Topic outline
Unit 1: HISTORICAL SOURCES
Key Unit Competence:
To be able to analyze and critique historical sources of information
Mutesi is a History teacher in Senior one at Groupe Scolaire Musumba.
At the beginning of the new school year 2023-2024. While she was
introducing a new lesson, she invited her students to tell her different
ways through which they can be informed about the past of their
ancestors. If you had been one of her students, what answers would
you have given to her. Add what you think can be the importance ofstudying History
1.1 Definition and different sources of History
Definition
Using the history books, internet and a dictionary make research on
the definition of the term “History” and different sources of Historical
information
Sources of History
The Sources of Historical information include the following:
(i) Oral tradition
(ii) Written sources
(iii) Electronic sources (Audio-visual sources)
(iv) Archaeology
(v) Linguistics
(vi)Anthropology
(vii )Genetics
Each of these sources of historical information has been discussed below
Each of these sources of historical information has been discussed below
(i) Oral tradition
That process of telling information by word of mouth is called oral tradition.
It is one method of collecting historical information.
Oral tradition is defined as any information passed by word of mouth
Oral tradition is defined as any information passed by word of mouth
(verbally) from one generation to another. This is done through
socialisation especially between the young and the old.
Oral traditions may be in form of songs, stories, legends, poems, folktales
and proverbs of people’s past. It is based on eyewitness accounts about
an event.
Oral traditions are transmitted mostly by traditionalists, old men and
old women. These people have a wide knowledge in history of their
societies in different areas of life including politics, economics, medicine,
administration, technology, culture, etc.
(ii) Written sourcesWritten sources are the information related to the past recorded by
writing in form of letters, words or other written symbols found in books,
diaries, newspapers, magazines, journals, non-published documents,
letters, magazines, journals, inscriptions on coins and newspapers among
others. These written documents are often found in libraries, archives, on
internet, bookshops, etc.
(iii) Electronic sources (Audio-visual sources)
An electronic source generally refers to any device or component that
produces or utilizes electrical signals. This can include electronic devices
such as computers, smartphones, sensors, and other gadgets. It may
also refer to electronic sources of information, such as digital databases,
online publications, or any other content that is stored or transmitted
electronically.
Getting information through seeing and hearing is what we call audiovisual.
It is one of the ways through which historical information is
collected.
It also deals with obtaining information by listening to or watching other
devices. It is one of the modern sources of information.(iv) Archaeology
It refers to the study of dug up materials or material remains of people’s
past. Ryamurari is one of the archaeological sites in our country. It is
located in Bufunda Village, Bufunda Cell, Mukama Sector, Nyagatare
District in Eastern Province.Important!
As a way of conserving the environment, places of historical importance
need to be protected. Such places can be used to generate income to the
locals and to the government. This can be achieved through tourism.(v) LinguisticsLinguistics deals with the study and analysis of languages, their sound,
evolution structure and formation. It also deals with the relationship
between various languages. From these studies, one can conclude that
people of the same language may have been in contact. For example,
Bantu language ( Kinyarwanda, Luganda ,Kiswahili, Kirundi…) has
common words linked to ‘NTU’ that indicates that they may share a
common historical origin.
Important!
Even when all of you have a common local language, the pronunciations
of words may differ. This is because of where each of you was born. In spite
of all this, the meaning remains the same. Language is a unifying factor
among people. This is because they can understand each other, relate
well and solve any issues that may arise amongst them. This promotes
peace in the long run.
(vi) Anthropology
This is the study of the existing social institutions and relationships of
people’s cultures, traditions, norms, values and attitudes. It deals with the
study of how societies were established. It also deals with how they were
socially, economically and politically organised. All these acts are the basis
of transformation of society to the present status.
By studying people’s past, we appreciate their culture. This helps us to
pick and promote acceptable behaviour. We also avoid what has been
proved negative to the general wellbeing of the society.
In Rwanda, the Institute of National Museum is a good source of
information. It has information on the history of the country and the
region.
Rwanda is known worldwide as a country of a thousand hills. It is also
one of the world’s richest nations in terms of diversified cultural heritage.
The Rwandan cultural heritage contains both tangible and intangible
components.
These include sites that offer an incomparable view of the beauty of our
country. They also give our visitors a platform to learn about Rwandan
History, mythology and culture. Travelling through the country provides
an interesting insight into some of those sites. Most of these sites are
often located in beautiful countryside.
The Institute of National Museums of Rwanda (INMR) researches on these
sites. It is a way of identifying, protecting and promoting them for cultural
heritage. Cultural heritage promotes tourism.
(vii) GeneticsGenetics is the study of genes, heredity and genetic variations in living
organisms. Genetic studies enables historians to categorise different
races and ethnic groups. The study of Genetics enables historians to
understand human identity and origins of different communities. Since
this occurs over time, a historian can capture relevant periods in the
development of people.Through comparative studies of DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
which is inherited from parents, it is widely believed that
modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens, originated in Africa.
1. Briefly define the term “History”.
2. Explain any two sources of History.1.2 Primary and secondary sources of information
By using internet or the History books in library, carry out research
on primary and secondary sources of information
The sources of information may be acquired from people who
had firsthand account of the event or events. One way is through
narrations. This makes up primary sources of information.
The information may as well be interpreted, analysed and written.
The writings may be in form of stories, pictures or even symbols and
signs. This form of passing historical information make up secondary
sources of information.Primary sources of History
I was present during the wedding between Ms Ingabire and Mr
Mazimpaka. I swear that was the wedding of the year. It could only
be likened to a state function. Many dignitaries from Rwanda and
other countries were present. The most memorable moment was
their arrival. I saw and counted fifty cars. What a motorcade!
About thirty minutes after the cars had been parked, a thunderous
sound was heard. Attention of those present shifted to the sky. Ten
white choppers were descending to earth. They landed in style,
one after the other. The bride and the groom alighted. They were
received by a well-trained band. In short, it was a colorful wedding
ceremony.
The above narration gives a first-hand account of the wedding. The
person talking witnessed the wedding. This is an example of a primary
source.
Primary sources provide first-hand accounts about a person or a historical
event. Examples of primary sources of History are:
•Letters • Manuscripts
•Speeches • Photographs
• Diaries • Artefacts
•Oral
Secondary sources of History
Five years down the line, the wedding of Mr and Mrs Mazimpaka is still
being talked about. It is said that it was attended by dignitaries from
Rwanda and beyond. Some say that the bride and the bridegroom
were escorted by about ten choppers. The number of vehicles at the
ceremony is said to have been over forty.
The above is an extract from one of the local newspapers in Rwanda.
It reports about the wedding you read about under primary sources of
History. Such a report is what makes a secondary source. This is because
secondary sources of History interpret and analyse primary sources of
History. They may have pictures, quotes or graphics of primary sources in
them. Examples of secondary sources of History include:
•Magazines
•Articles•Encyclopedia
3. Distinguish primary sources from secondary sources.
4. Among the documents below, distinguish primary and
secondary sources: textbooks, pictures of my parents when
they were young, old weeding dress, letter, stories, maps and
pottery.1.3 Process of collecting Historical information
By using internet or the History books in library to conduct research
on the process of collecting historical information
Kayirege is a student who sits in front of the class because she is
short-sighted. She was given a task by her Mathematics teacher.
She was asked to write the names of students in her class. She wrote
eighteen names for all the girls and sixteen names for the boys. On
that day, one male student, who was sick, was absent. She indicated
this on her list. She presented the list to her teacher afterwards.
By doing this exercise, Kayirege was collecting information about
her class.
The following is the process of collecting information:
• Data collection
• Data analysis• Conclusion
Historical information is collected following the same process.
By writing the names, Kayirege was collecting information about
members of her class. Data collection is gathering of information from
different sources. The methods of data collection include questionnaires,
interviews, focus groups, survey, tape-recording, filming, photographing
and observation.
To determine the number of female and male students, Kayirege was to
analyse the information she had collected. Her further analysis showed
that one student, who was male, was absent. Data analysis involves
putting or simplifying the data collected for easy interpretation. It can be
put in categories, tabular, pictorial, chart or graph form.
From the class list Kayirege presented to the teacher, a conclusion could
easily be made. For example, one can calculate the ratio of girls to boys in
the class. It is also possible to calculate the percentage of girls and boys
in the class. This is called a conclusion. A conclusion is therefore making
decisions on the data collected.
1.4. Different ways of collecting historical information in ancient Rwanda
With an example, explain how you can collect data, analyzing them
and make a conclusion.
Through reading different sources of information, suggest the ways of
collecting historical information about ancient Rwanda. involves various
methods and sources. It is important to note that the availability and
reliability of sources may vary, and historians often rely on a combination
of methods to piece together a comprehensive understanding of the
past.
Oral sources are the most important in the study of the History of ancient
Rwanda, we can distinguish four different oral sources:• Historical stories;
• Genealogies;
• Poetry and songs;
• “Ubwiru” or esoteric code1. Historical stories
Historical stories (ibitekerezo) narrate ancient events. These are dividedinto three major categories:
Official stories
These are narrated by people who learnt them systematically from their
parents or their neighbors. Their origin was usually an official edition of
chosen events and these stories were usually passed through the royal
court.Popular stories
They are more or less presented in the same way as the official stories but
these ones enjoyed more freedom in their transmission. These stories have
to a large extent interesting marvelous legends, tales/imigani miremire,proverbs/imigani migufi, and riddles/ibisakuzo
Familiar stories
These are of great importance to the history of Rwanda because they
were private and therefore were not manipulated.They cover the period of the reign of King RWABUGIRI up to today. For
example, it is said that in these popular stories, it was King Rwabugiri who
brought maize.2.Genealogies
Genealogy is the study of families, family history and the tracing of thelineages. Gealogies are divided into :
Dynastic genealogy (ubucurabwenge
This is an original text which was orally and carefully transmitted by
genealogists called “Abacurabwenge”. “Ubucurabwenge” can cite proper
names of all the Kings of Rwanda and their royal titles. This genealogy was
and is still the most important source for the chronology of the History of
RwandaFamily genealogy
These are useful because they complete the chronology given by dynastic
genealogists. In precolonial Rwanda, declamation of genealogy used to
help people or families to identify themselves in the community.3.Poems and Songs
Poetry in Rwanda is transmitted in an imaginary form. Commentators
can give interpretation and sense to these poems. These commentaries
are often lacking in many aspects. In ancient Rwanda, there were various
types of poetry: dynastic poetry, pastoral poetry (amahamba/amazina
y’inka) warrior poetry (ibyivugo). Dynastic poetry (Ibisigo): showed praises
of merit and bravery and heroism to the reigning and departed kings.
Traditional songs and dance are big parts of life in Rwanda. They are
mixed in festivals, social events, wedding, naming a child, giving a cow
etc. As an example, Intore dance is a traditional performance that talks
about bravery activities of Rwandans in ancient period. It is performed
by drums. Both men and women are participated in this traditional
performance. Another traditional music and dance is amahigi, which
is dedicated to hunting activities. Some other type of folk songs which
can be mentioned and accompanied with dance too are ibihozo (choral
songs), indirimbo z’ingabo (warriors’ songs), amasare (wrestling songs), ...
4.Esoteric code (Ubwiru)This text was exclusively for the abiru who were special advisers to the
King. They were charged with the responsibility of knowing all the rules
and application of these rules relating to the royal institution. They also
supervised the symbolic representations and behaviors of the Kings. The
abiru texts were rituals, which were learnt by heart by the abiru.
As for other traditional African societies, ancient Rwandans had the
ways of collecting historical information. Mention and briefly explain
them.1.5. Importance of studying History
By using internet or the History books in library to conduct research
on the importance of studying History.Gahizi, Kwikiriza and Hakuzimana were high school friends. They all
studied History. They recently met in a café for their business deals.
Gahizi: Tomorrow, I will be passing judgement on a case that has
been ongoing for months now. However, I am happy that the end
seems near.
Kwikiriza: As for me, I will be indoor. We were out of the city
overseeing road constructions.
Hakuzimana: Then I suggest we meet next weekend because
I will be having History lectures with my university students on
Wednesday and Thursday. Can we meet somewhere else or will we
come back here to discuss our pending business deal?
From the conversation, it is evident that the trio went on to pursue
lucrative careers. The study of History further enabled them get their
current jobs. From them, we learn that History is a career subject.
The following are other reasons why History is more than a career subject:• History prepares us for the future, after we have known the present
and past. For example, Rwanda’s pre-colonial, colonial and postcolonial eras
helps us plan for our country.•The study of History inspires us and instills in us a patriotic and
nationalistic spirit. This spirit develops as we learn about our heroes
such as Ruganzu II Ndoli.•We study History as a career subject. Through it, we can become
teachers, lawyers, administrators, curators and politicians.
•It also sharpens our critical sense as it widens our knowledge
and competencies. Through History, we can read, write, interpret
information, debate and draw logical conclusions and judgments.• It promotes moral principles through the study of personalities
with high moral standards. It helps us to avoid any form of injustice.
• It helps to promote international understanding among nations
and people. This is through the study of other countries’ systems
of governance. It can be achieved through actions of international
organisations such as the United Nations (UN), African Union (AU)
and the East African Community (EAC).• It helps us to be tolerant. Through the study of History, we are
able to learn about culture and values of different ethnic groups,
tribes and races. This is important in the promotion of mutual
understanding, tolerance and peaceful co-existence.• It helps us to understand the nature of social, economic and
political problems of a given society.• It helps us to make a thorough analysis of the past events such as
the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. This will help us prevent them
from occurring again.
Explain any three elements for justifying the importance of learningHistory.
1.6. Challenges in collecting historical sources
By using internet or the History books in library to conduct research
on the challenges encountered in collecting historical sources
Other challenges in collecting historical information• Some sources are inconvenient to use for all learners. For instance,
oral tradition which cannot be used by people with hearing
impairments.
• Some historical sources are affected by language barrier.
• A piece of information may be in a local language which might
be not easy to translate into another language. Written records
cannot be used by illiterate people.
•Oral traditional sources are highly affected by death. Once someone
dies before it is recorded then the information is lost.•Some historical sources are very hard to interpret and are usually
misinterpreted. For example, use of gestures. In some cases, stone
inscriptions found in caves are sources of historical information,
though may be hard to interpret.• In some cases, getting the right information takes a longer time.
This is because of the many processes involved.
•Some historical sources such as archaeology are expensive to use.
They require expensive resources such as excavation and laboratory
equipment.
• Some historical sources such as archaeology require experts and
skilled people. Such experts are usually lacking in some areas.
• It is also difficult to trace some historical information especially
where fossils are involved.
Referring to the above challenges of collecting historical information,
what are the challenges of collecting historical information in ancient
Rwanda.
1. Identify the source of information that will be easier to use for:(a) The visually impaired2. Justify the importance of studying History.
(b) The physically handicapped
(c) Those with hearing impairments
3. I identify different ways through which historical information is
collected.
4. Explain the challenges faced in collecting historical information.Files: 3Unit 2: EVOLUTION OF HUMANKIND
Key unit competence: To be able to analyse how humankind evolved,
developed and settled in different parts of Africa.
The earth planet was inhabited for the first time by humankind a few
million years ago. The scientific theory stipulates that the first forms
of human beings were assimilated to apes and the latter underwent
evolution so as to lead to the present forms of hominids. Explain the
evolution theory propounded by Charles Darwin.2.1. Origin of Humankind
By reading History book or use internet and carry out research on
the of mankind.
There are two theories explaining the human origin and evolution:
The creation theory/Biblical theory: This theory explains that humankind
was created by God, according to Genesis 1 and 2. God created man from
soil and later a woman from man’s rib (Adam and Eve). The two were
given responsibility to reproduce and fill the earth.
The scientific theory: The modern theory concerning the evolution
of humankind has a different view. It proposes that humans and apes
derived from an ape-like ancestor who is said to have undergone five
distinctive stages that are discussed below.The ape-like ancestor lived on earth a few million years ago. The theory
states that humankind emerged through a combination of environmentaland genetic factors.
Perhaps the most famous proponent of evolution theory was Charles
Darwin (1809-82). He authored The Origin of Species (1859) to describe
his theory of evolution. Since then, humankind’s origin has generally
been explained from an evolutionary perspective. Moreover, the theory
of man’s evolution has been and continues to be modified. New findings
are discovered and revisions to the theory are adopted.
1.Explain the creation theory of man.
2.-Describe the scientific theory of evolution of man.
2.2. Evolution of humans
By reading History book or use internet carry out research on the
evolution of humankind.
The evolution of man refers to the stages through which human beings
went through in order to become the present-day human beings.
Humankind evolution passed through the following five stages:• Australopithecus
• Homo habilis
• Homo erectus
• Homo sapiens• Homo sapiens sapiens
i) Australopithecus: lived between 3.9 and 3.0 million years ago. He
retained the apelike face with a sloping forehead. He had a ridge over the
eyes. He had flat nose, etc. The remains of Australopithecus were found in
Kenya.ii) Homo habilis: was also called The Handy Man because tools were
found with his fossil remains. He existed between 2.4 and 1.5 million years
ago. The brain shape shows evidence that some speech had developed.He was 5’ tall and weighed about 100 pounds.
iii) Homo erectus: lived between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago.
Towards the end, his brain size was like that of modern human beings. He
definitely could speak, developed tools, weapons and fire. He also learned
to cook his own food. He developed clothing for northern climates. He
turned to hunting for his food. Only his head and face differed from those
of modern human beings.
iv) Homo sapiens: lived in Europe and in the Middle East between
150,000 and 35,000 years ago. His brain size averaged larger than modern
human being. His head was shaped differently, longer and lower. His nose
was large and extremely different from that of modern human beings in
structure.
He was a massive man, about 5’ 6” tall. He had a heavy skeleton, etcv)Homo sapiens sapiens (or modern man): he evolved in Africa and
migrated widely in the world. This species is estimated to have come
into existence about 200,000 years ago. Fossils of this species have been
found in Omo River Valley, north of Lake Turkana, Singa in Sudan and
Ngaloba in Tanzania. The brain of Homo sapiens sapiens resembled that
of modern man. He was more advanced in speech and technology
A number of sites excavated by popular archaeologists of the 20th Century
points to this. Dr Leakey worked in the 1960s and 1970s at a site called
Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania.
Archaeological evidence tells the fact that people in this era lived on
scavenged meat. They also ate wild plants. In short, they practised hunting
and gathering.
Dr Leakey’s works discovered other sites around Lake Turkana in northern
Kenya. The discoveries were largely similar to that of Olduvai Gorge.
Donald Johansson worked separately from Dr Leakey, a decade later in
northern Ethiopia. He found fossils that confirmed great human presence
in the region several thousand years before.The life and survival of early manThe evolution and culture of early man are often studied according to
stones ages. These were periods when tools were almost completely
made from stone. This grouping applies to Africa, south of the Sahara.
In North Africa, the Nile Valley, Europe and Asia, the applicable term is
Paleolithic, a Greek word meaning Old Stone. Production of tools marked
significant stages in mankind’s progress. The brain-hand-eye coordination
and control resulted in tools whose refinement has never ended. Various
species of early man manufactured them for different purposes.
Over time, man spread beyond the few identified spots originality. He
spread to other places on the continent and beyond to other continents.
This was influenced by climatic conditions as well as his search for food.
Also, man spread while escaping from dangerous animals that could eat
him.
It also happened as a result of purposeless wandering. Man kept on
moving in any direction without any specific point to return to. This is
because man was wild, without any element of domestication.
1. Justify the following assertion: “Africa is the cradle of humanity.”
2. Describe the characteristics of Homo Sapiens.
2.3. Discoveries made in stone age periodLearning Activity 2.3
By using internet or the History books in library to conduct research
on the stone age periods.Did you know?
Stones were used to carry out the activities you have mentioned
above.
Stone Age is a period that precedes History. It was the period when human
beings did not know how to read and write.
Pre-history is made up of three periods:• Early Stone Age (1,500,000-750,000 BC)
• Middle Stone Age (750,000-300,000 BC)
• Late Stone Age (300,000-50,000 BC)
Archaeologists and historians have referred to this period as Stone Age
Period. This is because major tools used at that time were made out of
stones.
Early Stone Age period (Palaeolithic)• During this period, man’s activities were hunting and gathering
food from forests.
• Man was living a wandering life and lived on trees.
• Man was shaping stones into double edged hand axe that was
used in hunting
The Middle Stone Age period (Mesolithic)
During this period, there was improved method of making shaped flakes
from bigger stones. The flakes became tools for cutting meat, scraping
skins and sharpening of weapons.•Man learnt to bind together stones into wooden handles which
was called hafting. They were able to make improved tools such as
ropes and poisoned arrows for hunting.
•Man invented fire and used it for roasting meat, warming himself
and scaring away wild animals.
• Man continued with food gathering, that is, collecting fruits, leaves,
stems and roots.
Man started keeping domestic animals such as dogs, cats and
goats.
• Man started living in caves and forming small families.
• Man invented fishhooks and canoes
We need to preserve and conserve ‘the country of a thousand hills’
because it is our heritage.Late Stone Age/Neolithic period
This is the period when human beings started making great changes.They improved their ways of life. It is characterised by the following:
• They started constructing small huts using grass, trees and skins.
• They settled in a permanent place and stopped wandering.
•They started putting on skins and woven clothes.
•They began farming in order to produce their own food. This
constitutes a revolution known as a Neolithic revolution.
•They used fertilizers and storage facilities.
•They started living in villages and forming communities.
• They increased domestication of several domestic animals such as
horses, cows, sheep and pigs.
•They started iron working and began using iron tools such as
machetes, hoes and knives. They used less stone tools.
•They started using better tools for hunting such as spears, arrows
and bows.
• They made rules and regulations to have law and order in the
societies.
• They began to bury the dead in graves instead of leaving them to
rot on the ground.
•They started exchanging items with other communities (trade).
1. Explain in which way the adoption of farming is considered as the
Neolithic Revolution.
2. What was the style of living of the mankind during the early stone
age?
By using internet or the History books research the characteristics
of hunter gatherer societies.Learning Activity 2.4(i) People lived by wandering from place to place. They moved from one
place to another.
(ii) People lived in groups or communities based on their lineages and
clans.
(iii) The major economic activities were hunting wild animals and
gathering wild fruits for food.
(iv) Informal education was administered from parents to children.
(v) Stone tools were mainly used for cutting meat and for protection.
(vi) The societies had no laws to govern them because they lived a semipermanent life.
(vii) In these societies, land was owned communally, not individually.
Everyone had a right to settle where they wanted.
(viii)Herbal medicine was used to treat wounds, coughs and diseases
such as malaria.
(ix)Intermarriages were common among people, but on consent of
parents from both parties.
(x)The societies had no hierarchical social structure of administration.
1. Explain what are the hunter gatherer societies.
2. Describe three characteristics of the hunter gatherer societies.
1. Explain the origin of humankind.
2. Discuss humankind’s major discoveries in the Neolithic
period.
3. Explain why Africa is called the cradle land of man.
4. Describe some developments of man during the middle
stone age.
5. Explain the importance of fire to early man.
6. Differentiate between modern human beings and apes.Unit 4: TRANS- SAHARAN TRADE
Key unit competence: To be able to describe the development and
decline of Trans Saharan Trade.
Observe the below picture and say what you see on.
Which idea does the picture suggest to you about the geographical
location?
Relate this picture to the new unit that has to be studied here.
4.1. Rise and development of Trans-Saharan Trade
After answering the following three questions, read the following
case study and find out the reasons that may lead to the expansion
of Neza’s business.
1. Use a dictionary to find the meanings of the following:
(a) trans
(b) trade
2. Using an atlas, identify and list the major deserts of Africa.
3. Describe the characteristics of desert climate.
Case study
Neza started a small retail shop in Kibuye Town. After three years, she
turned it into a wholesale shop. It did not take long before she opened a
very big supermarket to replace the wholesale shop. Currently, she hopesto start a new firm.
State the possible reasons that may have led to the expansion of Neza’s
business.
One of the deserts that you have mentioned probably is Sahara Desert.
Sahara Desert is the biggest desert in Africa. The Trans-Saharan Trade
was conducted across it.
Trans-Saharan Trade was the trade or commercial activity carried out
between the north African Berbers and west African negroes across the
Sahara desert. Some historians suggested that the trade might have
begun in the 2nd century.The volume of trade remained low until camels were introduced form
Asia. After that the volume of trade increased.Furthermore, the trade gained momentum in the 7th Century when
the Arabs conquered North Africa. The conquest forced the Berbers to
migrate southwards. Consequently, it gave them a greater advantage to
participate in the trade. By the 11th Century, a profitable trade had been
developed. During this trade, the Berbers from North Africa acted as
middle men.
The following factors show the reasons behind the growth and expansion
of Trans-Saharan Trade.
(i) Introduction of Camels
The introduction of camels greatly helped in its improvement, especially
in the means of transport. In addition to the above, the camels could also
carry large amounts of goods. They could also take long without drinkingwater.
(ii) Emergence of West African empires
Some of such important empires included Mali, Ghana and Songhai.
The leaders of those empires ensured security for the traders which
encouraged more people to join the trade.
(iii) The conquest of North Africa by the ArabsThis forced the Berbers to migrate southwards. They finally reached
West Africa. That marked the beginning of the trade. Furthermore, they
introduced a common language (Arabic). This encouraged the coming ofmore Arabs who participated in the trade thereby developing it.
(iv) The spread of Islamic religion in West AfricaWith the spread of Islam in West Africa, Muslim traders felt secure to
carry out trade. Islam acted as a uniting factor. Islam also increased trustamong the traders through brotherhood and unity.
(v)Re-production of different commodities by West and North AfricaThis led to the need of exchanging goods produced in the two regions. It
eventually led to the development of the trade for example gold, slaves
and kola nuts from west Africa, camels, clothes and weapons from northAfrica. It eventually led to the development of the trade.
(vi) The presence of the Tuaregs and BerbersThe Tuaregs of the desert maintained wells and guided traders and the
Berbers initiated and provided capital in the trade.(vii) High profits
The trade grew because of the high profits that were involved. This
attracted many more people to join.
(viii) Absence of natural barriersThere were no natural barriers such as lakes and mountains between
North Africa and West Africa. This made movement of goods and peopleeasy.
Trans-Saharan Trade was done the same way trade is done today. The
only difference is that there was no standard medium of exchange
in form of money.
.Identify and explain the factors for the rise and development of
Trans Saharan Trade. 8.14.2. Effects of the Trans–Saharan Trade
According to you, in not more than 100 words, identify and discuss
the socio- economic importance of the market you visited in the
community.
The market you visited in your community serve similar importance
like the Trans- Saharan Trade. Both provide employment
opportunities and foster economic development in terms of taxes.The effects Trans-Saharan Trade were:
(i) The trade led to the exploitation of African resources such as minerals,
ivory and agricultural products. That led to their exhaustion.(ii) It led to the introduction of new commodities in West Africa such as
beads, clothes and guns.
(iii) It led to the development of many trading centers/towns that grew
into big cities. Such centers were Tripoli, Fez, and Timbuktu.
(iv) It led to the development of trade routes that have become permanent
roads till today.
(v) The trade also provided employment opportunities to many people
such as guides, guards and porters. It improved their standards of
living.
(vi) Many people who participated in the trade became rich. For instance,
kings of West Africa and the Arabs.
(vii) The trade also created a lot of suffering to the Africans. Most of them
were taken into slavery.
(viii) It also led to depopulation of many areas due to slavery.
(ix) It led to the introduction of Islam into West Africa. This was due to the
participation of many Arabs in the trade.
(x) It led to intermarriages between the Arabs and the Africans. This gave
rise to a new race of coloured Africans.
(xi) It led to the spread of Islamic education. For example, Islamic
universities were established in Mali and Songhai.
(xii) The trade also brought many Arabs into West Africa. These Arabs
settled there permanently.
(xiii) The trade also created a lot of insecurity as guns were brought in big
numbers.
(xiv) It also brought Islamic architecture into West Africa. Most of the
buildings resembled those of the Islamic world.
Explain the effects of Trans Saharan Trade.
1. In your own point of view, why do you think businesses fail?
2. Suggest ways that can be undertaken to avoid business failure.
Any trading activity may collapse due to certain factors. Trans-Saharan\
Trade also declined due to the following factors:(i) Slave trade was abolished and thus Trans-Saharan Trade could not
continue. Slaves were an important item of the trade.(ii) The introduction of cheap European goods made the African goods
to lose market. This led to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.(iii) Increasing insecurity along the trade routes also discouraged the
traders leading to its decline.(iv) The trade declined because of the discovery of gold in other parts of the world.
For example, the discovery of gold in America.(v)It also declined due to the constant shortage of water. Most oases dried up.(vi) The death of important kings led to the decline of the trade. Such
kings included Mansa Musa of Mali Empire and Askia Mohammed of
Songhai Empire.(vii) The trade declined because of the downfall of some West African
empires. Such empires included Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.(viii)The rise and development of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade led to the
decline of Trans-Saharan Trade. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was more
profitable than Trans-Saharan Trade.(ix) The trade also declined because of high taxation imposed on the
traders in West Africa. High taxation reduced their profits.
(x) The discovery of the sea route through the Mediterranean Sea to
West Africa also led to its decline. This provided an alternative means
of transport for the traders that was cheap, safe and quick.
(xi) There was a shortage of raw materials such as gold and ivory. This led
to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.(xii)The colonization of Africa by the European powers made these
Europeans to become controllers of Africa. This led to the decline of
Trans-Saharan Trade.
Trade is conducted for purposes of profits. When profit is well
managed through savings and investments, it creates positive
socio-economic changes on society. It changes people’s
standards of living, increasing savings and reducing dependency ratios.
Mention and explain the factors for the decline of Trans Saharan
Trade
1. Examine the factors for the growth and development of
Trans-Saharan Trade.
2. Highlight the challenges that the traders faced during the
Trans- Saharan Trade.
3. Analyse the factors for the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.
4. Discuss the effects of Trans-Saharan Trade.Unit 5: TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE (TRIANGULAR TRADE)
Key unit competence: To be able to analyze the growth
and effects of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Observe the below map and say what you see on it. Identify the
Trans Atlantic Slave
Trade that was carried out between three continents and explain all
the process.
5.1. Factors for the rise, growth and development of Trans Atlantic Slave Trade
1. From your knowledge of Unit 8 about the Trans-Saharan
Trade, write down the meanings of ‘trans’ and ‘trade’.
2. Using an atlas, identify oceans of the world.
3. When mangoes are in plenty, their price goes down. In this
case, supply exceeds demand. On the other hand, when
mangoes are out of season, their price goes up. In this case,
demand exceeds supply. According to you how would you
explain the meaning of ‘demand’ and ‘supply’?
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was the trade which involved Europe,
West Africa and the West Indies (America) across the Atlantic Ocean. It
was also called the Triangular Trade. This was because the ships used to
make three stages in the course of their journey. That is, from Europe
to West Africa, America and back to Europe. This made the shape of a
triangle.
Some of the reasons that you gave in reference to Activity 4.2 are very
important. They help us to see the link between Trans-Saharan Trade and
Triangular Trade. They help us analyse factors that led to development of
the two trades.
Let us now look at the factors that led to the rise and growth of Triangular
Trade.(i) The Industrial Revolution in Europe: Industrialists needed raw
materials and market for their manufactured goods. The Europeans
resorted to Africans for market. In return, they obtained slaves
who were sold to European plantation owners in exchange for raw
materials.
(ii) The discovery of America and West Indies by Spain in 1492: The
discovery of America and West Indies in 1492 led to the establishment
of cotton, tobacco and sugarcane plantation which all required the
labour, therefore it was suggested that West Africa would supply the
required labour. It was labour from Africa to the American plantations
that led to the development of the trade.
(iii) The decline of Trans-Saharan Trade: This led to the rise of
Trans Atlantic Slave Trade. There was a constant demand for slaves
and commodities thereafter.
(iv) The introduction of armed conflicts in African politics: High
demand for firearms by African rulers to defend and expand their
states made them to exchange the slaves for firearms leading to the
rise and growth of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade.
Other factors were:(i) The trade was profitable to the Europeans and Africans who were
involved in it. African chiefs and other participants got European
goods which were of high value.
(ii) There was a desire by African chiefs to get wealth and political
power. This could be obtained through the acquisition of arms andmaintaining friendship with Europeans
(iii) There was the growth of new merchants in Europe as feudalism
was declining. The new merchants of Europe wanted to accumulate a
lot of wealth. This became a justification to participate in the Triangular
Trade.
(iv) There was development of consumer culture among the African
chiefs. There was also the need for the European goods. These two
needs encouraged the Africans to sell their fellow Africans into slavery.
(v) There was increased demand for certain luxurious goods such
as sugar, alcohol, clothes and mirrors. This demand led to rise and
growth of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.
(vi) The winds and ocean currents helped to steer the European ships
to America and Africa. These were the north-east trade winds and the
north equatorial currents.
(vii) Africans were considerably physically fit. They could withstand
harsh climatic conditions in America compared to Europeans or
Asians.
(viii) The supply of firearms became a factor for the development of
Triangular Trade. Africans wanted to acquire firearms to defend
themselves against enemies and calm down internal wars.
Identify and explain the factors for the rise and development of
Trans-Atlantic Slave trade.
Use the books in library and internet conduct research on the
meaning of “migration” and its effects
Migration of people comes with various effects. These effects can be
social, political or economic. Triangular Trade too had some effects. The
effects have been discussed below.Social effects(i) It led to depopulation of many areas through constant wars and raids.
Approximately 15.4 million people were exported.(ii) It led to dehumanisation of human beings. That is, human beings
lost valuem and were reduced to minor items.
(iii) Raids and wars displaced many people from their homes while
others ran away into hiding.
(iv) There was general moral decay in Africa. The punishments which
used to be given to the offenders in the society were ignored.
Instead, they were sold into slavery.(v) Africans were disposed to different parts of the world to form new
races. Some were sent to America, Portugal, France and Spain.(vi) It greatly accelerated the spread of Christianity in predominantly
Islamic states of West Africa.Political effects
(i) It led to the growth of trading states such as Calabar and Bonny
along the coast.(ii) It led to the growth and expansion of some empires in West
Africa. Most of those empires such as Dahomey, Oyo and Asante
participated in the trade.(iii) It led to the destruction of strong states and empires due to
frequent wars and raids.
(iv) It delayed the European penetration in the interior of West Africa.
This was because the middlemen wanted to maintain their
positions. This hindered the development in the interior compared
to the coastal towns.Economic effects
(i) It led to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.
(ii) It reversed Africa trade from North Africa towards the coast of West
Africa.
(iii) Centres of wealth and power moved. They moved from the Sudanese
states to forest states and to the coastal trading communities.
(iv) It hindered economic development of West Africa because people
paid attention on slave trade. People neglected agriculture, industry
and legitimate trade.
(v) African local industry art and craft such as pottery and weaving
declined. This was because the products made were replaced with
European finished goods.
(vi) Insecurity that prevailed stopped people from carrying out
agriculture. Crops and livestock were destroyed leading to famine.
(vii) Europeans made a lot of profits from slave trade; these profits from
slave trade contributed to the Industrial Revolution and urbanization
in Europe
(viii) It encouraged the development of coastal towns and ports such as
Accra and Lagos.
4. Analyse the economic impact of Trans - Atlantic slave trade
1.Explain why Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade is commonly referred to as
‘Triangular Trade’.
2.Triangular Trade had to rise, grow and develop because of various
3.Explain the effects of Triangular Trade on West Africa, Europe and
America.Unit 6:ORIGIN AND EXPANSION OF RWANDA KINGDOM
Key Unit Competence: To be able to describe the origin and expansion
of Rwanda Kingdom.
All over the world, there exist many states; some are kingdoms and
others are countries. All of them came into existence at a given time
of the world history. Most of the time, the states arose and expanded
depending on the bravery and heroism of the ancestors who were
determined to fight wars of expansion. The creation of the kingdom
of Rwanda passed through such a process. Basing on the precolonial
History of Rwanda, identify the main steps that were made
in expansion of Rwanda and the names of kings who played an
overriding role in such an enterprise.6.1. Origine of Rwanda Kingdom
By reading History textbooks or using the internet, describe the
origin of the Kingdom of Rwanda.Learning Activity 6.1
The Kingdom of Rwanda existed since 12th century according to some
historians. The word ‘Rwanda’ derives its name from Ikinyarwanda
language verb ‘Kwaanda’ that means to ‘expand’. It also means to ‘enlarge’
or ‘increase in size’.
Rwanda Kingdom started as a small Nyiginya political entity (clanic state).
The state was known as Rwanda rugari rwa Gasabo, meaning the vast
Rwanda of Gasabo. It was located on the shores of Lake Muhazi, in today’s
one part of Gasabo District. It is believed that the founder of the Nyiginya
Dynasty was Gihanga Ngomijana.
Rwanda Kingdom was in the interlacustrine region. The monarchy
of Rwanda was similar to earlier kingdoms in the region for instance
Burundi, Buganda, Ankole, Karagwe, Bunyoro, Bushi among others.
Through combination, conquering and annexing of smaller states, the
united Rwanda spread all over in so many years.
According to a legend or myth of origin, the first ruling dynasty of Rwanda
was the Nyiginya reign and the first ancestor of the Banyiginya was the
mythical character known as Kigwa Sabizeze, the son of Shyerezo or
Nkubaand Gasani. He is said to have fallen from heaven and landed in
Mubari, in Eastern Rwanda near Akagera River.
This region was occupied by the Abazigaba under the reign of King Kabeja.
According to official Nyiginya tradition, other Ibimanuka are Muntu,
Kimanuka, Kijuru, Kobo, Merano, Randa, Gisa, Kizira, Kazi and Gihanga.
Gihanga is believed to be the founder of the Nyiginya dynasty. He had,
in fact, divided up his empire between his sons who then founded their
kingdoms as follows:
Kanyandorwa received Ndorwa; Kagesera received Bugesera; Kanyabungo
received Bunyabungo; Kanyabuha reveived Buha; Gashubi received
Bushubi;Kanyarwanda, the successor of Gihanga received Rwanda.
According to the same tradition, these kings were known as Ibimanuka
or Ibirari(traces). But they are followed by other two categories such as
Abami b’Umushumi (Belt Kings) and Abami b’ Ibitekerezo (Historical
kings). It is said that Abami b’Umushumi were the kings whom they had
not any known activities (deeds) while Abami b’ Ibitekerezo were the
kings who had contributed to the expansion of the kingdom of Rwanda.List of the Kings and their Queen- mother according
to the chronology of Mgr Alex Kagame. in Inganji
Karinga,1943
Use the information obtained from the internet and other historical
sources on the origin of Rwanda Kingdom to answer the following
questions:1. Write brief notes about each of the following:(i)Nyiginya State(ii)Gihanga I Ngomijana2. Explain the following terms: Abami b’umushumi and abami
b’ibitekerezo6.2. Reasons for expansion of the Rwanda kingdom
By using internet or textbooks, conduct a research on the causes of
the expansion of the Kingdom of Rwanda.(i) The army (Ingabo) and the military ability of Rwandan people
The Kingdom of Rwanda had a capable army of defending the kingdom.
Young people were recruited into the army. This was a sign of cooperation.
The army was well trained, permanent and had enough traditional
weapons for use during wars. In addition, they were physically fit and had
a willing heart to serve the kingdom.(ii) Weak neighbouring kingdoms.
Rwanda Kingdom was militarily stronger than her neighbouring
kingdoms. The kingdom was at first so small and centrally well organised.
This made the administration of the kingdom easier. It took a short period
of time to monitor and evaluate kingdom’s projects. Expansion of thekingdom continued even after the kingdom had expanded.
(iii) Cultural unityAll people in the Rwanda Kingdom spoke one language “Ikinyarwanda”,
throughout the kingdom. This acted as a unifying factor for growth and
expansion. People in the Rwanda Kingdom had their traditional religion.
They believed in “Imana (God)” whom they consulted in times of trouble.
They praised Him in times of peace and also offered sacrifices. This bound
them together, hence favored expansion and growth.(iv) Efficient leadership
The kingdom of Rwanda had experienced, able and courageous leaders.The leaders fought so hard to maintain or even expand their kingdom.(v) Patriotism and nationalism
Patriotism and nationalism of Rwanda leaders made Rwandans regard
expansion as a source of national glory and prestige. Besides, the people
of Rwanda had a strong will of fighting for their kingdom. They also loved
and served it whether in good or bad times. They were so dedicated and
courageous to serve and defend wherever need arose. This contributed to
its rise and expansion.(vi) Motivation and rewards to the fighters
In the kingdom of Rwanda, the fighters who had made great achievements
in killing warriors from the enemy countries were given rewards according
to the number of enemies killed as follows:
Umudende was rewarded a fighter who had managed to kill 7 enemies,
Impotore a fighter who had killed 14 enemies while Gucana uruti was
a ceremony organized in favour of a fighter that had killed 21 enemies
in one war of conquest or defense of the country. By receiving these
rewards, Rwandan warriors were encouraged to participate in expansionof their kingdom.
1.Identify and explain the reasons for expansion of Rwanda kingdom.
2.Explain to what extent the following values had contributed to the
expansion of the Kingdom of Rwanda: patriotism and nationalism.
Kigali City has steadily grown in the recent past due to reasons such
as able leaders, political stability, unity and trade. These, among
others, are the reasons that contributed to the growth of the Rwanda
Kingdom.6.3. The most important monarchies in Rwanda Kingdom
By reading History textbooks, research on the most important kings
that ruled the Kingdom of Rwanda.
The Kingdom of Rwanda too had its leaders. The most important kings of
Rwanda and their achievements are described below.King Ruganzu I Bwimba (1312-1345)
His father was called Nsoro I and his mother was Nyiraruganzu Nyakanga.
He succeeded his father around 1312 according to A. Kagame Chronology.
His younger sister was called Robwa. King Ruganzu I Bwimba and her
sister Robwa are regarded as liberators of the kingdom. Under the reign of
Ruganzu I Bwimba, the capital of Rwanda was Gasabo and was delimited
by the Nyabarongo River in the West, Lake Muhazi at the East and Base
River in the North. At this time, Rwanda occupied the following territories:
Buganza, Buriza, Bumbogo, Busigi, Busarasi and Bwanacyambwe.
Ruganzu died in the war at Gisaka in 1345. He died while trying to expand
the borders of Rwanda Kingdom.Kigeli I Mukobanya (1378-1411)
He was the son of Cyilima I Rugwe. He succeeded his father in 1378.
During his reign, he carried out numerous conquests to the west of River
Nyabarongo. Kigeli I Mukobanya is much known as someone who had
abolished the authority of the kings whose territories were conquered.
However, under his reign, the Kingdom of Rwanda was attacked, invaded
and occupied by the Banyoro for a short time. King Mukobanya escaped
through Nyabarongo River in the kingdom of Nduga under the reign of
Nkuba from Ababanda dynasty.Ruganzu II Ndoli (1510-1543)
Ruganzu came from exile in Karagwe in Tanzania where he had lived with
King Karemera I Ndagara who had married his paternal aunt Nyabunyana
and returned to Rwanda.Being informed about the death of Nsibura I Nyebunga, Ruganzu was
enthroned at Gatsibo in Ndorwa on the royal names of Ruganzu II Ndoli.
He took over the territories which had been conquered by Byinshi of
Ndorwa. After he enthroned a new royal emblem-drum called Karinga
to replace Rwoga. Karinga was assisted by other two emblem-drums:
Karihejuru and Bariba.
After organizing his powerful army, Ibisumizi and Ingangurarugo,
Ruganzu II Ndori began wars of conquest to expand Rwanda. He annexed
the island of Ijwi and Bunyabungo in revenge for his father Ndahiro II
Cyamatare. He conquered Bugoyi, Byahi, Bwishya, Burera and Bufumbira.
In the south, Ruganzu II Ndori annexed Bunyambiriri after killing its leader
Gisurere and Burwi and killed its king Nyaruzi. He helped King Rwagitare
of Bugesera to conquer Burundi. He annexed Bwanamukari after killing
its leader Mpandahandi.
In an effort to annex Bungwe, Ruganzu II Ndoli fell in an ambush of the
inhabitants of Rusenyi at Bwishaza. They shot him with an arrow in the
eye and died of wounds at Butansinda of Kigoma in the current District
of Ruhango in 1543 and he was buried in Butangampundu; in the former
Commune of Mugambazi
Mutara I Nsoro II Semugeshi (1543 – 1576)
The king Mutara I was enthroned on the name of Bicuba, but this name
was quickly abandoned and replaced by Mutara from the area of Mutara
which was rich with the cows.
He had defeated Benengwe or a confederation of Bufundu, Busanza and
Bungwe from Nyagakecuru the son of Benginzage who had the residence
at Huye mountain. From that time the frontier of Rwanda reached at
Burundi. Mutara I signed a non-aggression pact with Mutaga II Nyamubi
of Burundi. Mutara I Nsoro II Semugeshi is also known by his royal reforms
he had made as follows:1. The king must introduce, during his living days, to three confidents the
name of his successor;
2. He suppressed the following dynastic names:– Nsoro because it was known to Bugesera;– Ndahiro because the last Ndahiro had lost the emblem-drum(Rwoga);– Ruganzu because the two holders of this name have been killed byenemies.3. He determined the succession order for the five dynastic name and
those names should follow each other in cycle of four generations as
shown below:
–The kings whose the dynastic names of Mutara and Cyilima were reputed
to be the Kings of cows;
–The kings whose the dynastic names of Kigeli and Mibambwe were
reputed to be the warriors Kings or the fighters;
–The kings whose the dynastic names of Yuhi were reputed to be the
lineage, fire or ritual Kings.Cyilima II Rujugira (1675-1708)
He acceded to power when the country was experiencing the succession
disputes between him and Karemera Rwaka. His father was Yuhi III
Mazimpaka and his mother was Nyiracyilima Kirongoro.He was faced to imminent invasions from all sides (Bugesera, Burundi,
Gisaka and Ndorwa). He attacked them and defeated them. He also
fought and defeated Buyenzi, Buganza, Rutare, Muhura, Giti. He then
annexed them to the Kingdom of Rwanda. During his reign, a popular
saying developed. It said “Urwanda ruratera nti ruterwa” (Rwanda invades
but is not invaded).Cyirima II Rujugira had defeated Burundi over the territory of Buyenzi after
killing its king Mutaga Senyamwiza, Ndorwa over Umutara and Gisaka
over Buganza. He died at a very old age at a place called Ntora. From that
time, the place took a name of Gisozi meaning a hill from where king
died. His body is still kept at National Museum of Rwanda.
He also created militias whose names ended up being adapted as names
of some regions, for example Nyakare (from Inyakare), Imvejuru (from
Mvejuru), Nyaruguru (from Inyaruguru) and Buhanga-Ndara (from
Indara). This was because of his innovation of creating Ingerero, which
were armies to protect the borders. He later died in 1708.
KIGELI III Ndabarasa (1708-1741)
Kigeli III Ndabarasa was the son of Cyilima Rujugira and Nyirakigeli Rwesero
who came to power in about 1708. Ndabarasa did not rule together with
his mother Rwesero as she had passed away earlier. He adopted a queenmother,
Nyiratunga who was a cousin to his late mother. His royal palace
was at Rutare in Byumba, todays Gicumbi district.
Among his achievements in expansion of the kingdom include the
following:• He conquered Ndorwa and established there his leadership style.
• He attacked and killed the king of Mubari called Biyoro and his
mother Nyirabiyoro who lived on Shango Island of lake Ihema.
• He put to an end the Zigaba dynasty in Mubari and incorporated
the region in parts of Rwanda kingdom
• He attacked and defeated Bugesera Kingdom.Ndabarasa died on a battle-field, at a place called Joma in Gaseke in about
1741 and was buried at Munanira where kings of the royal name of Kigeli
and Cyilima were supposed to be buried.Yuhi IV Gahindiro (1746-1802)
His father was called Mibambwe III Sentabyo and his mother was Nyirayuhi
Nyiratunga. He occupied the throne when he was an infant of one year.
He had two regents; his mother and an uncle named Rugagi. He had an
outstanding army. He fought, defeated and annexed south Ndorwa and
Buhunde. However, during his reign, Rwanda experienced great famine
and drought called Rukungugu.Mutara II Rwogera (1802-1853)
His father was Yuhi Gahindiro and his mother was Nyiramavugo
Nyiramongi. He was commonly known as a man who was humble, kind
and welcoming. During his reign, he fought, defeated and annexed Gisaka
but failed to capture their royal town.Also, during his reign, the island of Ijwi declared itself independent from
Rwanda. This was a shame to Rwanda Kingdom. He died of tuberculosis
in 1853.
Kigeli IV Rwabugiri (1853-1895)By the death of Mutara II Rwogera his son succeeded him to the throne
with the name of Kigeli IV Sezisoni. But this name of Sezisoni will be
abandoned and replaced by Rwabugiri from his little brother Rwabugiri
the son of Gaceyeye and the latter took the name of Rwakageyo. Definitelythe new king was known on the royal names of Kigeli IV Rwabugiri.
The mother of Kigeli IV Rwabugiri was called Nyirakigeri Murorunkwere.
Kigeli IV Rwabugiri was one of the most prosperous and famous kings
of Rwanda. He was a renown warrior. He re-organised the army to
consolidate his rule. He is also known to have centralised the power and
strengthened structures.
He succeeded in consolidation and organization of Gisaka conquered by
his father Mutara II Rwogera. He also controlled other regions which had
been annexed before his reign. He was a great administrator with many
residences: Nyanza, Rubengera, Giseke, Kigali, Gasabo, Gatsibo, Kabuye
etc. He was also a great conqueror and he exercised his authority over thefollowing areas:
–The regions of Masisi (Tongo, Gishari and Gisigari), Bwishya, Jomba and
Ruchuru (today in Democratic Republic of Congo);
–The regions of Bufumbira and Ndorwa (today in Uganda).
Nevertheless, some states remained as Satellites (controlled and
depended to Central administration of Rwanda kingdom) and they
should pay the tributes: Gisaka (Rukurura), Ndorwa (Murorwa), Bungwe
(Nyamibande), Bugesera (Rukombamazi), Nduga (Nyabahinda), Bushiru
(Nkundabashiru), Bugara (Rugara), Bungwe, Mubari and Bugamba.
Others were autonomous with different roles:– Busigi, Busozo and Bukunzi: great rainmakers;
– Bumbogo: preparation of Umuganura;
– Bugoyi (Mpatsibihugu): Tobacco;
– Bufundu and Bunyambiriri: Umutsama of beer from honey.
The end of the reign of Kigeli IV Rwabugiri has been marked by the
following events:– The coming to the throne of Rutarindwa as co-regnant of Rwabugiri
on December 22, 1889 with Konjogera as his adoptive Queen-mother,
because his mother had died;– The introduction of manufactured goods from Europe and Asia inbig quantities;– The foundation of the army with fire arms;
– The coming of the Europeans as Doctor Oscar Baumann in 1892 and
Comte Von Göetzen in 1894;– The stabilization of the frontiers of Rwanda;– The failure to defeat Bunyabungo and Burundi;King Rwabugiri died in 1895 and was buried at Rutare in northern Rwanda– The killing of his mother Nyirakigeli IV Murorunkwere
– The killing of many royal members in revenge of his mother;
– The introduction of the new food crops in order to develop the agriculture;
– Migration of some Rwandans to Maniema the mining region in
Democratic Republic of Congo.
Kingdom.
1. Describe the expansion of the Kingdom of Rwanda under King
Ruganzu II Ndori.
2. Explain the reforms made by King Mutara I Nsoro II Semugeshi.
3. Explain why King Ruganzu I Bwimba and her sister Robwa are
regarded as liberators of the kingdom
As a student, you should always do good things like helping the
needy. You are an important citizen like the great kings.6.4. Reasons for the downfall of Rwandan Kingdom
By using internet or textbooks, conduct research on the causes of
the decline of the Kingdom of Rwanda.
There were many reasons that could lead to the collapse of a kingdom.
The Kingdom of Rwanda declined due to some of the reasons discussed
below.(i) The coming of Europeans and consequent colonisation of Rwanda
The first contact the Rwanda Kingdom had with Europeans was in
September 1892. Dr Oscar Baumann and Graf von Göetzen who came in
1894 wrote a comprehensive report about the Kingdom. Rwanda officially
became a protectorate in 1897. This was the beginning of the downfall of
Rwanda Kingdom.
The coming of the Belgians in 1916 also weakened the kingdom. They
introduced reforms that reduced the kings’ powers. For instance, they
abolished traditional institutions such as ubwiru and umuganura, which
helped the king to govern.
(ii) Succession disputesThe Kingdom of Rwanda lost one of its famous and prosperous kings,
Kigeli IV Rwabugiri, in 1895. This was followed by succession wrangles. The
prince heir Rutarindwa (Mibambwe IV) became the king. However, his
stepmother (Queen mother) Kanjogera helped by her brothers, organised
the Rucuncu coup d’Etat, because she wanted Musinga to become the
king. Musinga was her son. This brought power conflicts in the kingdom
which ended with European intervention.(iii) Revolts and rejection of Musinga as king
There were numerous revolts in the Rwandan Kingdom during King
Musinga’s rule. These revolts weakened the kingdom. For instance, the
consequences of Rucunshu coup d’Etat, the Basebya, Ndungutse and
Rukara revolts in the north of the kingdom. Other revolts were those ofNyiragahumuza. The revolts destabilised the kingdom.
(iv) Death of able leadersThe death of leaders such as Mutara III Rudahigwa followed by the
1959 political and ethnic violence led to the end of the kingdom. This
latter caused many Tutsi to be massacred, and many others fleeing
to neighbouring states. Together with the complicity of the Belgian
power, the kingdom experienced a coup d’Etat of Gitarama. This led
to the abolition of the monarchy on 28th January 1961 and subsequent
declaration of the republic confirmed by the referendum on September25th ,1961.
1. Justify the following assertion: “The coming of Europeans to
Rwanda is the main cause of the downfall of the Kingdom of
Rwanda”
1. a) Name the main and important monarchs of Rwanda
kingdom
b) Show the important events that happened during their
rule.
2. Give the meaning of the name “Urwanda” then describe the
origin of Rwanda kingdom
3. Account for the factors that led to the rise, growth and
expansion of ancient Rwanda kingdom.
4. Discuss the reasons that led to the decline of Rwanda kingdom.Unit 7:ORGANIZATION OF PRE- UNIT 7 COLONIAL RWANDA
Key Unit Competence: To be able to describe the organization
of precolonial Rwanda.
Observe the below picture and explain which kinds of activities
people you see on it are performing. Which idea does the picture
suggest you about the social organization of the pre-colonial
Rwanda?
7.1. Social organization of the Rwandan traditional society
Describe the social organization of the Pre-colonial Rwanda.
Family, lineage and clan
The social organization of Pre-colonial Rwanda was based on three main
elements including nuclear family, lineage and clan.Nuclear family
The nuclear family was a key element of this organization. It was
composed of the husband, his spouse and children if they had them. For
polygamy, a man had many wives and single children. Every wife had her
own homestead and their husband used to visit them one after one.In case of death of a spouse, a woman would remarry with one of the
members of the family of the deceased in order to form a Leviticus family.
The children resulting from this union were socially considered at thesame level like those of other spouses.
The husband was the natural head of the family and he was therefore the
first socially responsible person. Moreover, all the members of his family
recognized his authority.
In general, a family played several roles. It was the basic unit of cooperation
and economic production. It produced all that it needed. In any case,
people only went to the market if it was unavoidable. For a polygamous
family, every nucleus family consisted of an independent unit of
production. It was the husband who sold his labor. The occupations for
women depended on the social status of the family (rich families
had big sized livestock while poor ones kept small-sized livestock).
According to the Rwandan mentality, an increased number of children
brought happiness and strength to the family. Marriage of a daughter
made it possible to extend alliances with other lineage groups.
A daughter was considered as a linking factor between families. The
lineage and eventually the army were responsible for the socialization of
children.Lineage
The lineage is a set of several families descending from one common
and real ancestor and recognizable because of the genealogical tree
traces. People who claim the same lineage take on the name of the
common ancestors. Apart carrying a proper genealogic remembrance,
the members of the same lineage have kept a minimum residential unity.
In the traditional Rwanda, two types of lineages were distinguished:
the minor lineage, inzu and major lineage, umuryango. A minor lineage
was created when members of the same family could be named after
a common and real ancestor thanks to his fame yielded from his great
achievements while, on the other side, the birth of a major lineage was
done when within a minor lineage there was the emergence of another
strong leader whose descendants could be recognized under his namebut who went on also being named after their former eponym ancestor.
The following are examples of names of some lineages:
1. Abarashi of Nyakarashi
2. Abananura of Kananura
3. Abahindiro of GahindiroClan
The term “clan” corresponds to the term “ubwoko” in Kinyarwanda
language and its institution neither has a chief or a particular internal
organization”. The term “clan” means a group of people who claim to
be descendants from one common mythical ancestor. It is a legendary
group or a fabulous ascendancy to which a group of people are attached.
However, it is not always possible to establish all the genealogic ties
between the common ancestor and the entire group. Besides, the
clan implies a social category and not a corporate group and it has no
procedures that manage business of common benefits.
The clan is different from a small lineage “inzu” and from a big lineage
“umuryango”. The clan is not even a residential grouping; its members
are located all over the country.The clan is a set of several lineages claiming a same mythic common
ancestor, but rather far off and fictitious. It is not easy to trace it using
a genealogical tree. The members of same clan share the same culture,
same taboos and same totem.The clan is a group, which is characterized by a biological relationship
shared by members who show mutual solidarity. The clan’s totem
symbolizes unity among its members.In reality, the clan is not a descendant group, but clan members have
common ties which are instead social identities of individual identification
in relationship with others, a way to find friend almost from anywhere
and benefit from their hospitality or their support. These entities also play
a role in marriage because in principle the exogamy of clans prevails in
the choice of the partner.
Clans also have animal totems and when possible, animal taboos. The
main clans had totems as their recognition sign, in this situation they
were from animal species: an animal, a bird, a mammal, batrachians and
a reptile.
The following are totems that have been identified and their animal
totems:
Certain clans have taboo. Banyiginya have impwi as their taboo. Impwi is
a variety of antelope living in high altitude forests, with short horns and
rounded cheeks. Bega have as taboo Ifuti which is a calf which at birth
has come out with first its back rather than the head. Bagesera have a
monkey as taboo. Basinga have as a taboo Inka y’Inyombya which is a
cow with white and black parts on the skin.Alliance and solidarity in traditional society.
The alliance between families and individuals was reinforced andmaintained through marriage and solidarity
Traditional marriage.
In traditional Rwanda, a daughter was considered as a linking factor
between families. Marriage was a union between a man and woman,
after the former had paid dowry and after organizing ceremonies where
big quantities of beer were served.
The dowry generally consisted of a cow, but it could also consist of goats
and hoes depending on the region. As for people of lower social standing,
dowry consisted of services rendered by the future husband in the home
of his future father-in-law. In actual fact, this last category was tantamount
to free marriage.Solidarity
Solidarity is a result of an alliance between individuals and families and the
feeling which pushes people towards mutual assistance. This manifests
itself through various actions and attitudes:Blood pact (Kunywana / Guca ku nda)
Blood pact was more serious and permanent because it involved a ritual
of blood. The individuals who wanted to make this blood pact would suck
a little of each other’s blood and drink it to signify eternal or unending
friendship.Rescuing (Gutabarana)
Rescuing was physical mutual help. It also meant being very close to the
family friend in order to help and support each other. For instance, this
could be the case in time of emergency like when a friend or a neighborhad lost a member of his or her family.
Giving cow each other also strengthened friendship between families and
Giving a cow (Guhana inka)
individuals. This practice was considered so serious that the person who
received the cow would at times swear by the name of donors: “Yampaye
inka …! (He has given me a cow!)”Division of labor
In the Rwandan society, it is worth noting that every able member even
young children had to be active. But all members of the society were
not equally strong. Therefore, there were activities reserved for certain
categories of people: men, women and children.
For men: to fish, to hunt, to dig the fields, to build houses, to herd cows or
goats and to serve in the army;
For women: to look after babies, to maintain the house, to prepare the
food, to weave, to fetch water and to collect firewood;
For children: to collect firewood, to fetch water, to herd cows or goats, to
sweep or clean house.
Division of laborAs the children grew up, parents began initiating them in the work of
adults according to their sex. Boys educated by their father and girls
educated by their mother (mu rubohero).EducationRwandans had informal education which was general and Intore
education.
Education went with sex and age brackets. Young girls were taught by
their mothers and paternal aunts. Boys were taught by their fathers onhunting and agriculture.
Young boys from rich families went to the king’s palace to be trained.
They were trained on warrior drills and were commonly known as Intore.
1.Explain different roles played by clans in the Pre-colonial Rwanda.
2.The clans of the Banyiginya, Abega and these of Abagesera and
Abasinga had animal totems. Examine the importance of these
animals for these clans
7.2. Cultural organization
Use internet and other documents to justify how the Kingdom of
Rwanda had developed a very flourishing culture.
Traditional religion
Conception of Imana (God)
In the Pre-colonial period, Rwandans were monotheists who believed
in One Supreme Being. They commonly accepted their God (Imana)
as omnipotent, omnipresent and omniscient. However, there were no
rites for Imana, no temple to worship Imana but Imana is present in
throughout some aspects of the daily living of Rwandans. For instance, in
naming their children, Rwandans referred to the idea of the role played
by Imana in their day-to-day activities and life. These names are like:
Ndayisaba( I implore God), Ndayisenga (I pray God), Niyibizi(It is God who
knows), Habyarimana (It is God who procreates),
Harerimana( It is Godwho nurtures), etc.Omnipresence of Abazimu
By “Abazimu” the spirit of the departed loved ones was understood.
According to the belief of Banyarwanda, a human being is made up a
visible part (body) and an invisible part (soul) one called “shadow”. Upon
dying, the union of body and soul disappears and in a mysterious way the
soul is transformed into a spirit called in Kinyarwanda “Umuzimu”. (From
the verb “Kuzima” meaning to cease existing). Rwandans distinguish
three categories of Abazimu:
–Abazimu b’abakurambere (Sprits of ancestors)
–Abazimu bo mu muryango (Sprits of ancestors from the large family)–Abazimu b’ibyinjirizi (Sprits of intruders)
Guterekera or cult for ancestorsThis rite concerns to offer some things as food or drinks to Umuzimu. That
rite took place in small huts called Indaro. The gestures are accompanied
by oral requests formulation according to circumstances. The offertories
are symbols because are the smallest. Often these offertories are the
things which were liked by Umuzimu during his/her life.Kubandwa
The rite of Kubandwa is a ritual ceremony accomplished in two steps and
consists of offering the offertories to Ryangombe and other Imandwa
According to the tradition, Ryangombe was a hunter whose origin area
is Nkole in Uganda. But other areas are supposed to be his origin as well
as Bugoyi, Ndorwa and Bwanamukari. Ryangombe is the son of Babinga
and Nyiraryangombe. He had three wives Nyirakajumba, Gacubya and
Karyango. He had also two boys named Binego and Ruhanga and two
girls Bukiranzuzi and Nyabirungu.
The first stage of kubandwa is “Kwatura” (initiation ceremony). By
accomplishment of this stage, a novice is admitted in the community of
Imandwa and he gets a new name and new parents. He is called from
now” Uruzingo” The second step, called “Gusubizwaho” or “Gusubira ku
ntebe” (confirmation ceremony), the novice is invited to sit once again on
the seat of Ryangombe. By this confirmation, he/she takes the definitive
name and became Imandwa. This name of Imandwa also refers to the
specialist and the medium of the cult.
As far as the ‘Ukubandwa’ or feast for the initiated members was concerned,
this ritual was organized in terms of solemn and public ceremonies. It was
accompanied by gestures, speeches and chants in honor of the “king of
spirits” who was Ryangombe. Its membership was generally restricted to
those who were already initiated, and those who had applied to become
candidates for initiation. The non-initiated members were called ‘Inzingo’.
After death, the ‘Inzingo’ were taken to Nyiragongo, an active volcano,
whereas the ‘Imandwa’ were compensated after death. They joined
Ryangombe in paradise in a place where a volcano had gone extinct, i.e.
in Muhabura and specifically to Karisimbi.
A similar cult was practiced in the north of the country and it was rendered
to Nyabingi. Legend traces Nyabingi’s origin to Ndorwa or Karagwe. She
was a noble woman never married and died very old. After her death, her
followers (Abagirwa or Ababyukurutsa) spread her cult. Legend says that
she was the daughter of Nyakajumba and Nyabunyana.
Introduction of Nyabingi’s cult in Rwanda corresponded to the end of
reign of Kigeli IV Rwabugiri and it was known in Umutara, Rukiga, Kibari,
Murera, Buhoma, Bugamba, Bugoyi and Kanage.
The rites of uguterekera and ukubabandwa were performed so as to
appease the departed spirits. As result, the spirits gave mercy and
protection to the all members of the family that has performed these rites.
In most cases, the rite of uguterekera and that of ukubandwa were
preceded by another rite of ukuraguza, (divination). For all intents and
purposes, the ancient Rwandese always consulted diviners. The diviner
knew how to interpret the signs of the visible world and God’s willingness.
Rites and TaboosThe Rites (Imigenzo/Imihango) and taboos (Imiziro) can be considered to
have been in the framework of religion in traditional Rwanda. They are
part of beliefs which influenced behavior of ancient Rwandans.
RitesRwandan society had various rites. These were activities that were
performed in a particular way or occasion during ceremonies such as the
naming a child (Kwita umwana izina or Gusohora umwana), marriage,
funerals…
Child naming: This ceremony was done on the evening of the eighth
day after a new baby was born. It began with bringing the baby out to
the public for the first time. This was called gusohora umwana. All village
children from three to ten years would come and cultivate a piece of land
using sticks that were shaped in the form of a hoe. Thereafter, a male
adult would stop them, and throw water at them. The kids would then run
home to be given food in front of adults. The kids would be requested toput forward names, and the father would give the name he had selected.
Death ceremony: Whenever a person died, family members would take
part in certain rituals for sendoff. There was always a period of mourning
(kwirabura) announced by head of the family. During that period, sexual
relations and working in fields were forbidden. At the end of it, they
performed kwera ceremony, to mark the end of mourning.Taboos and forbidden things
Taboos in Rwanda were commonly known as Kirazira, meaning forbidden.
These were activities that were not allowed to be done because they could
bring curses. The following taboos existed in Rwandan society:(i) Children were forbidden to sit on their father’s stool.
(ii) Whistling at night was prohibited.
(iii) Sitting on a mortar was forbidden.
(iv) One could not marry from his or her own clan.
(v) A wife was not supposed to mention the name of her father -in- law.
(vi) Premarital pregnancy was prohibited.
(vii) Girls were forbidden to climb trees.
(viii) Killing a wagtail (Kwica inyamanza).
ClothingRwandans had their traditional clothes made from plant products and
animal skins. Plant product clothes included bark clothes from fig treeand banana stem barks. They were joined together to make a garment.Clothes of skin included uruyonga for boys over ten years, ishabure
indengera for girls and inkanda for women. Men put on calf hides while
leopard skins were for kings and chiefs.
Oral literature
Rwandans practised oral literature. Their oral literature included folk
tales (imigani), proverbs, riddles and poems. The poems were of many
categories. These included pastoral poems, dynastic poems, warrior or
epic poems and esoteric code. Other forms of literature were life histories,
plays and historical recitations. It was passed down to future generations
by word of mouth, typically through memorisation and recitation. It was
considered as a verbal form of art.
1. Give the meaning of the terms of Imana (God) and Nyabingi
according to the beliefs of Rwandans in the Pre-colonial period.
2. Account for two taboos that prevailed in Ancient Rwanda.7.3. Political and military organization
Carry out a research in your school library, and demonstrate the
Pre-colonial Rwanda was politically and militarily well organized.
The Kingdom of Rwanda also had its administrative system. The Kingdom
of Rwanda is known to have started in a small area of Gasabo. It enlarged
to a bigger size and was named Rwanda rugari rwa Gasabo, meaning the
big size of Rwanda.
The kingdom of Rwanda was headed by a king with a title of Umwami.
This gave him dignity and respect among others.The political and administrative structure of Pre-colonial Rwanda mainly
that of the 19th Century under the rule of King Kigeri IV Rwabugiri was built
on four pillars, namely a monarchy conceived in terms of a theocracy, a
two-headed monarchy (King and Queen Mother), and a policy of territorial
aggrandizement, conquest and patriotism.
Political organizationThe Pre-colonial Rwanda had several institutions reinforced the king
and his representatives. These institutions include Ubwiru (court
secrets), Ubuhake (gifts of cows), Ubusizi (dynastic poetry was important
in legitimizing the ruling king), Ubucurabwenge (knowledge on the
dynastic genealogy), Ibitekerezo by’Imiryango (family historic narratives),
etc. In effect, the structure of King Rwabugiri’s political organization was
complex. But all in all, the entire system of government rotated aroundthe king and the court.
The Ancient kingdom of Rwanda was divided into Ibiti or Districts which
were large constituencies covering several hills and villages. Ibiti were
divided into Ibikingi which were a collection of different hills where
administrative authority was exercised. Igikingi consisted of division (a
hill or a sub-hill) rich in pastures which was part of the provincial division.The king gave land to cattle keepers who became his direct clients
and who were only indebted to him. The Ibikingi were similar to subchieftaincy
divisions of the colonial era. There were two types of Ibikingi:
the‘administrative Igikingi’ and ‘pastoral Igikingi’. It should be noted that
some administrative Ibikingi could coincide with pastoral Ibikingi.
– Some Ibikingi depended on royal authority ruled by the king’s
representative called “Igisonga”;
– Others belonged to the chiefs of the traditional militias;
– The last category of Ibikingi was known as “Ingarigari” belonged to
the Queen-Mother.Administration in Pre-colonial Rwanda was centralized; all powers were in
the hands of the Umwami (King) and he was assisted in his functions by
Umugabekazi (Queen-mother), Custodians of the esoteric code( Abiru)
and chiefs.
King (Umwami )The army and patriotism were the main instruments used to achieve the
monarchy’s goals and objectives but the court was the cornerstone and
workshop where the Nyiginya State was shaped.He occupied the topmost position in the political, administrative and
military hierarchy to the extent that these functions were closely linked.Following his nomination, the king identified himself as a separate entity
from the nobility. The kingdom of Rwanda was sacred and the king was
therefore supposed to have the divine origin. The term Imana (God) refers
to the Creator but also to the essence of life and the fertility of the land
and humans. The king and dynastic drums were the very centre of unity
in the kingdom.
The king was the sole proprietor of everything and had every right to life
and death over his subjects. He was also in charge of the armies, lawmaker
and supreme judge. His sentences had no appeal.
The king, as the head of the kingdom, had daily life that was rather unique.
He lived alongside Abiru who performed various rituals as kingdom
ritualists. Some words were specifically used on the life style of the king.
For example:• Carrying him on a stretcher (Kuremererwa)The king usually came from Abanyiginya clan. The king’s authority had
• His speech (Irivuze umwami)
• His palace (Ingoro)
• Travelling (Kurambagira)
• His death (Gutanga)
a symbol of a sacred royal drum called Kalinga. There were other smalldrums such as Kiragutse, Mpatsibihugu and Rucabagome.
Queen-mother (Umugabekazi)
She was usually the mother/step mother of the king. She could perform
some ceremonies defined by the tradition. She was the confident and
chief advisor to the king. She could orient the king’s actions and act as
regent in case the king came to the throne when he was still young.Custodians of the esoteric code (Abiru)They were the guardians of the tradition and royal secrets. They were high
dignitaries and they came second as advisors of the king. They mastered
the rites and symbolic procedures and processes of the country and their
accomplishment. The king confided to them the name of his successorand he passed recommendations to the successor through them.
Abiru were responsible for the continuity of traditional and were under
the authority of the king. Their function was hereditary. They were also
responsible for knowing:–The order in which queens were chosen and the matri-dynastic clan
(Ibibanda) of the next queen-mother (Abega, Abasinga, Abaha,
Abazigaba, Abagesera and Abakono);
– Rules of enthronement of the new king (Inzira y’ubwimike);
– Rules regarding decoration of royal drumsUbwiru was an institution with a text of eighteen Inzira (but only seventeen
are available). In Pre-colonial Rwanda, Ubwiru was a very important legal
reference and can be compared to a constitution in modern Rwanda. The
content of Ubwiru is presented as follows:– Irage ry’abami (permanent last wills of the kings);
– Umurage w’ingoma (will of succession to the throne);
– Inzira z’ubwiru (fixed official text of the ritual);
– Intekerezo z’ubwiru (history and comment of the three preceding
titles).The examples of some rituals or inzira z’ubwiru:– Inzira ya Gicurasi (procedures for mourning or more specifically, theChiefs (Abatware b’intebe)
procedures of closing the National mourning)
– Inzira y’umuriro (fire procedures)
– Inzira y’ umuganura (procedures of handling the feast of the firstrains)
They were the heads of Ibiti appointed by the king and lived most of their
lives in the royal court. They were consulted by the king especially in the
time of crises. They had following functions of:– Controlling farmers and cattle keepers;The great chiefs (Abatware b’intebe) were largely responsible for the
– Supervising closely and control the functions of land and cattle subchiefs;
– Commanding the army;
– Raising taxes for the king, ikoro and other services;– Distributing land and to withdraw it from others if it was felt necessary.
recruitment and mobilization of the mass as far as the protection and
maintenance of security of the country were concerned.
At the level of “Igikingi” the administration was insured by three chiefs.
These chiefs were appointed by the king depending on their merit or the
merit of their families.
The chief responsible of land (Umutware w’ ubutaka)
He was in charge of agricultural production and responsible for collecting
royal tribute, “ikoro” from agricultural production. He had the responsibility
to settle disputes arising from land issues like land distribution and
settling new inhabitants on his land.
The chief responsible for cattle (Umutware w’umukenke)
He was responsible for pastures in his Igikingi and collected tax dues
from cattle keepers. He had to know and supervise pastures reserved for
Inyambo or cows for the royal court.The army chief (Umutware w’ingabo)He had the role of commanding the army and participating in the fighting
between Rwanda and her enemies. He was also in charge to settle
disputes between other chiefs and conflicts between the pastoralists.
Military organization
In traditional Rwanda, the military institution was very strong and
powerful.The army in Ancient Rwanda had the following roles:– Expanding country;The army was a vehicle for strengthening certain cultural and social
– Participating in the different wars;
– Fighting against cattle rustlers and various raids;– Ensuring territorial security
values. At every beginning of a new reign, the king had to start training
his own army of young Rwandans. At the royal court, there was a military
training camp known as “Itorero” where the young men Intore recruited
from among the king’s favorite chiefs learnt and practiced such values
as generosity, courage, patriotism, the moral responsibility, self-discipline,
the quality of being a man, “kuba umugabo”.
They received also special military training consisting of physical
exercises, shooting with bows and arrows, throwing javelin, composing
and memorizing of heroic poems, dancing.
The royal army was organized in militias ( Imitwe y’ ingabo) under the
command of the army chief as well as at royal court’s level as at Ibikingi’s
level. The Royal army lived in military camps called “Ingerero”. The
organization and formation of the militias corresponded to the formation
of the “Cattle army” (“Imitwe y’ Inka”). This cattle army was reserved tofeed the related militias.
Examples:
1. Describe the role that was played by the king and the queen
mother in the administration of their country in the Pre-colonial
Rwanda.2. Explain the role that was played by the institution of army inRwanda during the pre-colonial period.
7.4. Organization of Itorero in ancient Rwanda
Traditional Rwandans had different ways of learning and inculcating
in children different values. One of them is through Itorero.Learning Activity 7.4Describe how traditional itorero was worked and its benefits to the
traditional Rwandan society.
Itorero was started by King Gihanga Ngomijana. He was the first King
of Rwanda. It dates back to pre-colonial times, and started with the
aim of teaching Rwandans their values. It would promote peace and
unity among Rwandans. It would teach boys above 14 years of age. The
tradition of Itorero provided formative training for future leaders. These
community leaders and fighters were trained in military tactics, hand
to hand combat, jumping, racing, javelin, shooting and endurance. They
were also taught concepts of patriotism, the Rwandan spirit, wisdom,heroism, unity, taboos, eloquence, hunting and loyalty to the army
Traditionally Itorero was a traditional institution where Rwandans would
learn rhetoric, patriotism, social relations, sports, dancing, songs and
defence. This system was created so that young people could grow with
an understanding of their culture. Participants were encouraged to
discuss and explore Rwandan cultural values.
As a traditional school, itorero trainers planned daily activities according
to different priorities and every newcomer in itorero had to undergo
initiation. Each Itorero included 40 to 100 participants of various age
groups and had its own unique name. The best graduates would receive
cows or land as rewards.Key aspects of itorero in ancient Rwanda
Here are some key aspects of Itorero in ancient Rwanda:
Moral and Ethical Training
Itorero served as a platform for imparting moral and ethical values to the
younger generation. Elders and community leaders used this institutionto teach principles of integrity, respect, and responsibility.
Initiation ritesItorero was involved in the initiation of young people into adulthood. This
included ceremonies and rituals that marked important life transitions,such as reaching a certain age or getting married
Military training for Defense and SecurityItorero was responsible for military training. It played a role in preparing
young men for defense and security purposes, especially during times of
conflict.Social cohesionItorero fostered a sense of community and social cohesion. Through
communal activities and rituals, people developed a shared identity and
a sense of belonging to the larger society.
Training Future LeadersItorero played a role in identifying and grooming future leaders within the
community. Leadership skills were often cultivated through participation
in Itorero activities.Preservation of TraditionItorero contributed to the preservation and transmission of cultural
traditions, including dance, music, and oral histories. It played a vital role
in maintaining the cultural heritage of the Rwandan people.Mediation and Dispute ResolutionItorero often served as a platform for resolving conflicts within the
community. Elders and leaders used traditional methods to mediate
disputes and maintain social harmony.
Spiritual and Religious PracticesItorero sometimes incorporated spiritual and religious elements,
connecting the community to its belief systems and promoting a senseof the sacred.
Symbolic functionsItorero involved various symbolic ceremonies, often characterized by
dance, music, and elaborate rituals that symbolized different aspects of
life, culture, and spirituality.It’s important to note that the specific functions and practices of Itorerocould vary across different regions and communities in ancient Rwanda.
Referring to Itorero in traditional Rwanda, why should Itorero be revived
in contemporary Rwanda?
7.5. Economic organization
By using History textbooks or internet, carry out a research
and analyse the role that was played by the different sectors
of the Precolonial Rwandan economy in satisfying the needs
of Rwandans during this period.
Economic organization in Ancient Rwanda was based on the followingeconomic activities: agriculture, animal rearing, handicrafts and trade.
AgricultureAgriculture was the principle activity characterized by archaic production
method (tools, crop rotation system, conservation methods…) which gave
poor yields. Agriculture was subsistence in nature; this means individual
or the family consumption. Cultivation was carried out according to the
climate seasons such as Umuhindo (short rainy season), Urugaryi (short
dry season), Itumba(long rainy season) and Icyi or Impeshyi(long dryseason).
The main crops cultivated were beans, sorghum, peas, maize, yams,
bananas, tobacco, sweet potatoes, local green leaves (Isogi), calabashes.
The Rwandans used to cultivate one part of land at a time leaving the
other in order not to exhaust the fertility (fallowing).
Animal rearing
The animal production in ancient Rwanda was mainly based on cattle
rearing, goats, sheep and the keeping of the dogs and the bees.
Cattle rearing occupied a very important place in Rwandan life because
the cows were the measure of wealth and expressed the social prestige.
Products from cows were milk, meat, butter, hides and skins used for
clothing.A cow was also used to cement social relations between the different
families when they exchanged it as a sign of love and friendship. Cows
were also given as dowry or marriage settlement.
HandicraftIt was a very important activity in the daily life of Rwandans. It was fromhandicraft that Rwandans could get most tools to satisfy their daily needs.They made clothes, metal and wooden objects destined for commercialpurposes.The clothes made were the following:– Ishabure for the girls;
– Inkanda for the women;
– Indengera for women
– Uruhu for the men;– Impuzu made from skin of umuvumu while ishabure, inkanda anduruhu were made from the skins of animals.
Metal tools made included spears, arrows, knives and hoes. Three regions
of Rwanda had celebrity on making and production of hoes such as:– Buberuka: Amaberuka
– Buramba: Amaramba
– Rusengesi: AmasengesiWooden tools included bowl (Imbehe), mortal (Isekuru), banana wine
press (Umuvure), milk pot (Ibyansi
Ceramic products made from clay mixed with Insibo included the pots
known as intango, uduherezo, inzabya, ibibindi and inkono.
Weaving was done by women and it was admired for its finesse. Material
used in basket making included Urumamfu (wild millet grass), intamyi
(papyrus stems), Uruhivu (raphia fibers), ibirere (dead banana leaves). The
women produced bee hives, baskets, mats…These products were used in
daily life for decoration, carrying things, conservation of harvested crops.
Trade
Trade system in traditional Rwanda involved exchange of goods for other
goods, which was known as a barter system. The trade was mainly based
on agricultural products, animal products and handicrafts.
Many markets or commercial centers through the country especially the
northwestern regions were the following: Mushwiza, Ryabizige, Mulinzi,
Mubuga, Butare, Kazirabageni, Mururu, Rwanza, Itetero, Buramba, Kaziba,Agasakuza, Miyove and Vunga.
The main imported products from the neighboring countries included
the following:
–The salt from Lake Eduard;
–The bracelet from Masisi and Buhavu;
–The perfume from Ijwi Island
Although ancient Rwandans cultivated and make other economicactivities, there were the time for famines.
Famine and epizooties
The Kingdom of Rwanda suffered several famines during the pre-colonial
period. People gave these famines different names depending on the
harm made, villages affected and time.Famines were primarily caused by prolonged sunshine that resulted to
drought. The drought made plants dry out in gardens before the harvest
season.
It was also because of constant wars of expansion that made so many
people busy in fighting. They forgot to practise agriculture as people were
still running up and down. They had no time to settle down and cultivate.
Poor timing of agricultural seasons culminated into famine at one time
or another. Crops could either be affected by floods or meet sunshineseason before reaching harvest season.
Pests and diseases also affected crops. They were eaten up by pests
and attacked by various diseases leading to drying out. Common pests
included locusts, grasshoppers, rodents and rats.
Trade
Trade system in traditional Rwanda involved exchange of goods for other
goods, which was known as a barter system. The trade was mainly based
on agricultural products, animal products and handicrafts.
Many markets or commercial centers through the country especially thenorthwestern regions were the following: Mushwiza, Ryabizige, Mulinzi,
Mubuga, Butare, Kazirabageni, Mururu, Rwanza, Itetero, Buramba, Kaziba,
Agasakuza, Miyove and Vunga.
The main imported products from the neighboring countries included
the following:–The salt from Lake Eduard;
–The bracelet from Masisi and Buhavu;
–The perfume from Ijwi Island
Although ancient Rwandans cultivated and make other economic
activities, there were the time for famines.
Famine and epizooties
The Kingdom of Rwanda suffered several famines during the pre-colonial
period. People gave these famines different names depending on the
harm made, villages affected and time.Famines were primarily caused by prolonged sunshine that resulted to
drought. The drought made plants dry out in gardens before the harvest
season.It was also because of constant wars of expansion that made so many
people busy in fighting. They forgot to practise agriculture as people were
still running up and down. They had no time to settle down and cultivate.
Poor timing of agricultural seasons culminated into famine at one time
or another. Crops could either be affected by floods or meet sunshine
season before reaching harvest season.
Pests and diseases also affected crops. They were eaten up by pests
and attacked by various diseases leading to drying out. Common pestsincluded locusts, grasshoppers, rodents and rats.
Different famines that affected Rwanda at different times had far reaching
effects. These were:• A big number of people and animals died due to lack of food andSome of the famines that affected Rwanda in the pre-colonial period
pasture respectively.
•Vegetation dried out leading to destruction of environment and
natural beauty. This was felt especially in case where famine was
caused by prolonged sunshine.
• Famine also affected the Kingdom of Rwanda negatively in terms of
the economy. It led to reduction of royalties and taxes.
• People also suffered from poor feeding because of inadequate food
supply in various families of Rwanda. Several granaries of families
remained empty.
include the following:
Macumu famine (1690): This was the famine that occurred in Rwanda
in the period between 1690 and 1708. It was during the reign of Cyilima
II Rujugira. It was caused by warfare that characterised his reign as well
as a large number of emigrants into the kingdom from Bunyambiriri toBugoyi, north east of Lake Kivu.
Rukungugu famine (1797): This affected Rwanda during the reign of Yuhi
IV Gahindiro. It was caused by drought that hit the country between 1797
and 1830. This famine led to the drying of crops due to lack of sufficient
rainfall.
Muhatigicumuro famine (1890): This was experienced in some parts of
Huye. It was caused by insufficient rains, which affected crop fields in
the whole region. This famine led to crop failure, which not only affected
people, but animals as well.
Kijugunya famine (1895): It happened during the reign of Kigeli IV
Rwabugiri. There was massive crop failure caused by drought that affected
the Rwanda Kingdom. Many people starved.
Ruyaga famine (1902-1903): This famine struck several parts of Rwanda
causing widespread scarcity of food. This was because of crop failure
and death of cattle. It occurred during the reign of King Yuhi V Musinga
1. From economic activities carried out by Rwandans in the7.6. Socio-political and economic dependence in precolonial Rwanda
Precolonial period, identify different items that were internally
produced and these ones they were imported from outside.
2. Explain the role played by the cow in the Pre-colonial Rwanda.
3. Identify different names of hoes that were manufactured in the
Pre- colonial Rwanda.
4. In the Pre-colonial Rwanda, famines were very recurrent. Explain
three effects of these famines.
By using History textbooks, research on the main dependences
in which most of Rwandans were involved in in the pre-colonialRwanda.
Pastoral clientelism (Ubuhake)
It was a social, political and economic dependence of Pre-colonial Rwanda
that was mainly based on the cow. It was a customary contract which was
not obligatory between the owner of cattle, a rich man known as Shebuja
(Patron) and a person who wished to acquire cow called Umugaragu
(Client or Servant). The latter who was often poor, socially weak and
isolated asked the wealthier for social protection. Once the demand wasaccepted, the seeker accepted to perform duties for patron.
The following were the duties of the client:(i) Cultivating the fields of the patron
(ii) Looking after the cattle and ensuring that the milk was of good
quality
(iii) Repairing homesteads
(iv) Guarding homes at night
(v) Providing water
(vi) Providing liquor
(vii) Building fences
(viii) Escorting the patron to war
(ix) Acting as a messenger
(x) Giving cows in the event of epizootics, in the event of bereavement
(Inshumbushanyo)
(xi) Taking a part in patron’s happy or sad events, etc. Patron’s duties
included:
(i) Protecting the client against those who were socially stronger
than himand others likely to be enemies(ii) Assisting the client in court (kurengera)
Unit 8:TRANS-SAHARAN TRADE
Rise and organisation of Trans-Saharan Trade
Activity 8.1
1. Use a dictionary to find the meanings of the following:
(a) trans
(b) trade
2. Using an atlas, identify and list the major deserts of Africa.
3. Describe the characteristics of desert climate.
One of the deserts that you have mentioned probably is Sahara Desert. Sahara Desert is the biggest desert in Africa. The Trans-Saharan Trade was conducted across it.
Trans-Saharan Trade was carried out between North African Berbers and the West African Negroes. It was carried out across the Sahara Desert. Some historians suggested that the trade might have begun in the 2nd century.
The volume of trade remained low until camels were introduced form Asia. After that the volume of trade increased.
Fig. 8.1: A section of Sahara Desert: Trans-Saharan Trade took place across this desert
Furthermore, the trade gained momentum in the 7th Century when the Arabs conquered North Africa. The conquest forced the Berbers to migrate southwards. Consequently, it gave them a greater advantage to participate in the trade. By the 11th Century, a profitable trade had been developed. During this trade, the Berbers from North Africa acted as middle men.
Reasons for the rise and development Trans-Saharan Trade
Activity 8.2
Case study
Neza started a small retail shop in Kibuye Town. After three years, she turned it into a wholesale shop. It did not take long before she opened a very big supermarket to replace the wholesale shop. Currently, she hopes to start a new firm.
State the possible reasons that may have led to the expansion of Neza’s business.
For a long period of time, Trans-Saharan Trade was so remote and very backward. But with time, the trade came to grow and develop. The following factors show the reasons behind the growth and expansion of Trans-Saharan Trade.
(i) Introduction of Camels
The introduction of camels greatly helped in its improvement, especially in the means of transport. In addition to the above, the camels could also carry large amounts of goods. They could also take long without drinking water.
(ii) Emergence of West African empires
Some of such important empires included Mali, Ghana and Songhai. The existence of such empires assured the traders of security. It also encouraged more people to join the trade.
(iii) The conquest of North Africa by the Arabs
This forced the Berbers to migrate southwards. They finally reached West Africa. That marked the beginning of the trade. Furthermore, they introduced a common language (Arabic). This encouraged the coming of more Arabs who participated in the trade thereby developing it.
(iv) The spread of Islamic religion in West Africa
With the spread of Islam in West Africa, Muslim traders felt secure to carry out trade. Islam acted as a uniting factor. Islam also increased trade in Islamic books and Arabic textiles.
(v) Re-production of different commodities by West and North Africa
This led to the need of exchanging goods produced in the two regions. It eventually led to the development of the trade.
(vi) The presence of the Tuaregs and Berbers
The Tuaregs of the desert maintained wells and guided traders.
(vii) High profits
The trade grew because of the high profits that were involved. This attracted many more people to join.
(viii) Absence of natural barriers
There were no natural barriers such as lakes and mountains between North Africa and West Africa. This made movement of goods and people easy.
Remember!
Trans-Saharan Trade was done the same way trade is done today. The only difference is that there was no standard medium of exchange in form of money.
The Organisation of Trans-Saharan Trade
Activity 8.3
Make a visit to a market near where you stay.
1. Identify the people involved in trading activities.
2. Write down a list of major goods sold in that market.
3. Find out how the goods reach that market.
Just like any other trade, Trans-Saharan Trade had participants and specific goods of trade. It was well organised as can be seen in the following subheadings:
1. Participants
The groups of people which were involved in the trade included the following:
(a) The Berbers
These were the people of North Africa. They played the following roles:
• Controlling the trade
• Providing capital
• Organising the caravans across the desert
• Employing the Tuaregs who acted as guides
(b) The Tuaregs
These were the people of the Sahara Desert. They played the following roles in the trade:
• Providing water for the caravans
• Providing food for the caravans
• Acting as guides to the caravans across the desert
• Providing labour in the salt mines
(c) The Negroes
These were the people of West Africa. They played the following roles:
• Owning the gold mines
• Providing agricultural products
• Working as slave raiders
• Providing security to the traders in West Africa
• Acting as a market to European products
(d) Europeans and Arabs
They brought goods from Europe and Asia to North Africa. They exchanged these goods for West African products.
2. Items or goods traded in Trans-Saharan Trade
The major products which were involved were in two forms:
(i) Goods from North Africa to West Africa
(ii) Goods from West Africa to North
Africa Goods from North Africa to West Africa included weapons, clothes, beads, medicine and salt.
Goods from West Africa to North Africa included the following:
• Gold
• Ivory
• Silver
• Skins and hides
• Food stuffs
• Slaves
• Kola nuts
• Ostrich feathers
Fig. 8.2: Kola nuts and ivory
They initially practised barter trade. Later, they introduced cowrie shells as a medium of exchange. Barter trade proved to be inconvenient and unreliable.
Fig. 8.3: Cowrie shells
3. Trade routes used during the trade
There were four major routes. These were:
• The western route from Fez to Sijilmasa, Taghaza and ended in Timbuktu.
• The central route from Ghadames up to Kano in the south.
• The eastern route from Tripoli to Bilma up to Lake Chad in the south.
• The route from Egypt to the western parts of Africa. However, this was not commonly used.
Fig. 8.4: Trans-Saharan Trade routes
4. Means of transport during Trans-Saharan Trade
At the beginning, traders used to move on foot while carrying out trade (head portage). Later in the 4th Century, camels were introduced and eased means of transport. This greatly increased the volume of trade. Camels were suitable for desert conditions in addition to carrying heavier load.
Fig. 8.5: Trade caravan
Problems faced by the traders during the Trans-Saharan Trade
Activity 8.4
Visit a nearby trading centre. Have a dialogue with the traders on the following:
1. How they pay taxes
2. The problems they encounter as they run their businesses
3. How they keep security for their goods
Write down your findings in your note books.
Any trader may face challenges during trade. The traders you visited and talked to must have confirmed this to you. Traders who participated in the Trans-Saharan Trade faced some challenges. The challenges have been discussed below.
(i) Language barrier: The traders could not communicate easily while transacting. So, they used signs and gestures. The use of signs and gestures was not very effective.
(ii) Long distance: It could take 2-3 months to travel from North Africa to West Africa and coming back.
(iii) Water shortage: Oases were few and far, and located far apart. They could sometimes dry up.
(iv) Sand storms: Strong desert winds disturbed the traders.
(v) Inadequate weights and measures: This made it difficult to determine the weights of goods in order to find their value.
(vi) Barter trade: It had challenges such as transportation means, storage facilities and determination of values of goods.
(vii) Locating routes: The traders also faced a problem of locating routes that they were to follow. This was because they did not have compasses to use.
(viii) Harsh climate: The problem of the harsh climate also disrupted the trade activities. It was extremely hot during the day and very cold during the night.
(ix) Inadequate facilities: Storage facilities were inadequate. Some of the goods could get spoilt, especially agricultural goods.
(x) Heavy goods: Some of the goods they carried were very heavy and transporting such goods became difficult.
(xi) Heavy taxes imposed on the traders also limited the traders’ profits.
(xii) Civil wars also put the lives of the traders at a big risk. Some could get killed while crossing such areas.
(xiii) Dishonest traders could disappear without paying or supplying goods agreed upon. (xiv) Highway robbers could steal the goods from the traders or even kill them.
(xv) Wild animals such as hyenas, snakes, lions and leopards scared and on some occasions killed the traders.
Important!
The Rwandan government is emphasising standardisation culture or quality principles. This is to ensure that its citizens get the best quality products for a worthy cost. This helps to overcome problems like those experienced during the Trans–Saharan Trade. During that time, people gave in much for less. For example, beads for gold, and a gun for hundreds of people (slaves).
Effects of the Trans–Saharan Trade
Activity 8.5
Discuss the socio-economic importance of the market you visited in Activity 8.3 to the community.
The market you visited above serve similar importance like the TransSaharan Trade. Both provide employment opportunities and foster economic development in terms of taxes. The effects Trans-Saharan Trade were:
(i) The trade led to the exploitation of African resources such as minerals, ivory and agricultural products. That led to their exhaustion.
(ii) It led to the introduction of new commodities in West Africa such as beads, clothes and guns.
(iii) It led to the development of many trading centres/towns that grew into big cities. Such centres were Tripoli, Fez, and Timbuktu.
(iv) It led to the development of trade routes that have become permanent roads till today.
(v) The trade also provided employment opportunities to many people such as guides, guards and porters. It improved their standards of living.
(vi) Many people who participated in the trade became rich. For instance, kings of West Africa and the Arabs.
(vii) The trade also created a lot of suffering to the Africans. Most of them were taken into slavery.
(viii) It also led to depopulation of many areas due to slavery.
(ix) It led to the introduction of Islam into West Africa. This was due to the participation of many Arabs in the trade.
(x) It led to intermarriages between the Arabs and the Africans. This gave rise to a new race of coloured Africans.
(xi) It led to the spread of Islamic education. For example, Islamic universities were established in Mali and Songhai.
(xii) The trade also brought many Arabs into West Africa. These Arabs settled there permanently.
(xiii) The trade also created a lot of insecurity as guns were brought in big numbers.
(xiv) It also brought Islamic architecture into West Africa. Most of the buildings resembled those of the Islamic world.
(xv) It introduced camels into North and West Africa. The camels were the major means of transport.
(xvi) It led to the decline of local industries because of the introduction of cheap foreign goods.
(xvii) The trade led to the rise and expansion of empires such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. This was because the empires got a lot of wealth in form of taxes from the trade.
(xviii) The Arabic culture including language, dressing and cooking was introduced.
(xix) The trade created a permanent relationship between North and West Africa, and the Arab world.
(xx) It led to the European colonisation of Africa because European powers wanted to stop slave trade.
Reasons for the decline of the Trans–Saharan Trade
Activity 8.6
Propose steps that can be taken to avoid business failure.
Any trading activity may collapse due to certain factors. Trans-Saharan Trade also declined due to the following factors:
(i) Slave trade was abolished and thus Trans-Saharan Trade could not continue. Slaves were an important item of the trade.
(ii) The introduction of cheap European goods made the African goods to lose market. This led to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.
(iii) Increasing insecurity along the trade routes also discouraged the traders leading to its decline.
(iv) The trade declined because of the discovery of gold in other parts of the world. For example, the discovery of gold in America.
(v) It also declined due to the constant shortage of water. Most oases dried up.
(vi) The death of important kings led to the decline of the trade. Such kings included Mansa Musa of Mali Empire and Askia Mohammed of Songhai Empire.
(vii) The trade declined because of the downfall of some West African empires. Such empires included Mali, Songhai, and Ghana.
(viii) The rise and development of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade led to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was more profitable than Trans-Saharan Trade.
(ix) The trade also declined because of high taxation imposed on the traders in West Africa. High taxation reduced their profits.
(x) The discovery of the sea route through the Mediterranean Sea to West Africa also led to its decline.
(xi) There was a shortage of raw materials such as gold and ivory. This led to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.
(xii) The colonisation of Africa by the European powers made these Europeans to become controllers of Africa. This led to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.
Remember!
Trade is conducted for purposes of profits. When profit is well managed through savings and investments, it creates positive socio-economic changes on society. It changes people’s standards of living, increasing savings and reducing dependency ratios.
Revision questions
1. Describe the organisation of Trans-Saharan Trade.
2. Examine the factors for the growth and development of Trans-Saharan Trade.
3. Highlight the challenges that the traders faced during the TransSaharan Trade.
4. Analyse the factors for the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade.
5. Discuss the effects of Trans-Saharan Trade.
Unit 9: TRANS-ATLANTIC SLAVE TRADE (TRIANGULAR TRADE)
Activity 9.1
1. From your knowledge of Unit 8 about the Trans-Saharan Trade, write down the meanings of ‘trans’ and ‘trade’.
2. Using an atlas, identify oceans of the world.
The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade was the trade which involved Europe, West Africa and the West Indies (America). It was also called the Triangular Trade. This was because the ships used made three stages in the course of their journey. That is, from Europe to West Africa, America and back to Europe. This made the shape of a triangle.
Fig. 9.1: Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade routes
Origin of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Activity 9.2
When mangoes are in plenty, their price goes down. In this case, supply exceeds demand. On the other hand, when mangoes are out of season, their price goes up. In this case, demand exceeds supply.
Define the terms ‘demand’ and ‘supply’.
Trade is necessitated by forces of demand and supply. Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade started and thrived as a result of these forces.
Slaves were demanded by European countries even after the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade. This gave a boost to Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. The origin of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade can be traced to as early as 1441.
It started when Gonzalves, a Portuguese explorer in West Africa, took ten slaves to Portugal. He took them initially as missionary trainees, but later turned them to be slaves. The slaves looked energetic. This marked the beginning of Triangular Trade especially after Portuguese developed Port Elmina. Port Elmina was developed in 1482 to handle the trade.
Various European countries such as Britain, France, Spain, Dutch and Portugal scrambled for slaves. They scrambled for slaves from West Africa to America (New Found Lands) because of free labour.
European countries needed agricultural raw materials to feed their home industries. They would then bring their manufactured goods to West Africa. The goods included guns, salt, clothes, mirrors, shoes, tea and sugar.
Factors for the rise, growth and development of TransAtlantic Slave Trade
Activity 9.3
1. Look at Activity 8.2 again.
2. Re-write the reasons that may have led to Neza’s success in business.
Some of the reasons that you gave in reference to Activity 8.2 are very important. They help us to see the link between Trans-Saharan Trade and Triangular Trade. They help us analyse factors that led to development of the two trades.
Let us now look at the factors that led to the rise and growth of Triangular Trade
(i) The Industrial Revolution in Europe: Industrialists needed raw materials and market for their manufactured goods. The Europeans resorted to Africans for market. In return, they obtained slaves who were sold to European plantation owners in exchange for raw materials.
(ii) The discovery of America and West Indies by Spain in 1492: The discovery of America and West Indies was one important factor. The subsequent occupation of these areas by other European countries was another factor. Both factors led to the rise and growth of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.
(iii) The decline of Trans-Saharan Trade: This led to the rise of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. There was a constant demand for slaves and commodities thereafter.
(iv) The introduction of armed conflicts in African politics: This prompted the need to acquire European arms and ammunitions. Other factors were:
(i) The trade was profitable to the Europeans and Africans who were involved in it. African chiefs and other participants got European goods which were of high value.
(ii) There was a desire by African chiefs to get wealth and political power. This could be obtained through the acquisition of arms and maintaining friendship with Europeans.
(iii) There was the growth of new merchants in Europe as feudalism was declining. The new merchants of Europe wanted to accumulate a lot of wealth. This became a justification to participate in the Triangular Trade.
(iv) There was development of consumer culture among the African chiefs. There was also the need for the European goods. These two needs encouraged the Africans to sell their fellow Africans into slavery.
(v) There was increased demand for certain luxurious goods such as sugar, alcohol, clothes and mirrors. This demand led to rise and growth of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.
(vi) The winds and ocean currents helped to steer the European ships to America and Africa. These were the north-east trade winds and the north equatorial currents.
(vii) Africans were considerably physically fit. They could withstand harsh climatic conditions in America compared to Europeans or Asians.
(viii) The supply of firearms became a factor for the development of Triangular Trade. Africans wanted to acquire firearms to defend themselves against enemies and calm down internal wars.
Organisation of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
The Triangular Trade was linked, organised and conducted along the great triangle. The triangle linked three continents of Europe, Africa and America.
• From Europe to Africa: Ships would carry traders and manufactured goods such as guns, gunpowder, clothes, beads and utensils.
• From Africa to America: Africans would receive manufactured goods and in return give Europeans slaves. They also sold ivory, bee-wax, honey and tortoise shells. Europeans would then head to America.
• From America to Europe: Slaves in America would grow cash crops such as cotton, coffee, tea, sugar cane and tobacco. They would also exploit minerals such as iron ore, copper, gold and diamond. These raw materials would be shipped to Europe to feed their home industries.
Activity 9.4
Draw a big triangle on a manila paper.
• Mark the top angle as Europe.
• Mark the angle on your right as West Africa.
• Mark the angle on your left as America (West Indies).
• On each angle, indicate the goods involved.
The European merchants did not go into the interior of Africa to capture slaves. The African chiefs, traders and wealthy people could take them to Europeans at a cost. Africans were enslaved in five ways. These were:
a) Criminals were sold by chiefs as a punishment.
b) Free Africans were captured in raids by African and European gangs.
c) Domestic slaves were resold to Europeans.
d) Prisoners of war and debtors who failed to pay would be sold.
e) Porters who went carrying goods to the coast were normally kidnapped and sold into slavery.
Kings and chiefs carried out constant raids and slaves were bartered for the European goods. Later on, cowrie shells were introduced as money as a medium of exchange.
Fig. 9.2: Slave trade
Slaves captured in the interior were made to match in caravans for long distances. Their arms and neck were tied to each other. Slaves had no sufficient water and food. However, those who refused or failed to continue were killed. Some were tied on the trees and left to be eaten by wild animals.
At the coast, slaves were inspected and branded then taken to America. They were made to work in cotton, sugar cane, tobacco and tea plantations. They also worked in gold and silver mines.
Slaves worked for long hours with little food and rest. They suffered from physical weakness (fatigue), poor living conditions and harsh treatment. Most of them died.
The products of their labour were taken to feed the European industries. The industries made products which were again taken to West Africa for exchange of slaves. The trade continued in that cycle.
Fig. 9.3: Slaves packed in a ship during Triangular Trade
Effects of Trans-Atlantic Trade
Activity 9.5
1. Define the term ‘migration’.
2. Discuss the effects of migration
Migration of people comes with various effects. These effects can be social, political or economic. Triangular Trade too had some effects. The effects have been discussed below.
Social effects
(i) It led to depopulation of many areas through constant wars and raids. Approximately 15.4 million people were exported.
(ii) It led to dehumanisation of human beings. That is, human beings lost value and were reduced to minor items.
(iii) Raids and wars displaced many people from their homes while others ran away into hiding.
(iv) There was general moral decay in Africa. The punishments which used to be given to the offenders in the society were ignored. Instead, they were sold into slavery.
(v) Africans were disposed to different parts of the world to form new races. Some were sent to America, Portugal, France and Spain.
(vi) It greatly accelerated the spread of Christianity in predominantly Islamic states of West Africa.
Political effects
(i) It led to the growth of trading states such as Calabar and Bonny along the coast.
(ii) It led to the growth and expansion of some empires in West Africa. Most of those empires such as Dahomey, Oyo and Asante participated in the trade.
(iii) It led to the destruction of strong states and empires due to frequent wars and raids.
(iv) It delayed the European penetration in the interior of West Africa. This was because the middlemen wanted to maintain their positions. This hindered the development in the interior compared to the coastal towns.
Economic effects
(i) It led to the decline of Trans-Saharan Trade. It reversed Africa trade from North Africa towards the coast of West Africa.
(ii) Centres of wealth and power moved. They moved from the Sudanese states to forest states and to the coastal trading communities.
(iii) It hindered economic development of West Africa because people paid attention on slave trade. People neglected agriculture, industry and legitimate trade.
(iv) Art and craft such as pottery and weaving declined. This was because the products made were replaced with European finished goods.
(v) Insecurity that prevailed stopped people from carrying out agriculture. Crops and livestock were destroyed leading to famine.
(vi) It benefited the Europeans. The majority in West Africa did not gain much from slave trade.
(vii) It encouraged the development of coastal towns and ports such as Accra and Lagos.
Problems encountered in Triangular Trade
Activity 9.6
Describe challenges that people who are migrating to a distant land are likely to face.
(Note: Assume that there are no modern means of transport.)
You can link the challenges of migration in Activity 9.6 with Triangular Trade. You realise that the challenges of migration are related with those of Triangular Trade. Let us now look at the problems that were encountered during Triangular Trade.
(i) Poor means of exchange: They initially practised barter trade. Later, cowrie shells were introduced as a medium of exchange. Barter system of trade proved to be inconsistent and unfair in the trade.
(ii) Language barrier: The people of West Africa could not talk the languages of the Europeans. This made trade a bit more difficult and complicated.
(iii) Hostile tribes: Some tribes in West Africa were harsh and hostile. Traders could not penetrate through and carry out hunting and raids of slaves. This made trade a bit difficult.
(iv) Food shortage: Traders could at times run out of food. Agriculture was rarely practised in villages because of constant hunting of slaves.
(v) Poor communication network: Roads and railways were not there. Traders were forced to move and walk long distances in the forests of West Africa.
(vi) Wild animals: Traders encountered a problem of wild animals such as leopards, lions and hyenas. The animals threatened their movements in the forests of West Africa.
(vii) Diseases: Traders were affected by diseases such as sleeping sickness and malaria which killed some of them.
(viii) High taxes on trade items: African chiefs demanded high taxes from the traders. This later on demoralised traders because they made little profits.
Reasons for the abolition of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade
Activity 9.7
Pick out the negative effects of the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. (Refer to Activity 9.5)
Critically looked at, the negative effects show why it was necessary to abolish the Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade. The following were some of the reasons for the abolition of the trade:
(i) The British government, through parliament, banned (stopped) slavery in 1807. It was found out that free labour was cheaper than forced labour.
(ii) Some humanitarians realised that slavery and slave trade were illegal both before God and before the Law. They started the campaigns for its abolition.
(iii) Slaves in the plantations often rioted, killed their masters and destroyed their property.
(iv) Economic factors in Europe led to the abolition of slave trade. For example, as a result of Industrial Revolution, machines could do work better than labour. Therefore, human labour of slaves was no longer needed.
(v) Britain and other European countries needed market in West Africa. They could not get it before establishing conditions. Therefore, they had to abolish slave trade.
(vi) The British industrialists needed more raw materials such as cotton for textile industries. They also needed palm oil to lubricate their industry machines. They agreed that slaves should be set free.
(vii) It was the British national interest to abolish slave trade. This was because if Trans-Atlantic Trade continued, it would have reduced the growth of industries.
(viii) Brazil and Cuba started to produce sugar cane in large quantities in the 19th Century. It was cheaper in European markets. Britain felt that slave trade was no longer profitable.
(ix) The American Revolution of 1776 against the British colonial masters undermined slave trade. Colonies in America declared themselves independent. Britain changed her attitudes towards these colonies. Britain started to invest in industries which needed less human labour.
(x) The introduction and development of legitimate trade made the abolition of slave trade possible. It created a new type of economy, where European and African traders would benefit. It was profitable to sell raw materials than selling slaves. It was also cheaper to transport raw materials than slaves.
(xi) The French Revolution of 1789 emphasised liberty, fraternity, solidarity and equality of all human beings. The revolution helped to create awareness about human rights.
(xii) The rise of men with new ideas in Europe. Great thinkers (philosophers) such as Voltaire preached against slave trade and slavery in the world.
(xiii) The declaration of independence of the Maroons (ex-slaves) in Jamaica. This raised a lot of concern. Slave owners started looking at slaves as a liability than as an asset.
(xiv) The exploration of the interior of West Africa by Europeans helped to abolish slave trade. The European and African associations were interested in the scientific and geographical problems. They were also interested in market for European manufactured goods. Slaves were no longer an issue to recon with.
(xv) The new policy of colonisation of Africa could not succeed if slave trade was still on. In order to colonise and exploit African resources, it was important to first stop slave trade. It was only then that the colonialists could make themselves acceptable in Africa.
Revision questions
1. Explain why Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade is commonly referred to as ‘Triangular Trade’.
2. Explain the origin of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade.
3. Triangular Trade had to rise, grow and develop because of various factors. Mention at least eight factors.
4. Explain the effects of Triangular Trade on West Africa, Europe and America.
5. Clearly elaborate the organisation of Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade before the 19th Century.
6. Explain the reasons that led to the collapse of Triangular Trade in the 19th Century.
Unit 10: CONCEPT OF HUMAN RIGHTS, CITIZEN DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES AND WAYS OF PREVENTING HUMAN RIGHTS VIOLATIONS
TOPIC AREA 4: SOCIETY
Sub-Topic Area 1: Human Rights, Citizen Duties and Responsibilities Unit
10: Concept of human rights, citizen duties and responsibilities and ways of preventing human rights violations
Activity 10.1
1. Using the internet, research on the meaning of the term ‘human rights’.
2. Give a list of things that you feel you must have as a human being.
Whatever people deserve as human beings, but have no harm to the society, are human rights.
Concept of human rights
Human rights are rights which are inherent by the mere fact of being human. The concept of human rights is based on a belief. The belief is that every human being is entitled to enjoy his or her rights. The rights should be enjoyed without discrimination. Human rights differ from other rights in two ways.
Firstly, they are characterised by being inherent in all human beings by virtue of their humanity. They do not have to be purchased or to be granted. They are:
• Protected by law
• Equally applicable to all
Secondly, the main duties deriving from human rights fall on states and their authorities or agents. They do not fall on individuals.
One important implication of these characteristics is that human rights must themselves be protected. They must be protected by law. Furthermore, any disputes about these rights should be submitted for adjudication. The submission should be done through a competent, impartial and independent tribunal. The tribunal should apply procedures which ensure full equality and fairness to all parties. It should also determine the question in accordance with clear, specific and pre-existing laws. The law must be known to the public and openly declared.
Fig. 10.1: United Nations delegates in a meeting
Human rights violation
Activity 10.2
1. Using a dictionary, find out the meaning of the word ‘violation’.
2. Explain what is meant by the term ‘human rights violation’.
3. Identify occasions where your rights have not been respected as a student.
Cases of human rights violation
In our society today, there exists the following examples of human rights violations:
(a) Sexual abuse through rape and defilement
(b) Domestic violence, especially gender based violence
(c) Child labour (d) Detention without trial
(e) Extra judicial killings
(f) Denial of the freedom of expression and association
Showing concern for human rights violations
All of us have a part to play in preventing human rights violations. The government also plays an important role in ensuring that human rights are observed. It has achieved this by:
(i) Enacting laws to protect or prevent human rights violations.
(ii) Imposing stiff penalties to violators of human rights. For instance imprisonment of rapists and sexual abusers for a long period of time, up to 25 years or more.
(iii) Supporting media advocacy against violations by ensuring a free reporting of cases of violations and acting on the same when reported.
(iv) Educating the public in schools, through mass media and other programmes including supporting NGOs acting against violations.
(v) Creating centres for recovery of victims of human rights violations such as Gender Violence Recovery Centres in medical institutions.
Activity 10.3
1. Citing a case where a person’s rights was violated, explain how:
(a) People reacted to it
(b) The government supported the victim
2. What could you have done if you were the victim in the scenario we have highlighted above?
Ways of preventing human rights violation
1. Sensitising people: This can be done through formal or informal education on the basic human rights. This will greatly contribute to the development and change of attitudes that are based on the respect of human life and dignity. Prevention should be an on-going activity that constantly educates, corrects and influences the people on any desired societal ideal that promote peace.
2. Shun corruption: One of the easiest ways to get violated is giving bribes or soliciting for favours. It is wrong to assume that if you give a bribe, you are likely to get what you need. This is because people who give bribes are usually ready to do anything to get their way, including engaging in corrupt deals. Such people also easily fall prey to violators, because they can be asked to do things that violate their rights just to earn what they are looking for.
3. Insist on your rights: By doing this, you will be making the other person accountable for his or her demands. The time you invest in insisting on your rights can be said to be a time devoted to public service for your own good and the general good of the society.
4. Educate the violator: If people are allowed to do the wrong thing unchallenged over and over again, they later see such acts as being a right. This means that, once violating others becomes part and parcel of people, their ability to see it as something wrong dies naturally. Therefore, when you encounter a prospective violator or a confirmed violator, educate them. When you educate a violator, you are indirectly appealing to his or her raw emotions and raising their dead conscience. This is in addition to the fact that you will always insist on your rights and never give in to being violated.
5. Never let go when you are violated: When you are violated by whoever, never let go. You can do this by writing letters, short notes on social media, talking to the media, approaching the authority to complain or even seeking redress. If need be, engage the service of a lawyer or meet human rights organisations for assistance. Note that accepting such violation is like accepting failure. Never accept failure. Continue to challenge it until you defeat it and get justice.
6. Challenge your violator in court: This means that for every abuse or violation you suffer, there is compensation awaiting you to claim it. Worthy to equally note is that, in a country where public officers violate people with ease, some people’s job is claiming compensation from violators. They have no other business. Claim yours.
7. Never violate others: We are expected to protect people and not to violate them in whatever capacity we are, just as we expect not to be violated. Some people violate others where they are powerful, and cry for being violated in another way. Knowing how bad we feel when we are violated, we should also try to avoid the temptation of making others go through what we don’t want to go through.
8. Speak politely and softly: Speaking rudely to a violator is not a good way to correct them or to protect your right. Actually, it may make the victim prone to more violation. When you speak to people harshly, they tend to reply you in the same manner, and if they are in the position to do more than talk, they do so with anger. You must cultivate the habit of speaking politely while maintaining your stand.
9. Follow up till the end: As soon as you report the case to higher authorities, it is your duty to always follow up the case. Even in court, you must follow up to get justice. It is wrong to report a case and never follow it up. It would be assumed that you are not sure of what you reported. However, when you report a case, always spare time to go ask about the progress and be willing to add additional information if need be. If they abandon your report and you show up asking, definitely, they must continue to work on it until the end. If you do not follow it up, you will have helped the violator commit the violence.
10. Role of the media: When incidences of human rights violations are reported or highlighted by the media, they serve to:
• Caution violators against the behaviour because of negative publicity.
• Inform relevant authorities (including human rights organisations and the police) of an atrocity that needs to be investigated or punished.
• Enlighten the public on the possibility of occurrence of certain violations.
• Expose what could have gone unnoticed by many people.
• Educate people on how to avoid being victims of such acts of violations.
11. Role of the police: When a person who has been violated reports the case to the police, they usually investigate and in some cases arrest the violator. This may be followed by a court process if the case is confirmed. By so doing, they discourage occurrence of violations. When the police are alerted before the violation occurs, they can help to prevent the violation. Police officers also take part in educating the public of their rights as a way of preventing some of them from occurring.
Activity 10.3
Discuss more ways in which we can prevent violation of human rights.
Cases of human rights violation
An example of cases of human rights violation in Rwanda is the Genocide against the Tutsi. Many peole were killed. Over one million people perished in only 100 days. Tutsi women were raped, others were abducted and tortured.
Basic human rights with a special focus on gender equality and children’s rights
Activity 10.4
Rwanda is one of the countries where people’s rights are respected including women and children.
1. Discuss measures put in place to respect children’s rights in your school and community.
2. Enquire from your elders at school and at home about the following as far as rights of women and children are concerned:
• Isange one stop centre
• Umugoroba w’ababyeyi
• Abunzi
Children’s rights
A child is a person who has not attained the age of 18 years. Children rights are the rights that children are entitled to, and they can legally claim. Children’s rights include the following:
(i) Right to education from the state and parents
(ii) Right to good health
(iii) Right to basic education
(iv) Right of protection against any kind of harm such as physical assault
Other rights of children are:
(i) Children should not be separated from their parents except by the decision of authorities and court.
(ii) The state should protect children from any kind of violence including sexual exploitation.
(iii) The state should look after children without families. It should provide suitable protection and settlement for them.
(iv) Handicapped children are entitled to medical care (treatment) and special education.
(v) Children should access medical care and public health care.
(vi) The state should protect children against economic exploitation and hard labour.
(vii) Children should not face corporal punishment and life imprisonment.
(viii) Children should not participate in any hostilities such as armed conflicts.
(ix) Children should not be mistreated or neglected by their parents, friends, guardians or the state.
(x) Children should be prevented from dropping out of school.
Note!
Children’s rights are mainly provided by parents, guardians and the state.
Gender equality
The constitution states that all persons are equal before the law. They all have the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law. This means that every person has a right to the full and equal enjoyment of all rights and freedoms.
Women and men have the right to equal treatment and to equal opportunities. The constitution states that there should be no discrimination against any person because of sex/gender, race, pregnancy, marital status, health status, ethnic/social origin, colour, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, dress, language or birth.
Among the legal instruments in place is the 2003 constitution, that provides for 30 percent automatic representation of women in decision making organs.
The quota has since surpassed within various organs, notably the parliament which constitutes double the provision, with 64 percent of the seats occupied by women.
The executive comprising cabinet ministers and ministers of state, the women constitute 36 percent.
Remember!
In the past, the woman has been discriminated against socially, economically and politically. It is important that the citizens recognise that though gender differences do exist, they need not lead to discrimination as both sexes have important contributions to make to the nation. It is also the responsibility of the citizen to respect and protect the rights and freedoms of each gender.
Sexual abuse and gender-based violence
Sexual abuse is unwanted sexual activity. It is committed by people who use force, make threats or take advantage of victims who are not able to give consent. Most victims and perpetrators know each other. Sexual abuse can happen to a person of any gender. This form of abuse can happen to:
(a) One of the two people who are married.
(b) A child
(c) People with disability
(d) Any person found in a risky place or situation.
Gender-based violence on the other hand is violation of human rights against a man or woman. It includes rape, sexual assault, stalking, battering and other acts that may cause harm to a person. Gender-based violence can result in physical, sexual or mental harm or suffering to the victim. It undermines the health and dignity of the victim. The victim also suffers sexual and even reproductive health consequences which may include:
• Forced or unwanted pregnancy
• Abortions
• Fistula
• STIs including HIV
• Death
Sexual abuse and gender-based violence may happen anywhere including our homes, schools and other public places. Always avoid places that may pose a security risk to you. When abused or violated:
• Seek treatment from a nearby health facility.
• Report the offender immediately to the police.
• Inform another person or an adult near you for help.
• Resist to avoid further damage
Once the violation has occurred, do not be afraid to seek for counselling. Talk about it. Other people may have a way of helping even after the act of violence.
Citizen duties and responsibilities
Activity 10.5
1. Make a list of rights provided by your parents/guardians.
2. As a good child, state your duties to your parents
Rwanda is our motherland. As good citizens, we have duties and responsibilities towards our country.
Citizen duties
(i) Obeying the law: Citizens should serve specific purposes such as helping people, preventing accidents and allocating resources fairly.
(ii) Paying taxes: This is because the government uses tax money to develop the country and to pay civil servants. People pay taxes as a percentage of what they earn. Taxes are also levied on the purchase or sale of goods or even property.
(iii) Serving in court: Every adult citizen must be prepared to promote justice. He or she can witness at a trial if called to do so. This will promote justice.
(iv) Respecting other people’s property: People must respect public property and the property of others. Vandalism and littering are acts of disrespect and criminal too.
(v) Respecting diversity: Citizens should be tolerant by respecting and accepting others regardless of their beliefs, practices or differences.
Citizen responsibilities
(a) Defending the nation: All able bodied men and women above 18 years should voluntarily register with the government. They should register in order to serve in the armed forces. This way, they provide security to the citizens and their property in the country.
(b) Attending school: The government requires young people to attend school so that they get education.
(c) Being informed: Citizens need to know what the government is doing so that they can voice their opinions. People can learn about issues and leaders by reading print publications and listening to news. They can also get the news through talking to people and searching the internet.
(d) Contributing towards common good: This involves taking time, putting effort, and contributing money to help others. It also involves improving the community by being an active member of the society.
Revision questions
1. Explain what is meant by the term ‘human rights’.
2. State the principles of human rights.
3. Explain the various forms of human rights violation.
4. Discuss various ways of preventing human rights violation.
5. State five rights of children.
Unit 11:FORMS AND PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY
Definition of democracy
Activity 11.1
1. Discuss how Members of Parliament are elected in Rwanda.
2. Describe the advantages of choosing your own leaders.
Election is about choosing representatives that a person feels can lead well. We choose representatives because we cannot all sit in parliament to discuss our country’s welfare. This is called democracy.
The term democracy has its origin in the Athenian government of Greece during their great civilisation. It means a form of leadership where people choose their leaders from amongst themselves. The leaders are chosen without any form of coercion or intimidation.
Principles of democracy
Activity 11.2
Discuss rules that govern elections for school prefects and class representatives in your school.
There are basic guidelines that are considered during election of prefects in schools. If these guidelines do not exist, the environment for elections may not be conducive. These are what we call principles.
The following principles should guide any democratic process:
(i) Citizen participation: All citizens must participate in the leadership of their government.
(ii) Equality: In a democratic government, everyone is equal before the law.
(iii) Political tolerance: Democracy allows existence of many political parties (multiparty system).
(iv) Accountability: Government resources must be properly allocated and managed in accordance with the law.
(v) Transparency: There should be openness in both public and private enterprises so as to avoid mismanagement of resources.
(vi) Regular free and fair elections: Elections are supposed to be fair without irregularities. Such irregularities include bribing voters, forcing people to vote and general election malpractices.
(vii) Economic freedom: Economic liberalisation is a situation where there is free market system and free investment.
(viii) Control of the abuse of power: Abuse of power refers to misuse of public offices through corruption and harassment. People who abuse power should be taken to courts of law and prosecuted accordingly.
(ix) Bill of rights: These are fundamental rights and freedoms of people usually guaranteed by the government.
(x) Accepting the results of elections: Accepting the results of an election without going to war.
(xi) Human rights: These are rights that belong to an individual because they are human beings.
(xii) Multi party system: This is the operation of more than one party in competing for power within a country.
(xiii) Rule of law: This involves having a functional legislature system and law abiding citizens.
Remember!
Democracy is one way of keeping peace and moral values among people. It involves mutual respect, equality and fair treatment of people even in courts of law.
Rwanda practices democracy. Leaders are elected to power. The rights of all Rwandans are respected including those of children and women. This explains the radical economic and social developments in the country.
Activity 11.3
If you become a leader in future, describe how you would promote democracy in your community.
Forms of democracy
(a) Direct democracy
This places all power in the hands of an individual. When political decisions must be made, all members of an organised unit gather to vote. In theory, this sounds like the ideal form of government. There are no intermediaries. People are treated as equals. Each person is given a chance to directly influence the policy making process. In practice, however, this system is hard to implement.
Direct democracy is ideal in small towns or within indigenous communities. This is because everyone knows one another. As such, issues under debate directly affect them.
(b) Representative democracy
This political arrangement establishes an intermediary political actor between the individual and the policy outputs of the state. Through the electoral process, one person or a group of people is elected. They are assigned the task of making decisions on behalf of the citizens they represent.
(c) Constitutional democracy/liberal democracy
This is a system of government which places the rights and the power of the majority first in decision making as long as they are within the limits of the constitution. It makes sure that the rights of the minority are not curtailed. Minority rights are guaranteed in constitutional democracy.
Activity 11.4
1. Gather information from various sources how general elections are conducted in Rwanda. Write an essay in summary how this process starts and ends. Observe rules of grammar in your essay.
2. Draw a chart showing the structure of Rwandan legislature.
Revision questions
1. Define the term democracy.
2. Discuss the various forms of democracy you know of.
3. Examine the advantages and disadvantages of democracy.
4. State the qualities of a good leader.
5. Explain the principles of democracy you know of.
Unit 12: IDENTIFY ONESELF DIFFERENTLY IN REFERENCE TO RWANDA
Unit 12: IDENTIFY ONESELF DIFFERENTLY IN REFERENCE TO RWANDA
Activity 12.1
In Rwanda, one can identify himself/herself by:
• Name
• Gender
• Age
• Province he/she comes from
1. Draw a table with four columns showing the four forms of identity.
2. Find out, from your classmates, who else you share more than three forms of identity with.
Forms of identities in Rwanda
Rwandans can be identified by any of the following particulars:
• Name
• Religion
• Gender
• Clans
• Age
• Family
• Province
• Self
• Nationality
• Social
Identity by name
A Rwandan can be named according to:
• Order of birth, for example, Niwempfura
• Circumstances under which one is born, for example, Mahoro, Ntambara and Rugamba
• Religious connotations, for example, Cyubahiro, Ishimwe, Ikuzo and Ineza
Identity by gender
Rwandans identify themselves according to gender, either male or female.
Identity by age
This is in regard to date of birth. Rwandans change titles every time they leave one age stage to another.
Activity 12.2
Look at the table below.
1. Write down the title given to a boy child.
2. Give the title given to a female youth.
3. Identify who is given the title umukecuru.
Identity by province
A Rwandan born in Rwanda originates from one of the five provinces of Rwanda. These are Kigali City, Northern Province, Southern Province, Western Province and Eastern Province.
Identity by nationality
A person is Rwandan by birth if both or one of the parents is Rwandan. A person can also be Rwandan by naturalisation or through adoption.
A spouse who is not Rwandan, upon application, is entitled to Rwandan nationality. Rwandans returning from any countries of asylum and their children are natural citizens. This includes children who were born while in asylum.
Identity by religion
We all belong to a certain religion. We may be Christians, Muslims, Hindus or traditionalists. Through our different religions, we all worship God.
Identity by clans
Each one of us can be identified by our clans. You may belong to Abega, Abanyinginya, Abasinga, Abagesera among others.
Identity by family
Any Rwandan can identify himself or herself using the family he or she is born in. That is why you carry the same surname as your father or guardian.
Self identity
The unique characteristics each one of us has makes us be differentiated from others. These may include physical features such as birth marks or inherent features such as tonal variation and colour of the eyes or skin.
Social identity
We all belong to the larger human society regardless of our age, gender and status. Differences between identities
(i) Differences in names: Our names are different, except in isolated cases. In most instances, we acquire names depending on the season when we were born, or people, places or animals we are named after.
(ii) Differences in gender: Each one of us belongs to one of the two genders: male or female.
(iii) Differences in age: People are oftenly categorised as children, youth or adults.
(iv)Differences by province: We come from different provinces. Some come from Eastern province, Western province, Southern province, Northern province while others come from Kigali province.
(v) Religious differences: There are many types of religions practiced in Rwanda. These religions include Christianity, Islam, Hindu and traditionalism. Each one of us is differentiated from the other by religious beliefs and affiliations. Religious differences are further present in Christianity, where some people are Catholics, Adventists while others are Protestants. Even in Islam some are Shia and others Suni.
(vi) Differences in clans: This is another distinguishing factor among Banyarawanda where by people belong to different clans like Abanyiginya, Abasinga, Abega, Abagesera and Abashingwe. They are these clans that constitute the larger Rwanda society.
Activity 12.3
Explain other differences among Rwandans in terms of family, self and social status.
Similarities between identities
(i) We all belong to one of the five provinces of Rwanda.
(ii) Each one of us has a name.
(iii) All of us belong to either of the two genders: male or female.
(iv) All of us can be categorised into one of the three basic stages of life based on age, that is, either a child, a youth or an adult.
(v) All of us belong to one country, Rwanda.
Remember!
Basically there are no differences among Rwandans based on identities. There is a similarity that cuts across all Rwandans, that is, ‘NDI UMUNYARWANDA.’ This cuts across all regardless of provincial origin, gender, age and name.
Roles of identities
Identifying oneself as Rwandan is of great importance.
(i) It gives one a sense of belonging and pride of being identified as Rwandan.
(ii) It creates and strengthens the spirit of patriotism among Rwandans. This especially applies to those who grew outside the country.
(iii) Identifying one as Rwandan is a bond of togetherness among people especially among the youth. For example, the Makerere University Banyarwanda Students’ Association (MUBSA).
(iv) Identity helps people to keep the values of Rwanda as a nation. Examples of such values are self-reliance, dignity and anti-corruption.
(v) Identity creates self-appreciation and hard work towards achievement of common goals of development for the nation. For example, Umuganda and contribution to the Agaciro Development Fund.
Importance of living together in harmony
Activity 12.4
1. List four values you that have shared or borrowed from your classmates.
2. Explain one difficult situation which your friends or one of them has helped you get out of.
Harmony means peaceful co-existence among people from different backgrounds. These people could be from our school, neighbourhood and the country at large.
It is very important for people to live in harmony. The following are some of the importance of living together in harmony:
• Living together in harmony enables sharing of knowledge and skills among people. For example, students at school can share knowledge.
• It also enables people to live and work together to achieve common goals.
• It helps to avoid social strife and struggle among people of a given society or country.
• Harmony creates happiness among people. No one will harbour ill will towards other person. For instance, Muslims, Christians and non– believers respect each other.
• It promotes socio-cultural activities such as communal work (Umuganda), inter-clan as well as cross religious marriages.
• It breeds a spirit of close cooperation among neighbours in times of need. People come together to help the needy. For example, constructing homes for the genocide survivors, bye-bye nyakatsi and constructing schools.
• It prevents political chaos and armed resistance as is common in many parts of Africa.
• Harmony is the foundation of self-reliance and independence among nations. It builds a strong spirit of patriotism as it has done in Rwanda.
• Harmony leads to economic and social development of a country. This includes development of infrastructure, education, trade and commerce.
Remember!
Having friends at school is a clear indication of living together in harmony.
What we have learnt
Rwandans identify themselves using different particulars such as age, gender and province of origin. of importance is that irrespective of all that, they are all Rwandans, ‘NDI UMUNYARWANDA’. This has helped people in Rwanda to co-exist peacefully.
As a Rwandan, it is always important to uphold peace and moral values of the Rwandan society. The moral values include self-reliance and dignity, anti–corruption, hard work irrespective of gender. An example is the 64% women representation in Rwanda’s parliament.
Revision questions
1. Define the term ‘identity’.
2. Explain how one can identify themselves in relation to the Rwandan society.
3. Discuss the importance of peaceful co-existence among Rwandans.
4. Describe the role of identities among Rwandans.Unit 13:FORMS, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE
Unit 13:FORMS, CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF CONFLICT AND VIOLENCE
Conflict and violence
Activity 13.1
Read the following story.
Gatete’s face was full of wrinkles. He appeared older than his age. In fact, one would think he was competing with his age in a race that he had already lost. The wrinkles on his face were as a result of hatred. Gatete hated everybody around him. It would be wrong to say that he was surrounded by evil people. Gatete lived with the most peaceful people on earth.
Rumours had it that Gatete even hated himself. It is said that he never appreciated any thing good. His neighbours feared him because of his insults. Gatete would insult his neighbours using words that even the devil would not dare use.
On the contrary, his wife Uwamahoro was a very patient woman. She tried every time to make peace between her husband and the neighbours. Unfortunately, she did not succeed.
One day, Gatete attacked a neighbour and seriously injured him. When the news reached other neighbours, they took up arms against Gatete. Some wanted to lynch him. It was at that time that Uwamahoro appeared, crying and pleading for her husband. Her cry moved the mob.
A voice of reason said, “Take him to the police. There is no need of lynching him when we have competent judges to handle his case.”
“Yes! Yes!” Some voices supported.
Finally, Gatete was handed to the police who eventually took him to court.
Explain why Gatete was never liked by his neighbours.
The story above can help us to understand the meanings of conflict and violence. It clearly shows that conflict refers to a fight, struggle or direct opposition. It may also refer to disagreement or the general pattern of groups dealing with disparate ideas.
Violence is a behaviour or treatment in which physical force is exerted. The force is exerted with the purpose of causing damage, injury or even death to the victim(s). Violence takes many forms, some of them being:
(i) Physical violence
(ii) Sexual violence
(iii) Emotional violence
(iv) violence
(v) Structural violence
Conflict and violence are all together a public disorder that affect our societies both locally and internationally. For example, the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi led to the killing of more than one million people. The killing happened within 100 days. This brought suffering and misery in Rwanda, socially, economically and politically.
Forms of conflict and violence
Activity 13.2
Write down examples of conflict and violence that you have witnessed.
There are various forms of conflict and violence that people go through. Some people are beaten or hit by objects in order to harm them. Some are left to suffer in the cold or exposed to extreme temperatures. This is called physical violence.
In some cases, people go to war to fight against people they perceive as enemies. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi saw some people carrying weapons. They used the weapons to attack others. This is an example of armed conflict. This form of conflict mainly inflicts physical injury or even death to the victims.
There are people who defile children. Some rape women or touch them in an indecent manner. Others force people to watch pornographic materials. This is known as sexual violence.
Sometimes a conflict involves the use of an abusive language. It is normally characterised by behaviour such as name calling, anger and jealousy. This type of conflict affects others emotionally and psychologically. That is why it is called emotional or psychological conflict/violence.
Causes of conflict and violence
Activity 13.3
Refer to the examples you gave in Activity 13.2.
State what caused them.
It is clear that there cannot be a conflict without its cause. Your answers to Activity 13.3 prove this. The following are some of the causes of conflict and violence.
(i) Inequality: It is inequality between groups rather than individuals that increase the prospects of violent conflicts. Where the society is divided into two predominant groups, growing inequality between them leads to conflicts.
(ii) State collapse: Collapse is rarely sudden. It takes a long process that is characterised by a corrupt government.
(iii) Economic decline and economic shock: Continuous economic decline plays a major part in state collapse and conflict. For example, hyper inflation may lead to violence and the overthrow of the government.
(iv) History: Many conflicts occur where there is a tradition of resolving problems by violent means. Political violence is entrenched and the instruments of the state such as the army, the police and the judiciary sustain the process.
(v) Scarcity of resources: There is likely to be conflict where people struggle for the few natural resources. For example, pastoralist communities sometimes engage in conflicts because of grazing areas.
(vi) Unemployment and illiteracy: Countries with high level of unemployment among the youth face a higher risk of conflicts. The situation is the same where male or female education levels are different.
(vii) The abuse of ethnicity: Negative political remarks based on ethnicity promote ethnic hatred.
(viii) Availability of arms: Availability of small arms is a major factor in sustaining and fuelling conflicts.
(ix) The conflict cycle: The greatest risks occur when a fragile peace is not properly consolidated. A non resolved conflict keeps on rotating.
(x) Inadequate and inappropriate mediation: If the conflict is not properly resolved through mediation it can reoccur. Consequences of conflict and violence
Activity 13.4
Refer to Activity 13.1.
In few words, describe how Gatete’s habit affected his family and the general community.
The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi is a clear indication that conflicts have consequences. The following are consequences of conflict and violence:
(i) Loss of human lives and civilian causalities: Hundreds and thousands of human lives are lost in conflicts. Some people have become physically handicapped.
(ii) Displacement: A lot of people have become internally displaced while others have become refugees.
(iii) Degradation of vulnerable groups: People such as children are denied their rights to a living since they cannot support themselves.
(iv) Sexual harassment: Girl children and vulnerable mothers, especially in war torn areas, always face sexual harassment.
(v) Child soldier: Children are deliberately indoctrinated into a culture of violence and used as specific instruments of war.
(vi) Target of Civilians: They end up being the targets of the conflicts to achieve endless goals of perpetrators.
(vii) Famine: War denies people access to their land at critical growing or planting periods. This always leads to famine.
(viii) Destruction of infrastructure: War seriously damages infrastructure such as roads, railways, ports, airports, electricity and water supply.
(ix) Effects on services: Schools and health centres are increasingly the targets of military activity. It leads a large number of young uneducated persons.
(x) Poor governance and investment: Conflict and violence change the quality of governance. This lead to poor governance resulting into the economic losses.
(xi) Debt burden: Conflict also contributes to unsustainable debt to the government. The whole burden shifts to the citizens to pay recurring debt for years.
(xii) Regional and economic impact: The effects of conflict and violence are rarely confined to one country. It extends to the whole region.
(xiii) International impact: Conflict has a major effect on the environment through uncontrolled exploitation of natural resources. It leads to the other evils such as money laundering and drugs smuggling.
(xiv) Separation of families: Conflict and violence bring separation in families.
(xv) Psychological trauma: This occurs in many people as a result of conflicts and violence. For example, the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi left many people traumatised.
Fig. 13.2: People migrating due to conflictConflict transformation
Activity 13.5
Discuss how you settle misunderstandings amongst your fellow students.
An effective response to conflict requires agreement on and understanding of its causes. It is possible to know the root causes of conflict and violence. It is also important to understand the secondary causes that sustain conflicts.
The following strategies can be employed to transform conflict and violence:
· Inclusive government: Conflict prevention will be effective if it is based on own experience. It should also be based on the capacity to respond to a crisis.
· Restoring the legitimacy of the state: This is done through great commitment to re-establishing and delivering basic services. This demonstrates the value of national government.
· Dealing with impunity: There is need for unity and reconciliation.
·Peacekeeping and peace enforcement: This attracts widespread international interest to provide support and training.
· Dealing with small arms proliferation and control of light weapons: There should be action against illegal transfer and transport of arms. There should be international support for the disposal and destruction of weapons surplus to national security needs.
· Commitment and support to addressing conflict: There should be a long term commitment and comprehensive framework to address conflict.
· Amicable settlement: It is when two conflicting sides decide to solve their conflicts without calling a third party.
Other strategies of conflict transformation include the following:
(i) Regional and economic integration and mutual security
(ii) Local mediation and peace building activities for the civil societies and religious leadership
(iii) Making stringent laws against conflicts and violence (iv) Encouraging social justice national wide
(iv) Settling conflict outside courts of law between two or agents of conflicting sides. A settlement contract is usually signed to adhere.
Important!
Conflict and violence can also be managed through international criminal courts. For example, the International Criminal Court in the Hague-Netherlands. It tries war crimes, genocide crimes, crimes against humanity and aggression. This can make an impact on the reduction of crimes, conflicts and violence in various parts of the world.
Revision questions
1. Explain what is meant by ‘conflict’ and ‘violence’.
2. State some forms of violence and conflict in different societies today.
3. Discuss the causes of conflict and violence today.
4. Explain the impact of conflict and violence on the society.
5. Explain how conflict and violence can be resolved
Unit 14:DIGNITY AND SELF-RELIANCE IN RWANDAN SOCIETY
Unit 14:DIGNITY AND SELF-RELIANCE IN RWANDAN SOCIETY
Dignity and self-reliance
Dignity: It is a condition of being worth of respect, esteem or honour.
Self-reliance: This is a state of being independent in all aspects. The independence could be social, political or economic.
Activity 14.1
1. Identify four things that make you proud of your country (Rwanda).
2. Pick out the ones that promote respect and hard work.
Rwanda has many things that we can be proud of including the ones you have mentioned. These things bring dignity to ourselves and to the country at large. The Government of Rwanda has put some measures to enable us achieve self-reliance and dignity.
Measures put in place by the government of Rwanda to achieve self-reliance
Activity 14.2
Identify some activities that promote social and economic growth in Rwanda.
In the past years, Rwanda has worked hard towards the achievement dignity and self-reliance. Several measures were put in place to achieve both.
(i) Abunzi
These are mediation committees that were created in 2006 to resolve conflicts through community participation. In other words, they were to decentralise justice. There are local officers at village level (umudugudu) whose major role is intervention. They intervene in small wrangles among citizens and harmonise the situation before it involves the courts.
(ii) Girinka programme (one cow per poor family)
This programme was launched on 12th April 2006 with mainly four prime objectives:
• Fighting malnutrition
• Reducing poverty through dairy farming
• Improving agricultural productivity through use of manure
• Improving soil quality and reducing effects of erosion through planting trees and grass
One member of the community is given a pregnant dairy cow. He or she is supposed to give a first born female calf to another beneficiary. The chain is continuous. By September 2014, close to 200 000 beneficiaries had received cows.
The criterion used for one to benefit from the one cow per poor family project is as follows:
• The beneficiary must not have already owned a cow.
• One must be considered poor by the community through the ubudehe principle.
• One must have constructed a cow shed.
• One must have at least 0.25 to 0.75 hectares of land part of which must be covered with fodder.
• One must be a person of integrity (Inyangamugayo).
Before one is given the cow, they first undergo training from Rwanda Agricultural Board. This is to prepare them on how to manage the cows.
Fig. 14.1: Girinka programme in Rwanda
(iii) Agaciro Development Fund
This is solidarity fund that has been initiated by Rwandans. The fund seeks to improve the level of financial autonomy of Rwanda. It is a government programme. It was started by his Excellency the President of the Republic of Rwanda in August, 2012. It was started as a way of reducing foreign aid.
(iv) Itorero
It is a civic education training that was established in 2007 to train different leaders. It trains teachers, students, politicians, church leaders, ex soldiers, bankers and civil servants. They study government programmes, Rwandan history, unity and reconciliation and Rwanda values for a better future in which negative ideologies of the past will not influence them. It also produces leaders who strive for community development.
Fig. 14.2: Youths undergoing Itorero training
(v) Ubudehe
This is a poverty eradication programme under the ministry of finance. A pilot programme was launched in 2001. The official launch was in 2004. It is a culture of collective action and solidarity to solve problems of poverty by people themselves. This is done by categorising Rwandans into different income groups according to self-sustenance. The poor are given priority in terms of health insurance, education, electricity, water supply and even accommodation.
(vi) Kuremera
It is an initiative created by the government of Rwanda. It aims at solving the problem of unemployment especially among the youth.
At the start, the Rwandan government gave Rwandan Francs 200 million to youth. They were given this amount to start self-help projects. This has gone even to local levels. Members of a given community can join hands to help the needy in their community. For example, they construct houses, avail water for the aged and provide food.
(vi) One-dollar campaign
It was an initiative by Rwandans living in the diaspora to raise some money. It was about contributing at least one dollar per head. The money contributed was for supporting the society through building houses for students who survived the genocide.
(vii) Umuganda (National community service)
This is a national communal activity that is done every last Saturday of the month. It starts at 7:00 am and ends at 12 noon. All people dedicate that time to cleaning and rehabilitation of the environment. After that, a meeting is held to discuss the progress of the nation. Government programmes such as immunisation days are also announced.
Fig. 14.4: Community service (Umuganda)
Activity 14.3
Discuss the advantages of participating in the cleaning of your own surroundings.
(ix) Ishema ryacu
This started in July 2015 after the arrest of General Karenzi Karake Emmanuel. General Karenzi was arrested in Britain under the order of Spain. Rwandans started ishema campaign to collect money and pay for his bail which was 1 million pounds. Ishema fund was to bring back the pride of Rwanda and Rwandans.
(x) Gacaca Gacaca
Means “judgment on the grass”. Gacaca system has been used in Rwanda for a long time as a method of disputes’ resolutions in areas like land and cattle disputes, dowry disagreements and crimes committed in the community. It is based on truth telling and confessions as well as rendering punishment to violators while still emphasising the need for harmony and social order.
The main objective for the establishment of Gacaca’s is reconciliation through restoration of harmony, social order by punishing, shaming and requiring reparations from the offenders as well as giving everyone in the community an opportunity to participate in the deliberation of justice. The Gacaca system is elaborate on how to punish the violators and perpetrators even as it allows them a chance to be reintegrated back into the community.
This traditional, communal justice was adapted in 2001 to fit the needs of Rwanda in the wake of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi where over one million people were killed, tortured and raped in the period of 100 days. This was after realisation that the formal court systems could have taken a long time to resolve the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi cases. They were started to bring to a consensus between the perpetrators and the victims of the Genocide. The courts worked at the village level. By the time of their official closure on 4th May 2015, they had successfully resolved many cases. They had also created a united Rwandan society.
Fig. 14.5: Gacaca court in session
(xi) Ndi umunyarwanda
This programme was put forward by the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission (NURC). It was started to bring a lasting peace, unity and reconciliation after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. It was launched on the 15th November 2013 at Integrated polytechnic Regional Centre (IPRC), Kigali. It was launched by the Permanent Secretary of the Ministry of Youth and Information and Communication Technology (MYICT).
Activity 14.4
Use internet or newspapers to find out the names of the following:
1. Minister for Youth and Information and Communication Technology.
2. Permanent Secretary for Youth and Information and Communication Technology.
Fig. 14.6: Citizens attending Ndi Umunyarwanda programme
Implication of dignity and self-reliance on Rwandan society
Activity 14.5
1. Write the English translation of Rwanda National Anthem.
2. Explain what we learn from our National Anthem.
Dignity and self-reliance have positive implications on the Rwandan society. Some of them are:
• They have brought, among Rwandans, a sense of togetherness and love for one another. The love is not based on any other string but Rwandans, hence the slogan ‘Ndi Umunyarwanda’.
• Dignity and self-reliance have played a big role in the economic development of Rwanda. Every Rwandan feels that it is their duty to develop their own country.
• Dignity and self-reliance has led to promotion of peace and stability among Rwandans. People learn to respect and live in harmony with each other.
• Rwanda has been able to fight the bad history of tribalism of 1950s and early 1990s. Rwandans now work together towards the development of their nation.
• They have also helped to reduce income inequalities among Rwandans. Rwandan society looks forward to dignifying every member, that is, the rich help the poor.
• Dignity and self-reliance reduce the dependency ratio on the government. Some issues are addressed by the citizens through various campaigns such as ‘bye-bye nyakatsi.’ Campaigns such as kuremera and Agaciro Development Fund have enabled the government to finance up to 66% of its budget.
• Rwanda has been able to provide basic services to its citizens. For example, under the Ubudehe, the vulnerable Rwandans are given priority in terms of education.
Important!
Umuganda is one of the activities through which Rwanda has managed to conserve the environment. Through Umuganda, trees have been planted and cleaning has been done. No doubt, Rwanda is the cleanest country in Africa. We must keep up the record.
Dignity and self reliance are very important in Rwanda. They promote growth and development of Rwanda. They bridge the gap between the poor and the rich. They enable provision of basic services, and helping the needy and disaster stricken people. They also help in poverty eradication.
Revision questions
1. Define the term ‘dignity’.
2. Explain how dignity and self-reliance have been achieved in Rwanda.
3. Discuss the implication of dignity and self-reliance on your society.
4. State the meaning of ‘self-reliance.
Unit 15:CONCEPT OF DISABILITY AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Unit 15:CONCEPT OF DISABILITY AND INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Concept of disability
Activity 15.1
1. Use a dictionary to find the meaning of the term ‘disability.’
2. Using the internet, research on the definition of the term ‘inclusive education’.
Disability
It is difficult for some people to carry out activities that a normal person does. This could be due to pre-existing or acquired conditions. Such people are said to be living with disability
Inclusive education
Inclusive education happens when children with and without disabilities participate and learn together in the same classes.
Types of disability
Activity 15.2
1. Look at the pictures above.
2. Explain the type of disability in each picture.
There are four main types of disability. These are:
(i) Physical disability
(ii) Sensory disability
(iii) Mental disability
(iv) Developmental disability The pictures above show one type of disability. This type of disability is called is called physical disability.
(i) Physical disability
This is an impairment that makes one unable to use his or her physical organs to perform a function.
(ii) Sensory disability
This is an impairment of one or more senses. It mostly affects vision and hearing.
(iii) Mental disability
This is a psychological or behavioural condition that affects the brain.
(iv) Developmental disability
This type of disability affects growth and development of a person.
Remember!
All people are equal.
Fig. 15.1: Inclusive education in Rwanda
Causes of disability
Accidents:
Many people become disable as a result of road, fire and work related accidents.
War:
Apart from causing death and destruction of property, war has always left many people disabled.
Diseases: Diseases such as polio and cancer can cause disability. Some parts of a person’s body may be amputated as a result of cancer.
Birth related: Some disabilities are as a result of problems experienced by the mother during delivery. Some children are born with disability.
Inherited disability: Some people inherit disability from their family lineage. An example is albinism.
Injections and medicine: Use of wrong medicine can cause lameness or even blindness. If injection is not done correctly, the patient may end up having disability.
Natural disasters: Natural disasters such as earthquakes and lightening can also cause disability.
Failure to immunise and vaccinate children: Children who are not immunised may suffer from diseases such as polio. Consequently, they will be disabled.
Poison: It can cause conditions such as paralysis and blindness.
Activity 15.3
Describe how the following factors cause disability:
• Accidents
• Diseases
• Injections
• Natural disasters
Consequences of disability
Stigma: Disability sometimes makes those living with it to have fear. Some people also cause fear to people with disability.
Discrimination: In some families, children with disability are discriminated against. Some are locked up in rooms whenever visitors come.
Break up of families: Some people have ended up divorcing because of disability.
Low self-esteem: Some of those living with disability look down upon themselves. They feel that they are not important in the society.
Exploitation: Some disabled persons, especially women, get harassed. Some are sexually abused because they cannot defend themselves.
Vulnerability to diseases: People living with disability are at a high risk of contracting diseases. This could be caused by germs that some of them contact every time.
Activity 15.4
Discuss how the following consequences of disability can be addressed:
• Stigma
• Breaking up of families
• Low self-esteem
Attitudes and feelings towards disability in Rwanda
People with disability are often self-conscious about their bodies. They face all of the attitudes people have about disability whenever they go out in public.
People with disability are easily angered by the sometimes patronising attitudes they encounter. They are suddenly treated as needy, unable and tragic.
Encountering prejudices
People with disability should learn how to let people have their beliefs. Let them find out that you do not care how they see you. Demonstrate an attitude that people should not pity you or make a hero of you. Return to the primary task of life, work, play family, community, love and spirit.
Attitudes are learned
People who have not had direct experience around people with disability always feel uncomfortable around them. They mostly rely on information given to them about disability. For example, if a parent pulls a kid out of the way of a person riding a wheelchair, the child learns to stay away from persons on wheelchairs.
Negative attitudes
Negative attitudes can become a barrier to the inclusion of people with disabilities and to achieving their fulfil potential. Negative attitudes include hiding them and denying them chance to participate in various social activities including education. However, the government resolve to change this has been through catering for their needs in education and civic education to the citizens to appreciate people with disabilities. In the current constitution, they even have more rights as compared to times before. If treated well, they feel comfortable and accepted.
Disability pride
Persons with disability should continue to demonstrate independence. They should show that they are not looking to be cared for, but to be treated as a whole. They should hold their rights to make personal decisions and have a full life. As such, society learns to value and respect persons living with disability.
Disability is not inability
Rwandans have developed the attitude that disability does not necessarily mean inability. Persons with disability should therefore be given equal chances. They should go to school, start and develop businesses. They can get employment in offices, marry, have own homes and families. This is a clear indication that disability is not inability.
The government partners with other non-governmental organisations such as ADRA-Rwanda (Adventist Development and Relief Agency), Handicap International and Action Aid. In partnership, they provide support materials such as wheel chairs and crutches. They give scholarships and offer trainings to teachers on how to handle children with disability.
Fig. 15.2: Material support to the disabled
The government of Rwanda has put on measures to ease movement of children with disability. One of such measures is the construction of user friendly buildings. The government encourages indoor games in schools to enable children with disability to study without difficulties.
Remember!
Disability is not inability. We are all equal before the law.
Activity 15.5
As Senior One students, make an outreach programme. Reach out to any disabled persons from around your school. Help them to clean their environment and fetch water for them. Take time to interact with them.
Revision questions
1. Explain what is meant by ‘people with disability’.
2. Mention the types of disability that we have in our communities.
3. State the causes of disability in most African countries today.
4. Discuss the consequences of disability in Rwanda today.
Unit 16:FAMILY AND PERSONAL VALUES
TOPIC AREA 5: INDIVIDUAL AND FAMILY
Sub-Topic Area 7: Values, Attitude and Sources of Sexual Learning Unit
16: Family and personal values
Activity 16.1
Use a dictionary or the internet to find the meanings of the following words:
• Values
• Gender
• Sexuality
• Reproductive health
Definition of values
These are principles or standards of behaviour. They are one’s judgment of what is important in life. Values also refer to important and lasting beliefs or ideals shared by the members of a culture. These ideals determine what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable. Values have major influence on a person’s behaviour and attitude. They serve as broad guidelines in all situations. There are various types of values namely:
(i) Ethical or moral values
(ii) Doctrinal or ideological (religious, political) value
(iii) Social values
(iv) Aesthetic value
Activity 16.2
In Rwanda, every school has the following:
• Vision statement
• Mission statement
• School motto
(a) Write down the motto, vision and mission statements of your school.
(b) Pick out the values that the above statements promote.
You must have realised that school motto, vision and mission statements have a meaning. They are not written just for the sake of writing. They promote some very important values.
Sources of values
• Genetics: Significant portion of our value system is genetically determined. Genes are responsible for a part of our value system. The value system could be altered due to environmental factors.
• Culture: Certain values are reinforced by culture. Certain cultures consider values such as achievements, peace, cooperation, unity, equity and democracy desirable.
• Parents (family): Values are established in our families through parents. Parents mould and instill a certain sense of values in their children. This will help the kids to cope with future challenges.
• Friends and peers: Through friends and peers, many people acquire values. Some acquire negative values while the others acquire constructive values to brighten their future.
• School: Through informal and formal education, a good number of people acquire values. We learn a lot of things at school as we get knowledge and skills. This is a source of values to the majority. Good schools instill constructive ideas to students as a sense of direction.
• Media/press: Through newspapers, magazines, internet, radios, television and other relevant media, people acquire values. They admire and adopt values through role models in the media.
• Other value systems: Our value system may get altered as we grow up and get exposed to other value systems. For example, being recruited into the army or police force may change our past existing value systems.
Sources of sexual learning
Sexual learning refers to instruction on issues relating to human sexuality. The issues include human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual activity, reproductive health and emotional relations. Other issues are reproductive rights and responsibilities, sexual abstinence and birth controls. Sexual learning can be done informally or formally.
1. Informal sources
Sexual learning may be taught informally. Someone can receive information from a conversation with a parent, friends, religious leader, or through the media. It may also be delivered through sex self-help authors, sex columnists or sex education websites.
Activity 16.3
1. (a) Explain how sex education was taught in the traditional Rwandan society.
(b) How is it taught today?
Sexual learning must be introduced to children at an early age so as to help them manage body changes during adolescence.
2. Formal sources
Formal sexual learning occurs when schools or health care providers offer sex education lessons. Sexual learning teaches the young persons what they should know about their personal conduct. It also teaches them how to relate with others, especially members of the opposite sex. It is also necessary to prepare the young for the tasks ahead.
Sometimes sexual learning is taught as a full course as part of the curriculum. It is taught in junior high schools and senior high schools.
Definition of gender
Gender
Gender refers to either the male or female division of a species, especially as differentiated by social and cultural roles and behaviour. It is impossible to define gender as ‘sex’. The term sex can be used when differentiating male creatures from female ones biologically. The concept of gender is primarily applied to human beings and has additional connotations.
Social construction of gender
Social construction refers to how the society groups people and how it privileges certain groups over others. The social construction of gender begins with the assignment to a sex category to babies. It is done on the basis of what the genitalia look like at birth.
When a baby is born, the doctor first looks at the baby’s genitalia. He or she does this in order to determine whether it is a boy or a girl. This is the beginning of the gender process of social construction.
After children have been classified as boys or girls, parents become part of this societal process. They start dressing them with different clothes and colours to identify their gender.
As children grow up, they start learning how they are supposed to behave. They observe and imitate the people of the same gender as them. Girls act as their mothers and boys as their fathers. Each gender is expected to dress and act in a certain way. However, this behaviour leads to stereotypes.
Concepts of human rights related to sexual and reproductive health
(a) Sexual health
Sexual health is a state of physical, mental and social well-being in relation to sexuality. It requires a positive and respectful approach to sexuality and sexual relationships. Sexual health is about the possibility of having pleasurable and safe sexual experiences. The sexual relationships should be free of coercion, discrimination and violence.
Sexual rights
The struggle for sexual rights includes and focuses on sexual pleasure and emotional sexual expression. At the 14th World Congress of Sexology (Hong Kong,1999), the congress adopted the universal declaration of sexual rights. This includes the following sexual rights:
(i) The right to sexual freedom
(ii) The right to sexual autonomy, sexual integrity, and safety of sexual body
(iii) The right to sexual privacy
(iv) The right to sexual equity
(v) The right to sexual pleasure
(vi) The right to emotional sexual expression
(vii) The right to sexually associate freely
(viii) The right to make free and responsible reproductive choices
(ix) The right to sexual information based upon scientific inquiry
(x) The right to comprehensive sexuality education
(xi) The right to sexual health care
(b) Reproductive health
Reproductive health implies that people are able to have a responsible, satisfying and safer sex life. It also implies that they have the capability to reproduce. They also have the freedom to decide when and how often to do so. One interpretation of this implies that men and women ought to be informed. They should have access to safe, effective affordable and acceptable methods of birth control. They should also have access to appropriate health care services of sexual and reproductive medicine.
Health education programmes should be implemented. They stress on the importance of women going through pregnancy and childbirth safely. Health education provides couples with the best chance of having a healthy infant.
Reproductive rights
Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines reproductive rights as follows:
“Reproductive rights rest on the recognition of the basic right of all couples and individuals to decide freely and responsibly the number, spacing and timing of their children and to have the information and means to do so, and the right to attain the highest standard of sexual and reproductive health. They also include the right of all to make decisions concerning reproduction free of discrimination, coercion and violence.”
Revision questions
1. Define the term ‘values’.
2. Mention various sources of values.
3. Explain what is meant by sexual ‘learning.’
4. Clearly explain the sources of sexual learning.
5. Explain the meanings of:
(a) Sexual health
(b) Reproductive health
6. State at least ten sexual rights.
Unit 17:Glossary
Unit 17:Glossary
Abolish: Put an end to, stop Accommodation: a place to stay
Acquisition: the act of acquiring or getting possession
Amputated: cut off (part of the body such as hand)
Annexed: incorporated into
Antagonism: hostility, opposition (between conflicting groups)
Antiquity: ancient, the period of History before the sixth century
Asylum: protection to refugees, refuge
Barter trade: exchange of goods for goods
Bipedal: having or walking on two legs
Chronology: order of events, sequence
Coercion: use of force or intimidation Consensus: general agreement
Curators: people in charge of a museum
Defile: have carnal knowledge of a minor, violate chastity of a child
Diaspora: any group that has been dispersed outside its traditional
homeland, people who do not live in their home country
Dignity: being worth of respect, esteem or honour
Endeavours: an attempt to do something, effort
Epizootes: diseases among animals and humans
Famine: extreme and general scarcity of food
Fictitious: imaginative, not real
Inauguration: ceremony of putting someone as official for example, a king
Industrial revolution: the period during which work began to be more by
machines in factories than by hand at home
Inherent: existing as natural part
Intimidation: fear Labia minora: the inner folds of skin of the external genitalia
Launched: started as a plan
Legendary: of a hero who was very famous in an area
Linguist: a person who studies languages
Massacre: indiscriminate killing of many people
Mythology: myths (stories or beliefs about a particular people) in general
Oases: places of water in a desert
P.b.u.h: peace be upon him
Perpetrators: people who have committed a serious crime
Pilot programme: a programme to test or start something
Possessions: property, wealth Prejudices: unfair and unreasonable opinion
or feeling Prospects: possibility of being successful
Redeeming: offsetting some fault
Reign: rule, authority
Sculpted: made in the manner of sculpture, formed in a particular shape
Sensitising: making aware, creating awareness
Status quo: present or cuttent condition
Strife: conflict, violent or angry disagreement Trauma: severe emotional shock
Vulnerability: state of being easy to attack or influence