit verbal support to anti-Italian revolutionaries in different parts of Europe. The revolutionaries, however, got the support from the new French king Louis Philippe. This revolutionary fervouer saw rebellions in Modena, Bologna, Forli, Ravenna, Imola, Ferrara, Pesaro and Urbino. In all these areas, the revolution was successful.
  

  
  

  The revolutionaries replaced the Papal flag with the tricolor one except in Modena where it failed courtesy of assistance from Austria. The revolution was also successful in the Dutchy of Pama. All these Italiane Unite (United Italian provinces). They tactly got support from France under Loius Philippe. Unfortunately, Pope Gregory XVI sought for Austrian help against the revolutions. Cowed, the French monarch could not come to their assistance.Philippe was told by Austrian, that, it would not accept the successful revolutions in the Italian states and that French intervention would not be tolerated. France could now not provide the much-needed military assistance to the revolutionaries. She even did the unexpected, she arrested Italian revolutionaries residing in her soil. The Austrian army thus managed to crush revolutions in the Italian states in 1831. Many radicals were consequently arrested as the popes authority in the Papal states was restored.

  
  

  Portugal

  The 1830s revolutions were also felt in Portugal and Brazil. In the latter, the revolutionaries managed to overthrow Emperor Pedro I from power in their country. Germanic states also experienced a wave of the revolution. However, they failed in the states under the German Confederation.

                                     

  In sum, the 1830s revolution presented a mixed bag. Some were successful while in other areas, the forces of conservatism, still strong as earlier, led to their collapse. Nonetheless the currents of nationalism and liberalism had only been forced underground. They were still strong. This was to be confirmed by the events of 1848 which saw Europe engulfed once more, in a serious wave of revolutions.

  
  

  Unit summary

  
  

  This unit studies the major European events that occurred between 1789 and 1835. The first major European event in the period 1789 – 1835 was the French Revolution which happened in 1789.

  
  

  The French Revolution was the greatest revolution that has ever been experienced in the history of humanity. Increased unemployment caused people move to towns such as Paris with the hope of getting jobs and better living conditions. Due to idleness and desperation, these people supported the French Revolution movement and caused chaos.As a result of the French Revolution, many people especially those who were marching on the streets, lost their lives.The French Revolution and the war the country waged against other powers instilled a strong sense of nationalism in the French people.

  
  

  They developed a strong sense of identity with their country.Napoleon Bonaparte’s military genius enabled him to lead the French army to military success against the foreign armies.The French Revolution of 1830 sparked subsequent revolutions in other European countries such as in Belgium, Portugal, Poland, Italy and Switzerland.
  

  
  

  The Congress System/ the Concert of Europe was a period in which the European powers come up with an effort to produce a unified policy on issues that confronted them at the time. It brought the main European powers together.The main achievement of the Congress System was bringing peace in Europe. There were no major conflicts between the European powers for a period of forty years.

  
  

  Unit assessment

  
  

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to evaluate and make judgements on the major events that took place in Europe and France in particular between 1879 and 1835, their causes, course and effects.

  
  

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. (a) What do you understand by ‘Enlightenment Period’?
  

      (b) Describe the events that took place during this period in Europe.

  
  

  2. (a) List at least ten causes of the French Revolution
  

      (b) Describe the course of the French Revolution.

  
  

  3. Discuss the factors that contributed to the march of women in Versailles.

  
  

  4. Discuss at least ten consequences of the French Revolution.

  
  

  5. (a) Who is Napoleon (I) Bonaparte?
  

      (b) What factors led to the rise of Napoleon (I) Bonaparte in Italy ?
  

      (c) Explain what led to the downfall of Napoleon (I) Bonaparte.

  
  

  6. (a) Describe the Congress System of 1814-1825.

      (b) Discuss the form of the Congress System.

      (c) Which factors led to the failure of the Congress System?

  
  

  7. (a) Evaluate the factors that contributed to the rise of the Austrian Empire.
  

      (b) What roles did Emperor Francis (I) play in the rise and growth of the Austrian Empire?

      (c) Explain the factors that contributed to the downfall of the Austrian Empire.

  
  

  8. (a) Describe the reign of Peter Metternich in the Austrian government from 1809.
  

      (b) How did the Congress System in Europe contribute to the rise of the Austrian Empire?

  
  

  9. Describe the causes and consequences of the 1830 European Revolution.
  

  
  

  
  
• Unit 9: Human rights codification and its impact

  Topic area: CITIZENSHIP

  
  

  Sub-topic area: Human rights, duties and obligations
  

  
  

  Key unit competence

  Explain how human rights have been codified since World War II and the impact this has had in Rwanda and other countries.
  

  
  

  Human rights

  
  

  Activity 9.1
  

  1. Referring to the previous knowledge you learnt in Senior 1, define human rights.

  2.In groups of five, check on the Internet or visit the library and look for books with relevant information about codification of human rights all over the world since World War II.

  3.Get a copy of the Constitution of Rwanda and analyse the articles that touch on human rights. Explain how the constitution respects human rights.
  

  
  

  These are basic legal entitlements that justifiably belong to every person. Human rights are essential to all human beings no matter their status. Every person should enjoy their rights without discrimination.Human rights have been in existence since the time of Greek and Roman empires. The first written document on human rights was written in England.

  
  

  It was called Magna Carta or the Great Charter (1217) which announced some guarantees against the arbitrariness of the crown.The declaration of American independence on 4 July 1776, coincided with the proclamation that Human Rights be respected by the political powers. The declaration of rights of man in France in August 1789 and the claim for freedom during the 19thand 20th Centuries broadened the field for human rights.
  

  How human rights have been codified since the World War II

  
  

  The tragedies caused by World War II created consciousness about human rights in people. From that time they started respecting human rights. This consciousness resulted in the creation of United Nations Organisation (UNO) to replace the League of Nations (LON) in maintaining peace and security all over the world. The UN Charter was signed on 26 June, 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organisation, and came into force on 24th October,1945.The UN charter declared the people’s trust for fundamental human rights, their dignity, values and the equality of men and women as well as the nations. For this purpose there are a number of international, regional and national instruments for human rights protection.

  
  

  International human rights codifications

  International instruments for human rights promotion and protection include the following:

  1. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) of 10th December 1948

  UDHR was adopted and proclaimed by United Nations General Assembly resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948. It is made up of an introduction and 30 articles stating the essential human rights and essential freedoms that cover all men and women including the societies they live in, all over the world, without any discrimination.

  The UN General Assembly called upon all member countries to publicise the text of the Declaration and ‘to cause it to be disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in schools and other educational institution, without distinction based on the political status of countries or territories.’

  2. The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights of 16th December 1966

  The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights was adopted by the UN General Assembly Resolution 2200 A (XXI) of 16th December 1966.

  It entered into force on 23rd March 1976 in accordance with article 49.It recommends the ideals of free human beings enjoying civil and political freedom in accordance with the universal declaration of human rights.

  The implementation of the covenant on civil and political rights is entrusted to the human rights committee.

  3. The International Covenant on the Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 16 th December 1966

  The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights was adopted by UN General Assembly Resolution 2200 A (XXI) of 16th December 1966. It was enforced on 3rd January 1976 in accordance with article 29.

  It recognises that the ideal of free human beings enjoying freedom from fear and want can only be achieved if the conditions are created whereby anyone may enjoy his economic social and cultural rights as well as his civil and political rights.

  4. The International Convention for Eliminating all forms of Racial Dis-crimination, 1965

  The International Convention for Eliminating all forms of Racial Discrimination was adopted and opened for signature and ratification by UN General Assembly resolution 2106 (XX) of 21st December 1965. It entered into force on 4th January 1969, in accordance with Article 19.Article 1 of the Convention defines racial discrimination as any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.Article 2.1(c) provides that each State shall take effective measures to review governmental, national and local policies, and to amend, rescind or nullify any laws and regulations which have the effect of creating or perpetuating racial discrimination wherever it exists.

  5. Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) of 18 December 1979

  On 18 December 1979, the Convention on the elimination of all forms of Discrimination against women was adopted by the UN General Assembly. It entered into force as an international treaty on 3September 1981.The Convention was the culmination of more than thirty years of work by the UN Commission on the status of women, a body established in 1946 to monitor the situation of women and to promote women’s rights. The Commission’s work has been instrumental to light all the areas in which women are denied equality with men.

  These efforts for the advancement of women have resulted in several declarations and conventions, of which the Convention on the Elimination of all forms of discrimination against women is the central and most comprehensive document.The spirit of this Convention is rooted in the goals of the UN to reaffirm faith in fundamental Human Rights. The convention focuses on the equal rights of men and women. The document spells out the meaning of equality and how it can be achieved. In so doing, the Convention establishes not only an international bill of rights for women, but also an agenda for action by countries to guarantee the enjoyment of those rights.

  6. Convention of the United Nations of the Children Rights 1989

  The Convention on Child Rights was voted for by the United Nations on 20th November 1989. It came into force in September 1990.The convention of children’s rights focuses on four great principles. It requires that all member states of the convention must ensure that all the children who belong to their jurisdiction enjoy all their rights fully.

  Regional instruments for human rights promotion and protection

  These are elaborated at the regional level. They include:

  The American Convention of the Human Rights

  This convention is also known as the Pact of San Jose. It was adopted at San Jose, Costa Rica on 22nd November 1969. The bodies entrusted with its oversight are:

  i) Inter-American Commission on Human Rights

  ii) Inter-American Court of Human Rights

  The purpose of this convention is to consolidate a system of personal liberty and social justice based on respect for the essential human rights. This is ensured through the framework of democratic institutions.

  The European Convention of the Human Rights

  It was formerly known as Convention for the Prevention of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. It was formed in 1950 by the Council of Europe. It was enforced on 3rd September 1953. The European Court for Human Rights was established by this convention. People who feel their rights have been violated by any state party can sue the party involved to this court.

  The African Charter of the Human Rights and People’s Rights, (1981)

  It was also known as the Banjul Charter. It is an African outfit that is intended to promote and promote human rights and freedoms of people in the African continent. It was named the Banjul Charter because the final draft was adopted in Banjul; the capital of Gambia.

  A protocol of this charter was used to create African Court on Human People’s Rights. This charter was formed in 1981 and came into force on 21st October 1986: such instruments are interlinked with UNO charter of 1945

  National instruments for human rights promotion and protection

  These are elaborated at the national level. They include:

  • The Constitution

  • Various codes and laws

  • National mechanisms

  • The government institutions

  • The Non-Governmental Organisations

  How the Rwandan Constitution respects human rights

  
  

  Activity 9.2

  In pairs, use relevant materials including the constitution of Rwanda to get information about human rights codification. Thereafter, prepare an essay to be discussed in class.

  The Rwandan Constitution promotes Human Rights in the following ways:

  • In the ninth paragraph of its preamble, the Rwandan Constitution of 4th June 2003 reaffirms its commitment to the principles of human rights as they are defined in the international instruments for human rights promotion.

  • It provides for Fundamental Human Rights and the Rights and Duties of the Citizens. All Articles under this title commit to protecting human rights. The constitution of Rwanda guarantees the citizens their rights and freedoms. Article 10 describes human (persons) beings as sacred and inviolable.

  • Article 170 under National Defence and Security gives the Rwanda National Police the mandate of safeguarding the fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitution and the law.

  • Article 177 provides for The National Commission for Human Rights as an independent institution. It is mandated with:

  (1) Educating and mobilising the population on matters relating to human rights.

  (2) Examining the violations of human rights committed on Rwandan territory by state organs, public officials using their duties as cover, by organisations and by individuals.

  (3) Carrying out investigations of human rights abuses in Rwanda and filing complaints in respect thereof with the competent courts.

  (4) Preparing and disseminating annual and other reports as may be necessary on the situation of human rights in Rwanda.

  Implications of human rights in Rwanda

  • Increased equal opportunities for men and women in the sociopolitical structure of our country.

  • Respect and dignity for people with disabilities and those living with HIV and AIDS.

  • They have promoted recognition of rights of children; basic needs and access to basic education in our country.

  • Observance of human rights have attracted foreigners to invest in our country and promoting bilateral relations with other countries.

  
  

  Unit summary

  This unit deals with the codification of human rights internationally. The tragedies caused by World War II created consciousness about human rights in people.The Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 10th, December, 1948 states that the essential human rights and essential freedoms cover all men and women including the societies they live in, all over the world, without any discrimination.The constitution of Rwanda guarantees the citizens their rights and freedoms. Article 10 of the constitution describes human beings as sacred and inviolable.Observance of human rights has attracted foreigners to invest in Rwanda and has thus promoted bilateral relations with other countries.

  Unit assessment

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to explain how human rights have been codified since World War II and the impact this has had in Rwanda and other countries.

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. What are human rights?

  2. Discuss the international human rights codifications that have come up after World War II.

  3. List the human rights codifications of post-World War II and the regions where they are found.

  4. Discuss how the Constitution of Rwanda shows respect for human rights.

• Unit 10: National cohesion, identities and respect of human rights

  Topic area: SOCIETY

  
  

  Sub-topic area: Conflict transformation
  

  
  

  Key unit competence

  Survey the factors affecting the national cohesion, identities in terms of culture, history and economical activities and respect of human rights.
  

  
  

  Introduction

  
  

  Cohesion means coming together to form a united whole. It is achieved when individual or different elements stick together to form one whole unit.Identity is the quality that makes a person or a group of people different from others.

  
  

  They are the distinctive characteristics that distinguish an individual or a certain group of people and differentiate them from another group. People of the same identity are known for these characteristics
  

  
  

  National cohesion

  
  

  Activity 10.1

  In pairs, discuss and come up with an analysis of how national cohesion, identity and culture have influenced the respect for human rights in Rwanda. Later discuss the findings with your teacher in class and make sure you ask questions to under-stand the concept clearly.
  

  
  

  This is unity of people in a nation. National cohesion refers to a unified society that is composed of people from different backgrounds who have come together to achieve one common objective. National cohesion thrives when there is love and peace in the society.National cohesion is a made up of positive relations which link citizens of the same nation and compel them to respect each other and share the same country while observing the same rights.

  
  

  People’s sense of belonging to a particular nation strengthens national cohesion. It entitles one to human rights and at the same time demands that the citizen fulfills certain obligations such as living together harmoniously and participating in social activities.

  
  

  Certain factors that obstruct or kill national cohesion are such as ethnic hatred or discrimination, social divisions, religious conflicts, political divisions, racism and failure to embrace cultural diversity among others.

  
  

  National identity

  
  

  National identity is a person’s sense of belonging to the nation that is their country. This sense is shared with other people who belong to the same country. People come together as a whole regardless of their various cultures, traditions, language and politics.

  
  

  National symbols create a sense of national identity. They include the national flag, national anthem, national emblem and national identification card.

  
  

  Sing our national anthem below.

  
  

  The Rwandan National Anthem

  
  

  Rwanda nziza Gihugu cyacuWuje imisozi, ibiyaga n’ibirungaNgobyi iduhetse gahorane ishya.Reka tukurate tukuvuge ibigwiWowe utubumbiye hamwe tweseAbanyarwanda uko watubyayeBerwa, sugira, singizwa iteka.

  
  

  Horana Imana, murage mwizaIbyo tugukesha ntibishyikirwa;Umuco dusangiye uraturangaUrurimi rwacu rukaduhuzaUbwenge, umutima,amaboko yacuNibigukungahaze bikwiyeNuko utere imbere ubutitsa.

  
  

  Abakurambere b’intwariBitanze batizigamaBaraguhanga uvamo ubukombeUtsinda ubukoroni na mpatsibihugu Byayogoje Afurika yoseNone uraganje mu bwigengeTubukomeyeho uko turi twese.

  
  

  Komeza imihigo Rwanda dukundaDuhagurukiye kukwitangiraNgo amahoro asabe mu bagutuyeWishyire wizane muri byoseUrangwe n’ishyaka, utere imbereUhamye umubano n’amahanga yoseMaze ijabo ryawe riguhe ijambo.
  

  
  

  Culture

  Culture is the characteristic and the way of living of a particular group of people that distinguishes them from another group. It comprises customs, beliefs, language, material objects such as houses and clothing, religion and art among many others. As Rwandans, we have activities that our national culture ; ie the umuganda the monthly day of participation in public service

  Factors that promote national cohesion, culture and identity

  
  

  Activity 10.2

  Form groups of five and research on factors that promote national cohesion and identity. Write a group essay based on your findings and present it to your teacher for marking.

  • Peace is an important factor for national cohesion and identity. Peace thrives when people choose to embrace each other and live together despite their differences. When there is no peace, dialogue can be used to restore it.

  • Justice. This means maintaining the administration of law. Nobody is above the law in the presence of justice. Everybody respects the fundamental rights of fellow citizens.

  • Good governance. It is a process of making and implementing decisions. This promotes cohesion and identity when citizens are allowed to participate and contribute in the decision-making process and their views put into consideration.

  • Equality and fairness. This involves treating all people equally and being fair while rewarding them. All people should be treated fairly based on merit and competence in education, employment and in distribution of national resources.

  • Gender equality with the aim of giving women and men the same rights in the economic, social and political domains.

  • National symbols such as the national flag, national anthem, national emblem and national motto.

  • The national language

  • National territory marked by national boarders

  • Values of the national culture

  • Existence of national institutions for unity and reconciliation, for example, National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC). This commission was created in March 2009 and mandated to promote unity and reconciliation among Rwandans in the aftermath of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

  How national cohesion, identity and culture have influenced the respect of human rights

  
  

  Activity 10.3

  In groups of five;

  1. Find out how the national cohesion, identity and culture have influenced the respect of human rights in the Rwandan constitution.

  2. Write down your points.

  3. Present them in a class discussion.

  • They influence the sense of fairness and inclusion in a society. This brings respect for Human Rights.

  • National cohesion, identity and culture discourage discrimination in the society. When there is national cohesion, diverse aspects such as gender, ethnicity, culture and religion among others are brought together and exist without exclusion. This ensures respect for human rights.

  • National cohesion and identity bring respect for national laws and institutions. These laws and institutions value and uphold human rights, therefore, people observe them. These laws are such as the constitution and institutions such as law courts and National Unity and Reconciliation Commission of Rwanda NURC).

  • Respect for cultural diversity brings people together and they embrace each other regardless of their various cultures. People respect each other’s rights and this prevents conflicts.

  • National cohesion, identity and culture breed peace. When there is peace, people live in harmony respecting each other’s rights. Peaceful people value human dignity even in conflicts.

  • Citizens are encouraged to express their thoughts and opinions freely. All of these are put into consideration while formulating national policies.

  Unit summary

  The unit gives clarifications on the concepts of identity, cohesion, national cohesion, national identity and culture and their respective roles in the society. It also discusses the factors that promote national cohesion, culture and identity and the manner that they have influenced the respect of human rights in the context of Rwanda especially after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi for the promotion of unity.Identity entails the distinctive characteristics that distinguish an individual or a certain group of people and differentiate them from another group. National cohesion thrives when there is love and peace in the society.National identity brings people together as one, regardless of their various cultures, traditions, language and politics.A culture of a people comprises their customs, beliefs, language, material objects such as houses and clothing, religion and art among many others.

  Unit assessment

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to survey the factors affecting the national cohesion, identities in terms of culture, history and economic activities and respect of human rights.

  Revision questions

  1. Define the following terms:

      i) National cohesion

      ii) National identity

  2. Discuss factors that promote national cohesion and identity.

  3. Explain the roles of national cohesion and national identity in the promotion of human rights.

• Unit 11: Role of Gacaca and Abunzi in conflict solving

  Topic area: SOCIETY

  
  

  Sub-topic area: Conflict transformation
  

  
  

  Key unit competence

  Examine the role of Abunzi and Gacaca jurisdiction in Rwandan society.

  
  

  Abunzi (Mediation Committee)

  
  

  Activity 11.1

  Form groups of five to discuss and analyse the organisational structure of the Abunzi and Gacaca. Find out what their roles are and their jurisdiction in solving conflicts and bringing reconciliation in our country. Summarise your findings and write them down on your notebooks and thereafter have a class discussion.
  

  
  

  The mediation, or Abunzi, committees were set up in 2003 in the first constitution of the post-genocide era. The Mediation Committee is an organ responsible for providing mediation services as a prerequisite for parties to bring an action before competent courts in matters provided for in the competence of Mediation Committee. Mediators serve on a volunteer and non-remunerated basis.

  
  

  The Mediation Committee at the Cell and Sector levels comprise of seven (7) residents of the Cell and the Sector respectively, who are persons of integrity and well-known for their mediation skills. Members of the Mediation Committee are elected by the Cell and Sector’s Council respectively, from among non-members of staff of local administrative entities or judicial organs. They are elected for a renewable term of office of five (5) years. At least thirty percent (30%) of members of the Mediation Committee must be females.

  
  

  Roles of Abunzi

  
  

  Arguments that led to the creation of a local-level mediation body

  
  

  Strengthening the regular justice system

  
  

  In addition to handling the genocide litigation, the Rwandan justice system was also confronted with many common law cases and an acute shortage of resources to deal with them.

  
  

  In 1995, Rwanda had only six judges with a law degree. By 2002, the number of qualified judges had increased exponentially: 66 judges had a law degree and 203 had received ‘another form of training’. And yet a clear shortage of qualified judicial officials persisted. The ordinary justice system therefore needed to be strengthened while taking into account the scarcity of available resources.

  
  

  Limited means to meet overwhelming needs

  
  

  Already fragile before 1994, the country’s economic situation weakened further after the genocide. The Rwandan Government had to contend with an acute lack of funding to carry out its major national reconstruction projects, including rebuilding the justice sector. In 1996, the justice sector budget amounted to only 1.1% of the total state budget. By 2002, this percentage had risen to 3.1%. To rebuild the sector, investment was needed; reconstruction of buildings, purchase of furniture, office supplies and other materials, and training of staff. In addition to these exceptional expenses, the staffing and operational costs of the judiciary as a whole would take up a large part of the state budget for the years to come. The post-genocide government thus saw that the judicial system would have to be reformed.

  
  

  Judicial reform aimed at streamlining the functioning of the court system

  
  

  Initial efforts solely focused on rebuilding the judiciary, through programmes aimed at getting judicial infrastructure back into operation and at staff capacity building. In parallel, a reform of the judicial system was launched, steered by the Rwanda Law Reform Commission. The reform, which was completed in 2004, included a new Organic Law on the organisation of the courts. In 2004 and in 2006, the number of courts and judges was reduced; from 147 Courts of First Instance (Canton Courts), only 50 of which were operational in 1995, to 106 in 2004 (District Courts) and 60 in 2006 (Primary Courts). These successive reforms as well as the reduction in the number of judges and registrars, already considered inadequate, led to fears that the justice system would become even slower. A creative solution was clearly needed to complement the various reforms.

  
  

  A policy of gradual citizen empowerment
  

  
  

  During this period, the political leadership also advocated for the active participation of the population in the administration of justice. The post-genocide government was aware of the importance of decentralisation in reconciling the Rwandan population. The National Decentralisation Policy adopted in 2001 aimed at involving the population in local decision-making processes. The National Policy did not however, give any concrete specifications as to how this gradual empowerment of Rwandan citizens would apply in relation to the justice system. In 2004, the prime minister finally announced that mediation committees would enable Rwandans to play a more active role in resolving their own disputes. The Abunzi committee system, was thus part of a broader decentralisation process, launched some years back.

  
  

  The structure of Abunzi

  
  

  Activity 11.2

  Form groups of four.

  1. Discuss and debate about the structure and role of the Abunzi in conflict reconciliation in Rwanda.

  2. Write short notes down.

  3. Present them in a class discussion.

  
  

  The Abunzi operated at Cell and Sector levels. Abunzi committees at both levels are composed of twelve people of integrity who are elected by the community members. To be elected into the Abunzi committee, one must be a resident of the concerned Cell or Sector. People who are elected into the Abunzi must have demonstrated ability to resolve disputes and conflicts.

  
  

  After election, the Abunzi appoint their president, vice-president and executive secretary. The executive secretary receives claims on behalf of the Abunzi.

  
  

  Problems facing Abunzi

  
  

  Activity 11.3

  Work in pairs.
  

  1. Discuss the problems that face the Abuzi in conflict solving and reconciliation.

  2. Write down your points.

  3. Discuss them in class

  
  

  • Lack of resources. The mediation committees do not always work in the best of conditions; basic materials are not always available and meeting rooms are unsuitable or non-existent. This often leads to the hearings being held in the Cell or Sector office or in the executive secretary’s office.

  
  

  • Mediator absenteeism. This is more pronounced during the main agricultural season, when there is a greater need for labour in the fields. Moreover, these ‘persons of integrity’ well known for their mediation skills often have many other responsibilities. They are actively involved in the community and are frequently called upon for other duties (agronomists, primary teachers, health committees, youth committees, etc.).

  
  

  • Inadequate access to laws, legal documentation and textbooks on mediation leads to a low level of expertise in mediation techniques and poorly reasoned decisions.It becomes more difficult, especially for the Ministry of Justice, to monitor the work of the mediation committees when their registers are not properly kept.

  
  

  • Lack of justification for mediation committee decisions. According to the parties interviewed, the mediation committees’ decisions are not usually well reasoned out.

  
  

  Acitivity 11.4

  Work in groups of six.

  1. Stage a role-play attempting to solve a dispute between two learners in your group.

  2. Write an essay on the effectiveness of the Abunzi in conflict solving and resoultion.

  3. Present your essay in class.

  
  

  Gacaca Courts in Rwanda

  
  

  Gacaca Courts originate from the traditional system of conflict resolution called Gacaca. The system mainly dealt with civil and social conflicts between members of the community. It referred to a physical green space where people used to meet. It was especially used by elders in the community and individuals well-known for their integrity and wisdom, to discuss and resolve problems and conflicts within the community. Among the measures taken against an offender, the traditional Gacacacalled upon the family of the offender to reconcile with the offended family. Likewise, the Rwandan community after the Genocide against the Tutsi found it wise to use this system for dealing with genocide cases as well as rebuilding the social fabric which had been completely destroyed, a task that was practically impossible to carry out using the classical system of justice.

  
  

  Establishment of Gacaca Courts

  
  

  Organic Law No. 40/2000 of January 2001 governing the creation of Gacaca Courts and organising the prosecution of genocide crimes and other crimes against humanity committed between October 1st, 1990 and December 31st, 1994 that established Gacaca Courts was adopted and published after many modifications on the initial draft.

  
  

  The legislator had to consider modification of other legal texts that were already in force. We can name the following among others; the Decree-law No. 09/80 of 7th, July, 1980 governing the judicial organisation and jurisdiction, The Organic Law No. 08/96 of 30th, August, 1996, The Decree-law No. 21/77 of 18th, August, 1977 establishing the Criminal Code of Rwanda and the Law of 23rd, February, 1963 relating to the Code of Criminal Procedure.

  
  

  The Organic Law referred also to the international legal texts that Rwanda had ratified. These include; the December 9th, 1948 Convention relating to punishment of Genocide Crimes, the Geneva Convention of 12th, August, 1949 relating to protection of civil rights during war times, the Convention of 26th, November, 1968 relating to the indivisibility of war crimes and other crimes against humanity.

  
  

  The following goals were assigned to the Gacaca Courts:
  

  • To reveal the truth about genocide;
  

  • To speed up the cases of genocide and other crimes against humanity;
  

  • To eradicate the culture of impunity;

  • To strengthen unity and reconciliation among Rwandans;
  

  • To prove the Rwandans’ capacity to solve their own problems.
  

  
  

  Role of Gacaca Courts

  
  

  Gacaca was a system of justice put in place in Rwanda to deal with crimes of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi at the community level. It was adopted from the traditional court system. These courts were created to handle the high number of cases that awaited trial in national courts. They aimed to bring justice and reconciliation in the community. Communities elected judges in various villages to hear trials of genocide suspects. Gacaca Courts handled genocide crimes. They concentrated on urging people to repent and reconcile with their communities.
  

  
  

  There were about 12,000 Gacaca Courts which heard and determined about 1.2 million cases throughout Rwanda. These courts were officially closed on 4th May 2012.

  
  

  Organisation and functioning of Gacaca Courts

  
  

  Activity 11.5

  Form groups of four.

  1. Discuss and debate about the structure and role of the Gacaca Courts in conflict solving and resolution in Rwanda.

  2. Write short notes down.

  3. Present them in a class discussion.

  
  

  Organic Law No. 40/2000 of 26th January 2001, governing the creation of Gacaca Courts determines the organisation and functioning of the courts as follows:

  
  

  A Gacaca Court is created, in each Cell, Sector, District ‘or Town’ and Province/Kigali City of the Republic of Rwanda. This court is responsible for handling crimes of genocide and other crimes against humanity committed in Rwanda between October 1st, 1990 and December 31st, 1994 within the limits of the law.

  
  

  Organs of Gacaca Courts

  
  

  Each Gacaca Court is comprised of a General Assembly, a Bench and a Coordination Committee.

  
  

  (i) The General Assembly
  

  
  

  The General Assembly of each Gacaca Court holds an ordinary meeting once a month and an extraordinary session whenever it is required for the proper functioning of the Gacaca Court. Decisions of the General Assembly are taken by consensus or, otherwise by the absolute majority of its members. This monthly meeting is aimed at evaluating the activities of the Bench and the Coordinating Committee. It is convened and chaired by the President of the Coordination Committee, out of his own initiative or as requested by at least a third of the members of the Gacaca Court Bench.
  

  
  

  Where the president has a justified reason that hinders him from convening the General Assembly, the meeting can be convened by one of the vice-presidents. In case the president refuses to convene the General Assembly, the Bench of the court can meet summoned by at least 7 of the members and a quorum of 14 members. They designate one member who will summon the General Assembly.

  
  

  Apart from the General Assembly of the Cell, the Gacaca Court is called upon to give information regarding the perpetrators and victims of the genocide; where every inhabitant of the Cell should indicate the place where he or she resided before and during genocide. The individual should also testify on what he or she knows about the crimes of genocide committed in the Cell.

  
  

  The General Assemblies had the following common attributions:
  

  
  

  • To present means of prosecution and defence evidence during the hearing;
  

  • To elect members of the Gacaca Court Bench and their substitutes;

  • To constitute necessary additional Benches within the Gacaca Court of the Cell;
  

  • To elect the members of superior Gacaca Courts;
  

  • To examine and adopt the report of activities done by the Coordination Committee.

  
  

  (ii) The Seat
  

  
  

  The members of the Bench of the Gacaca Courts commonly known as InyangamugayoJudges are Rwandans of integrity elected by the General Assembly of the Cell in which they reside. In order to be considered a Rwandan person of integrity, the following conditions should be fulfilled. One should;
  

  
  

  a) have good behaviour and morals;

  b) be truthful;
  

  c) be trustworth

  d) be characterised by a spirit of sharing speech;
  

  e) not have been sentenced to a penalty of at least 6 months imprisonment;
  

  f) not have participated in perpetrating offences constituting the crime of genocide or crimes against humanity;
  

  g) be free from the spirit of sectarianism and discrimination

  
  

  

  
  

  (iii) The Coordination Committee
  

  
  

  The Coordination Committee is composed of a president, first vice-president, second vice-president and two secretaries, all of whom must know how to read and write Kinyarwanda. Members of a Gacaca Court Seat elect the Coordination Committee among themselves, with a simple majority.
  

  
  

  The Coordination Committee of every Gacaca Court shall carry out the following functions:

  
  

  • To convene, preside over meetings and coordinate activities of the Bench for the Gacaca Court as well its General Assembly;

  • To register complaints, testimonies and evidences given by the population;
  

  • To receive and record files for suspects answerable to the Gacaca Court;

  • To register appeals filed against judgements passed by the Gacaca Courts;

  • To forward files of judgements appealed against the Gacaca Courts of Appeal;

  • To register decisions made by organs of the Gacaca Court;
  

  • To prepare reports of activities of the Gacaca Courts;
  

  • To implement decisions of the General Assembly and those of the Gacaca Court Bench;

  • To immediately transfer the report of activities approved by the General Assembly of the Gacaca Court to superior Gacaca Courts.
  

  
  

  Note: The Coordination Committee of the Gacaca Court meets as many times as possible, convened by its president, out of his own initiative or requested by at least two members of the committee. In order to sit validly, the Coordination Committee should have at least three of its members present, one of whom should be a secretary. Decisions are made by consensus. If there is no consensus, the matter is submitted to the Gacaca Court Bench.

  
  

  Duties of Gacaca Courts

  
  

  The law provides for specific duties for each Gacaca Court:
  

  
  

  (i) The Cell Gacaca Court
  

  The Cell Gacaca Court exercises the following duties:
  

  
  

  • To make up a list of individuals who resided in the cell before and after the genocide, individuals suspected to have participated in the genocide and victims and their damaged properties;
  

  • To bring together the files forwarded by the Public Prosecution;
  

  • To categorise suspects according to the provisions of this Organic Law;

  • To try cases related to properties;
  

  • To give a ruling on the disqualification of members of the Bench of the Gacaca Court of the Cell;
  

  • To receive confessions from individuals who participated in the genocide;

  • To forward the files which are not in their jurisdiction to the competent courts;

  • To elect members of the Coordination Committee.

  
  

  (ii) The Gacaca Court of the Sector, District or Town and that of the Province or Kigali City

  
  

  The Gacaca Court Bench of the Sector, District or Town and that of the Province or Kigali City has the following duties among others:
  

  
  

  • Making investigations, if necessary, on testimonies given;
  

  • Receiving confessions from individuals who participated in the genocide;
  

  • Giving a ruling on the disqualification of members of the Bench;
  

  • Trying cases falling under its jurisdiction, after making sure that suspects forwarded to it, have been categorised in conformity with the alleged offences,
  

  • Examining appeals against judgements passed by Gacaca Courts of the inferior level within its jurisdiction;
  

  • Electing members of the Coordination Committee;

  • Examining reports of activities from the lower Gacaca Courts of its jurisdiction.

  
  

  The competence of Gacaca Courts

  
  

  1. Jurisdiction

  
  

  a) Gacaca Court of the Cell
  

  
  

  The Cell Gacaca Court deals, at first level, with crimes of category 4. It also deals with objections filed against the sentence it has pronounced in the absence of the accused. The Cell Gacaca Court then categorises alleged perpetrators of genocide.
  

  
  

  b) Gacaca Court of the Sector

  
  

  The Sector Gacaca Court deals, at first level, with defendants whose offences fall in category 3. It also deals with opposition made against sentences pronounced in the absence of the accused.
  

  
  

  c) Gacaca Court of the District or Town

  
  

  The District or Town Gacaca Court deals with crimes of category 2. It also deals with appeals filed against judgements rendered at first level or on opposition by Sector Gacaca Courts under its jurisdiction filed against the judgements that were rendered in absence of the accused.
  

  
  

  d) Gacaca Court of the Province or Kigali City
  

  
  

  The Gacaca Court of the Province or Kigali City deals with appeals of judgements rendered at the first level or on objection by Gacaca Courts of the District or Towns under its jurisdiction filed against the judgements that were rendered in absence of the accused.

  
  

  2. Territorial Jurisdiction

  
  

  It is the Gacaca Court of the area where a crime has been committed that is competent to deal with it:
  

  
  

  • The jurisdiction for the Cell Gacaca Court is the administrative Cell.

  • The jurisdiction for the Sector Gacaca Court is the administrative Sector.

  • The jurisdiction for the District or Town Gacaca Court is the District or Town.

  • The jurisdiction of the Province or Kigali City Gacaca Court is the Province or Kigali City.

  
  

  Note: Where a suspect is charged with crimes committed in different areas, the trial is adjourned. The court to which a case has been filed will immediately inform the Department of Gacaca Courts in the Supreme Court, which will in turn inform the various concerned Cell Gacaca Courts instructing them to provide prosecution or defence elements of proof. The Department of Gacaca Courts in the Supreme Court transfers the received files to the concerned court to take action. The court proceeds to a new categorisation of suspects basing on supplementary elements gathered and, if necessary, transfers the file to the competent court.

  
  

  Problems faced during the operations of Gacaca Courts

  
  

  Activity 11.6

  Work in pairs.

  1. Discuss the problems that face the Gecaca courts in conflict solving and reconciliation.

  2. Write down your points.

  3. Discuss them in class

  
  

  Some of the prblems include the following:

  
  

  • Persistence of the genocide ideology;
  

  • Killing and intimidation of survivors of genocide, witnesses and Inyangamugayojudges;

  • Destruction of equipment used in data collection (filing cabinets, books, forms);

  • Inyangamugayo judges accused of participation in the crime of genocide (1,226 individuals identified);
  

  • Leaders accused of genocide crimes;

  • Refusal to testify;
  

  • People moved to provinces where they were unknown;
  

  • Refugees who fled Gacaca Courts;
  

  • Partial confession of crimes causing re-categorisation or maximum penalties;
  

  • Serious trauma cases (193 cases)

  
  

  Solutions to the problems faced during the operations of Gacaca Courts

  
  

  •Mobilising people for active participation in the Gacaca Court processes.
  

  •Ensuring that everybody participated in the judicial process regardless of their status in the Rwandan society.

  •Continuous sensitisation of genocide suspects about the procedures of confession, repentance, apologies and reintegrating with the society.

  •Stopping intimidation and killing of genocide survivors, witnesses and judges who presided over those cases.

  •Setting up security measures to protect the equipment of the Gacaca Courts from being destroyed so as to enable cases to go on.

  •Taking care of traumatised individuals medically, psychologically and materially.

  •Building capacities of the Inyangamugayo judges through continuous training.

  •Replacing the Inyangamugayo judges accused of genocide and those found culpable of other crimes
  

  such as corruption.

  
  

  Unit summary

  
  

  This unit explains reasons for the establishment of the Gacaca Courts and Abunzi committees, their structures as well as functioning in Rwanda. It also evaluates their respective roles at the same time analysing the environment in which they operated and still operate. It goes further to discuss the ways problems in the Rwandan society are handled.

  
  

  The Abunzi are mediation committees responsible for providing mediation services to warring groups or parties. People who are elected into the Abunzi must have demonstrated ability to resolve disputes and conflicts. Lack of resources such as funds and infrastructure is one of the major challenges that affects the smooth operations of the Abunzi committees.

  
  

  The Gacaca Courts was a system of justice that was put in place by the Government of Rwanda to deal with crimes of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi at the community level.The members of the Bench of the Gacaca Courts were known as Inyangamugayo judges.The main problem that faced the operation of Gacaca courts was the killing and intimidation of the survivors of genocide, witnesses and the Inyangamugayo judges by the accused parties.

  
  

  Unit assessment

  
  

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to examine the role of the Abunzi and Gacaca, their jurisdiction in the Rwandan society and appreciate the home-grown solutions to solve conflicts in Rwanda.

  
  

  
  

  Revision questions

  
  

  1.Define Gacaca and Abunzi.

  
  

  2. Describe the organisational structure of Gacaca and Abunzi.

  
  

  3. What were the solutions to the problems faced by Inyangamugayo judges during their operations?
  
• Unit 12: Various forms of interdependence

  Topic area: SOCIETY

  
  

  Sub-topic area: Dignity and self-reliance
  

  
  

  Key unit competence

  Analyse causes and effects of various forms of interdependence.
  

  Interdependence
  

  
  

  Acitivity 12.1

  Work in pairs.Using the Internet and textbooks;

  1. Define interdependence.

  2. Discuss the importance of interdependence.

  3. Write down your points in a notebook.

  4. Present your findings in class

  Interdependence refers to mutual reliance between two or more parties. It could be between people, groups, organizations or nations. It is characterized by sharing, interaction agreement and desire for togetherness.

  Interdependence involves co-operation. It is worth noting that the world is becoming increasingly interdependent.

  Some areas of interdependence include
  

  
  

  • Trade activities: Different regions produce different items. Even if they produce same items they do not usually do it at the same time. This makes it necessary for exchange of such items from one region with different items from another region. This kind of activity is called trade.

  • Investment: This is dedicating money to an activity or buying an asset to generate profit in future. Different places or regions do not have the equal opportunities for investment. Where there is interdependence, people move to places with opportunities for investment that favour them. For example, people who are interested in agricultural investments will look for places with favourable conditions for agriculture such as fertile land, water supply and market for their produce among other factors. The same case housing investors will move to places where demand for housing is high such as cities and urban centers where human population is high.

  • Transport and communication network: These infrastructure are very necessary to enable interdependence of different regions. With reliable transport and communication network, people are able to easily move from one place to another and interrelate with others, and this helps to boost interdependence. Transport and communication networks makes it easy to connect people even if they are continents apart

  • Science and Technology: Some regions/countries are specialized in one area or another. Interdependence will be necessary to share these skills.

  • Tourism: Tourist attraction features are varied in different regions or countries. Some countries are endowed with attractive physical features such as beaches, mountains, lakes; plateaus etc, while others have various kinds of wildlife. Interdependence among countries creates chances for tourists to move from one country to another. This also avails foreign currency which is used in trade.

  • Political affairs this involves defense, security, international relations and diplomacy are facilitated by presence of interdependence among countries. An example is International Criminal Police Organisation (Interpol), which is an international police organization to fight crime among nations.

  • Roles played by United Nations and some international organisations are as a result of interdependence.

  Different forms of interdependence

  
  

  Activity 12.2

  Work in groups of three. Using textbooks and the Internet;

  1. Research on the forms of interdependence.

  2. Compare ancient forms of interdependence.

  3. Write down your findings and present them in a class.

  1. Interdependence at the family level

  It ensures that there is responsibility by every member in the family and each member participates to the contribution of the family welfare. Division of responsibilities in the family distributes the burden of providing for the family among all members. Even children have their role to play in the family. Family interdependence is captured in the following Kinyarwanda proverbs: Abantu ni magirirane (men are interdependent) and Inkingi imwe ntigera inzu (one pillar cannot sustain the roof alone).

  • It allows people to be responsible. Individuals know the roles they must play and obligations to fulfil.

  • People learn new skills from each other as they work closely together.

  • Interdependence at the family level can encourage laziness. Some people can just relax while waiting for other family members to work and provide for them.

  2. Interdependence at the village level

  Through this, community members are able to help each other. Interdependence creates environment for peaceful coexistence among community members. Intermarriages are also possible where there is interdependence at this level. People from one community intermarry with those from communities in other villages. People trade and exchange commodities from different places. Items that are not locally produced are obtained from other villages and exchanged with locally available ones. The Kinyarwanda proverbs that support village interdependence are: Agasozi kamanutse inka kamuzuka umugeni (a cow descending a hill is a dowry worth a fiancée in return) and Wanga guhinga kure ukahaha (you refuse farming far from your home but you end up supplying food from there.

  3. Interdependence at national and international level

  It brings cooperation in matters such as trade; defence and security; education and job opportunities for people in the involved nations. It also promotes peaceful coexistence among nations. It promotes joint partnership in developing and sharing infrastructure and working together to lower the costs of doing business in the countries involved.

  Causes and effects of interdependence

  
  

  Activity 12.3

  Work in pairs.Use the Internet and textbooks to;

  1. Find out the causes and effects of interdependence.

  2. Do you think the different forms of interdependence are important?

  3. Write down your findings and present them in a class discussion

  Causes of interdependence

  
  

  • Need for goods and products that are not found locally. Some countries for example, import oil while the export other minerals such as gold, diamond copper etc. What does our country import and export in trade with other countries?

  • Need to supplement what is locally produced. One country may be producing maize in plenty but needs beans or rice, for instance, to supplement their staple food. If they are not able to supplement these supplements; they turn to other countries which produce them to buy or to exchange with what they have.

  • Security makes it necessary for interdependence among countries. A country ges into a situation where it gets into serious security challenges and feels the need for help from other countries. An example here in Africa is Nigeria which is struggling to fight terrorist militants Boko Haram. It needs military assistance from the neighbours to be able to deal with the terrorists thoroughly.

  • Humanitarian needs. This kind of needs is required to save human lives who are under threat from various factors for example a disease outbreak or a natural disaster caused by floods or earthquakes. Such countries need help from others, therefore the need for interdependence. An example is when there was outbreak of Ebola, a deadly infectious viral disease in West African countries of Liberia and Sierra Leone. Countries with high medical abilities like France and the United States of America (USA) came in to help.

  • Transport and communication. Countries need to interact with each other for them to grow. This interconnection raises the need for good means of transport and communication. Our country which is landlocked for instance, needs port services from countries such as Tanzania and Kenya to ship in equipments such as farming machinery.

  
  

  Effects of interdependence

  
  

  1. Interdependence nurtures peace among people and countries. It brings people together and they are able to interact and cooperate in understanding with each other. People with disabilities and those living with HIV and AIDS are embraced also. Interdependence creates a conflict-free environment.

  2. It brings about economic advancement. This is characterized by factors such as; infrastructural development. This is building of roads, railways, hospitals schools etc. Secondly, there is economic growth as a result of increased trade. Goods and services are easily exchanged. Another aspect of economy that is boosted by interdependence is exchange of skills in the area of Information and Communication Technology (ICT), improved healthcare etc.

  3. Interdependence has resulted to formation of regional and international organizations. These organizations are formed to advocate for the welfare of member states in trade, military cooperation, peace building, education etc. Our country, for instance is a member to regional trade organizations such as Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the East African Community (EAC). Other regional organizations are such as South African Development Community (SADC) and African Union (AU). International organizations are such as the United Nations Organisation (UN) and Commonwealth.

  4. It has led to improved control and response to calamities such as draughts, disease outbreaks, floods, earthquakes etc. With interdependence, countries have come together and managed to help each other in times of need when calamities strike.

  5. Interdependence has helped boost industrialization around the globe. Inventions and innovations in science and technology have been shared and this has led to development in many sectors among them industrialization. This has resulted to creation of more employment opportunities especially for the youth.

  6. It has resulted to formation of organizations that press for the welfare of human beings. Examples in our country are National Union of Disabilities Association of Rwanda (NUDOR), which promotes and strengthens the voice and welfare of disabled people. Another one is the Association of People Living with HIV/AIDS which has the purpose of social support and encouraging positive living among members.

  Acitivty 12.4

  Form groups of five each to discuss and analyse the effects of interdependence at national and international level. Evaluate the importance of interdependence citing examples in our country. List the national, regional and international organizations stating what they do.

  Unit summary

  This unit defines the concept of interdependence, explains how it works and discusses types, areas and the necessity of interdependence at international, regional and local levels. This is for promoting the well-being of the people around the world since no man is an island. Interdependence has more advantages than disadvantages. Interdependence refers to mutual reliance between two or more parties.

  According to the level of interdependence, it can take different forms such as; at the family, village and national as well as international level.Interdependence at national and international level brings cooperation in matters such as trade; defence and security; education and job opportunities for people in the involved nations.Interdependence has resulted to the formation of regional and international organisations which advocate for the welfare of member states in areas such as trade, military cooperation, peace building and education. Regional trade organisations that have been formed as a result of interdependence among countries include; Common Market for East and Southern Africa (COMESA) and the East African Community (EAC).

  Unit assessment

  At the end of this unit, a learner is able to explain the concept of interdependence, analyse causes and effects of various forms of interdependence, develop the spirit of cooperation in himself/ herself and understand why nations, organizations and individuals have to be interdependent.

  Revision questions

  
  

  1. What do you understand by interdependence?

  2. List at least six areas of interdependence.

  3. Discuss the various forms of interdependence.

  4. Explain the causes interdependence at family, national and international level.

  5. Analyse the effects of interdependence at national and international level.

  Glossary

  
  

  Allah  Arabic word for God

  
  

  Amputate  cut off a limb

  
  

  Animal husbandry  the science of breeding and caring for farm animals
  

  
  

  Architecture  the art of designing and constructing buildings

  
  

  Catharsis  the process of providing relief by releasing strong emotions

  
  

  Civic  activity relating to the duties or activities of people in relation to their city, town or local area

  
  

  Collaboration a method of reacting to colonialism which involved cooperation from some African leaders

  
  

  Concession a demand that is granted
  

  
  

  Consul a government official appointed to live in a foreign city to promote and protect the government’s interests

  
  

  Coronation the ceremony of crowning a sovereign or their companion

  
  

  Dynasty a line of hereditary rulers in a country

  
  

  Empire  a large area under a single supreme authority usually with political power

  
  

  Encroach intrude

  
  

  Exterminate  kill or destroy completely

  
  

  Fundamentalism  strict adherence to the basic principles of any subject or discipline

  
  

  Garrison a building occupied by army troops, stationed in a town to defend it

  
  

  Genocide   deliberate murder of a whole group or race of people.

  
  

  Harbinger a forerunner

  
  

   Holocaust  the mass murder of Jews by the Nazi regime under the leadership of Adolf Hitler (1941-45)

  
  

  Icon a person or a thing that is regarded as a representative symbol of something

  
  

  Identity  qualities that make a person or a group of persons different from others

  
  

  Imperial  relating to an empire

  
  

  Independence  freedom or self-governance

  
  

  Indigenous occurring naturally in a particular place

  
  

  Judiciary  an arm of government that deals with interpretation of laws

  
  

  Koranic  relating to the Koran

  
  

  Maim  damage a part of body completely by wounding or injuring it

  
  

  Missionary  a person in a religious mission especially to promote Christianity in a foreign land

  
  

  Monotheism   belief in one supreme God

  
  

  Pasha a high-rank title in the Turkish Empire

  
  

  Peninsular  a piece of land that is bordered by water on all sides but connected to the mainland by a small strip

  
  

  Philosophy a particular set or system of beliefs resulting from the search for knowledge about life and the universe

  
  

  Pilgrim a person who journeys to a sacred place for religious reasons
  

  
  

  Pilgrimage a pilgrim’s journey

  
  

  Post – colonial time or period after the end of colonial rule

  
  

  Primary resistance direct and immediate violent reaction that was directed to the Europeans when they wanted to establish colonial rule in Africa
  

  
  

  Secondary resistance a moderate reaction to colonial rule by Africans
  

  
  

  Supreme Being the name for God

  
  

  Treaty a formal agreement

  
  

  Trustee a person who holds property, authority, or position of trust or responsibility for the benefit of another

  
  

  Unification being united or made into a whole Vassal a country in a subordinate position to another
  

  
  

  Veterinary relating to the diseases and treatment of animals

  
  

  
  

  References

  
  

  • Ade Ajayi and Crowther Michael, (eds), History of West Africa, Vol. 11, Longman 1974.

  
  

  • Akitoye SA, Emergent African States, Longman, London, 1976.

  
  

  • Arrighi G and Saul JS, Essay on the Political Economy of Africa, Monthly Review Press, New York, 1973.

  
  

  • Black J. et al., Atlas of World History, London, 1999.

  
  

  • Byanajashe Deo, Histoire du Rwanda au XXème Siècle (Notes de Cours), UNR, Butare, 2005.

  
  

  • Isichei Elizabeth, History of West Africa Since 1800, Macmillan, 1977.

  
  

  • Ministry of East African Community Affairs: East African Community Projects, Training Module, 2010.

  
  

  • Museveni Yoweri K, The Struggle for Freedom and Democracy in Uganda, Macmillan.

  
  

  • National Commission for Human Rights: African Instruments on Human Rights,Kigali, 2008.

  
  

  • National Curriculum Development Centre: The History of Rwanda; A participatory Approach. Teacher’s Guide for Secondary Schools, Kigali, 2010.

  
  

  • Repubulika y’U Rwanda, Komisiyo y’Igihugu yo Kurwanya Jenoside: Kwibuka 21, Ukuri kuri Jenoside yakorewe Abatutsi, Kigali, 2015

  
  

  • Rutembesa F., Histoire Comparée des Génocides (Notes de Cours), UNR, Butare, 2006.

  
  

  • The World Encyclopedia: Chicago, 2001.

  
  

  • www.rwandapedia.rw, Gacaca Courts Genesis, Implementation and Achievements, posted by admin on Tuesday, October 2nd, 2012 07:25 a.m.