History and Citizenship

Activity 4.1

Use a dictionary and internet to find the meaning of the word ‘civilisation’.

Civilisation refers to a process by which a society (or place) reaches an advanced stage of social development and organisation. It is also a stage of social, political or technological development. 

Notion of civilisation

Activity 4.2

Read the following poem then answer the question that follows. 

What a good mother!

 She has always been pregnant and delivers her beauty, Her home has expanded through infrastructural development, She has done her best and she deserves a thousand distinctions, Kigali is the mother and she is always admired by all.

She has delivered beautiful daughters and handsome sons, Giants of peace, walk together with pride and elegance, Her children have good hospitals and schools, Kigali is the mother, the best mother indeed! 

Explain what you learn from the song.

The above poem praises Kigali City, and by extension Rwanda. Indeed there are many things about Rwanda to be proud of. Rwandan culture has developed to the level of complete civilisation. 

Way back in time of Stone Age (Neolithic), people began to group themselves into settlements. They cooperated to make better lives for themselves. According to archeologists, the first settlements were in river valleys or near water bodies. They lived on hunting and gathering food from forests. 

The ancient people developed tools by a slow and torturous process of trial and error. Eventually with these tools, came a true culture. The people devised implements with which to farm, dig irrigation ditches, construct housings and make utensils. 

To help them in their endeavours, they developed a language. The language was first spoken, and later written. They also had to learn rudimentary mathematics. It dealt with how to measure land and count objects such as animals and possessions

At some very early period, people developed the tools to engage in decorative, musical and literary art. The decorative art probably appeared first for example, the remarkable cave paintings. It is likely that people wrote to each other. They also expressed themselves by drawings or pictograms. 

If culture and civilisation are for all practical purposes, then they signify the totality of a society’s achievements. Technological advancements in fields such as arts, politics and religion are the result of human ingenuity. 

Components of civilisation 

Art and architecture: This was seen in the various types of art work and construction of houses. The art work and type of houses expressed the talents, beliefs and values of people in a society. 

Culture: This was a way of life of people in a society or a given area. It differs from goodness, strength and weakness. It was a social norm of people without which they could not live. 

Technology: It involved various tools and skills which people used to make life easier in a society. However, there was always advancement in technology in terms of art, transport, communication and education with the passage of time.

Religion: It is a social institution involving beliefs and practices based on recognising the sacred. It was a unifying factor towards civilisation. 

Trade: In the past, there was exchange of goods for other goods. This was called barter trade. This was made possible through an organised network of earth roads and water ways for moving people and goods from one place to another.

Politics: This is the power or authority that rules a society. Good governance and better administrative policies could boost civilisation in a given society. This went hand in hand with political stability, justice and service delivery  

Language: The system of communication involved symbols that stood for sounds and ideas to record information. A well developed language network in a society was an important factor in civilisation because it promoted easy communication.

                                                Remember!

Formal writing in Rwanda began with the coming of the Europeans.

Economy: The way people used resources to meet their needs was so much important in the society. It was understood that when resources were used sparingly, the society could stand a chance for achieving civilisation quickly. This is because of the growth of the economy.

Activity 4.3

1. Research on how two of the following activities were conducted in traditional Rwanda: • Marriage             

• Family 

• Education 

• Rituals and rites 

• Dressing code

 • sex education 

• Taboos    

2. Write down your findings

From your research, you realise that for every item above there was a systematic way of doing it. The community had to be involved. 

Social organisation of the Rwandan traditional society Family 

A family was the basic unit of society characterised by sharing, giving and receiving. A man (husband) of the first family was the head of the extended family. 

Marriage

Activity 4.4

Describe how marriage ceremonies are conducted in your community. 

If you compare your answers for Activity 4.3 with those of Activity 4.4 you realise some changes. The changes are due to factors such as time, technology and religion.

Whenever a boy or a girl reached 18 years of age, arrangements for marriage would be done. Marriage was an alliance between two families. There were many steps towards marriage. It was a traditional ceremony led by elders with a lot of care. The couple would live in separate houses and form their own unit.

Food

Rwandans fed on agricultural and animal products. They cultivated crops such as cowpeas, broom-corn (sorghum), beans, sweet potatoes, purple yams and calabashes. They also reared cattle for milk and meat.

Fig. 4.1: Food crops in Rwanda

Traditional drinks

Rwandans respected their traditional drink so much. They brew and drank urwagwa and amarwa, banana and sorghum beer respectively. They also drank milk and porridge, especially women and sick people.

Fig. 4.2: Traditional brew

Clothing

Rwandans had their traditional clothes made from plant products and animal skins. Plant product clothes included bark clothes from fig tree and banana stem barks. They were joined together to make a garment. Clothes of skin included uruyonga for boys over ten years, ishabure indengera for girls and ikanda for women. Men put on calf hides while leopard skins were for kings and chiefs.

Education

Rwandans had informal education which was general and Intore education. Education went with sex and age brackets. Young girls were taught by their mothers and paternal aunts. Boys were taught by their fathers on hunting and agriculture.

 Young boys from rich families went to the king’s palace to train. They were trained on warrior drills and were commonly known as Intore. 

Solidarity

Rwandans stood for better relations with neighbours and relatives. They made visits, contributed to each other, made marriage alliances and exchanged cows. Solidarity among Rwandans was achieved through gutabarana (physical mutual help), kwishimana (physical moral presence during times of happiness) and gufashanya (helping one another in some activities requiring community intervention on voluntary basis). To strengthen social relations further, blood pacts ritual (kunywana) was also emphasised in traditional Rwanda. 

Cultural organisation 

Oral literature: Rwandans practised oral literature. Their oral literature included folk tales (imigani), proverbs, riddles and poems. The poems were of many categories. These included pastoral poems, dynastic poems, warrior or epic poems and esoteric code. Other forms of literature were life histories, plays and historical recitations. It was passed down to future generations by word of mouth, typically through memorisation and recitation. It was considered as a verbal form of art. 

Traditional religion: This was one of the most unifying factors that brought Rwandans together. They believed in God (Imana) for everything they were doing. This was seen in giving God (Imana) different names such as Rugira, Ruhanga and Iyakare. Other names given were Iyambere and Rugaba. Different people were given different names to show the supremacy of Imana (God). For example they were given names such as Niyibizi, Niyigena and Nibishaka.

Rwandans believed and remained in touch with Ryangombe who was regarded as the king of spirits and Abazimu through: 

• Guterekera: Appeasing the living dead by giving sacrifices of beer, food and milk. 

• Kuragura: This was a spiritual divination to consult the gods and keep in touch. 

• Kubandwa: This was a special ceremony to worship Ryangombe by imandwa or those who have been initiated to the cult of Ryangombe. The chief imandwa was called Ryangombe. 

There was also Nyabingi cult in the north eastern part of the kingdom.

 Rites related to daily life

 Rwandan society had various rites such child naming, sexual initiation, death ceremony and taboos.

Child naming: This ceremony was done on the evening of the eighth day after a new baby was born. It began with bringing the baby out to the public for the first time. This was called gusohora umwana. All village children from three to ten years would come and cultivate a piece of land using sticks that were shaped in the form of a hoe. Thereafter, a male adult would stop them, and throw water at them. The kids would then run home to be given food in front of adults. The kids would be requested to put forward names, and the father would give the name he had selected. 

Sexual initiation for girls, Gukuna: Young girls were secretly advised and trained to do what was called gukuna. This was a practice of elongating the labia minora. This was done to increase sexual pleasure for both males and females. This was commonly done at puberty stage with some plant extract.  

Death ceremony: Whenever a person died, family members would take part in certain rituals for send off. There was always a period of mourning (kwirabura) announced by head of the family. During that period, sexual relations and working in fields were forbidden. At the end of it, they performed kwera ceremony, to mark the end of mourning.

Taboos and forbidden things: Taboos in Rwanda were commonly known as Kirazira, meaning forbidden. The following taboos existed in Rwandan society: 

(i) Children were forbidden to sit on their fathers stool. 

(ii)  Whistling at night was prohibited. 

(iii)  Sitting on a mortar was forbidden. 

(iv) One could not marry from his or her own clan. 

(v) A wife was not supposed to mention the name of her father in law. 

(vi) Premarital pregnancy was prohibited. 

(vii) Girls were forbidden to climb trees.

Political and military organisation

Activity 4.5 

1. Draw a chart of the structure of administrative units of the Government of Rwanda. Start with the largest to the smallest.

 2. Write down the head of each administrative unit. 

Every administrative unit of Rwanda Government has a leader. These leaders ensure that government policies are implemented. They also link the people at all levels with the government. All these leaders are headed by the president.

The Kingdom of Rwanda also had its administrative system. The Kingdom of Rwanda is known to have started in a small area of Gasabo. It enlarged to a bigger size and was named Rwanda rugari rwa Gasabo, meaning the big size of Rwanda. 

The kingdom of Rwanda was headed by a king with a title of Umwami. This gave him dignity and respect among others. 

The king had a centralised system of administration whereby he was the overall head of administration. He lived in a palace at the centre of a large court and was treated as a divine living. The court was mobile. In principle, he was the sole owner of land and cattle in the whole kingdom. 

Administrative structure and central power 

Activity 4.6

1. Draw a table with two columns and five rows. Insert the name of a ministry in Rwanda in the first column and the respective minister in the next column. Use the example below:

2. Research on the functions of the ministries you have mentioned.

The king, as the head of the kingdom, had daily life that was rather unique. He lived alongside Abiru who performed various rituals as kingdom ritualists. Some words were specifically used on the life style of the king. For example: 

• Carrying him on a stretcher (Kuremererwa) 

• His speech (Irivuze umwami) 

• His palace (Ingoro)

 • Travelling (Kurambagira) 

• His death (Gutanga) The king usually came from Abanyiginya clan. The king’s authority had a symbol of a sacred royal drum called Kalinga. There were other small drums such as Kiragutse, Mpatsibihugu and Rucabagome.

Fig. 4.3: Royal drums (Kalinga)

The king was a supreme judge and had power over life and death. He also had power to wage war and conquest, and to appoint and dismiss leaders.  He also administered justice in the kingdom. The king was a great personality because of different important roles he played. He was commonly referred to as Imana (God) and called usually as Nyagasani. 

The Queen mother: She was the biological mother of the king, though not in all cases. She was regarded as an important person in the palace in the exercise of power. She was the first chief advisor (counsellor) of the king. She guided the actions of the king. 

Abiru: These were officials of the kingdom in charge of ubwiru. The chief abiru came from Abatsobe clan. They were guardians of the tradition and kept the secrets of the kingdom.  They also advised and counselled the king, and kept the royal drum, Kalinga. 

Rwanda Kingdom was further divided into Districts called Ibiti, headed by chiefs appointed by the king. These Districts were further sub-divided into Ibikingi (Sub-districts) also headed by chiefs. Sub-districts were also subdivided into Imirenge and headed by a chief answerable to Ibikingi

Military/army (Ingabo)

Activity 4.7 

1. Write down the name of Rwanda’s Army Chief of Staff. 

2. Explain how he/she is appointed.

A new king recruited a new army. The king, based on the powers entrusted in him, appointed the head of the army. The head of the army was referred to as army chief (Umugaba w’ingabo). The king was the commander-in-chief, and the army chief reported to him directly.

Duties of the army chief 

• Recruiting fighters in the army; 

• Monitoring the Districts and reporting to the king; 

• Supplying the courts with certain items; 

• Preparing the soldiers for war; 

• Planing and coordinating activities related to the cattle of the army.

Economic organisation 

Agriculture

Activity 4.8 

Give a list of food and cash crops, and animals grown and kept in your Province.

This refers to growing of crops and rearing of animals. The ancient Kingdom of Rwanda people practised subsistence agriculture specifically to feed their own homes and families. People used their own hand-made hoes. They grew crops such as sorghum, millet, beans yams and pumpkins. 

Slashing the bush for farming was the role of men while women resorted to weeding. They also looked after granaries.

                                                         Remember!

After the coming of the Europeans, various types of crops were introduced. They were introduced to supplement what already existed before. The crops introduced included groundnuts, cassava, rice, soya beans, green peas and Irish potatoes. Others were cash crops such as coffee and tea. 

Cattle keeping

Ancient Rwandan people were closely associated with rearing cattle. It was like a tradition to own cows. Various types and species of cows were reared. These included Inyambo, Inyankole and Inkuku cows. Men took the role of herding or looking after livestock. People of Rwanda also reared goats, sheep and chicken. Cows were reared for social exchange, prestige, respect, milk, food and skins.

Commerce/trade 

Activity 4.9

1. Identify the trading activities that most people from your District are involved in. 

2. Apart from profit making, explain why you think they are involved in those particular trading activities.

Commerce refers to the buying and selling of goods especially on a large scale. In the past, it was carried out between different societies depending on the goods each sold. In traditional Rwandan society, people carried out trade as an economic activity

Barter trade

 People exchanged goods for goods, and services for services. Main items used for exchange included cattle, skins and craft. They were exchanged within and outside Rwanda Kingdom. The kingdoms that Rwanda traded with included Ankole, Burundi, Buganda, Bushi and Karagwe. Goods exchanged were made or obtained from some of the following activities: 

(a) Art and craft 

The people of ancient Rwanda were so skilled in making various things. They manufactured and produced items such as hoes, axes, swords, spears, hammers, knives and needles. They also made various products from weaving. Men wove trays, doors and stretchers. Women and girls wove mats and baskets. In carpentry, they made items such as spoons, stools, bows and plates.

(b) Pottery

 Rwandans also obtained clay from swamps and made pottery. Products included pots for fetching water and keeping beer, and pipes for smoking tobacco. They also did some carpentry work. Products made included spoons, plates, stools, canoes, bows, playing boards, hair combs and pipes. 

(c) Bee keeping 

Rwandans kept bees around the places where they lived. People made traditional bee hives and put them up in a tree branch to trap bees. Bee keepers harvested honey and its various products. This was after some time in dry season. Honey could be mixed with sorghum to make inkangaza and inturire local beer drinks. 

(d) Hunting The ancient 

Rwandan people practised hunting as an economic activity. They hunted hares, leopards, porcupines, antelopes and gazelles. They tamed, trained and used specific tough dogs for hunting down the wild animals. Alongside dogs, they used other equipment such as spears, snares, arrows, and bows for hunting.

Activity 4.10

look at the following picture

Describe what you see

Famine and epizooties

The Kingdom of Rwanda suffered several famines during the pre-colonial period. People gave these famines different names depending on the harm made, villages affected and time. 

Famines were primarily caused by prolonged sunshine that resulted to drought. The drought made plants dry out in gardens before the harvest season. 

It was also because of constant wars of expansion that made so many people busy in fighting. They forgot to practise agriculture as people were still running up and down. They had no time to settle down and cultivate. 

Poor timing of agricultural seasons culminated into famine at one time or another. Crops could either be affected by floods or meet sunshine season before reaching harvest season.

Pests and diseases also affected crops. They were eaten up by pests and attacked by various diseases leading to drying out. Common pests included locusts, grasshoppers, rodents and rats.

Different famines that affected Rwanda at different times had far reaching effects. These were: 

• A big number of people and animals died due to lack of food and pasture respectively.

• Vegetation dried out leading to destruction of environment and natural beauty. This was felt especially in case where famine was caused by prolonged sunshine.

 • Famine also affected the Kingdom of Rwanda negatively in terms of the economy. It led to reduction of royalties and taxes. 

• People also suffered from poor feeding because of inadequate food supply in various families of Rwanda. Several granaries of families remained empty.

Some of the famines that affected Rwanda in the pre-colonial period include the following: 

(a) Macumu famine

 (b) Rukungugu famine 

(c) Muhatigicumuro famine 

(d) Kijugunya famine 

(e) Ruyaga famine

Pre-colonial famines in Rwanda

Macumu famine (1690): This was the famine that occurred in Rwanda in the period between 1690 and 1708. It was during the reign of Cyilima II Rujugira. It was caused by warfare that characterised his reign as well as a large number of emigrants into the kingdom from Bunyambiriri to Bugoyi, north east of Lake Kivu. 

Rukungugu famine (1797): This affected Rwanda during the reign of Yuhi IV Gahindiro. It was caused by drought that hit the country between 1797 and 1830. This famine led to the drying of crops due to lack of sufficient rainfall. 

Muhatigicumuro famine (1890): This was experienced in some parts of Huye. It was caused by insufficient rains, which affected crop fields in the whole region. This famine led to crop failure, which not only affected people, but animals as well.

Kijugunya famine (1895): It happened during the reign of Kigeli Rwabugiri. There was massive crop failure caused by drought that affected the Rwanda Kingdom. Many people starved.

Ruyaga famine (1902-1903): This famine struck several parts of Rwanda causing widespread scarcity of food. This was because of crop failure and death of cattle. It occurred during the reign of King Yuhi V Musinga.

Socio-political and economic dependence in pre-colonial Rwanda

Ubuhake

This was a customary contract between the owner of the cattle and person who wished to acquire a cow. The owner of the cow was known as Sebuja (patron). The client was known as Umugaragu. 

The contract was because a person would be looking for protection from a more powerful patron. He would seek social protection from a wealthy patron. 

The Ubuhake was primarily on individual liberty. One entered freely and left freely as he so wished especially after acquiring enough cows. This meant that he could then stand on his own.

Patrons and clients had a common link and shared commitments as they made Ubuhake in the society.

The following were the duties of the client: 

(i) Cultivating the fields of the patron 

(ii) Looking after the cattle and ensuring that the milk was of good quality 

(iii) Repairing homesteads 

(iv) Guarding homes at night 

(v) Providing liquor 

(vi) Building fences 

(vii) Escorting the patron to war 

(viii) Acting as a messenger 

(ix) Gushumbusha in case of loose of cattle

Patron’s duties included: 

(i) Protecting the client against those who were socially stronger than him and others likely to be enemies 

(ii) Assisting the client in court 

(iii) Redeeming the client 

(iv) Giving bull calves and milk 

(v) Contributing to formation of a new herd 

Ubukonde

This was a system where people gained rights to large tracts of land by being the first to clear and valorise the land (known as gukonda). In this system, a lineage held rights to land corporately and major decisions about managing land holdings were taken by the lineage chief (umutware w’umuryango). The abakonde lineages held economic and political power over their ubukonde and could grant rights to abagererwa to use the land in their territory. Clients were required to make payments to their patrons, most often in the form of a portion of the harvests or in manual labour. This took place in the patrons’ fields or enclosure.

There were many types of ubukonde. These were ubukonde bw’ inzogera (hunting grounds), ubukonde bw’ inka (grazing lands) and ubukonde bw’ isuka (agricultural lands). In all these types, the umukonde (ubukonde/abagererwa owner) allowed abagererwa access to these lands in exchange for gifts and/ or labour.

Uburetwa

This was traditional constraints introduced during Rwabugiri’s reign in some regions where it was mandatory for each man to work two days out of five days in a week (a week was 7 days) for a political administrative leader without any compensation.

                                                      Remember! 

During the Belgian administration in Rwanda, uburetwa was expanded. Each male adult was to work one day per week. This continued throughout the colonial era because of the following needs: 

(i)  Developing infrastructure 

(ii)  Introducing industrial crops 

(iii)  Fighting famine through compulsory agriculture

Revision questions 

1. List down 6 economic activities that were carried out in pre-colonial Rwanda. 

2. Discuss the role played by the following leaders in pre-colonial Rwanda: (a) The king (b) Queen mother (c) Ritualists (d) Army chief (e) Land chief 

3. (a) Define the term civilisation.

 (b)  Briefly list down the components of civilisation. 

4. (a)  Give at list 6 causes of famines in pre-colonial Rwanda.

 (b) State the consequences of famines in pre-colonial Rwanda. 

5. Discuss the role of the army in ancient Rwanda during civilisation.

 6. List down the duties of clients and patrons during Ubuhake in precolonial Rwanda. 

7.  As a student of History, explain what you can do to preserve the Rwandan traditional culture.