UNIT 4 GENOCIDE AND PEACE BUILDING
Key Unit Competence:
To use the language learnt in the context of genocide and peace building
4.1. Describing words and expressions used in the context
of genocide and peace building
• Text: Genocide and related terms
The history of the world has always been punctuated by cycles of violence,
regardless of time, region or race. Genocide, which is one of the worst forms of
violence, has always led to horrific socio-economic and environmental impacts.
The last decade of the 20th century was the most turbulent some countries like
Rwanda has ever experienced in its history. The following paragraphs discuss
some of terms used in the context of genocide.
Firstly, crimes against humanity are codified in article 7 of the Rome Statute of
the International Criminal Court (ICC). “The notion encompasses crimes such
as murder, extermination, rape, persecution and all other inhumane acts of a
similar character (wilfully causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to
mental or physical health), committed ‘as part of a widespread or systematic
attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack’.
The mapping report says that most incidents listed may fall within the scope
of “widespread or systematic attacks” characterized by “multiple acts of largescale violence, carried out in an organized fashion and resulting in numerous
victims. Most of these attacks were directed against non-combatant civilian
populations consisting primarily of women and children. As a consequence, the
vast majority of acts of violence perpetrated during these years, which formed
part of various waves of reprisals and campaigns of persecution and pursuit of
refugees, were in general terms all transposed into a series of widespread and
systematic attacks against civilian populations and could therefore be classified
as crimes against humanity by a competent court.”
Secondly, Laue (1993:256) defined conflict as ‘escalated natural competition
between two or more parties about scarce resources, power and prestige’.
Parties in conflict believe they have incompatible goals, and their aim is to
neutralize, gain advantage over, injure or destroy one another (Laue 1993:257).
According to Fry and Bjorkqvist (1997:26), conflict, although inevitable, is not
inherently pathological, sick behavior or always dysfunctional. Some conflicts
are harmful but they may, in some cases, improve society and social relations
on a long-term basis. Conflict can be a constructive force in social life (Fry
and Bjorkqvist 1997:26). The theoretical links between geography, society
and conflicts were also highlighted by Ferguson (1994:59) who emphasized
that genocides had negative consequences on the infrastructure, structure andsuperstructure.
Thirdly, the term ‘genocide’ was coined by a Polish-Jewish lawyer named
Raphael Lemkin who formed the word by combining the Greek word for race
or tribe (Geno) with the Latin word for killing (cide). In proposing this new
term, Lemkin had in mind “a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the
destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim
of annihilating the groups themselves.”
Therefore, the crime of genocide since it was initially formulated in 1948, in
article 2 of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of
genocide, the definition of ‘genocide’ has remained substantially the same. Article
6 of the Rome Statute borrows from this convention and for example, defines
the crime of genocide as “any of the following acts committed with intent to
destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such.
According to the United Nations (cited in Destexhe 1996:5), means any of the
following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national,
ethnic, racial or religious group, including; killing members of the group, causing
serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group, deliberately inflicting
on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction
in whole or in part. This terminology has been reviewed and enriched and even
subjected to controversies by social scientists who have shown that all mass
murders or massacres are not necessarily genocide (Staub 1992:8), but one
can also conceive genocide where there is no murder (Robbins and Robbins
2003:151).
Lastly by no means least, as far as the convention on the prevention and
punishment of the crime of genocide is concerned, for a perpetrator to be
guilty of genocide, the people he intends to destroy must belong to one of the
following four categories: First, a national group which is a set of individuals
whose identity is defined by a common country of nationality or national origin;
second, an ethnic group that refers to the set of individuals whose identity is
defined by common cultural traditions, language or heritage; third, a racial group
where individuals whose identity is defined by physical characteristics; fourth,
a religious group that is defined as a set of individuals whose identity is defined
by common religious creeds, beliefs, doctrines, practices, or rituals.
Adapted from: Gahima, A. (2007). The socio-economic impacts of the genocide
and current developments in Rwanda: Case studies of the towns of Butare and
Cyangugu. Unpublished Master’s Dissertation, Department of Geography and
Environmental Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban.
• Comprehension questions
1. Examine the worst forms of violence that happened in Rwanda and its
impact as described in the passage
2. Identify some crimes against humanity as are codified in article 7 of the
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC).3. Compare and contrast genocide and conflict.
Vocabulary, sentence and essay writing
I. Use a dictionary and thesaurus to find the meaning of the words
below
a. …. horrific……(paragraph one)
b. ……violence……(paragraph one)
c. ……turbulent……(paragraph one)
d. ……victims……(paragraph two)
e. …… perpetrated……..(paragraph two)
f. ……reprisals……(paragraph two)
g. …… pathological……(paragraph three)
h. ….. annihilating………(paragraph three)
i. …. massacres…… (paragraph four)
II. Make grammatical and meaningful sentences using the following
words or phrases
a. Conflict
b. Genocide
c. Violence
d. Survivors
e. Victims
f. a national group
g. ethnic group
h. a racial group
i. a religious groupIII. Write an essay comparing and contrasting genocide and a war
4.2. Genocide in the world
• Text: Genocide in the world
It is worth noting that the occurrence of genocide is not limited to Rwanda.
There have been other cases of genocide in different parts of the world that
occurred in different times. Some of the cases of genocide that happened in
the 20th Century are as follows: Genocide against the Herero in Namibia by the
German colonialists (1907), the Holocaust genocide that occurred in Germany
and its occupied territories (1939 – 1945) and the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsi in Rwanda.
The first one was the Nama Herero Genocide was not recognized for unknown
reasons by the United Nations Organization. However, many authors and
specialists in the study of genocides qualify it as a pure act of genocide
committed against the Nama and the Herero in 1907. When the Germans
arrived in South-West Africa (Namibia) in 1880, they found the area populated
by certain groups of people such as the Nama (Namaqua) who were about
20,000 in number by then. Another group of people was the Herero who were
about 75,000 in number. Their occupation was cattle herding. These people
violently resisted occupation of their land and establishment of the German rule.
The German commander who led the conquest, vowed to meet any resistance
from the natives with ‘uncompromising brutality’. He vowed to wipe out the
natives completely in 15 year time.
The second one is called Holocaust, this is a genocide that occurred in Germany
and its occupied territories. It targeted Jews of whom approximately 6,000,000
were killed by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime. Apart from the Jews, non-Jews
were also killed including millions of Polish Gentiles, Russians, Ukrainians and
prisoners of other nationalities. This has been one of the largest genocides
in history. About two-thirds of the Jews who lived in Europe were killed in the
Holocaust. Laws were passed in Germany that excluded Jews from the civil
society, more specifically the Nuremberg Laws of 1935. Concentration camps
were established where Jews were murdered in large numbers. Jews were
collected from various parts of Germany occupied territories in 1939 and were
transported in cargo trains to the famous concentration or extermination camps.
Most of them, however, died along the way. Those who survived the journey by
train were killed in gas chambers.
Events leading to the planning and execution of the 1994 Genocide against the
Tutsi in Rwanda date back to 1959. The cause of the 1994 Genocide against
Tutsi was the history of a long process of violence, hatred, injustice and ethnic
divisions in the first and second Republics of Rwanda. Massacre against the
Tutsi had happened in 1959 as a result of similar reasons to those ones that
caused the 1994 Genocide – manipulated ethnic rivalries between the Hutuand the Tutsi
There was an ethnic and political violence which was characterised by a
period of violence from 1959 – 1961 targeting the Tutsi and Hutu members
of UNAR. This violence saw the country transition from a Belgian colony with a
Tutsi monopoly to an independent Hutu dominated republic. A Hutu elite group
was formed to counter the Tutsi policy and transfer power from the Tutsi to the
Hutu. From November 1959, a series of riots by the Hutu took place. The riots
entailed arson attacks on Tutsi homes. The violence forced about 336,000 Tutsi
to exile in the neighbouring countries where they lived as refugees. The Tutsi
exiles organised themselves into an armed group to fight for their way back
into their country. Afterwards, there were no active threats posed by the Tutsi
refugees to the Hutu-controlled government in Rwanda. It was until the early
1990s when the Tutsi refugees regrouped again into a strong force and formed
the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a movement which they used to force the
Rwanda Government into a political negotiation.
However the negotiations failed as Hutu extremists were not willing to share the
power. Using the death of President Juvenal Habyarimana in an airplane crash
on April 6th, 1994 as a pretext, they executed their long term plan of killing the
Tutsi in the 1994 Genocide at the end of which more than one million Tutsi
were massacred. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi did not take a long
time to be recognised by UN. The Security Council created the International
Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by the Resolution 955 of November 8th,
1994. Based in Arusha, the ICTR was established to deal with the prosecution
of the Rwandans responsible for the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi.
Adapted from: History for Rwanda Secondary Schools (REB, 2016).
• Comprehension questions
1. Identify some cases of genocides that took place in the world as described
by the writer.
2. Evaluate different cases of genocide and use examples to decide the one
which was the worst.
3. When were the events leading to the planning and execution of the 1994
Genocide against the Tutsi start? Identify the role of first and second
Republics of Rwanda in this process of planning and execution of the
1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.
4. Explain the contribution of UN after 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in
Rwanda.
5. Suggest some pieces of advice to the countries and international
organizations for the genocide to never happen again.
Vocabulary, sentence construction and essay writing
I. Using dictionaries and thesaurus, find the meaning of the following
words
a. …. vowed ……(paragraph 2)
b. …. murdered…..(paragraph 3)
c. ….. rivalries……(paragraph 4)
d. …. monopoly……(paragraph 5)
e. …… riots…..(paragraph 5)
f. …… arson……(paragraph 5)
g. …..out-group….(paragraph 7)
h. …… grievances……(paragraph 7)
II. Use the above words to write meaningful sentences.
III. Write an essay describing and contrasting 1994 genocide against
Tutsi in Rwanda and other genocides in the world4.3. Talking about genocide ideology
• Text: Fight against genocide ideology
Before speaking of the strategies or ways of fighting against the different forms
and channels of genocide denial and ideology, it is essential to reflect on the
real or perceived causes of genocide. In fact, the perceived or real causes
of genocide provide the foundation for the peddling of genocide ideology by
extremists in our society. What then is genocide ideology? Whether genocide
is an actual ideology or not is debatable but it is certainly a developing stream of
ideas rooted in fear and thirst for power usually in the context of a history where
the people are of different origin. Genocide is an extermination or destruction
of the other who has been part of a whole but is now being separated and
targeted as an enemy (and man’s spontaneous reaction to the enemy, as we
have learnt through history, is to eliminate the enemy). So the genocide ideology
begins with the process of identification and stigmatization of the ‘other’ that is,
labelling of the ‘other’ and eventually the separation of the ‘other’ from the restof ‘us’.
The cumulative process of segregation of the ‘other’ is initiated by the political
leadership and disseminated through various means including addressing the
public at political rallies, teaching students at schools, universities and other
institutions of learning and indoctrinating the general public including party
militants through the radio and television broadcasts and dissemination of
disinformation and propaganda through print and electronic media. The ‘other’
is presented by ‘us’ as dangerous, unreliable, and, like a dangerous virus, must
be destroyed.
The separation of ‘us’ from the ‘other’ or ‘them’ is through racial or ethnic
segregation which may then result in internment, lynching, proscription or exile.
The process of separation begins when political leaders start to brand a section
of their own population as the ‘other’, ‘these people’, ‘enemy of the state’, ‘enemy
of the people’, ‘security risk’, ‘rebel sympathizer’, ‘accomplice’, ‘cockroaches’
‘Inyenzi’, or similar derogatory remarks. Cultural or racial branding like ‘atheist’,
‘communist’, ‘Muslim’, ‘Christian’ or ‘white’, ‘black’ or ‘Arab’ have also been
known to have been used. The result of the separation of ‘us’ from the ‘other’ by
the political leadership is the process through which genocide ideology evolves.
These examples of the early warning signals at the formative stages of genocide
ideology are not exhaustive. Extremists are very resourceful people and are
constantly inventing new ways and vocabularies for identifying, stigmatising
and dehumanising the ‘other’. Once the ‘other’ is sufficiently stigmatised and
dehumanised, it becomes easy, and even necessary for ‘us’ to massacre ‘them’
without any sense of guilt or remorse. Every African will recognize some or all
of these processes either in their own national histories or elsewhere. Yet, it is
not possible to construct the ‘other’ before establishing the identity of the ‘us’.
The political leadership ensures that the public understands that the ‘us’ is more
superior, intelligent and deserving of a better life, with higher dignity and respect
than the useless and backward ‘others’.
How can the law then deal with such situations and discourage or prevent the
use of political demagoguery? It is important to understand how the ‘ideology’
of genocide becomes part of the dominant discourse of a society where the
‘other’ is terrorized by the ‘us’ into silence. The hand of the state is never far
from any genocide or mass killings. The state plays a major role, either as
active participant or silent supporter, accomplice or collaborator. To commit
the crime of genocide, considering the scope and magnitude of mass murder
that is required for it, also needs a monopoly of arms, of propaganda, of terror,
of resources and of power. Only the state in modern history possesses such
resources. To that extent, without the participation, complicity, collaboration or
corroboration of the state, it is most unlikely that any group of individuals can
commit the crime of genocide.
(Adapted from: Chaste N. (2017). History for Rwanda schools learner’s Book: Kigali.
Fountain Publishers Rwanda Ltd Aegis trust, (2016). Education for sustainable peace inRwanda: Facilitators’ guide on sustainable peace: Kigali)
• Comprehension questions
1. Explain how genocide ideology begins.
2. Who do you think would initiate the process of segregation in the people?
Explain
3. Justify why you think extremists are very resourceful people when it
comes to ideology.
4. What would you recommend to the governments in order to fight againstgenocide ideology?
I. Find the meanings of the following words and phrases using
dictionaries and treasures
a. …peddling……. (paragraph one)
b. … genocide ideology …. (paragraph one)
c. …..stigmatization….. (paragraph one)
d. ……disseminated…..(paragraph two)
e. …militants….(paragraph two)
f. …..internment….(paragraph three)
g. ….lynching ….(paragraph three)
h. ….proscription….. (paragraph three)
i. ……(cockroaches)……. (paragraph three)
j. ……. derogatory…….(paragraph three)
II. Using the words above, make correct and meaningful sentences.
III. Conduct a survey about the effect of genocide ideology on socioeconomic development of a country and present it to the classroom
4.4. Prevention of genocide
• Text: Prevention of genocide
The prevention of the crime of genocide is intrinsically connected to the
prevention of crimes against humanity and war crimes. I have been referring to
these crimes as “atrocity crimes” as they reveal extreme forms of human rights
violations of a deeply violent and cruel nature, that typically, but not always,
occur on a massive scale. These crimes also tend to occur concurrently in the
same situation rather than as isolated events, as has been demonstrated by
their prosecution in both international and national jurisdictions. Consequently,
initiatives aiming at preventing one of the crimes will, in most circumstances,
also cover the others.
The duty to prevent genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes is well
established both under several treaties and under rules of customary international
law binding on all states. This duty was reiterated in the political commitment
made by all United Nations member states in 2005, under the umbrella of the
responsibility to protect principle. In paragraph 138 of the Outcome Document
of the 2005 World Summit, states recognized their primary responsibility to
protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes
against humanity, including their incitement, through appropriate and necessary
means. Alarmingly, most conflicts come hand in hand with allegations of serious
violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law
being committed. It is also well known that the risk of atrocity crimes dramatically
increases in an environment of conflict. Therefore, the prevention of conflict
contributes to the prevention of atrocity crimes and vice versa.
However, genocide and crimes against humanity do not only occur during
armed conflict. According to international law, these crimes can also take place
in peacetime. A prevention agenda that strictly focuses on conflict prevention
risks overlooking these cases. Situations that place states under serious levels
of stress, including as a result of political instability, threats to the security of a
country or even volatility in economic or social affairs, can create environments
that are conducive to serious human rights violations and, in the most serious
cases, to atrocity crimes, even where there is no armed conflict. This report
looks into measures taken by states to comply with their international obligations
and responsibilities in this respect.
Through their Ministries of Education, several states implement programmes for
human rights education in schools. As respect for human rights is at the core of
prevention of genocide and other atrocity crimes, these programmes contribute
in general to national atrocity prevention efforts.
Education can play an important role in preventing genocide and other atrocity
crimes by promoting pluralism, inclusion, and a greater understanding of
the value of and respect for diversity. Instilling these ideas in young people
contributes to creating a society that is resilient to violence and atrocity crimes
by mitigating long-term risk-factors such as enrooted discriminatory attitudes
and prejudice. To do so, education systems should reflect the ethnic, national
and cultural diversity of societies and set an example of inclusiveness in their
policies. They should also adopt and implement curricula and teaching methods
that emphasize respect for diversity, equal citizenship and the importance of
human rights, particularly non-discrimination.
In addition, education can help foster a culture of prevention by teaching
new generations about past instances of systematic human rights violations,
including genocides or other atrocity crimes. Education encourages a better
understanding of past crimes, including the causes, dynamics and processes
that led to them, such as discrimination and dehumanization of the affected
group that preceded the violence. Education also examines the consequences
of atrocity crimes and invites new generations to reflect on their society and
inspire them to act against the warning signs. Education is further a powerful
tool to prevent incitement to violence that could lead to atrocity crimes. By
understanding these processes, and being able to identify early warning signs,
new generations will be able to prevent recurrence of similar violent events. In
this way, education strengthens societies’ resilience to atrocity crimes.
For example, in Germany, teaching about the Holocaust is mandatory in secondary
schools and the education system also places emphasis on extracurricular
activities, including visits to historic locations and memorials as well as meeting
with survivors. In Croatia, Poland and Romania teaching about the Holocaust
and other past incidents of atrocity crimes is part of formal education in order to
teach future generations on the urgency of preventing genocide.
Incorporating instances of past atrocity crimes in educational materials shows
that a state acknowledges and recognizes the suffering of victims and of the
groups to which they belong. Education and the teaching of a recent history
of violence, war, conflict and oppression could become a tool to transform
relationships among individuals from different groups, making recurrence to
violence less likely. In Rwanda, the Education Board and the Ministry of Education
have integrated genocide studies in the curricula of its primary, secondary and
higher education institutions. The curriculum, developed in 2008, incorporated
the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, in which moderate Hutus and others
who opposed the genocide were also killed, while emphasizing the unifying and
inclusive qualities of nationality, citizenship and patriotism, instead of ethnicity.
In this way, focus is put on a collective identity as Rwandan rather than Hutu or
Tutsi.
In conclusion, in relation to national security forces, establish transparent,
accountable and democratic civilian oversight, including on budgetary matters;
include staff from diverse population groups at all levels, promote professionalism
among uniformed personnel, create programmes to improve relations with
local communities; vet officers for participation in atrocity crimes and remove
identified perpetrators; provide training on international humanitarian law and
international human rights law and on the collection of evidence of atrocity
crimes; establish operating procedures for the use of force and firearms that
are compliant with international standards; and adopt international humanitarian
law and international human rights law standards in national military statutes
along with the creation of international disciplinary and other accountability
mechanisms to address violations committed by security forces personnel.
(Adapted from: S/RES/2150 (2014) on Threats to International Peace and Security.
UNESCO, 2017. Education about the Holocaust and preventing genocide: policy guide.
Pg.16. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has beenimplementing the World Program for Human Rights Education since 2005.)
• Comprehension questions
1. As what are crimes against humanity and war crimes referred to in the
passage? Give reasons.
2. According to the law, who has the responsibility to prevent genocide
from the people? Explain.
3. Why do you think genocide and crimes against humanity do not only
occur during armed conflict?
4. How would you explain the role of education in prevention of genocide
in the world?
5. Suggest other important strategies that should be used to preventgenocide.
• Text: Peace building
Peace building is one of the core pillars at Never Again Rwanda. Under this
program, NAR works with youth and adults under various programs and projects
with the aim of establishing sustainable peace and prevention of future violence
through providing platforms for citizens, especially youth, to discuss root causes
of conflict and how to overcome them in their respective communities. Through
our interventions, we hope to enable diverse groups of community members,
and youth to openly discuss their sensitive past, current or emerging issues.
Based on this, psychosocial support groups (safe spaces for peace) are
created, where youth and community members from diverse backgrounds meet
to discuss their traumatic sensitive issues in order to overcome their trauma.
They meet on a monthly basis to engage in dialogue about their individual
wounds. Each of these groups is comprised of 30 participants inclusive of both
male and female, though some groups are exclusively comprised of female
participants like those for specific victims of sexual violence namely; women who
were raped and children born out of rape during the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsis.
We also aim to foster a society where youth participate actively in peace processes
by using critical thinking in open and safe spaces for dialogue and appreciate
diversity.
We also use a method of instilling fundamental hope in adolescents
through ten-session workshops. Hope in its fullest sense encompasses the four
greatest needs of a human being. These include: Attachment (trust, openness
and connection), Survival (self-regulation and feelings of liberation), Mastery
(empowerment, ambition and ideals) and Spirituality (faith and higher support
for attachment, mastery and survival).
Still recovering from one of the worst genocides of the 20th century infamous
for its speed, brutality, and intimacy of neighbours killing neighbours, Rwanda
offers an exceptional case study of how societal healing and reconciliation are
mutually reinforcing; despite their conceptual distinction. As stated in the report,
“Reconciliation is a relationship-building process, while healing is a process
aimed at the reduction of suffering”. Nevertheless, repairing relationships
and building trust help heal societal wounds, just as letting go of fear and
anger advances reconciliation. The fact that many genocide survivors and experpetrators continue to live in the same communities underscores the need for
healing to transcend the individual level into societal healing and reconciliation.
As expected, most actors affirm the profound need for healing work in all of
Rwanda’s provinces.
Actors and academic experts agree that healing must begin with the individual
but it is imperative that the work of individual healing moves into a group and
community context in order to achieve societal healing. While the results of
this study demonstrate the many personal benefits of a group approach, which
include emotional and practical support, staving off feelings of isolation and the
validation of experience, just to name a few, the group approach also supports
reconciliation and peace building by rekindling mutual trust, promoting open and
honest communication, developing group decision-making skills and restoring
interpersonal relationships. Several initiatives engage in socioeconomic activities
that provide material support to individuals while also promoting positive, social
interaction among community members.
In order to address conflicts and champion for peace regionally, we implement a
great lakes program, which uses cross border dialogues as vital avenues to talk
about any challenges to peace. The dialogues are made up of members from
Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
(Adapted from: http://neveragainrwanda.org/peace-building/)• Comprehension questions
1. According to the text, what is the aim of never again Rwanda’s programs
and projects?
2. Why do you think the youth should be involved in peace building
programs?
3. Explain the methods used by never again Rwanda in peace building
campaign.
4. Justify the relevance of group approach when healing people’s wounds
left by genocide.
5. Examine the achievements of never again Rwanda within the country and
the region
Vocabulary, sentence construction, conducting a survey and debate
I. Find the meanings of the words below using dictionaries and
thesaurus.
a. ……platforms….. (paragraph one)
b. …….self-regulation……(paragraph three)
c. …….. transcend……. (paragraph four)
d. ………. healing…….(paragraph five)
e. ……… rekindling……. (paragraph five)
f. …….. avenues………(paragraph six)
II. Using the words above, make different meaningful sentences.
III. Conduct a survey on the role of the youth in building sustainable
peace.
IV. Debate on the following motion: “Never again clubs are considerablynecessary to the youth rather than to adults in countries like Rwanda”
4.6. Ways of addressing the consequences of genocide
• Text: Addressing the consequences of genocide
The government of national unity alongside other partners and citizens has
actively led in efforts aimed at addressing the consequences of genocide.
Various practical measures have been adopted to reach that goal. Some of
these measures include the following:
Gacaca Courts were used to find out what happened during Genocide against
the Tutsi. These courts enabled Rwandans to come together and tell the truth
about what really happened in 1994. This laid the foundation for peace and
reconciliation. A total of 1,958,634 genocide-related cases were tried through
Gacaca Courts. They helped speed up genocide trials and strengthened unity
and reconciliation by finding out the truth about genocide and putting an end to
the culture of impunity.
The Rwandan society was gravely affected by the genocide. Its social structures
were completely destroyed. Social reconstruction means rebuilding the social
structures that were once destroyed. Reconciliation was very much needed in
order to regain social cohesion. Reconciliation refers to the process of making
parties in a conflict mend and then going on improving relations with each other.
The two parties, after reconciling, re-establish friendly relations having put aside
their differences.
A third party usually facilitates reconciliation by bringing the two parties in
conflict to an agreement. Through the third party, the aggrieved parties open up
for dialogue to arrive at a peaceful reconciliation. Reconciliation is an interactive
process that requires a cooperative effort between the parties involved.
Individuals or groups are encouraged to talk about the painful experiences they
went through during the genocide. This enables healing to take root among
the survivors and perpetrators alike. The government can do this by promoting
positive moral values and peaceful coexistence through policies and practices.
The process of reconciliation includes the following steps: acknowledgement,
apology, forgiveness, restitution and redress among others.
As far as acknowledgement is concerned, the perpetrators should acknowledge
wrongdoing and apologise to the victim group. This creates room for dialogue,
speeds up the reconciliation process and removes fear and suspicion between
the two groups. Apology is important towards attaining reconciliation and
repairing broken relationships. It serves to inspire forgiveness and reunion
between the perpetrator and victim group. Forgiveness greatly contributes to the
reconciliation process. The wronged party should be able to forgive. Forgiveness
enables the wrongdoer and the wronged one to move on. Restitution means
giving back what was wrongly taken away from the victims by the perpetrators.
As for redress, the perpetrator group should do something to correct wrongsthey had done to the victim group.
Above all, peace building and benevolence are strong weapons in the process
of addressing consequences of genocide. Genocide begins in the minds of the
people; therefore, it is also in the people’s minds that defences of peace must
be constructed. Peace building involves various efforts that usually begin by
creating a culture of peace which is accompanied by harmony, cooperation and
coexistence among the people. A peaceful environment gives rise to behaviour
that respects life and human dignity. Peace building promotes observance of
human rights and fundamental freedom. It rejects violence and commits to
principles of freedom, justice, solidarity, and understanding between people.
Peace building finally encourages open communication, cooperation, harmony
and observance of the rule of law.
Benevolence refers to the willingness to help, being generous or performing
acts of kindness. Human beings are usually capable of expressing benevolence
regardless of whether they are victims or perpetrators of violence. It involves
development of empathetic feelings, which leads an individual to take
responsibility for assisting victims. People who have suffered usually care about
other peoples’ suffering, especially if they have been involved in a protective
and healing processes. This involves having been helped by others or acting
on other peoples’ behalf at the time of suffering. Therefore, the victim group
reaches out to assist other groups undergoing similar situations to them.
(Adapted from General Studies and Communication Skills for Rwandan Schools, book 6,
Moran Publishers Limited)
• Comprehension questions
1. Appreciate the contribution of the Gacaca courts in addressing the
consequences of the genocide against the Tutsi.
2. Explain the term reconciliation.
3. Evaluate the help of a third party in the reconciliation process.
4. How can the government play the role of third party in reconciling people
after genocide?
5. State and explain 5 steps of the reconciliation process as shown in the
above passage.
6. Discuss efforts that should be made to promote peace building in a postgenocide community.
7. What do you understand by benevolence in the process of addressingthe aftermath of genocide?
Vocabulary, Sentence construction, summary writing and research
I. Vocabulary
Using a dictionary or a thesaurus, explain the following terms used in the
above passage
1. …reconciliation… (paragraph two)
2. …impunity… (paragraph two)
3. …cohesion… (paragraph three)
4. …interactive… (paragraph four)
5. …restitution… (paragraph five)
6. …redress… (paragraph five)
7. …benevolence… (paragraph six)
8. …coexistence… (paragraph six)
9. …empathetic… (paragraph seven)
10. …protective… (paragraph seven)
II. Sentence construction
Use the above words to make correct and meaningful sentences.
III. Summary writing
In not more than 100 words, summarize the text: “Addressing the
consequences of genocide”
IV. Research and project
Conduct a research on the consequences of the 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi. Devise ways that would prevent the genocide from happening.
Then work on a project to set strategies that will help reconstruct theRwandan society
4.7. Language structure: Past simple tense, subordinating
conjunctions and phrasal prepositions
1. Past simple tense
Exercise
Read the following paragraphs extracted from the text and identify different
tenses used.
Laue (1993:256) defined conflict as ‘escalated natural competition between
two or more parties about scarce resources, power and prestige’.
The crime of genocide since it was initially formulated in 1948, in article 2 of
the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, the
definition of ‘genocide’ has remained substantially the same. Article 6 of the
Rome Statute borrows from this convention and for example, defines the crime
of genocide as “any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in
whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such.
The term ‘genocide’ was coined by a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael
Lemkin who formed the word by combining the Greek word for race or tribe
(Geno) with the Latin word for killing (cide). In proposing this new term, Lemkin
had in mind “a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of
essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilatingthe groups themselves.”
Notes
I. Past simple tense:
This tense is usually used to:
• Describe events completed in the past at time indicated by such adverbs
of time as yesterday, ago, last month, last week and last year.
Examples:
a) Jimmy didn’t call me during memorial week!
b) Mary went to Huye District three years ago.
c) Sarah arrived in Kigali a week ago.
• Express habits in past
Examples:
a) Robert went to Kigali memorial site every Friday.
b) They sang different songs regularly during commemoration week.
Such past habits are usually described in simple past with adverbs of frequency
like: always, never, frequently, sometimes, generally,…
• Express actions that happened over a long time in the past.
Examples:
a) The orphan girl struggled and became rich.
b) The perpetrators united with their neighbours.
The simple past is also used after conditional phrases such as if only, as if, as
though, wish, etc.
Examples:
a) If I were the leader during genocide against Tutsi in Rwanda, I would
support many people.
b) He spoke to me as if he were my boss.
c) I wish I had wings I would fly far away.II. Spelling of regular verbs in past simple
Exercise
1. Use the correct past simple tense of the verb in brackets.
a. The genocide that___________ (occur) in Germany and its occupied
territories, It __________ (target) Jews of whom approximately 6,000,000
were killed by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime.
b. The government of Rwanda__________ (show) that it was possible to
bring about reconciliation in a country.
c. Peter and his entire family__________ (be) executed during the Genocide.
d. RPF ____________ (stop) people who were killing innocents during 1994
genocide against Tutsi.
e. The Security Council ____________ (create) the International Criminal
Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by the Resolution 955 of November 8th, 1994.
2. Using the past simple tense, write a paragraph talking about the role ofyouth in preventing genocide ideology.
Notes
A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects an independent clause to
a dependent clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence.
In other words, it does not need any additional information to operate as a
sentence. The sentence “The student failed the test” is an example of an
independent clause.
A dependent clause adds extra information to the main clause. These clauses
cannot stand by themselves and their meaning is dependent on the independent
clause. They are not complete sentences. For example, “because she didn’t
study” is not a complete sentence.
However, combine the two clauses, and we have “The student failed the test
because she didn’t study.” A complete idea has been expressed and enough
information has been presented to fully explain the thought. What joined the two
clauses? It is the word “because.” And there we have our first subordinating
conjunction.
Here are examples of other subordinating conjunctions and their uses;
• Although
Although—means “in spite of the fact that”:
Example:
1) Although it was raining, I ran home.
2) He came to work although he felt sick
3) Although my mum told me to come home early, I stayed out late.
• After
“After” shows “subsequently to the time when”:
Examples:
1) Call me after you arrive at the station.
2) We couldn’t see the film after the electricity went out.
3) I always tell my daughter that she can have dessert after she eats her
dinner.
• Before
“Before” shows “earlier than the time that”:
Examples:
1) He had written a book on history of Rwanda before he died.
2) Before he contacted me, I was going to call him.
3) I need to finish the report before the manager arrives from Paris.
• Because
“Because” means “for the reason that”:
Examples:
1) He became rich because he was smart and worked hard.
2) They stopped building the house because it was raining hard.
• If
“If” means “in the event that”:
Examples:
1) If it rains, it will be difficult to go to the memorial site.
2) If I receive a promotion, you will be the first to help orphans.
• Since
“Since” means “from the time when”:
Examples:
1) I’ve been a dancer since I was young.
2) Since Paul graduated, he has been helping genocide survivors.
3) This shop has been refurbished three times since 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi in Rwanda happened.
• Until
“Until” means “up to the time that”:
Examples:
1) Don’t do anything until I come back.
2) She didn’t know she was a talented singer until she sang in the school
concert.
3) They won’t allow us to start until everyone arrives.
• Unless
“Unless” means “except, on the condition”:
Examples:
1) You will not pass the exam unless you work harder.
2) I will not tell you anything unless you tell me what you know about my
parents’ death.
3) Unless you use dialogues, you will not easily improve your peace club.
Exercise
a) I visit our memorial site _________ a month. (once, whenever, wherever)
b) This is the place _________ we stayed last time we visited. (where, when,
how)
c) _________ you win first place, you will receive a prize. (wherever, if, unless)
d) You won’t pass the test _________ you study. (when, if, unless)
e) I could not get a seat, _________ I came early. (as, though, when)
f) We are leaving Wednesday _________ or not it rains. (if, whether, though)
g) Pay attention to your work _________ you will not make mistakes. (so that,
unless, or)
h) The musicians delivered a rousing performance _________ they had
rehearsed often. (though, as, once)i) She’s honest _________ everyone trusts her. (if, so, when)
IV. Phrasal prepositions
Notes
Phrasal prepositions are grouped into phrases of three or more words that
could include adverbs, verbs and other words that function as one phrasal
preposition. All words are separated to form one phrasal preposition. Phrasal
prepositions include: in addition to, in spite of, on account of, as soon as, as
opposed to, as far as, in reference to, on top of, with the exception of, in frontof, as long as etc.
Examples of phrasal prepositions
1) They told me that in addition to all the work done I also needed to finish
the project.
2) Rafael is playing tennis very well; he’s surely on top of his game at the
moment.
3) As opposed to seeking advice from your sister, why don’t you talk to
your close friend Harriet?
4) I was speaking in reference to the climate change issues.
5) I stand here in front of you all to demonstrate my qualities as a great
leader.
6) On account of the new law enacted by the minister, our society is now
able to declare their own taxes.
7) I’ll tell you once more, as long as I run this board I am the man in charge.Exercise
Exercise
Write a paragraph talking about how to prevent genocide and how to promote
peace building using prepositional phrases.
4.8. Spelling and pronunciation
A. Practice the pronunciation of the words below. Pay attention to where you
put stress. You can use a dictionary where necessary.
a) Genocide
b) Victims
c) Perpetrators
d) Survivors
e) Reconciliation
f) Peace
g) Violence
h) conflict
B. Match the words with their corresponding phonetic transcriptions
4.9. End unit assessment
I. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. _________ 1994 genocide against Tutsi, the government spent many
efforts in unity and reconciliation programs.
a) After
b) Although
c) Before
d) Even if
2. I don’t want to go to the movies _____________ I hate seeing people
killing each other.
a) Although
b) Because
c) Whenever
d) So that
3. I like to give my support; ___________ there is a fundraising campaign
to help orphans.
a) Whenever
b) Whose
c) After
d) If
4. ___________ spring arrives, we have to be prepared for more snow.
a) Because
b) Until
c) Althoughd) Now that
5. _____________ the alarm goes off, I hit the snooze button.
a) As soon as
b) Because
c) Before
Now that
II. Complete the following sentences using phrasal prepositions given
below.
1. ……………….. his hard work, he failed the test.
a) By means of
b) In spite of
c) Because of
2. ………………… doctors, smoking can cause cancer.
a) In accordance with
b) According to
c) On behalf of
3. I am standing here ………………… my colleagues.
a) instead of
b) by means of
c) on behalf of
4. The trains arrived late ……………….. heavy rains.
a) in spite of
b) on behalf of
c) because of
5. I stayed in bed all day ……………… going to work.
a) in addition to
b) in spite of
c) instead of
6. Thoughts are conveyed ………………… words.
a) on account of
b) by means of
c) by virtue of
7. Gandhi gave up his legal practice ………………… his country.
a) by virtue of
b) for the sake of
c) on behalf of
8. ……………….. his own family, he has to support his brothers.
a) In addition to
b) Instead of
c) In spite of
9. There is a school …………………. my house.
a) front of
b) in front of
c) in front
10. I would like to have lemon juice ………………… coffee.
a) Instead
b) instead of
c) in spite of
III. Complete the following story with the correct tenses from the brackets.
Last summer, my family and I 1. -------------( spend) our holidays in Germany,
an amazing country. The city 2. --------------( be) very big and there 3. ---
-----------(be) lots of things to see and do. We 4. ------------(stay) at a
comfortable hotel and 5. -------------(go) swimming every day at the beautiful
beaches…I 6. ------------ (learn a lot there! We also 7. --------------(visit)
the memorial site. There 8. ------------( be) various historical information
about Holocaust genocide. The following day, We also 11. ----------- (visit)
many interesting sights, like the archaeological museum and other prehistoric
settlements, which I 12. --------------- find) pretty impressive. I also 13. ---
------------ ( love) the local people. They 14. ------------- (be) very friendly
and welcoming! We 15. ------------ (have) a great time in Germany as far as
understanding their history was concerned and I would really love to go there
again someday!
IV. Write an article about the role of RPF in the achievements of
Rwandan government on socio-economic development after 1994
genocide against Tutsi. Pay attention to the use past simple tense andsubordinating conjunctions.