History

With the colonial experience that was gained in Belgian Congo, the Belgians undertook gradual political measures that undermined the monarchical system in Rwanda. To achieve this, the Belgians introduced the following reforms:

• Banning of right over life and death (1917). The Royal Commissioner in agreement with the Belgian Government put a ban on the indigenous sovereigns’ unconditional right over the life and death of their subjects. They only remained with an honorary title.

• Political measures. From 1923, measures were put in place to prevent the king from appointing and dismissing chiefs without the permission of the Representative of the Belgium Government.

• Fiscal measures of 1924. This involved the abolition of Imponoke that consisted of cows given as gifts to a chief who had lost cows in huge numbers. It also abolished Indabukirano, that consisted of cows that were given to a new chief upon assuming his duties as a new leader in a given area.

• Religious reforms (1917). The king was obliged to allow freedom of religion and worship. By doing so, he lost his politico-religious power. Rwandans considered the king as their unique religious leader who communicated with ‘god’ through some sort of magical power. He was a source of life and prosperity for the whole kingdom.

Rwanda was placed under the Mandate regime ‘B’ after the definitions of the League of Nations’ Pact, paragraph 3, article 22 that defines three types of Mandates (A,B,C). On October 20th, 1924, the Belgian Parliament approved Mandate ‘B’ on Rwanda. From then, Rwanda shifted from ‘an occupational territory’ to officially become ‘a territory under Belgian Mandate’. Rwanda was also placed under Mandate ‘B’ because it had reached a certain degree of development. However, the League of Nations member states felt that it was still incapable of ruling itself. Belgium had the mission to politically emancipate the colony by; ensuring public services were functioning through local authorities, favouring the moral and material well-being of indigenous people, opening the mandate territory to open trade and finally reporting annually to the League of Nations’ Permanent Commission of Mandates.It is after this Belgian approval that a number of reforms followed to meet the League’s terms. Belgium administratively annexed this new territory to her own colony – Belgian Congo. It simply applied on it the Congolese colonial law.

The political reforms undertaken during this time included the famous Administrative Reforms initiated as from 1926.

These administrative reforms brought about the following transformations:

• Restructuring of the administrative entities. Rwanda which was originally ruled under 20 districts (Ibiti) and pastoral fiefs (Ibikingi) was now transformed into a system of chiefferies, sub-chiefferies (Chefferie, Sous-chefferie) and territories. By 1931, Rwanda consisted of 10 territories instead of 20 districts, 52 chiefferies that corresponded to historical traditional regions and 544 sub-chiefferies.

• New distribution of power. The functions of the land, cattle and military chiefs were abolished. The nomination of leaders in this reform contributed to the creation of disunity among Rwandans because it excluded the Hutu, Twaand Tutsi from modest backgrounds in favour of the Tutsi from rich families. Old chiefs were replaced by their sons who had graduated from the school reserved for the sons of chiefs. They were considered able to rule in a modern way because they were supposed to have acquired basic western leadership, writing and reading skills to serve as loyal colonial auxiliaries.

• The deposition of King Yuhi V Musinga (1931). On November 12th, 1931, the vice governor of Ruanda-Urundi, Charles Voisin proclaimed deposition orders from the throne and hence Musinga’s deportation to Kamembe (today in Rusizi District). Later, he was exiled to Moba in Belgian Congo. On the same day, Rudahigwa was proclaimed King by Vice-Governor Voisin. He was enthroned under the title of Mutara III on November 16th, 1931. King Musinga was accused by the Belgians of opposing moral, social and economic work that was being carried out by the colonial administration. At the same time, Christian missionaries accused him of being hostile to their work.

• Introduction of identity cards.By 1930, Belgians had come up with identity cards known as Ibuku which detailed the following; clan identity, marital status, names of parents, area of residence and ethnic group that was given after one’s socio-economic class (Tutsi, Hutu or Twa).

The economic performance of Belgian rule in Rwanda between 1924 and 1946 was significant in different economic domains that were agriculture, mining and socio-cultural domains. To implement all the required work in these domains with the main one being agriculture, led to the introduction of compulsory crop cultivation known as “Ishiku” which was added to colonial forced labour “Akazi” by the Resident’s decree No. 49 of 31st December, 1925.

The Belgian’s main focus on agriculture was on areas such as;Food production to fight against famines and large scale production of cash crops such as coffee.

Rwanda was a country that suffered from serious famines. In 1924-1925, when the program of regulating and increasing the production of food crops was being elaborated, the Gakwege famine was on. In 1928-1929, the Rwakayihura famine killed a number of Rwandans. To phase out these famines, Belgians took over vacant lands and some pasture lands and planted drought resistant crops such as cassava, sweet potatoes, beans and Irish potatoes. Since 1925, the imposition of compulsory food crop cultivation known as Ishiku became the order of the day. One family was required to plant at least 10 acres of food crops. Rwandans had to even go and work in fields that were far away from their homes but were near main communication lines. This was to please any passing high ranking colonial authority. However, this compulsory food crop cultivation program did not fight the famines but served as a tool for increasing the merits for the people in charge of the implementation. By 1932, plantations covered 7,600 hectares of the land and it had become so unbearable that people migrated to Uganda in search of free labour.

Cultivation of cash crops such as coffee, on a large scale, was imposed on peasants. The cultivation of cash crops mobilised more people than the cultivation of food crops. This was so because they were for promoting exports which were only limited to cow hides. By 1931, cash crops – mainly coffee were made compulsory and systematic to the extent that a peasant had to possess a plantation of at least 54 coffee trees, a sub-chief a plantation of 250 coffee trees and a chief a plantation of 1000 coffee trees. Coffee production increased from 40,000 kilograms in 1927 to 2,000 tonnes by 1937. An office in charge of the quality of exports was formed: OCIRU (Office du café Industriel du Ruanda-Urundi). The same Akazi that was used in food crop cultivation, was also used in cash crop cultivation.

The Belgian colonial regime paid attention to livestock rearing, especially cattle. They set up selection farms since 1926 in Songa, Cyeru, Gisenyi and Nyagatare. Animal health services and veterinary centres were established in rural areas to cure periodic livestock epidemics such as Muryamo. Muryamo was a mysterious disease that affected cows in Rwanda at the end of the 19th Century. It killed many cows. The other disease that affected the livestock was trypanosomiasis.

The Germans had introduced the use of money as a means of exchange in trading by the time they exited Rwanda in 1916. They used a currency known as rupee. When the Belgians took control, they introduced a new currency to replace the rupee.

In 1927, they introduced a currency known as “ Franc Congolais”. They did this so as to facilitate exchange and payment of taxes by the locals. Tax was made compulsory as it was needed to finance public service in the colony.

Since 1917, taxes were paid by all Rwandan adults to add on to the colonial funds and chiefferies administrations. However, from 1931, this capitation tax was extended to every taxpayer after carrying out a general census of Rwandans. It became compulsory and was only received in cash.

A marketing organisation that was known as OCIRU (Office des Cafés Indigènes du Ruanda-Urundi) or Ruanda-Urundi Coffee Bureau was set up to develop a market for the Africans’ coffee produced in indigenous plantations.

Rwandans were introduced to mining and running of small scale industries. The mining activities were mainly carried out by Minetain company (Sociétés des Mines d’Etain) at Gatumba (Ngororero District) from 1935, at Musha (Rwamagana District) from 1937. Other mining companies included SOMUKI and GEORWANDA. SOMUKI (Société Minière de Muhinga et de Kigali) opened sites at Rutongo (Rulindo

District) in 1933 and Nyungwe Forest in 1936 for mining gold. GEORWANDA (Compagnie Géologique et Minière du Ruanda) opened sites at Rwinkwavu (Kayonza District) from 1940.

Missionaries as another form of colonial agents established semi-industrial enterprises for cigarettes at Rwaza and Gisenyi, milk processing and candle production plants from 1935.Salaries and professional training were introduced by mining companies, mining and farming colonialists, trading companies, public works and religious missions to their labour force. This was done to promote the exchange system since Rwandans were entering the capitalist system.

The development of transport and communications networks brought about the introduction of bicycles and cars from Europe and Asia as from 1927. Moreover, this network joined trading centres that started forming important urban centres such as Kiramuruzi, Kigali, Nyanza, Astrida, Kamembe, Gisenyi and Ruhengeri.

This activity was known and practised in traditional ways on rivers and lakes. The Belgians improved it by introducing new types of fish in 1935. Tilapia niga species were planted in lakes such as Muhazi, Bulera and Ruhondo while tilapia nilotica were planted in Lake Kivu.

Forestry was also encouraged to protect the environment and to control soil erosion in the highland regions of northern and western Rwanda.

Before colonisation, there was Uburetwa that was kept in the sense of many tasks rendered to local chiefs as citizens’ duties. Under Belgian colonial rule, to Uburetwa was added the forced labour in the form of working on white plantations, carrying heavy loads, road constructions, building of churches, schools, hospitals and digging of anti-erosion ditches to exploit the colony. The Belgian colonial administration named it Akazi to differentiate it from the services provided in Uburetwa. The Akazi was not remunerated or was just slightly remunerated. The more this forced labour (Akazi) became so unbearable, the more Rwandan people fled it into neighbouring Uganda, Tanganyika and Belgian Congo in search of free and paid labour especially from coffee and tea plantations. The Akazi persisted alongside the Uburetwa until its abolition in 1949 by King Mutara III Rudahigwa.

The abolition of these two pillars of the monarchy paved way for the decline of the Rwanda Kingdom.

• The new education system (1925). Belgians substituted the informal education provided in Itorero by formal education. They aimed to promote colonial auxiliaries through subsidised and free education. However, formal education remained the monopoly of the Christian missionaries.

• The medical program. By 1931, Belgians had established hospitals (of Kigali and Astrida) and many dispensaries throughout the colony to deal with widespread diseases. Vaccination campaigns were also carried out from 1933. The introduction of school curricula, sections of training on medical assistance and medical auxiliaries in specific schools (Astrida, Kabgayi and Kigali) began in 1937. At the end of the Mandate regime (1945 – 1946), Rwanda had sixteen hospitals – both private and public and thirty-four dispensaries.

• Religious change. Christianity was introduced in Rwanda under the German rule. However, it was not welcomed as it undermined the king’s moral influence on his subjects.It later benefited from the administrative reform of 1926 by which the king was forced to sign a decree proclaiming freedom of worship. However, King Yuhi V Musinga continued to resist and this led to his deposition in 1931. He was replaced by his son Mutara III Rudahigwa who converted to Christianity and consecrated Rwanda to Christ the King on October 27th, 1946 at Nyanza.

At the end of World War II, the Allied powers that concluded the war convened at San Francisco to draft a new international peace keeping body that is the United Nations Organisation (UNO) to replace the defunct League of Nations. The League of Nations was blamed for failing to stop the occurrence of World War II. The charter of the new organisation imposed mandatory powers to lead the nations which were under the Mandate system to self-rule then to independence. This was possible through the Trusteeship Council which was one of the main six organs of UNO which was in charge of peacefully administrating and supervising territories that were not yet independent up to the time they would be independent on behalf of UNO. As a power that had been administrating Rwanda under the League of Nations’ Mandate system, Belgium and UNO concluded an accord placing Rwanda under the Trusteeship regime on December 13th, 1946. This was approved by the Belgian Parliament on April 25th, 1949. Since then, Belgium had therefore to act with the final objective of granting independence to Rwanda. To achieve this objective, Belgium had a good deal of recommendations to respect. Among others, Belgium had to progressively integrate Rwandans into both territorial administration and a system through which they could gain political representation. To meet UNO’s will, as it had availed the mechanisms to ensure its recommendations implementation (UNO missions and annual reports from the administered territory submitted to UNO), Belgians undertook a number of reforms.

During the Belgian Trusteeship, the most important political reform in Rwanda was The establishment of Consultative Councils (Decree of July 14th, 1952). This was a response to the critical reports of the two UN Trusteeship missions since 1948.

The Council of the State (ConseilSupérieur du Pays): It waspresided over by the king and was made up of presidents of nine territorial councils elected out of the king’s proposed list.

The Territorial Council (Conseil du Territoire): It was composed of the chief of territory, other territorial chiefs and their sub-chiefs as well as their respective notables.

The Council of Chiefferie (Conseil de Chefferie): It was presided over by the chief himself. Its members were sub-chiefs and the notables elected among an electoral college of three representatives by sous-chiefferie.

Council of Sous-chiefferie (Conseil Sous-chiefferie): It was presided over by the sub-chief and was made up of 5 to 9 members elected by an electoral college chosen by the sub-chief.

This reform allowed Rwandans to participate in the elections organised in 1953 and 1956.

On 4th May, 1949, a political reform was introduced concerning Ruanda-Urundi, and not solely Ruanda. It meant the creation of a Government Council for Ruanda-Urundi that was made up of 22 members. The council included the Governor, two Resident Representatives and two Belgian state agents. The remaining 17 members were chosen as representatives of other foreigners living in Ruanda-Urundi. This was a reform made for the sake of the colonial administration.

• The Ten-Year Economic and Social Development Plan initiated by the Belgians in Ruanda-Urundi in 1951 as a result of the first UN mission of 1948 recommendations.This was meant to empower Rwanda economically in preparation for self-rule and later independence.

• The abolition of Ubuhake (clientelism) system based on cows after the decree of King Mutara III Rudahigwa on April 1st, 1954. This forced the cattle keepers to reduce the number of cows to manageable and profitable sizes and liberation of pastoral clients (Abagaragu) for private initiatives.

• Land reforms which touched on land use mainly for both food production and cash crop farming for economic gains.

• Operations of Akazi which saw Rwandans engaged in forced labour in activities that were for the economic gain and development of Rwanda, e.g working on plantation farms, construction of buildings and roads, etc.

• King Mutara III Rudahigwa’s decree consecrating Rwanda to Christ the King on October 27th, 1946 at Nyanza by which Christianity through the Catholic Church became the state religion. All other traditional religious practices were prohibited (Kubandwa, Guterekera, etc.)

• Construction of schools, hospitals and dispensaries, roads, drainage of marshlands and planting of trees termed in the 1951 Ten -Year Economic and Social Development plan. This was for shifting the Rwandan economy and getting more educated and healthy manpower.

On October 10th, 1959 Jean-Paul Harroy, the Governor of Ruanda-Urundi, decreed the relocation of three UNAR influential chiefs – Kayihura, Rwangombwa and Mungarurire as a punishment for having participated in the UNAR meeting held in Kigali. This decision ended up in stopping the relationship between UNAR and the colonial authority. Uprisings against this unfair relocation were contained by the Public Force in Kigali. One person was killed and a few others were injured. Many chiefs and sub-chiefs resigned. Due to this situation, the governor suspended the relocation. However, the situation kept on getting worse.

From 1st November 1959, a flare-up of violence that some called “a revolution” instigated by the colonial rule through members of PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA broke out against the Tutsi and members of UNAR. The violence first broke out in Gitarama (Muhanga District), then Ruhengeri (Musanze District), Gisenyi (Rubavu District), Byumba (Gicumbi District), Kibuye (Karongi District), Nyanza, Astrida (Huye District), Kigali and Gikongoro (Nyamagabe District). Only Cyangugu (Rusizi and Nyamasheke Districts) and Kibungo (Ngoma District) were safe. It is in this state of unrest that Colonel Guy Logiest was called upon from Stanleyville (Belgian Congo) by Resident J.P Harroy to manage military operations of armed men stationed in Rwanda.

He then proceeded by arresting, imprisoning, exiling, assassinating and dismissing about twenty chiefs and a hundred sub-chiefs. He automatically replaced them with the Hutu. He was finally appointed Special Military Resident of Rwanda on November 10th, 1959 to finish up the Belgian plan of installing their protected Hutu regime.

Note: This wave of violence targeted most members of UNAR and the Tutsi. Many of them were killed, their houses burnt down while thousands of them were forced to exile in the neighbouring countries of Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi and Belgian Congo where they underwent so many sufferings in refugee camps.

The causes of the 1959 crisis can be attributed to the following:

• The ‘divide and rule’ policy commonly used by colonial powers in their respective territories. The Belgians enforced this policy between 1916 and 1962. As soon as they established their rule, the Belgians undertook a series of reforms aiming at transforming the traditional social classes into ethnic groups to confirm that there was nothing common between the Hutu, the Twa and the Tutsi. In traditional Rwanda, the terms ubuhutu, ubututsi and ubutwameant dynamic social identities based on wealth and political levels, that is, a Hutu who acquired wealth could become a Tutsi and a Tutsi who was impoverished could become a Hutu.

• The distribution of administrative responsibilities in the new structure was discriminatory. This was because it excluded members of low social backgrounds, mostly the Hutu, in favour of the Tutsi from influential families.

• There was antagonism between King Mutara III Rudahigwa and the Belgian Colonial Administration (1954 – 1959) resulting from the king’s opposition to the church’s monopoly in education. The king pushed for more representationof Rwandans in the political administration of the country. This bred hatred towards the Rwandan Tutsi elite by the Belgians.

• The sudden death of King Mutara III Rudahigwa on 25th, July, 1959 disoriented the fight for independence. The king was a good symbol of unity among Rwandans.

• Effects of Cold War. Arising from the competition between superpowers (USA and USSR) the Cold War affected the countries which were colonised in Africa. These superpowers wanted to gain political and economic influence (capitalism and communism) throughout the world. Belgians accused the monarchy of preparing independence in form of the communist system. They conspired against the Tutsi elite to support Hutu leaders.

The 1959 crisis in Rwanda resulted in consequences that not only affected Rwanda but also most of the Great Lakes region.

• A lot of people lost their lives. Many Tutsi and members of UNAR were killed.

• Property was destroyed. These included houses, livestock, crops and businesses.

• People were displaced from their homes. They migrated to hostile areas like Nyamata, which was highly infested with tsetse flies.

• People migrated to the neighbouring countries and became refugees.

• Since this crisis, Rwanda inherited the ethnic-based ideology that later resulted into the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. The crisis left behind the leadership based on discrimination and regionalism.

• There was perpetuation of the Belgian colonial model of administration. Belgium continued to serve in the new regime as government political advisors, technicians, etc.

In groups of five, research by reading various historical materials and browsing the Internet to find out more information about the failures and achievements of the Belgian rule in Rwanda. Analyse the activities that led to attainment of independence in Rwanda. Summarise the findings in your notebooks and later discuss them in class in groups of ten.

The United Nations Organisation formed a Trusteeship Council in 1945. The council’s mandate was to oversee the decolonisation of some dependent colonies. Rwanda was one such dependent territory that was put under the UN trusteeship. To monitor the process of decolonisation, the United Nations Trusteeship Council kept sending missions to these colonies.

In Rwanda the process was as follows:

• From 1948 up to 1960: five missions of the UN visited Rwanda and blamed the Belgians for deliberately delaying the independence of Ruanda-Urundi.

• In 1952: the Belgians introduced the statutory order establishing the representative organs held by various councils.

• In 1956: the law amendments introduced the universal suffrage at the level of aforementioned organs.

• In February 1957: The “Mise au Point” memorandum was prepared by the High Council of the State demanding more representation of Rwandans in political administration of the country. It was addressed to the Belgians and the Trusteeship Council. The Belgians rejected it and instigated a counter memorandum called the Hutu Manifesto (March 23rd, 1957). The memorandum accused the Tutsi of monopolising power and practicing social injustices. It was signed by Gregoire Kayibanda, Joseph Habyarimana alias Gitera, Calliope Murindahabi and Maximillien Niyonzima.

• In March 1958: King Mutara III Rudahigwa created a committee that had to analysethe Hutu-Tutsi social problem.

                                           

• In June 1958: The reaction of the High Council of the State on the above committee report noted the existence of a socio-political problem on the administration level that was not ethnic in nature. The problem was resolved by the removal of the ethnic mention from the identity cards. However, this attempt failed because some of the political parties that were being formed were ethnic-based e.g PARMEHUTU in 1959.

• 1959-1962: A series of events that quickened the declaration of independence took place:

> On May 8th, 1959: the statutory order set up political parties, namely UNAR (l’Union Nationale Rwandaise) formed on September 3rd, 1959, APROSOMA (l’Association pour la Promotion Sociale de la Masse) formed on February 15th ,1959, PARMEHUTU (le Parti du Mouvement de l’Emancipation des Bahutu) formed on October 9th, 1959 and RADER (Rassemblement Democratique du Rwanda) formed on September 14th,1959. On July 25th , 1959, King Mutara III Rudahigwa died in mysterious circumstances. He was the great figurehead in the struggle for the independence of Rwanda. He was replaced by his young, inexperienced brother, Kigeli V Ndahindurwa on July 28th, 1959.

>From 1st to 7th November, 1959, a spark of violence erupted in Gitarama against the Tutsi and the members of UNAR. The violence was sparked by members of PARMEHUTU and APROSOMA. It spread throughout the country except in Cyangugu and Kibungo.

> In June – July 1960, communal elections took place and on 30th July, 1960, PARMEHUTU was declared the winner with 74.4% of the votes. However, UNAR and the king protested against the results.

> On October 26th, 1960, a provisionary government was put in place by the Resident Jean-Paul Harroy and Gregoire Kayibanda became the first prime minister.

  >On January 28th, 1961, The Coup d’état of Gitarama took place. Many decisions were made including the abolition of the monarchy, the proclamation of the republic and nomination of Dominique Mbonyumutwa as the first president while Kayibanda Gregoire remained prime minister.

                                     

> In February 1961, there was the recognition of the new regime by the Belgian Trusteeship.

> On September 25th, 1961, legislative elections and a referendum (Kamarampaka) for or against the monarchy regime was conducted. The monarchical system was voted against in favour of the republic regime. On the same day, legislative elections took place and on 2nd October 1961, the legislative assembly that later elected the president of the republic was put in place.

  >On October 26th , 1961, Kayibanda Gregoire was elected and confirmed as the president of the first Republic of Rwanda.

                                            

> On July 1st, 1962, independence was given to Rwanda in a mitigating environment.

The UN Trusteeship Council played a great role in Rwanda’s politics from 1945 up to 1962 as follows:

• It sent different missions to check on the political, economic and social progress in Rwanda in the following years;1948, 1951, 1954, 1957 and 1960.

• It signed a Trusteeship Accord with Belgium proposing reforms for future self-rule, economic and financial systems plans and social assistance programs to be carried out as a result of the 1948 first UN mission to Rwanda.

• It blamed the Belgians for anti-democratic attitudes in Rwanda and discrimination in its different recommendations after its visit missions.

• It sponsored and supervised a referendum on the monarchy system in Rwanda in 1961.

• It urged the Belgians to withdraw their forces led by Colonel Guy Logiest from Rwanda in 1959.

• It urged Belgium to respect the terms of the Trusteeship Accord providing total autonomy to Rwanda in December of 1961.

However, the UN Trusteeship Council is blamed for not having paid special attention to the 1959 crisis and its aftermath because it left Belgians to recognise the newly instituted regime after the Coup d’etat of Gitarama (28th, January, 1961) in February 1961.

This unit deals with the reforms that were introduced by the Belgians to Rwanda.

Belgium was given the mandate to govern Rwanda by the League of Nations in 1924 after World War I. During this time, the Rwanda territory was known as Ruanda-Urundi.

Belgian rule in Rwanda was categorised into three periods which are:

Belgian Military Occupation (1916 – 1925), Belgian Mandate (1924 – 1946) and the Belgian Trusteeship (1946 – 1962).

The economic reforms introduced in Rwanda under the Belgian rule focused more on agriculture, mining and forestry.In the period of the Belgian rule in Rwanda, a compulsory order to grow cash crops (ishiku) was imposed.

In 1927, the Belgians introduced a currency known as “ Franc Congolais”. This was so as to facilitate the exchange of goods and services and the payment of taxes by the locals.

The Belgians also introduced a type of forced labour which was known as the Akazi.

The political reforms introduced under the Belgian Trusteeship period allowed Rwandans to participate in the elections organised in1953 and 1956.The social and cultural reforms introduced by the Belgian rule led to construction of schools, hospitals and dispensaries.

The 1959 crisis in Rwanda was majorly caused by the ‘divide and rule’ policy commonly used by the Belgians. They undertook a series of reforms aiming at transforming the traditional social classes into ethnic groups therefore, classifying Rwandans into the Hutu, the Twa and the Tutsi.

The “Mise au Point” was a memorandum that was prepared by the High Council of the State in February 1957. It demanded more representation of Rwandans in the political administration of the country.

Rwanda later got her independence from the Belgians on 1st July 1962.

At the end of this unit, a learner is able to assess the performance of the Belgian rule and analyse the process of independence in Rwanda.

1. Explain the circumstances under which the Belgian rule was established in Rwanda.

2. What were the different stages of the Belgian rule in Rwanda?

3. Identify the political, economic and socio-cultural performance of the Belgians in Rwanda.

4. Evaluate the effects of the political reforms undertaken by the Belgians in Rwanda.

5. The Belgian rule influenced both negative and positive changes in Rwanda. Discuss.

6. Identify the causes of the 1959 crisis in Rwanda.7. Describe the effects of the 1959 crisis in Rwanda.

8. Why did King Mutara III Rudahigwa break relations with the colonial rule in the 1950s?

9. Describe the different steps that led to achievement of independence in Rwanda.