English

Topic outline

• 

  General

  • Announcements Forum
• UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND COOPERATION

  Key Unit Competence: 

  
  

   To use language in the context of communication, international relations and 

  cooperation

  
  

  
  

  • Text 1: Some types of communication

  Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between 
  individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behaviour. We 
  communicate continually throughout each and every day. We sometimes do it 
  without thinking – we operate on communication autopilot. However, we should 
  actually think about how we communicate. There are many different ways to 
  communicate and each of which play an important role in sharing information. 
  The four main categories or types of communication are verbal, nonverbal, 
  written and visual communication. 
  Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking with others. It 
  can be face-to-face, over the telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc. Some verbal 
  engagements are informal, such as chatting with a friend over coffee or in the 
  office kitchen, while others are more formal, such as a scheduled meeting. 
  Regardless of the type, it is not just about the words, it is also about the calibre
  and complexity of those words, how we string those words together to create 
  an overarching message, as well as the intonation (pitch, tone, cadence, etc.) 
  used while speaking. And when occurring face-to-face, while the words are 
  important, they cannot be separated from non-verbal communication.
  Nonverbal communication is the use of facial expressions, posture, eye contact, 
  hand movements, and touch to convey information to others. It can be used both 
  intentionally and unintentionally. What we do while we speak often says more 
  than the actual words. For example, if you’re engaged in a conversation with your 
  boss about your cost-saving idea, it is important to pay attention to both their 
  words and their non-verbal communication. Your boss might be in agreement 
  with your idea verbally, but their nonverbal cues: avoiding eye contact, sighing, 
  scrunched up face, etc. indicate something different.
  In addition to nonverbal and verbal communication there is written communication. 
  Written communication is the act of writing, typing or printing symbols like letters 
  and numbers to convey information. Whether it is an email, a memo, a report, 
  a Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract, etc. all forms of written communication 
  have the same goal: to disseminate information in a clear and concise manner 
  – though that objective is often not achieved. In fact, poor writing skills often 
  lead to confusion and embarrassment, and even potential legal jeopardy. One 
  important thing to remember about written communication, especially in the 
  digital age, is the message lives on, perhaps in perpetuity. Thus, there are two 
  things to remember: first, write well – poorly constructed sentences and careless 
  errors make you look bad; and second, ensure the content of the message is 
  something you want to promote or be associated with for the long haul.
  On top of the above three mentioned types of communication, there is another 
  type of communication which is referred to as visual communication. Visual 
  communication is the act of using photographs, art, drawings, sketches, charts 
  and graphs to convey information. We are a visual society. Think about it, 
  televisions are running 24/7, Facebook is visual with memes, videos, images, 
  etc., Instagram is an image-only platform, and advertisers use imagery to sell 
  products and ideas. Visuals are often used as an aid during presentations to 
  provide helpful context alongside written and/or verbal communication. 
  In conclusion, you should know that understanding how you communicate is 
  the first step to communicating more effectively. That is why you are advised 
  to think about how you communicate. Words, sentences, pitch, tone, cadence 
  and nonverbal cues you use can
   be a hindrance or furtherance to how you 
  

  communicate effectively. 

  Adapted from Communications for Professionals: Five Types Of Communication By Anne 

  Converse Willkomm

  • Comprehension questions 
  1. What do you understand by “we operate on communication autopilot”?
  2. Does the author think that operating on communication autopilot is a 
  good idea? Explain.
  3. State the four main types of communication.
  4. Referring to the text, answer the following question on this scenario: “As 
  Kalisa stood up to ask for permission, the teacher looked at him deniably 
  and he went back to his seat. Which type of communication was this?
  5. Suppose that you have watched a video on YouTube showing step 
  by step how to insert a picture in Microsoft Word document. In which 
  category of communication can you classify this communication? 
  6. Using a clear example, explain how one can use nonverbal communication 
  unintentionally.
  7. Explain how visual communication can help a primary teacher to teach 
  

  science subjects

  • Text 2: History of Braille
  

  Braille is a system of touch reading and writing for blind people in which 
  raised dots represent the letters of the alphabet. It also contains equivalents 
  for punctuation marks and provides symbols to show letter groupings. Braille 
  is read by moving the hand or hands from left to right along each line. The 
  reading process usually involves both hands, and the index fingers generally do 
  the reading. The average reading speed is about 125 words per minute. But, 
  

  greater speeds of up to 200 words per minute are possible.

  By using the braille alphabet, people who are blind can review and study the 

  written words. They can also become aware of different written conventions such 

  as spelling, punctuation, paragraphing and footnotes. Most importantly, braille 

  gives blind individuals access to a wide range of reading materials including 

  recreational and educational reading, financial statements and restaurant 

  menus. Equally important are contracts, regulations, insurance policies, 

  directories, and cookbooks that are all part of daily adult life. Through 

  braille, people who are blind can also pursue hobbies and cultural enrichment 

  with materials such as music scores, hymnals, playing cards, and board games.

  Various other methods had been attempted over the years to enable reading for 

  the blind. However, many of them were raised as versions of print letters. It is 

  generally accepted that the braille system has succeeded because it is based 

  on a rational sequence of signs devised for the fingertips, rather than imitating 

  signs devised for the eyes.

  The history of braille goes all the way back to the early 1800s. A man named 

  Charles Barbier who served in Napoleon Bonaparte’s French army developed 

  a unique system known as “night writing” so soldiers could communicate safely 

  during the night. As a military veteran, Barbier saw several soldiers killed because 

  they used lamps after dark to read combat messages. Barbier based his “night 

  writing” system on a raised 12-dot cell; two dots wide and six dots tall. Each dot 

  or combination of dots within the cell represented a letter or a phonetic sound. 

  The problem with the military code was that the human fingertip could not feel 

  all the dots with one touch.

  
  

  Braille as we know it today was invented by Louis Braille. He was born in the 
  village of Coupvray, France on January 4, 1809. He lost his sight at a very young 
  age after he accidentally stabbed himself in the eye with his father’s awl as his 
  father was a leather-worker
  At eleven years old, Braille found inspiration to modify Charles Barbier’s “night 
  writing” code in an effort to create an efficient written communication system for 
  fellow blind individuals. One year earlier he was enrolled at the National Institute 
  of the Blind in Paris. He spent the better part of the next nine years developing 
  and refining the system of raised dots that has come to be known by his name, 
  Braille.
  After all of Braille’s work, the code was now based on cells with only 6-dots 
  instead of 12. This crucial improvement meant that a fingertip could encompass
  the entire cell unit with one impression and move rapidly from one cell to the 
  next. Over time, braille gradually came to be accepted throughout the world as 
  the fundamental form of written communication for blind individuals. Today it 
  remains basically as he invented it.
  However, there have been some small modifications to the braille system, 
  particularly the addition of contractions representing groups of letters or whole 
  words that appear frequently in a language. The use of contractions permits 
  faster braille reading. It also helps reduce the size of braille books, making them 
  much less cumbersome.
  Braille passed away in 1853 at the age of 43, a year before his home country of 
  France adopted braille as its’ official communication system for blind individuals. 
  A few years later in 1860, braille made its way “across the pond” to America 
  where it was adopted by The Missouri School for the Blind in St. Louis. (Adapted 
  from History of Braille by Braille works. 
  Retrieved from https://brailleworks.com/braille-resources/history-of-braille/ ;
  (accessed on 26 December 2019)
  • Comprehension questions 
  1. Explain how written communication is possible for blind people.
  2. Account for the weakness of other methods that had been attempted to 
  enable reading for the blind.
  3. What made Braille successful in enabling reading for the blind?
  4. Appreciate the contribution of Charles Barbier’s night writing to Louis 
  Braille’s work.
  
  
  5. Which small modifications were done to the braille system?
  
  - Physical noise or external noise are environmental distractions such as 
  startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing somewhere else, and 
  someone talking really loudly near you, etc; 
  - Physiological noise are biological influences that distract one from effectively 
  communicating; these could include sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly 
  in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work, 
  the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose 
  or a cough. 
  - Psychological noise are the preconceived bias and assumptions such as 
  thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a 
  foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to 
  them. 
  - Semantic noise is word choices that are confusing and may have the effect 
  of distorting the meaning. 
  Adapted from Theories & Models Of Communication by Amudavalli, A.
  • Comprehension questions 
  1. What do you understand by “communication is a two-way process”?
  2. Referring to the passage above, answer the following questions on 
  this scenario: “Keza cried and her mother realised that she (Keza) was 
  hungry.” 
  a. Between Keza and her mother, who is the sender, who is the receiver?
  b. What is the message?
  c. Suggest the feedback of the receiver.
  3. In your own words, define the term “context” as a component of 
  communication.
  4. Choose which of these classifications (physical noise, physiological 
  noise or Psychological noise) applies to the following scenarios:
  a. Shema cannot hear properly due to the infection in the ear. 
  b. When John heard that Hassan had just come from Saudi Arabia, he 
  started using gestures because he thought Hassan was not familiar with 
  American accent. 
  c. Two soldiers are trying to communicate but the gun shot noise prevents 
  

  them from hearing one another. 

  

  

  • Text 1: History and the Evolution of Diplomacy
  

  We do not know when human societies first felt the need to communicate with 
  

  each other, but it is safe to assume that they did so from the very earliest times. 
  

  We know that diplomatic status existed very early and it is both evident and 
  

  instructive why it should have been so. If it has been decided that it may be 
  

  better to hear the message than to eat the messenger, then there have to be 
  

  rules about who a legitimate messenger is, and there have to be sanctions which 
  

  will ensure his safety. The earliest diplomats were a response to a felt need for 
  

  a mechanism to convey messages between societies safely and reliably. It is
  

  instructive to note that right from the beginning, diplomacy, even in its crudest 

  forms, evolved in response to political needs reciprocally felt. It has continued 
  and is continuing thus until today.
  Once diplomacy actually existed and was conceded to be irreplaceably useful, 
  a reverse factor also became possible. The nature and functioning of the 
  diplomatic machine at any particular historical moment could of itself shape the 
  way in which principals - whoever they might be - conducted their exchanges. 
  Thus it has occasionally occurred that functions which had developed within 
  diplomacy came to create a particular international activity simply because they 
  existed. Of course, sometimes what the machine could not do, or could not be 
  seen to be doing without damaging its basic function, could be done by other 
  means - by Secret Services, for example, or by hired assassins.
  The evolution of foreign ministries followed from the desire of rulers and their 
  ministers to maintain a continuous flow of diplomatic business in which cross 
  relationships between diplomatic partners, between internal sources of political 
  influence and between differing issues could be carefully followed and controlled. 
  To do this successfully and to have instantly available knowledge of current 
  obligations and commitments required an institutional memory obtainable only 
  through a properly managed single foreign ministry.
  In the beginning, the role of foreign ministries was to coordinate embassies and 
  their staffs. These embassies were still far smaller than their modern form. With 
  embassies legitimate messengers in foreign countries became ambassadors. 
  The embassy staffs were made up of highly qualified professionals including 
  some dedicated to espionage. The information gathered by spies plays an 
  increasingly important role in diplomacy. Treaties to prevent wars would not be 
  possible if a country has no information about military activities of another. 
  These kinds of development occasionally engendered reluctance from 
  contemporary traditionalists. None, however, encountered the fierce opposition 
  and disapproval from the principals themselves that accompanied the 
  emergence of the resident ambassador. There could be no doubt that this was 
  an inescapable response to particular circumstances otherwise it could not 
  have triumphed over the objections of the proprietors of the system itself. The 
  origin of the problem lay in a change of emphasis in the purpose of diplomacy.
  Diplomacy steadily developed as the means by which sovereign rulers 
  communicated with other sovereign rulers. It was the great assertion of 
  sovereign individuality, functioning in a sometimes avowedly - or sometimes 
  simply politely - adversarial mode, depending on circumstances. Diplomacy and 
  international relations were then considered the most effective and principled 
  means of resolving conflict. 
  In today’s diplomacy, the most effective response to a crisis is to call a meeting 
  in peacetime to discuss it before it gets out of hand. Conferences or congresses 
  had of course been well known devices, but always in the context of bringing an 
  existing war to an end. In most of discussions, each country is encouraged to 
  try to satisfy another country’s needs in order to avoid a war
  

  Adapted from History and the Evolution of Diplomacy by Richard Langhorne. 

  • Comprehension questions 

  1. Do we know when diplomacy started? Explain.

  2. What do you understand by “it may be better to hear the message than 

  to eat the messenger”?

  3. Explain the measures taken to ensure the safety of diplomats.

  4. In the second paragraph, the author says that sometimes what the 

  machine could not do was done by other means. What does he mean by 

  “machine”?

  5. Does diplomacy have anything to do with espionage? Explain. 

  6. Do you think that espionage is justifiable? Justify your answer. 

  • Text 2: Economic and Commercial Diplomac

  Economic diplomacy, narrowly defined, is concerned with international 
  economic policy questions, such as how to preserve global financial stability 
  without indefensible levels of youth unemployment and unmanageable levels of 
  wholly defensible levels of civil unrest; and how to stimulate economic growth, 
  particularly in the poorest countries, while arresting or at least slowing down 
  climate change. Commercial diplomacy, on the other hand, consists mainly of 
  assistance to the promotion of exports and foreign direct investment (FDI), and 
  access to raw materials. Modern diplomacy was influenced by commerce from 
  its earliest days. The priority given to economic as well as commercial diplomacy 
  has risen more in recent years. The role of foreign ministries and especially 
  embassies is undeniably great in both economic and commercial diplomacy. 
  The invention and spread of resident diplomatic missions in the late fifteenth 
  century had probably been encouraged by the example of the consulates earlier 
  established by trading peoples in and around the Mediterranean world, and, from 
  the first, they sometimes had a decidedly commercial flavour. In a few exceptional 
  cases, major trading companies, with the blessing of their sovereigns at home, 
  themselves established full-blown embassies, not only financing them but also 
  appointing and sharing in the instruction of ambassadors. Thereafter, although 
  high politics came to dominate the work of most embassies until World War 
  I, the ‘trade’- averse aristocrats who usually headed them were rarely able to 
  

  ignore commercial work altogether.

  This was because they had field responsibility for the consular posts that, in time, 
  fell under state control; because international trade began to grow enormously 
  in the first half of the eighteenth century; and because embassies themselves 
  came to be given direct responsibility for the negotiation of commercial treaties 
  –that is, the general framework in which trade was conducted in bilateral 
  

  relationships

  
  

  In the late nineteenth century, as international rivalry intensified for markets – 
  as also for foreign concessions to sink mine shafts, drill for oil, build railways, 
  and cut canals – so commercial diplomacy was given a strong fillip. Diplomats 
  were required to interest themselves in projects such as these, especially when 
  they were thought to have the additional advantage of serving political and 
  strategic interests. The Suez Canal and the Berlin–Baghdad Railway are well 
  known examples. Diplomatic missions intervened with local ministries both to 
  support the placement of capital by their nationals on advantageous terms and 
  subsequently to provide protection to their investments against violence, breach 
  of contract, and hostile legislation. The latter role gave rise to the legal doctrine 
  of ‘diplomatic protection’ and, inevitably, to a counter-doctrine. 
  Adapted from Economic and Commercial Diplomacy. In: Diplomacy (P.210-211) by Berridge 
  

  G.R.

  • Comprehension questions 

  1. Differentiate economic diplomacy from commercial diplomacy.
  2. Do you really think that commerce can influence diplomacy? Justify your 
  answer.
  3. What do you understand by “with the blessing of their sovereigns at 
  home”?
  4. Evaluate the role of major trading companies in foreign politics.
  5. What caused commercial diplomacy to be given a strong fillip in the late 
  nineteenth century?
  

  6. What do you understand by “diplomatic protection”? 

  • Text 3: Rwanda’s diplomacy in 2018

  In her work, ‘the secret life of bees’ Sue Monk Kidd observed that, “if you need 
  something from somebody, always give that person a way to hand it to you”. I 
  couldn’t think of a better statement to aptly describe Rwanda’s diplomacy in 
  2018.
  Towards the end of October, it’s not too early to begin analysing the year and 
  for Rwanda’s diplomacy, it’s not an exaggeration to assert that this will go 
  down as one of the country’s best, both at home and away, especially from the 
  

  international relations front.

  
  

  
  

  
  

  • Comprehension questions 

  1. How does the journalist describe Rwanda’s diplomacy in the first 
  paragraph? 
  2. Appreciate Rwanda’s post-1994 diplomacy template.
  3. Why do you think Rwanda joined the Commonwealth while it was not 
  formerly a British colony?
  4. What do you think boosted Mushikiwabo’s victory in OIF elections? 
  5. Did analysts think that Mushikiwabo would easily win elections? Explain. 
  6. Mention two Rwanda’s diplomatic victories in 2018.
  
  

  II. Vocabulary (Text2) 

  Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings of the 
  words/phrases in the table below. Copy the table into your book and fill in 
  

  the blank spaces.
  

  
  

  III. Vocabulary (Text3) 

  Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings of the 
  words/phrases in the table below. Copy the table into your book and fill in 
  

  the blank spaces.
  

  
  

  IV. Sentence construction: 
  Use each of the following words/phrase in your own sentence. 
  a) e-communication
  b) Sign language
  c) Embassy 
  d) Sovereigns
  e) Rivalry
  f) Diplomacy
  g) Espionage
  V. Paragraph writing
  In one paragraph, explain why embassies are needed. You can again have 
  

  a look at the techniques of writing a good paragraph in year one, unit 5.

  1.4 Treaties and agreements:
  

  
  

   Text 1: Regional integration to foster prosperit
  

  President Paul Kagame has said that regional integration and close partnership 

  between members of regional economic communities can fast-track development 

  and prosperity for individual nations.

  Kagame was, on 1st November 2017, speaking at the Global Business Forum 

  on Africa held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The session was moderated by 

  John Defterios, the emerging Markets anchor at CNN UAE.

  The Head of State noted that regional integration in Africa would enable 

  countries to get past divisions that have long prevented the continent from 

  being as prosperous at it should.

  Citing the example of the East Africa Community integration, Kagame said the 

  initiative has yielded positive impacts such as free movement of people, customs 

  union and joint infrastructure projects.

  “If you look at the East African region, even more progress has been realised, 

  for example, in the area of customs union, integration in the area of infrastructure 

  that bring the countries of the East African Community together, whether it is 

  telecommunication in the area of realising one area network, where there are no 

  roaming charges,” Kagame said.

  Other impacts, he noted, include working together to implement reforms that 

  cover aspects such as the economy and security. EAC integration has, among 

  others, seen the liberalisation of free movement of people, goods and services, 

  consequently increasing opportunities for the over 160 million citizens of the 

  bloc.

  Four countries in the bloc (Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and South Sudan) in 2014 

  rolled out the One Area Network, scrapping calls roaming rates which brought 

  down the cost of communication. The region is also in the process of rolling 

  out the Standard Gauge Railway, a 2000km project which will further ease 

  movement of goods.

  On the side-lines of the Global Business Forum on Africa, Rwanda signed 

  two bilateral agreements with UAE, which are expected to enhance investor 

  relations.

  The pacts will facilitate the promotion and reciprocation of protection of 
  investments as well as double taxation avoidance. This, experts say, will serve 
  to increase investor confidence in Rwanda’s business regulatory environment.
  Speaking to The New Times, from Dubai, Emmanuel Hategeka the Chief Operating 
  Officer of the Rwanda Development Board, said that the forum presents an 
  ideal platform to mobilise investments.
  “The forum presents an excellent platform to attract private investors to Rwanda. 
  We are able to access a global network of investors brought together by the 
  Dubai Chamber and showcase Rwanda’s investment opportunities and engage 
  in forward-looking discussions,” he said.
  The United Arab Emirates, he said, is one of Rwanda’s main sources of investors. 
  “UAE has been a major source of investors to Rwanda registering over $100 
  million in planned investments in logistics, hospitality and financial services,” 
  Hategeka said.
  The two-day forum, which was opened recently was the fourth on Africa. H.E 
  Paul Kagame attended it at the invitation of Sheikh Mohamed Al Maktoum, the 
  vice-president of UAE and the ruler of Dubai.
  The forum was organised by the Dubai Chamber of Commerce and Industry. 
  Convening over 1,000 top-level government and corporate decision-makers as 
  well as industry experts the forum was running under the theme “Next Generation 
  Africa.”
  Participants examined the current economic outlook for the African continent, 
  and explored prospects for its development, investment opportunities and the 
  potential for forging partnerships between African businesses and their UAE 
  counterparts. 
  

  (Adapted from The New Times https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/222853)

  • Comprehension questions: 

  1. Assess the importance of regional integration for countries. 
  2. What do you understand by “joint infrastructure projects”?
  3. Explain the role EAC played as far as telecommunication is concerned.
  4. What should we expect from rolling out the Standard Gauge Railway?
  5. Appreciate the role of The United Arab Emirates in Rwanda’s investment. 
  • Text 2: International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
  The United Nations Security Council established the International Criminal 
  Tribunal for Rwanda to “prosecute persons responsible for genocide and other 
  serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of
  Rwanda and neighbouring States, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December 
  1994”. The Tribunal was located in Arusha, Tanzania, and had offices in Kigali, 
  Rwanda. Its Appeals Chamber was located in The Hague, Netherlands.
  Since it opened, the Tribunal indicted many individuals whom it considered 
  responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in 
  Rwanda in 1994. Those indicted include high-ranking military and government 
  officials, politicians, businessmen, as well as religious, militia, and media leaders.
  With its sister international tribunals and courts, the ICTR has played a pioneering
  role in the establishment of a credible international criminal justice system, 
  producing a substantial body of jurisprudence on genocide, crimes against 
  humanity, war crimes, as well as forms of individual and superior responsibility.
  The ICTR was the first ever international tribunal to deliver verdicts in relation 
  to genocide, and the first to interpret the definition of genocide set forth in the 
  1948 Geneva Conventions. It also is the first international tribunal to define rape 
  in international criminal law and to recognise rape as a means of perpetrating
  genocide.
  Another landmark was reached in the media case, where the ICTR became 
  the first international tribunal to hold members of the media responsible for 
  broadcasts intended to inflame the public to commit acts of genocide.
  On 14 December 2015, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) 
  delivered its final judgment on appeal in the case against former Minister of 
  Family and Women’s Development Pauline Nyiramasuhuko and five co-accused. 
  Nyiramasuhuko was the first woman convicted of genocide by an international 
  court. The court found her guilty of rape, among other crimes. The Appeals 
  Chamber upheld convictions for most of the charges against Nyiramasuhuko, 
  her son Arsène Ntahobali, and four local government officials.
  “The creation of the ICTR was an extraordinary evolution in the international 
  response to serious and widespread human rights violations,” said Geraldine 
  Mattioli-Zeltner, international justice advocacy director at Human Rights Watch. 
  “It signalled that all serious crimes, whoever commits them and wherever they 
  are committed, should be prosecuted and tried.”
  At the ICTR’s closing event, Rwandan Justice Minister Johnston Busingye called 
  upon states where indicted genocide suspects are sheltering to understand 
  that they owe a duty to humanity, and to the Rwanda victims. He urged them to 
  

  ensure that those suspects are brought to justice.

  “Diplomatic pressure on countries where Rwandan genocide suspects are living 
  to step up efforts to apprehend and prosecute them is of primary importance,” 
  Mattioli-Zeltner said. “The UN Security Council should make clear that they will
  be held to account, wherever they may be, and that justice for the Rwandan 
  genocide does not end with the closure of the ICTR.”
  Adopted from International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals by United 
  

  Nations

  • Comprehension questions

  1. Why was the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda established?
  2. Before ICTR establishment, had any other international tribunal delivered 
  verdicts in relation to genocide? Justify your answer. 
  3. Describe ICTR’s achievement in terms of media cases.
  4. The court found Nyiramasuhuko guilty of rape. Explain how a woman can 
  be involved in rape.
  5. Discuss the Minister Johnston Busingye’s message at the ICTR’s closing 
  event.
  

  6. Advise countries that harbour genocide suspects.

  
  

  Vocabulary, sentence construction and composition writing.

  I. Vocabulary (Text1)
  Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the meanings of the following 
  words/phrases
  a. Integration
  b. Anchor
  c. Roaming charges
  d. Rolled out
  e. Bilateral agreements
  f. Pacts 
  g. Reciprocation 
  h. Hospitality 
  i. Prospects 
  II. Vocabulary (Text2)
  Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings of the 
  words in the table below. Copy the table into your book and fill in the blank 
  

  spaces.

  

  III. Sentence construction
  Use each of the words in the above table in your own sentences. 
  IV. Composition writing
  

  Write a 300 word composition explaining the role of regional integration

  1.5 Language structure: Uses of gerunds and ing-clauses 

  and Verbs used with either infinitive or ing- forms

  I. Uses of gerunds
  

  Note: A gerund is a noun formed from a verb which refers to an action, process, 
  or state. Gerund will always contain the ending –ing and used as a noun. In 
  

  short, any verb ending in -ing and used as a noun is a gerund.

  Verb / Gerund
  

  Study the following sentences:
  1. She is running very fast. (verb)
  2. She likes running very fast. (
  gerund) 
  In the first sentence, run is used as a verb. She is doing the action of running. 
  In the second sentence, running is used as a gerund (noun) and like is the verb. 
  Therefore, a gerund will always be used as a noun and does not replace the 
  progressive form of the verb.
  Functions of Gerunds
  • Because a gerund is a noun, it can be the subject of a sentence
  Examples:
  - Singing makes Sarah happy.
  - Smoking is prohibited in public places.
  • A gerund can also be the direct object
  Examples:
  - Kayitesi enjoys singing.
  - When her mother died, she started misbehaving. 
  • Gerunds can be Subject Complement.
  Example: It was singing that made Kayitesi happy.
  • Because a gerund is a noun, it can be the object of a preposition in a 
  prepositional phrase.
  Example: Besides singing, Kayitesi likes dancing.
  When to use gerund 
  • There are verbs that are commonly followed by a gerund. Those verbs 
  include:
  - like
  - love
  - enjoy
  - dislike
  - hate
  - start
  - admit 
  - avoid
  - keep etc 
  Example: I like playing soccer but I hate boxing. 
  Note that some verbs such as like/love/hate… can be also followed by an 
  infinitive.
  

  • Gerund is also used after prepositions. Those prepositions include: 
  

  - aim at
  - keep on
  - interested in 
  - instead of
  - good at
  - before ...
  - after ... 
  Examples:
  I am interested in collecting stamps.”
  After playing football I drank an orange juice”.
  • Gerund is equally used after expressions, such as:
  - It’s no use ...
  - It’s no good ...
  - There’s no point in ...
  - I can’t help...
  - I don’t mind...
  - I can’t stand/bear... 
  Example: It’s no use convincing him to meet her. 
  II. Verbs used with either infinitive or ing- forms
  Study the following sentences:
  - The bus stopped picking up the children.
  - The bus stopped to pick up the children.
  Do the above sentences have the same meaning?
  Notes: Some verbs have a different meaning depending on whether they are 
  followed by an -ing form or to + infinitive.
  Stop
  • Stop + -ing means the action is not happening any more.
  Examples: 
  - I’ve stopped buying the newspaper because now I read the news online.
  - Janet stopped reading her morning newsletters. 
  • Stop + to + infinitive means that someone or something stops an activity 
  so that they can do something else.
  Examples:
  - Muhire stopped to greet the Ambassador.
  - He stopped the video to ask the students some questions.
  Try 
  • Try + gerund means that you are trying something as an experiment, 
  especially as a possible solution to a problem, to see if it works or not.
  Examples:
  - Have you tried turning the computer off and on again?
  - I want to try studying with a friend to see if it helps us stay more motivated.
  • Try + infinitive means that something is difficult but you are making an 
  effort to do it.
  Examples:
  - I’m trying to learn Japanese but it’s very difficult.
  - Our country tried to satisfy your needs but you look indifferent. 
  - I’m trying to study but it’s impossible with all this noise.
  Remember/forget
  • Remember + gerund and forget + gerund refer to having (or not having) a 
  memory of something in the past.
  Examples:
  - I remember watching this film before.
  - I’ll never forget meeting you for the first time in this café.
  • Remember + infinitive and forget + infinitive refer to recalling (or not 
  recalling) that there is something we need to do before we do it.
  Examples:
  - Please remember to buy some milk on the way home.
  - He forgot to lock the door when he went out.
  Exercise
  

  Choose the correct verb form from the brackets to complete the sentences.
  

  1. I’d forgotten _____ to Canada when I was small, but then my parents 
  

  showed me photos. (to go/ going) 
  2. I always forget _____ my alarm for Monday morning. (to set/ setting
  3. She tried _____ the whole book but it was very long and complicated. (to 
  read/ reading)
  4. You’ll be OK. I remember _____ really nervous on my first day too! (to be/ 
  being)
  5. Try _____ the video with subtitles. This might help you understand better. 
  (to watch/ watching) 
  6. She had to stop halfway through the race _____ the wheel on her bike.
  (to repair/ repairing) 
  7. Remember _____ your swimming costume in case we go to the pool. (to 
  pack/ packing)
  8. He’s stopped _____ French classes and changed to Spanish. (to take/ 
  taking)
  9. Kamali is good at _____(to dance/ dancing)
  

  10. Rutebuka couldn’t give up _____(to smoke/ smoking)

  1.6 Spelling and pronunciation 

  A. Spelling

  Identify and correct misspelled words in the following paragraph 
  The ability to practice diplomacy is one of the defining elements of a stete, 
  and diplomacy has been practiced since the formation of the first city-stetes. 
  Originally dipolomats were sent only for specific negotiasions, and would return 
  immediately after their mission concluded. Dipolomats were usually relatives of 
  the ruling family or of very high rank in order to give them legitimasy when they 
  sought to negosiate with the other stete. Ambassaders at that time were nobles 
  with little foreign or dipolomatic experience and needed to be supported by a 
  

  large emberssy staff.

  B. Phonetic transcription
  

  Give the missing phonetic transcriptions of the words in the table below and 

  practise their pronunciations.

  
  

  
  

  1.7. End unit assessment
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

  
  
  
  
  

• UNIT PEOPLE AND TECHNOLOGY 2

  Key Unit Competence: 

  To use language learnt in the context of people and technology.

  
  

  1. After observing picture one, describe different activities currently 
  taking place due to technological advancements.
  2. Using picture two, explain some disadvantages of different new 
  technologies and suggest suitable solutions.
  

  3. Look at picture three and describe what you can see. 

  2.1. Describing concepts related to both humankind and 

  technological trends

  
  

  technologies can detect changes in shoppers’ heart rates. A variety of wearable 
  ranging from today’s smart watches to tomorrow’s augmented-reality goggles 
  capture a wearer’s biofeedback. Smartphone data captured in real time can alert 
  retailers that customers are checking online to compare prices for a specific 
  product, suggesting dissatisfaction with store pricing, product selection, or 
  layout. 
  During the next two years, more companies will likely embrace aspects of 
  the growing intelligent interfaces trend. As a first step, they can explore how 
  different approaches can support their customer engagement and operational 
  transformation goals. Companies already on such journeys can further develop 
  use cases and prototypes. Though investments of time, labour, and budget 
  may be required before companies can begin reaping benefits, the steps 
  they take during the next 18 to 24 months will be critical to maintaining future 
  competitiveness.
  Intelligent interfaces represent the latest in a series of major technology 
  transformations that began with the transition from mainframes to personal 
  computers and continued with the emergence of the web and mobile. At each 
  stage, the ways in which we interface with technology have become more 
  natural, contextual, and ubiquitous. This is seen through the progression from 
  keyboards to mice, to touchscreens, to voice and the consequent changes in 
  the way we manipulate onscreen data.
  Today, voice-user interfaces such as those found in popular mass-market 
  products such as Amazon’s Alexa, Google Assistant, Apple’s Siri® voice 
  recognition software, and Microsoft’s Cortana are the most widely deployed 
  types of intelligent interface. The on-going competition among these tech 
  giants to dominate the voice systems space is standardizing natural language 
  processing and AI (Artificial intelligence) technologies across the interface 
  market-and fuelling innovation. Amazon offered a US$1 million prize through its 
  annual Alexa competition to any team of computer-science graduate students 
  building a bot capable of conversing “coherently and engagingly with humans 
  on popular topics for 20 minutes.”
  Voice use cases are proliferating in warehouse, customer service, and, notably, 
  in field operation deployments where technicians armed with a variety of voiceenabled wearable can interact with company systems and staff without having to 
  hold a phone or printed instructions. Likewise, we are seeing more organizations 
  explore opportunities to incorporate voice dialog systems into their employee 
  training programs. Their goal is to develop new training methodologies that 
  increase the effectiveness of training, while shortening the amount of time 
  employees spend learning new skills
  Though conversational technologies may currently dominate the intelligent 
  interfaces arena, many see a different breed of solutions gaining ground, 
  harnessing the power of advanced sensors, IoT (internet of things) networks, 
  computer vision, analytics, and AI. These solutions feature, among other 
  capabilities, computer vision, gesture control devices, embedded eye-tracking 
  platforms, bio-acoustic sensing, emotion detection/recognition technology, 
  and muscle-computer interfaces. And soon this list also may include emerging 
  capabilities such as brain-controlled interfaces, exoskeleton and gait analysis, 
  volumetric displays, spatial computing, and electro vibration sensing. 
  (Extracted from Reimagining the way humans, machines, and data interact, by Allan 
  

  V. Cook, Jonathan Berman, and Jiten Dajee

  • Comprehension questions

  1. Discuss the technological advancement experienced in the field of 
  business as shown in paragraph three. 
  2. Explain how companies can embrace the intelligent interface trend. 
  3. Show how intelligent interfaces represent the latest technology 
  transformations today. 
  4. State the current most widely deployed types of intelligent interface. 
  5. Assess the extent to which voice dialogue syatems are used today. 
  6. Determine the aim of using voice dialog systems in different organizations 
  nowadays. 
  7. State and discuss the new technological solutions that are currently 
  

  gaining ground as described in the last paragraph

  
  

  
  

  II. Sentence construction

  Using the words in the above table, make grammatically correct sentences.

  III. Summary writing

  In not more than 100 words, summarize the above passage.

  IV. Research

  Conduct a research on the positive result of new technologies. Then 

  present your findings to the class.

  2.2. Advantages of new tech trends
  

  
  

  • Text: Advantages and disadvantages of modern technology
  Today, technology is very important because it is used for almost everything. 
  Like everything, technology has advantages and disadvantages.
  In the world today, people cannot live without technologies such as televisions, 
  mobile phones, computers and others. These technologies have slowly taken 
  an essential part in people’s day-to-day lives and being without them would be 
  unimaginable for some of us. To understand technology, one must know what it 
  provides in terms of advantages, but also disadvantages.
  First, the evolution of technology is beneficial to humans for several reasons. At 
  the medical level, technology can help treat more sick people and consequently 
  

  save many lives and combat very harmful viruses and bacteria

  The invention of the computer was a very important point. Communication is 
  thus enhanced, and companies can communicate more easily with foreign 
  countries. Research is also simplified.
  For companies, progress in implementing strategic technology trends is helping 
  them save time and therefore, money. Exchanges are faster especially with the 
  internet. Sales and purchases are now facilitated and possible worldwide. This 
  allows businesses to buy raw materials with discounts or at reduced prices. 
  Similarly, global tourism has grown.
  When observed more closely, new things are discovered every day. Let’s take 
  for instance when radio waves were discovered, radio broadcasts followed 
  suit almost immediately. The same applies to the television and electricity. If no 
  one had discovered that electricity could be generated, then the entertainment 
  industry wouldn’t be at its current stage of development.
  Technology improves daily lives; allowing to move physical storage units to 
  virtual storage banks and more. Scientists of the time are also able to send 
  astronauts to the moon thanks to technology.
  In the modern industrial world, machines carry out most of the agricultural and 
  industrial work and as a result, workers produce much more goods than a 
  century ago and work less. They have more time to exercise and work in safer 
  environments.
  On the other hand, the evolution of modern technology has disadvantages, for 
  example, dependence on new technology. Man no longer needs to think. Even if 
  the calculator is a good invention, man no longer makes mental calculation and 
  no longer works his memory. The decline of human capital implies an increase 
  in unemployment. In some areas, devices can replace the human mind.
  The use of technology certainly needs rule and new laws. For example internet 
  use is an individual freedom. However, the invention of the atomic bomb 
  cannot be an individual freedom. In fact, regulations are difficult to implement 
  when these technologies are introduced-such as regulation surrounding the 
  impending arrival of autonomous vehicles.
  Finally, as most technological discoveries aim to reduce human effort, it would 
  imply that more work is done by machines. This equates to less work for people: 
  the human is becoming ever so obsolete by the day, as processes become 
  automated and jobs are made redundant. The influence that the negative impact 
  of technology has on children should not be underestimated as well.
  Extract from Key Events in the Story of Technology, London (2019) Bonhill Group 
  

  Plc, by Michael Baxter

  • Comprehension questions

  1. Why is technology very useful?
  2. Assess the importance of technology at the medical level.
  3. Show how the invention of the computer was a very important point.
  4. Evaluate the usefulness of implementing strategic technological trends
  for companies.
  5. Analyse the utility of technological discoveries in media and entertainment.
  6. Explain how technology improves daily lives.
  7. Discuss the use of technology in agriculture and industrial work.
  8. Using suitable examples from the passage, explain the disadvantages of 
  the evolution of modern technology.
  9. Why rules and new laws are needed for the optimal use of technology?
  

  10. Analyse the impact of technological discoveries on employmen

  

  II. Sentence construction
  Using the terms in the above table, construct correct and meaningful 
  sentences.
  III. Summary writing
  In not more than 80 words, summarize the advantages and disadvantages 
  of modern technology as developed in the above passage.
  IV. Composition writing
  Write a 300 word composition predicting the impact of technological 
  advancement on Rwanda’s future generation.
  V. Debate
  Debate on the following motion: “Technological discoveries cause more 
  good than harm.”
  VI. Research
  Conduct a research on the current impact of modern technology on the 
  community in your area. Analyse both positive and negative influences of 
  technology and suggest practical measures that should be implemented to 
  

  encourage optimal use of technological discoveries.

  2.3. Challenges caused by new technologies
  

  
  

  • Text: How will technology impact on us?
  Perhaps the most fundamental and direct impact that technology has on the 
  everyday life of most people is economic in nature. The issue of jobs and 
  unemployment is one that strikes a chord of concern in just about every person. 
  While competition between machinery and human labour has long existed 
  in the realm of physical tasks, it has only recently been introduced into the 
  domain of mental work. Much as heavy machinery has eliminated the need for 
  physical exertion on the part of humans, so too does modern technology, in the 
  form of microchips and computers. It brings with it the potential to eliminate 
  mental drudgery. Does this mean, however, that humans will no longer have any 
  

  purpose to serve in the world?

  To gain some perspective on the issue, we can take a look at the past. At 
  the beginning of the 20th century in the United States, jobs in factories and 
  agriculture were disappearing at a rapid rate. But with the loss of those jobs 
  came the potential for millions of new jobs and economic development in new 
  industries. Indeed the macroeconomic trend of the past century has been 
  overwhelmingly positive. Jobs have grown 10-fold in the United States (from 12 
  million in 1870 to 116 million in 1985) and the percentage of people employed 
  has grown from 21 percent to 48 percent. Per-capita gross national product, as 
  well as the average earning power of jobs, has increased 600 percent in constant 
  dollars during the same period. Today, new manufacturing technologies are 
  rapidly reducing the number of production jobs. The advent of new technology 
  is projected to rapidly decrease the demand for clerical workers and other such 
  

  semiskilled and unskilled workers

  Computers, which have revolutionized the workplace, are similarly infiltrating 
  society. They have brought about innumerable advances in education and 
  personal communication. Slowly but surely, computers have begun to infiltrate
  the classroom. Though not yet optimized for education, the personal computer 
  has much potential in this arena. Wireless networks can allow for the easy 
  sharing of courseware, submissions by students of papers, exams, courseware 
  responses, and other creations. The networking of information can provide 
  students with instant access to vast amounts of information and knowledge
  

  The realm of communications has likewise seen immense change. We are 

  provided with new ways to communicate with each other, such as email and 
  instant messaging. Documents placed on the internet are sources of information 
  for the rest of the world. Vast databases allow for the easy storage of information. 
  Global positioning satellites allow us to track our exact location and find our way 
  

  to various destinations

  The potential applications of technology to warfare are well known. But is this 
  application positive or negative? One might argue that the military application 
  of science is undoubtedly negative in that it has led to the creation of the atomic 
  bomb and other such weapons of mass destruction. Technology has made the 
  complete destruction of humanity possible. That capacity continues to grow, 
  as more nations develop nuclear technology and the proliferation of nuclear 
  warheads continues.
  On the other hand, it is also possible to argue that science has made it possible 
  for the more accurate destruction of enemy targets and, in doing so, has 
  lessened unintended damage to civilian populations. Smart bombs and cruise 
  missiles have lessened the human component of war at least to some degree. 
  (Extract from “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us”, by Bill Joy, Stanford University, 
  

  April 2000

   Comprehension questions

  1. Assess the economic impact of technology on the everyday life of some 
  people.
  2. Evaluate the positive impact of technology on employment at the start of 
  the 20th century.
  3. What is the impact of the new manufacturing technologies on employment 
  today?
  4. Analyse the outcome of technology in education.
  5. How did new technologies influence the way people communicate?
  6. Examine the negative applications of technology to warfare.
  7. Discuss the positive impact of the use of science and technology in the 
  

  field of war.

  

  Use a dictionary or a thesaurus to find the meanings of the following terms.
  1. …realm… (paragraph one)
  2. …microchips… (paragraph one)
  3. …drudgery… (paragraph one)
  4. …macroeconomic… (paragraph two)
  5. overwhelmingly… (paragraph two)
  6. . …advent… (paragraph two)
  7. … …clerical… (paragraph two)
  8. …innumerable… (paragraph three)
  9. . …infiltrate… (paragraph three)
  10. . …courseware… (paragraph three)
  11. . …warfare… (paragraph five)
  12. . …proliferation… (paragraph five)
  

  13. …lessen… (paragraph six)

  II. Sentence construction

  Using the above terms used in the above passage, construct grammatically 
  correct sentences.
  III. Summary writing 
  In less than 90 words, summarize the above passage.
  IV. Composition writing
  Write a 350 word composition on the optimal use of modern technological 
  discoveries.
  V. Debate
  Debate on the following motion: “With modern technology humans will no 
  

  longer have any purpose to serve in the world.”

  2.4. Language Structure: Correlative connectors

  • Notes

  Correlative connectors are words that function as separable compounds, 
  occurring in pairs, and have corresponding meanings. A correlative connector 
  is a type of connector that functions in a pair, with both words working together 
  to balance words, phrases, or clauses. These connectors are only used when 
  equal, correlative ideas are presented. They should not be used with ideas that 
  are disparate or unequal. There are many examples of correlative connectors 
  but the most common are:
  - either ... or
  - neither ... nor
  - not only...but also
  - both ... and
  - the more... the less
  - the more... the more
  - no sooner... than
  - whether... or
  - rather ... than
  - hardly/scarcely…when
  

  Examples

  1. Both the planning of technology projects and their uses are costly.
  2. John will either sleep or go to school.
  3. Computers are not only useful but also stressful. 
  4. Not only is management of waste technological tools expensive but also 
  harmful to the environment.
  5. Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didn’t apologise for 
  forgetting it! 
  6. No sooner did he enter the room than my tablet disappeared. 
  7. No sooner had I closed my eyes than I fell asleep. 
  8. Do you care whether we use a smart camera or a projector in the 
  conference?
  9. The more you think about it, the less likely you are to take action.
  10. The more it rains, the more serious the problems become.
  11. Wouldn’t you rather take a chance to owe me than be in debt to Michael?
  12. Hardly had I reached the station when the train came.
  13. Scarcely had I reached the station when the train arrived
  Note that when we begin a sentence with a negative word or phrase like hardly, 
  scarcely, not only or no sooner, we put the auxiliary verb before the subject. 
  When there is no auxiliary verb or main verb be, we use do, does or did.
  • Language practice
  Complete each sentence using the correlative connector pair from the 
  parenthesis:
  1. I plan to take my vacation ………… in June ………… in July. (whether/ 
  or, either / or, as / if)
  2. ………… I’m feeling happy ………… sad, I try to keep a positive attitude. 
  (either / or, whether / or, rather / than)
  3. ………… had I taken my shoes off ………… I found out we had to leave 
  again. (no sooner / than, rather / than, whether / or)
  4. ………… only is dark chocolate delicious, ………… it can be healthy. 
  (whether / or, not / but also, just as / so)
  5. I will be your friend ………… you stay here………… move away. (either/
  

  or, whether/or, neither/nor)

  2.5. Spelling and pronunciation

  A. Spelling and dictation

  Listen carefully to the text read or recorded about technology and social welfare. 

  Write it down as correctly as possible. 

  B. Phonetic transcription

  Complete the table below by giving the phonetic transcriptions of the words 

  studied across this unit. Pay attention to the placement of the stress where 

  necessary. Then practise their pronunciation. You can use a dictionary where 

  you find it necessary. One is done for you.

  

  2.6. End unit assessment

  
  

  
  

  1. Carry out a survey in your area with the aim of evaluating the 
  progress that Rwanda has made in the implementation of modern 
  technology and the impact that this has had on socio-economic life. 
  Then present your findings to the class.
  2. Each correlative connector comes in a pair of words. Use one of the 
  following pairs to complete each sentence: either … or, neither … 
  nor, both . . . and, not only . . . but also, whether … or, not only…also, 
  not only…but…also
  3. “Could I come over at ………… three ………… four o’clock?” asked 
  Joan.
  4. The teacher refused to mark his work because his book was 
  ………… torn ………… dirty.
  5. I really need a holiday but ………… in Spain ………… France.
  6. I’m going to fish tomorrow, ..………… it rains ………… shines.
  7. ………… did he borrow a lot of money from us, he ………… refused 
  to pay back a single cent.
  8. The children at the centre can ………… hear ………… speak.
  9. She employs a maid to do ………… the cooking ………… washing 
  for her family.
  10. We have enough spices for only one type of curry. We can cook 
  ………… chicken curry ………… mutton curry.
  11. The boy is really talented. He ………… knows how to play the piano 
  ………… can also compose music.
  12. I do not like him. He is ………… rude ………… selfish.
  13. Conduct a research on key economic areas that need modern 
  technology in Rwanda. Suggest appropriate ways of using 
  technology in those areas and show how this could boost their 
  productivity.
  14. Write a 300 word essay on the following topic: “The impact of 
  effective implementation of technology on the learning process in 
  

  Rwandan schools.

• UNIT 3 NATIONAL SERVICES AND SELFRELIANCE

  Key Unit Competence: 

  To use language learnt in the context of national services and self-reliance

  
  

  3.1. National services and self-reliance rationale

  

  Read the texts below and answer the comprehension questions that follow: 
  • Text 1: Home Grown Initiative
  Home Grown Initiatives (HGIs) are Rwanda’s brain child solutions to economic 
  and social development. They are practices developed by the Rwandan
  citizens based on local opportunities, cultural values and history to fast track
  their development. Being locally created, HGIs are appropriate to the local
  development context and have been the bedrock to the Rwandan development
  successes for the last decade.
  After the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, Rwandan economic structure was 
  devastated none was hoping that the county should be rebuilt and continues 
  its development process. After this period, Rwandan government has adopted 
  several programs and policies to boost Rwandan economy and to promote the 
  general welfare of the population.
  HGIs had a significant impact on recipient households and the community. In 
  terms of social impact, Home Grown Initiatives have contributed to beneficiary 
  households through the increased access to health and education services, 
  shelter, improved nutrition, social cohesion and sustained participation in 
  decision making at community level.
  HGIs include community work, truth and reconciliation traditional courts, 
  mediators, performance contracts, community-based and participatory effort 
  towards problem solving, solidarity camps, national dialogue, National Leadership 
  Retreat and One cow per Family program. They are all rooted in the Rwandan 
  culture and history and therefore easy to understand by the communities. 
  (Adapted from History for Rwanda Schools senior six. Rwanda Education Board)
  • Comprehension questions
  1. What does HGIs mean in full? 
  2. When were HGIs thought of?
  3. Who are to execute the HGIs and who benefit from them?
  

  4. Discuss the HGIs contribution to social and economic development. 

  • Text 2: The contribution of the youth national services

  
  

  In most countries, the youth represents the future of their countries; therefore, 
  they have a vital role to play in the development of each country by participating 
  in national service.
  The training and participation of the youth contribute to the increase of national 
  army, where some become soldiers permanently or part time after accomplishing 
  military trainings. The youth is the manpower provider because they participate 
  in national service by offering their physical force in order to accomplish national 
  service goals like construction of houses for the poor families, repairing the roads, 
  construction of vegetable gardens for family consumption. In environmental 
  protection, the youth in national service construct terraces and plant trees in 
  order to fight against soil erosion.
  In Rwanda, the youth at Urugerero have contributed in making data collection. 
  Most data collected were about the number of illiterate people in their area of 
  operations, the cases of school dropout and children of school going age who 
  are not yet in school, of local population who have not yet registered for health 
  insurance, number of family living in illegal marriage and vulnerable groups.
  Through Urugerero, the graduates of senior six secondary schools also 
  perform different national duties in line with the Government’s notion of selfreliance and dignity. The most activities the students are engaged in include 
  awareness campaigns on development projects, HIV/AIDS, gender balance, 
  family planning, adult literacy and community work among others. Furthermore, 
  the youth contribute in fighting and preventing people against the genocide 
  and genocide ideology, fighting against the drug abuse and sensitizing and 
  mobilizing local population about credit – saving through micro-finances like 
  

  Umurenge SACCO

  The youth also contribute in national service by contributing in service provision 
  and delivery to local population at sector and cell levels. Services delivered 
  including distribution of official documents namely identity cards and land 
  registration certificates. Data entry in computers and customer care are also 
  done by national service participants. This boosts the service delivery to the 
  local population. 
  Adapted from history for Rwandan schools senior six, student’s book. Rwanda 
  education board. 
  1. Why do you think the youth present the future of the country?
  2. Discuss the contribution of “urugerero” program in national services 
  delivery. 
  3. Assess your contribution to the national service delivery. Share it to your 
  

  class.

  

  Vocabulary, sentence and composition writing 
  I. Vocabulary: use dictionary and thesaurus to check the meanings 
  of the following words and phrases. Practice spelling them correctly 
  1. Track
  2. Devastated
  3. Boost 
  4. Leadership Retreat 
  5. Manpower
  6. Sensitizing
  7. Self-reliance 
  8. Dignity
  II. Construct meaningful sentences with the above words and phrases
  III. Write a 250 word composition appreciating the contribution of the 
  

  Rwandan youth in the national services. 

  3.2. National services that encourage unity, peace and 

  reconciliation

  
  

  Read the following texts and answer the questions that follow:

  • Text 1: Establishment of the mediation committees

  In 2004, the Government of Rwanda established mediation committees as an 
  alternative dispute resolution mechanism.
  Established at the cell and sector levels, mediation committees primarily address 
  family disputes, such as those relating to land or inheritance. By institutionalizing 
  mediation committees, low level legal issues could be solved at a local level 
  without the need to be heard in conventional courts. Citizens experiencing legal 
  issues are asked to first report to mediation committees, cases not exceeding 
  3,000,000 Frs (for land and other immovable assets) and 1,000,000 Rwf (for 
  cattle and other movable assets). Cases of these types can only be heard in 
  a conventional court if one party decides to appeal the decision made at the 
  sector level by the mediation committee.
  As the mediation committees system gained recognition as a successful 
  method to resolve conflict and deliver justice, the importance of providing 
  more structure and formality to their work increased. Consequently, the 
  mediation committees started receiving trainings on mediating domestic conflicts 
  and support from both governmental and non-governmental organisations to 
  improve the quality of their mediation services.
  The mediation committee, at the cell and sector level, is headed by a bureau 
  composed of a president and a vice-president elected by their peers. Claims 
  made to the mediation committees are received by the Executive Secretary 
  who in turn forwards them to the mediation committee. If the Executive 
  Secretary is unable to receive the claim, the request is delivered to the 
  chairman of the mediation committee. The relevant council (cell or sector level) 
  is then notified.
  The mediation committees that make up the mediation committees operate at a 
  cell level in the first instance (initial cases) and at a sector level in the event of 
  appeal (appeal cases). According to the law establishing the structure of 
  mediation committees, the committee is composed of twelve people known 
  for their integrity, who reside respectively in the concerned cell and sector and 
  

  who are recognised for their ability to reconcile differences. These mediators

  are elected by the Cell Council and the Sector Council respectively for a 
  renewable term of five years.
  In order to initiate a case, one of the parties must first submit a complaint 
  to the Executive Secretary of the cell verbally or in writing so that it can 
  be registered by the mediation committee. The applicant must provide a 
  brief outline of the case to inform the proceedings, after which the mediation
  committee can summon parties and decide on the venue, as well as the date
  and time for hearing the case. 
  (Adapted from history for Rwandan schools. senior six, student’s book. Rwanda education 
  board)
  • Comprehension questions
  1. Give examples of some conflicts solved by the mediation committees.
  2. Describe the structure of a mediation committee.
  3. After reading the above passage, assess the function of your local 
  mediation committee referring to their responsibilities. Share it to your 
  class. 
  4. Explain the process that citizens follow to have their cases dealt with. 
  • Text 2: Civic Education Program 
  In the aftermath of the Genocide against the Tutsi, the Government of Rwanda 
  reintroduced civic education program in view of societal transformation. This 
  HGS translated as Civic Education Program, was adopted following the 4th
  National Leadership Retreat in February 2007.
  Contemporary civic education program includes physical activities along with 
  classes on Rwandan history that reintroduce some of the cultural values lost 
  during colonization. Training is adapted for the group participating in civic 
  education program. For example, health workers have been trained on activities 
  relevant to their profession, while local leaders have been trained on service 
  delivery and good governance.
  The Government of Rwanda established the National civic education program 
  Commission with the objective of mobilizing Rwandans to uphold important 
  cultural values and the culture of intore. The commission was entrusted with 
  developing a program that allowed Rwandans from diverse backgrounds 
  to undertake personal development and contribute to the wellbeing of the 
  communities where they live or that they serve. The civic education program 
  provides opportunities for participants to enhance positive values build a sense 
  of responsibility through patriotism and gain professional knowledge.
  

  The values at the core of contemporary civic education program are unity, 

  patriotism, selflessness, integrity, responsibility, volunteerism and humility.
  Civic education program is designed for all Rwandans. Different curricula have 
  been developed to suit the program’s varied participants. Children of seven 
  years and above take part in their villages, to help them grow up to become 
  responsible citizens. Compulsory National Service (Urugerero) is designed for 
  those between the ages of 18 and 35 who have completed secondary education.
  Rwandan citizens living abroad also join Urugerero and a number of young 
  Rwandans have organised civic education program in cities including London 
  and Brussels. Non-nationals desiring to participate and provide service to the 
  country can also do so. University graduates and retired people who participated 
  in Urugerero before and wish to do so again are also given the opportunity to 
  join civic education program. Participants come from each administrative level 
  across the country. 
  (Adapted from history for Rwandan schools. senior six, student’s book. Rwanda 
  

  education board.)

  • Comprehension questions

  1. What are the civic education program values?
  2. What is the relevance between the civic education program and peace, 
  unity and reconciliation?
  3. Explain the contribution of the civic education program towards societal 
  transformation.
  4. Justify the activities carried out in the civic education program that you 
  

  appreciate?

  

  Vocabulary, sentence, summary and composition writing 
  I. Vocabulary: use a dictionary and thesaurus to check the meanings of 
  the following words. Practise their spellings.
  1. Notified
  2. Instance
  3. Appeal
  4. Reconcile 
  5. Mediators
  6. Aftermath
  7. Retreat Contemporary
  8. Uphold
  9. Undertake
  II. Make meaningful sentences that are related to peace, unity and 
  reconciliation with the above words. 
  III. Summary and composition writing 
  1. Summarize the text “civic education program” in not more than 10 
  lines. 
  2. Write a composition of 300 words explaining the contributions 
  of mediators, community health workers and election process 
  managers to Rwanda nation building.
  
  

  3.3. National services in Rwanda 

  
  

  Read the following texts and answer questions that follow
  

  • Text 1: One Cow per Poor Family programme

  The programme describes a centuries’ old cultural practice in Rwanda whereby 
  a cow was given by one person to another, either as a sign of respect and 
  gratitude or as a marriage dowry.
  The contemporary programme was introduced in 2006 against a backdrop 
  of alarmingly high levels of poverty and childhood malnutrition. The results of 
  the Integrated Household
  Living Conditions Survey 2 conducted in 2005 showed rural poverty at 62.5%. 
  The Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) and 
  Nutrition Survey showed that 28% of Rwanda’s rural populations were food 
  insecure and that 24% of the rural populations were highly vulnerable to food 
  insecurity.
  The programme is based on the premise that providing a dairy cow to poor 
  households helps to improve their livelihood as a result of a more nutritious and 
  balanced diet from milk, increased agricultural output through better soil fertility 
  as well as greater incomes by commercializing dairy products.
  Since its introduction in 2006, more than 203,000 beneficiaries have received 
  cows. One cow per poor family programme has contributed to an increase in 
  agricultural production in Rwanda - especially milk products which have helped 
  to reduce malnutrition and increase incomes. The program aimed at providing 
  350,000 cows to poor families by 2017.
  The programme is structured in two phases. First, a community member 
  identified as someone who would greatly benefit from owning a cow is given a 
  pregnant dairy cow. That person benefits from its milk and manure production. 
  Beneficiaries are then obliged to give the first born female calf to another worthy 
  beneficiary in their community. This is known as the ‘pass on’ principle. 
  One cow per poor family programme is one of a number of programs under 
  Rwanda’s Vision 2020, a set of development objectives and goals designed to 
  move Rwanda to a middle income nation by the year 2020. 
  (Adapted from History for Rwanda Schools senior six student’s book. Rwanda Education 
  Board, Kigali January 2019)
  • Comprehension questions 
  1. Describe the above mentioned surveys that indicate the vulnerability to 
  food insecurity.
  2. How does the program assist in eradicating malnutrition and poverty in 
  general? 
  

  3. Describe the one cow per family programme phases

  4. How is this programme executed in your community?

  • Text 2: Contemporary performance contract 

  Performance contract were re-initiated by Rwanda’s President, Paul Kagame, 
  in March 2006. This was as a result of the concern about the speed and 
  quality of execution of government programs and priorities. The government’s 
  decentralization policy required a greater accountability at the local level. Its 
  main objective was to make public agencies and institutions more effective and 
  accountable in their implementation of national programs and to accelerate 
  the socioeconomic development agenda as contained in the Vision 2020 and 
  Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) policies as 
  well as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
  Today, performance contracts are used across the government to ensure 
  accountability. All levels of government, from the local district level to ministries 
  and embassies, are required to develop and have their contracts evaluated. 
  Members of the public service also sign performance contracts with their 
  managers or head of institution.
  While performance contracts are now widely used across government, it 
  first began at the district level. When developing its performance contracts, 
  each local government administrative unit determines its own objectives (with 
  measurable indicators) taking into account national priorities as highlighted 
  in the national as well as international strategy and policy documents such 
  as the MDGs, Vision 2020, EDPRS, District Development Plans (DDPs) 
  and Sector Development Plans (SDPs). The performance contracts, at both 
  planning and reporting phases, are presented to the public for the purpose of 
  accountability and transparency. The mayors and province governors also sign 
  the performance contracts with Rwanda’s President committing themselves to 
  achieving set objectives. The performance process ensures the full participation 
  and ownership of citizens because priorities are developed at the grassroots 
  level.
  Between 2006 and 2009 a limited evaluation process took place whereby the 
  best ten performing districts from across the nation were reviewed (two from 
  each province and the City of Kigali). Each province and the City of Kigali would 
  rank the performance of their districts with the top two then communicated to the
  national evaluation team. This team then conducted their own review and ranked
  them from 1-10. This approach suffered from significant limitations including 
  the fact that it was not possible to objectively compare the performance of all
  districts because while one province may have had better performing districts
  than another, this system did not allow that to be discovered. Due to these
  shortcomings, a nation-wide district performance contract evaluation exercise 
  was conducted in 2010 for all the thirty districts. A national evaluation committee 
  

  with technical expertise and experience conducts this process

  (Adapted from History for Rwanda Schools senior six student’s book. Rwanda Education 

  Board, Kigali January 2019)

  • Comprehension questions

  1. What was the reason of re-initiating the performance contract by H.E 
  Paul Kagame, the president of Rwanda?
  2. What were the shortcomings in the former performance contract 
  evaluation process?
  3. What are responsibilities of national evaluation committees?
  4. Is this program applied in your district? How far do you know this? Explain 
  

  with clear examples

  

  Vocabulary and composition writing
  I. Vocabulary and sentence construction: use a dictionary and thesaurus 
  to check the meanings of the following words and use them to make 
  meaningful sentences related to national services in Rwanda. Practise 
  their spellings. 
  1. Alarmingly
  2. Vulnerability
  3. Households
  4. Millennium
  5. Grassroots
  6. Transparency
  7. Shortcomings
  II. Composition writing: write a 300 word composition evaluating how 
  “the one cow per family program” is conducted in your community. 
  
  

  3.4. Scope of national services worldwide

  
  

  Read the text below and answer the questions that follow
  

   Text: Concepts of Judicial Systems
  

  The judicial or court system interprets and applies the law on behalf of the state. 
  The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes.
  In some nations, under the doctrine of separation of powers, the judiciary does 
  not make law (which is the responsibility of the legislature) or enforce law (which 
  is the responsibility of the executive), but rather interprets law and applies it to 
  the facts of each case.
  In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as common law, by setting 
  precedent for other judges to follow, as opposed to statutory law made by the 
  legislature. The judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under the 
  law.
  In many jurisdictions, the judiciary has the power to change laws through judicial 
  review. Courts with judicial review power may annul the laws and rules of the 
  state which are incompatible with a higher norm, such as primary legislation, the 
  provisions of the constitution or international law. Judges are responsible for the 
  interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus charged with creating 
  the body of constitutional law in common law countries.
  For a people to establish and keep the rule of law great care must be taken 
  in the appointment of unbiased legal experts who are truthful and cannot be 
  corrupted. For the law to be accepted courts must stick to justice and the laws 
  

  must be culturally relevant.

  The term judiciary is also used to refer collectively to the personnel, such as 
  judges, magistrates and other adjudicators, who form the core of a judiciary 
  (sometimes referred to as a “bench”), as well as the staffs who keep the systems 
  running smoothly.
  In some countries the judiciary includes legal professionals and institutions such 
  as prosecutors, state attorneys, ombudsmen, public notaries, judicial police 
  service and legal aid officers. These institutions are sometimes governed by 
  the same administration that governs courts. In some cases the judiciary also 
  administers private legal professions such as lawyers and private notary offices. 
  (Adapted from history of Rwandan schools. Senior 5, student’s book. Rwanda Education 
  

  Board

  • Comprehension questions 

  1. How far do you know the judicial system in your country? Share your 
  ideas to class.
  2. Compare the judicial system in the second and third paragraph.
  3. What personnel are involved in the judiciary within some countries 
  

  according to the last paragraph?

  

  Vocabulary and sentence writing and survey

  I. Vocabulary: match words with their meanings in the above table. 

  Spell the words correctly 

  

  

  II. Make meaningful sentences with the words in the table pages 55-56. 
  III. Conduct a survey about some national services in a country of your 
  choice and write a composition about it. 
  
  

  3.5. Language structure: Coordinate connectors

  • Notes

  These connectors join two independent clauses together. Their purpose is to 

  show the connection between two words, actions, ideas, items in a series and 

  complete sentences. The most common examples are: and / or/ nor/ so / but/ 

  for/yet. The following table summarizes how coordinate connectors are used.

  

  

  

  Exercise 
  Choose the best answer from the brackets to complete each sentence. 
  1. Would you rather have cheese ………honey on your sandwich? (For, 
  nor, or, so)
  2. His favorite sports are football……….tennis (or, and, nor, for)
  3. I wanted to go to the beach, ……… Mary refused (but, or, so, for)
  4. I am allergic to cats, …I have three of them (or, for, yet, so)
  5. I am a vegetarian,……. I don’t eat any meat. (so, yet, nor, but)
  6. Thomas will be late to work,………he has a dental appointment (but, or, 
  for, nor)
  7. Jennifer doesn’t like to swim,……….does she enjoy cycling. (and, or, but, 
  nor)
  8. Jackson wanted to eat another piece of cake,…………he was on diet. ( 
  for, but, yet, so)
  3.6. Spelling and pronunciation 
  
  A. Practise the pronunciation of the words below. Pay attention to where you 
  put stress. You can use dictionary where necessary. 
  1. Contemporary
  2. Programme
  3. Sustainable 
  4. Partnership 
  5. Household
  6. Entrust 
  7. Successful
  8. Doctrine
  9. Interpre
  
  

  3.7. End unit assessment 

  
  

  
  

  
  

• UNIT 4 GENOCIDE AND PEACE BUILDING

  Key Unit Competence: 

  To use the language learnt in the context of genocide and peace building

  

  4.1. Describing words and expressions used in the context 

  of genocide and peace building

  
  

  • Text: Genocide and related terms

  The history of the world has always been punctuated by cycles of violence, 
  regardless of time, region or race. Genocide, which is one of the worst forms of 
  violence, has always led to horrific socio-economic and environmental impacts. 
  The last decade of the 20th century was the most turbulent some countries like 
  Rwanda has ever experienced in its history. The following paragraphs discuss 
  some of terms used in the context of genocide.
  
  Firstly, crimes against humanity are codified in article 7 of the Rome Statute of 
  the International Criminal Court (ICC). “The notion encompasses crimes such 
  as murder, extermination, rape, persecution and all other inhumane acts of a 
  similar character (wilfully causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to 
  mental or physical health), committed ‘as part of a widespread or systematic 
  attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack’. 
  The mapping report says that most incidents listed may fall within the scope 
  of “widespread or systematic attacks” characterized by “multiple acts of largescale violence, carried out in an organized fashion and resulting in numerous 
  victims. Most of these attacks were directed against non-combatant civilian 
  populations consisting primarily of women and children. As a consequence, the 
  vast majority of acts of violence perpetrated during these years, which formed 
  part of various waves of reprisals and campaigns of persecution and pursuit of 
  refugees, were in general terms all transposed into a series of widespread and 
  systematic attacks against civilian populations and could therefore be classified 
  as crimes against humanity by a competent court.”
  
  Secondly, Laue (1993:256) defined conflict as ‘escalated natural competition 
  between two or more parties about scarce resources, power and prestige’. 
  Parties in conflict believe they have incompatible goals, and their aim is to 
  neutralize, gain advantage over, injure or destroy one another (Laue 1993:257). 
  According to Fry and Bjorkqvist (1997:26), conflict, although inevitable, is not 
  inherently pathological, sick behavior or always dysfunctional. Some conflicts 
  are harmful but they may, in some cases, improve society and social relations 
  on a long-term basis. Conflict can be a constructive force in social life (Fry 
  and Bjorkqvist 1997:26). The theoretical links between geography, society 
  and conflicts were also highlighted by Ferguson (1994:59) who emphasized 
  that genocides had negative consequences on the infrastructure, structure and 
  

  superstructure.

  Thirdly, the term ‘genocide’ was coined by a Polish-Jewish lawyer named 
  Raphael Lemkin who formed the word by combining the Greek word for race 
  or tribe (Geno) with the Latin word for killing (cide). In proposing this new 
  term, Lemkin had in mind “a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the 
  destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim 
  of annihilating the groups themselves.”
  
  Therefore, the crime of genocide since it was initially formulated in 1948, in 
  article 2 of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of 
  genocide, the definition of ‘genocide’ has remained substantially the same. Article 
  6 of the Rome Statute borrows from this convention and for example, defines 
  the crime of genocide as “any of the following acts committed with intent to 
  destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such. 
  According to the United Nations (cited in Destexhe 1996:5), means any of the 
  following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, 
  ethnic, racial or religious group, including; killing members of the group, causing 
  serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group, deliberately inflicting 
  on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction 
  in whole or in part. This terminology has been reviewed and enriched and even 
  subjected to controversies by social scientists who have shown that all mass 
  murders or massacres are not necessarily genocide (Staub 1992:8), but one 
  can also conceive genocide where there is no murder (Robbins and Robbins 
  2003:151). 
  
  Lastly by no means least, as far as the convention on the prevention and 
  punishment of the crime of genocide is concerned, for a perpetrator to be 
  guilty of genocide, the people he intends to destroy must belong to one of the 
  following four categories: First, a national group which is a set of individuals 
  whose identity is defined by a common country of nationality or national origin; 
  second, an ethnic group that refers to the set of individuals whose identity is 
  defined by common cultural traditions, language or heritage; third, a racial group
  where individuals whose identity is defined by physical characteristics; fourth, 
  a religious group that is defined as a set of individuals whose identity is defined 
  by common religious creeds, beliefs, doctrines, practices, or rituals. 
  Adapted from: Gahima, A. (2007). The socio-economic impacts of the genocide 
  and current developments in Rwanda: Case studies of the towns of Butare and 
  Cyangugu. Unpublished Master’s Dissertation, Department of Geography and 
  Environmental Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban.
  
  • Comprehension questions
  
  

  1. Examine the worst forms of violence that happened in Rwanda and its 
  impact as described in the passage
  2. Identify some crimes against humanity as are codified in article 7 of the 
  Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC).
  

  3. Compare and contrast genocide and conflict.

  

  Vocabulary, sentence and essay writing 

  I. Use a dictionary and thesaurus to find the meaning of the words 
  below
  a. …. horrific……(paragraph one)
  b. ……violence……(paragraph one)
  c. ……turbulent……(paragraph one)
  d. ……victims……(paragraph two)
  e. …… perpetrated……..(paragraph two)
  f. ……reprisals……(paragraph two)
  g. …… pathological……(paragraph three)
  h. ….. annihilating………(paragraph three)
  i. …. massacres…… (paragraph four)
  II. Make grammatical and meaningful sentences using the following 
  words or phrases
  a. Conflict 
  b. Genocide
  c. Violence
  d. Survivors
  e. Victims 
  f. a national group
  g. ethnic group
  h. a racial group
  i. a religious group
  

  III. Write an essay comparing and contrasting genocide and a war

  4.2. Genocide in the world 

  
  

  • Text: Genocide in the world

  It is worth noting that the occurrence of genocide is not limited to Rwanda. 
  There have been other cases of genocide in different parts of the world that 
  occurred in different times. Some of the cases of genocide that happened in 
  the 20th Century are as follows: Genocide against the Herero in Namibia by the 
  German colonialists (1907), the Holocaust genocide that occurred in Germany 
  and its occupied territories (1939 – 1945) and the 1994 genocide against the 
  Tutsi in Rwanda. 
  
  The first one was the Nama Herero Genocide was not recognized for unknown 
  reasons by the United Nations Organization. However, many authors and 
  specialists in the study of genocides qualify it as a pure act of genocide 
  committed against the Nama and the Herero in 1907. When the Germans 
  arrived in South-West Africa (Namibia) in 1880, they found the area populated 
  by certain groups of people such as the Nama (Namaqua) who were about 
  20,000 in number by then. Another group of people was the Herero who were 
  about 75,000 in number. Their occupation was cattle herding. These people 
  violently resisted occupation of their land and establishment of the German rule. 
  The German commander who led the conquest, vowed to meet any resistance 
  from the natives with ‘uncompromising brutality’. He vowed to wipe out the 
  natives completely in 15 year time.
  
  The second one is called Holocaust, this is a genocide that occurred in Germany 
  and its occupied territories. It targeted Jews of whom approximately 6,000,000 
  were killed by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime. Apart from the Jews, non-Jews 
  were also killed including millions of Polish Gentiles, Russians, Ukrainians and 
  prisoners of other nationalities. This has been one of the largest genocides 
  in history. About two-thirds of the Jews who lived in Europe were killed in the 
  Holocaust. Laws were passed in Germany that excluded Jews from the civil 
  society, more specifically the Nuremberg Laws of 1935. Concentration camps 
  were established where Jews were murdered in large numbers. Jews were 
  collected from various parts of Germany occupied territories in 1939 and were 
  transported in cargo trains to the famous concentration or extermination camps. 
  Most of them, however, died along the way. Those who survived the journey by 
  train were killed in gas chambers.
  
  Events leading to the planning and execution of the 1994 Genocide against the 
  Tutsi in Rwanda date back to 1959. The cause of the 1994 Genocide against 
  Tutsi was the history of a long process of violence, hatred, injustice and ethnic 
  divisions in the first and second Republics of Rwanda. Massacre against the 
  Tutsi had happened in 1959 as a result of similar reasons to those ones that 
  caused the 1994 Genocide – manipulated ethnic rivalries between the Hutu 
  

  and the Tutsi

  There was an ethnic and political violence which was characterised by a 
  period of violence from 1959 – 1961 targeting the Tutsi and Hutu members 
  of UNAR. This violence saw the country transition from a Belgian colony with a 
  Tutsi monopoly to an independent Hutu dominated republic. A Hutu elite group 
  was formed to counter the Tutsi policy and transfer power from the Tutsi to the 
  Hutu. From November 1959, a series of riots by the Hutu took place. The riots 
  entailed arson attacks on Tutsi homes. The violence forced about 336,000 Tutsi 
  to exile in the neighbouring countries where they lived as refugees. The Tutsi 
  exiles organised themselves into an armed group to fight for their way back 
  into their country. Afterwards, there were no active threats posed by the Tutsi 
  refugees to the Hutu-controlled government in Rwanda. It was until the early 
  1990s when the Tutsi refugees regrouped again into a strong force and formed 
  the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a movement which they used to force the 
  Rwanda Government into a political negotiation. 
  
  However the negotiations failed as Hutu extremists were not willing to share the 
  power. Using the death of President Juvenal Habyarimana in an airplane crash 
  on April 6th, 1994 as a pretext, they executed their long term plan of killing the 
  Tutsi in the 1994 Genocide at the end of which more than one million Tutsi 
  were massacred. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi did not take a long 
  time to be recognised by UN. The Security Council created the International 
  Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by the Resolution 955 of November 8th, 
  1994. Based in Arusha, the ICTR was established to deal with the prosecution 
  of the Rwandans responsible for the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi.
  Adapted from: History for Rwanda Secondary Schools (REB, 2016).
  
  • Comprehension questions
  
  1. Identify some cases of genocides that took place in the world as described 
  by the writer.
  2. Evaluate different cases of genocide and use examples to decide the one 
  which was the worst.
  3. When were the events leading to the planning and execution of the 1994 
  Genocide against the Tutsi start? Identify the role of first and second 
  Republics of Rwanda in this process of planning and execution of the 
  1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. 
  4. Explain the contribution of UN after 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in 
  Rwanda.
  5. Suggest some pieces of advice to the countries and international 
  organizations for the genocide to never happen again.
  
  
  Vocabulary, sentence construction and essay writing
  I. Using dictionaries and thesaurus, find the meaning of the following 
  words
  a. …. vowed ……(paragraph 2)
  b. …. murdered…..(paragraph 3)
  c. ….. rivalries……(paragraph 4)
  d. …. monopoly……(paragraph 5)
  e. …… riots…..(paragraph 5)
  f. …… arson……(paragraph 5)
  g. …..out-group….(paragraph 7)
  h. …… grievances……(paragraph 7)
  II. Use the above words to write meaningful sentences. 
  III. Write an essay describing and contrasting 1994 genocide against 
  Tutsi in Rwanda and other genocides in the world
  
  

  4.3. Talking about genocide ideology 
  

  
  

  • Text: Fight against genocide ideology

  Before speaking of the strategies or ways of fighting against the different forms 
  and channels of genocide denial and ideology, it is essential to reflect on the 
  real or perceived causes of genocide. In fact, the perceived or real causes 
  of genocide provide the foundation for the peddling of genocide ideology by 
  extremists in our society. What then is genocide ideology? Whether genocide 
  is an actual ideology or not is debatable but it is certainly a developing stream of 
  ideas rooted in fear and thirst for power usually in the context of a history where 
  the people are of different origin. Genocide is an extermination or destruction 
  of the other who has been part of a whole but is now being separated and 
  targeted as an enemy (and man’s spontaneous reaction to the enemy, as we 
  have learnt through history, is to eliminate the enemy). So the genocide ideology 
  begins with the process of identification and stigmatization of the ‘other’ that is, 
  labelling of the ‘other’ and eventually the separation of the ‘other’ from the rest 
  

  of ‘us’.

  The cumulative process of segregation of the ‘other’ is initiated by the political 
  leadership and disseminated through various means including addressing the 
  public at political rallies, teaching students at schools, universities and other 
  institutions of learning and indoctrinating the general public including party 
  militants through the radio and television broadcasts and dissemination of 
  disinformation and propaganda through print and electronic media. The ‘other’ 
  is presented by ‘us’ as dangerous, unreliable, and, like a dangerous virus, must 
  be destroyed.
  
  The separation of ‘us’ from the ‘other’ or ‘them’ is through racial or ethnic 
  segregation which may then result in internment, lynching, proscription or exile. 
  The process of separation begins when political leaders start to brand a section 
  of their own population as the ‘other’, ‘these people’, ‘enemy of the state’, ‘enemy 
  of the people’, ‘security risk’, ‘rebel sympathizer’, ‘accomplice’, ‘cockroaches’ 
  ‘Inyenzi’, or similar derogatory remarks. Cultural or racial branding like ‘atheist’, 
  ‘communist’, ‘Muslim’, ‘Christian’ or ‘white’, ‘black’ or ‘Arab’ have also been 
  known to have been used. The result of the separation of ‘us’ from the ‘other’ by 
  the political leadership is the process through which genocide ideology evolves. 
  
  These examples of the early warning signals at the formative stages of genocide 
  ideology are not exhaustive. Extremists are very resourceful people and are 
  constantly inventing new ways and vocabularies for identifying, stigmatising 
  and dehumanising the ‘other’. Once the ‘other’ is sufficiently stigmatised and 
  dehumanised, it becomes easy, and even necessary for ‘us’ to massacre ‘them’ 
  without any sense of guilt or remorse. Every African will recognize some or all 
  of these processes either in their own national histories or elsewhere. Yet, it is 
  not possible to construct the ‘other’ before establishing the identity of the ‘us’. 
  The political leadership ensures that the public understands that the ‘us’ is more 
  superior, intelligent and deserving of a better life, with higher dignity and respect 
  than the useless and backward ‘others’. 
  
  How can the law then deal with such situations and discourage or prevent the 
  use of political demagoguery? It is important to understand how the ‘ideology’ 
  of genocide becomes part of the dominant discourse of a society where the 
  ‘other’ is terrorized by the ‘us’ into silence. The hand of the state is never far 
  from any genocide or mass killings. The state plays a major role, either as 
  active participant or silent supporter, accomplice or collaborator. To commit 
  the crime of genocide, considering the scope and magnitude of mass murder 
  that is required for it, also needs a monopoly of arms, of propaganda, of terror, 
  of resources and of power. Only the state in modern history possesses such 
  resources. To that extent, without the participation, complicity, collaboration or 
  corroboration of the state, it is most unlikely that any group of individuals can 
  commit the crime of genocide. 
  
  (Adapted from: Chaste N. (2017). History for Rwanda schools learner’s Book: Kigali. 
  Fountain Publishers Rwanda Ltd Aegis trust, (2016). Education for sustainable peace in 
  

  Rwanda: Facilitators’ guide on sustainable peace: Kigali)

  • Comprehension questions

  1. Explain how genocide ideology begins.
  2. Who do you think would initiate the process of segregation in the people? 
  Explain 
  3. Justify why you think extremists are very resourceful people when it 
  comes to ideology.
  4. What would you recommend to the governments in order to fight against 
  

  genocide ideology?

  

  I. Find the meanings of the following words and phrases using 
  dictionaries and treasures 
  a. …peddling……. (paragraph one)
  b. … genocide ideology …. (paragraph one) 
  c. …..stigmatization….. (paragraph one)
  d. ……disseminated…..(paragraph two)
  e. …militants….(paragraph two)
  f. …..internment….(paragraph three)
  g. ….lynching ….(paragraph three)
  h. ….proscription….. (paragraph three)
  i. ……(cockroaches)……. (paragraph three)
  j. ……. derogatory…….(paragraph three)
  II. Using the words above, make correct and meaningful sentences.
  III. Conduct a survey about the effect of genocide ideology on socioeconomic development of a country and present it to the classroom
  4.4. Prevention of genocide 
  
  
  

  • Text: Prevention of genocide

  The prevention of the crime of genocide is intrinsically connected to the 
  prevention of crimes against humanity and war crimes. I have been referring to 
  these crimes as “atrocity crimes” as they reveal extreme forms of human rights 
  violations of a deeply violent and cruel nature, that typically, but not always, 
  occur on a massive scale. These crimes also tend to occur concurrently in the 
  same situation rather than as isolated events, as has been demonstrated by 
  their prosecution in both international and national jurisdictions. Consequently, 
  initiatives aiming at preventing one of the crimes will, in most circumstances, 
  also cover the others. 
  
  The duty to prevent genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes is well 
  established both under several treaties and under rules of customary international 
  law binding on all states. This duty was reiterated in the political commitment 
  made by all United Nations member states in 2005, under the umbrella of the 
  responsibility to protect principle. In paragraph 138 of the Outcome Document 
  of the 2005 World Summit, states recognized their primary responsibility to 
  protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes 
  against humanity, including their incitement, through appropriate and necessary 
  means. Alarmingly, most conflicts come hand in hand with allegations of serious 
  violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law 
  being committed. It is also well known that the risk of atrocity crimes dramatically 
  increases in an environment of conflict. Therefore, the prevention of conflict 
  contributes to the prevention of atrocity crimes and vice versa.
  
   However, genocide and crimes against humanity do not only occur during 
  armed conflict. According to international law, these crimes can also take place 
  in peacetime. A prevention agenda that strictly focuses on conflict prevention 
  risks overlooking these cases. Situations that place states under serious levels 
  of stress, including as a result of political instability, threats to the security of a 
  country or even volatility in economic or social affairs, can create environments 
  that are conducive to serious human rights violations and, in the most serious 
  cases, to atrocity crimes, even where there is no armed conflict. This report 
  looks into measures taken by states to comply with their international obligations 
  and responsibilities in this respect.
  
  Through their Ministries of Education, several states implement programmes for 
  human rights education in schools. As respect for human rights is at the core of 
  prevention of genocide and other atrocity crimes, these programmes contribute 
  in general to national atrocity prevention efforts. 
  
  

  Education can play an important role in preventing genocide and other atrocity 
  

  crimes by promoting pluralism, inclusion, and a greater understanding of 
  the value of and respect for diversity. Instilling these ideas in young people 
  
  contributes to creating a society that is resilient to violence and atrocity crimes 
  by mitigating long-term risk-factors such as enrooted discriminatory attitudes 
  and prejudice. To do so, education systems should reflect the ethnic, national 
  and cultural diversity of societies and set an example of inclusiveness in their 
  policies. They should also adopt and implement curricula and teaching methods 
  that emphasize respect for diversity, equal citizenship and the importance of 
  human rights, particularly non-discrimination.
  
  In addition, education can help foster a culture of prevention by teaching 
  new generations about past instances of systematic human rights violations, 
  including genocides or other atrocity crimes. Education encourages a better 
  understanding of past crimes, including the causes, dynamics and processes 
  that led to them, such as discrimination and dehumanization of the affected 
  group that preceded the violence. Education also examines the consequences 
  of atrocity crimes and invites new generations to reflect on their society and 
  inspire them to act against the warning signs. Education is further a powerful 
  tool to prevent incitement to violence that could lead to atrocity crimes. By 
  understanding these processes, and being able to identify early warning signs, 
  new generations will be able to prevent recurrence of similar violent events. In 
  this way, education strengthens societies’ resilience to atrocity crimes.
  
  For example, in Germany, teaching about the Holocaust is mandatory in secondary 
  schools and the education system also places emphasis on extracurricular 
  activities, including visits to historic locations and memorials as well as meeting 
  with survivors. In Croatia, Poland and Romania teaching about the Holocaust 
  and other past incidents of atrocity crimes is part of formal education in order to 
  teach future generations on the urgency of preventing genocide. 
  
  Incorporating instances of past atrocity crimes in educational materials shows 
  that a state acknowledges and recognizes the suffering of victims and of the 
  groups to which they belong. Education and the teaching of a recent history 
  of violence, war, conflict and oppression could become a tool to transform 
  relationships among individuals from different groups, making recurrence to 
  violence less likely. In Rwanda, the Education Board and the Ministry of Education 
  have integrated genocide studies in the curricula of its primary, secondary and 
  higher education institutions. The curriculum, developed in 2008, incorporated 
  the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, in which moderate Hutus and others 
  who opposed the genocide were also killed, while emphasizing the unifying and 
  inclusive qualities of nationality, citizenship and patriotism, instead of ethnicity. 
  In this way, focus is put on a collective identity as Rwandan rather than Hutu or 
  Tutsi.
  In conclusion, in relation to national security forces, establish transparent, 
  accountable and democratic civilian oversight, including on budgetary matters; 
  include staff from diverse population groups at all levels, promote professionalism 
  
  among uniformed personnel, create programmes to improve relations with 
  local communities; vet officers for participation in atrocity crimes and remove 
  identified perpetrators; provide training on international humanitarian law and 
  international human rights law and on the collection of evidence of atrocity 
  crimes; establish operating procedures for the use of force and firearms that 
  are compliant with international standards; and adopt international humanitarian 
  law and international human rights law standards in national military statutes 
  along with the creation of international disciplinary and other accountability 
  mechanisms to address violations committed by security forces personnel. 
  (Adapted from: S/RES/2150 (2014) on Threats to International Peace and Security. 
  UNESCO, 2017. Education about the Holocaust and preventing genocide: policy guide. 
  Pg.16. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has been 
  

  implementing the World Program for Human Rights Education since 2005.)

  • Comprehension questions

  1. As what are crimes against humanity and war crimes referred to in the 
  passage? Give reasons. 
  2. According to the law, who has the responsibility to prevent genocide 
  from the people? Explain. 
  3. Why do you think genocide and crimes against humanity do not only 
  occur during armed conflict?
  4. How would you explain the role of education in prevention of genocide 
  in the world?
  5. Suggest other important strategies that should be used to prevent 
  

  genocide.

  

  • Text: Peace building 

  Peace building is one of the core pillars at Never Again Rwanda. Under this 
  program, NAR works with youth and adults under various programs and projects 
  with the aim of establishing sustainable peace and prevention of future violence 
  through providing platforms for citizens, especially youth, to discuss root causes 
  of conflict and how to overcome them in their respective communities. Through 
  our interventions, we hope to enable diverse groups of community members, 
  and youth to openly discuss their sensitive past, current or emerging issues. 
  Based on this, psychosocial support groups (safe spaces for peace) are 
  created, where youth and community members from diverse backgrounds meet 
  to discuss their traumatic sensitive issues in order to overcome their trauma.
   They meet on a monthly basis to engage in dialogue about their individual 
  wounds. Each of these groups is comprised of 30 participants inclusive of both 
  male and female, though some groups are exclusively comprised of female 
  
  participants like those for specific victims of sexual violence namely; women who 
  were raped and children born out of rape during the 1994 genocide against the 
  Tutsis.
  We also aim to foster a society where youth participate actively in peace processes 
  by using critical thinking in open and safe spaces for dialogue and appreciate 
  diversity.
   We also use a method of instilling fundamental hope in adolescents 
  through ten-session workshops. Hope in its fullest sense encompasses the four 
  greatest needs of a human being. These include: Attachment (trust, openness 
  and connection), Survival (self-regulation and feelings of liberation), Mastery 
  (empowerment, ambition and ideals) and Spirituality (faith and higher support 
  for attachment, mastery and survival).
  Still recovering from one of the worst genocides of the 20th century infamous 
  for its speed, brutality, and intimacy of neighbours killing neighbours, Rwanda 
  offers an exceptional case study of how societal healing and reconciliation are 
  mutually reinforcing; despite their conceptual distinction. As stated in the report, 
  “Reconciliation is a relationship-building process, while healing is a process 
  aimed at the reduction of suffering”. Nevertheless, repairing relationships 
  and building trust help heal societal wounds, just as letting go of fear and 
  anger advances reconciliation. The fact that many genocide survivors and experpetrators continue to live in the same communities underscores the need for 
  healing to transcend the individual level into societal healing and reconciliation. 
  As expected, most actors affirm the profound need for healing work in all of 
  Rwanda’s provinces.
  
  Actors and academic experts agree that healing must begin with the individual 
  but it is imperative that the work of individual healing moves into a group and 
  community context in order to achieve societal healing. While the results of 
  this study demonstrate the many personal benefits of a group approach, which 
  include emotional and practical support, staving off feelings of isolation and the 
  validation of experience, just to name a few, the group approach also supports 
  reconciliation and peace building by rekindling mutual trust, promoting open and 
  honest communication, developing group decision-making skills and restoring 
  interpersonal relationships. Several initiatives engage in socioeconomic activities 
  that provide material support to individuals while also promoting positive, social 
  interaction among community members.
  
  In order to address conflicts and champion for peace regionally, we implement a 
  great lakes program, which uses cross border dialogues as vital avenues to talk 
  about any challenges to peace. The dialogues are made up of members from 
  Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo. 
  (Adapted from: http://neveragainrwanda.org/peace-building/)
  
  

  • Comprehension questions 

  1. According to the text, what is the aim of never again Rwanda’s programs 
  and projects? 
  2. Why do you think the youth should be involved in peace building 
  programs?
  3. Explain the methods used by never again Rwanda in peace building 
  campaign.
  4. Justify the relevance of group approach when healing people’s wounds 
  left by genocide.
  5. Examine the achievements of never again Rwanda within the country and 
  the region
  
  
  Vocabulary, sentence construction, conducting a survey and debate
  I. Find the meanings of the words below using dictionaries and 
  thesaurus.
  a. ……platforms….. (paragraph one)
  b. …….self-regulation……(paragraph three) 
  c. …….. transcend……. (paragraph four)
  d. ………. healing…….(paragraph five)
  e. ……… rekindling……. (paragraph five)
  f. …….. avenues………(paragraph six)
  II. Using the words above, make different meaningful sentences.
  III. Conduct a survey on the role of the youth in building sustainable 
  peace.
  IV. Debate on the following motion: “Never again clubs are considerably 
  

  necessary to the youth rather than to adults in countries like Rwanda”

  4.6. Ways of addressing the consequences of genocide

  
  

  • Text: Addressing the consequences of genocide
  

  The government of national unity alongside other partners and citizens has 
  actively led in efforts aimed at addressing the consequences of genocide. 
  Various practical measures have been adopted to reach that goal. Some of 
  these measures include the following:
  
  Gacaca Courts were used to find out what happened during Genocide against 
  the Tutsi. These courts enabled Rwandans to come together and tell the truth 
  about what really happened in 1994. This laid the foundation for peace and 
  reconciliation. A total of 1,958,634 genocide-related cases were tried through 
  Gacaca Courts. They helped speed up genocide trials and strengthened unity 
  and reconciliation by finding out the truth about genocide and putting an end to 
  the culture of impunity.
  The Rwandan society was gravely affected by the genocide. Its social structures 
  were completely destroyed. Social reconstruction means rebuilding the social 
  structures that were once destroyed. Reconciliation was very much needed in 
  order to regain social cohesion. Reconciliation refers to the process of making 
  parties in a conflict mend and then going on improving relations with each other. 
  The two parties, after reconciling, re-establish friendly relations having put aside 
  their differences.
  
  A third party usually facilitates reconciliation by bringing the two parties in 
  conflict to an agreement. Through the third party, the aggrieved parties open up 
  for dialogue to arrive at a peaceful reconciliation. Reconciliation is an interactive
  process that requires a cooperative effort between the parties involved. 
  Individuals or groups are encouraged to talk about the painful experiences they 
  went through during the genocide. This enables healing to take root among 
  the survivors and perpetrators alike. The government can do this by promoting 
  positive moral values and peaceful coexistence through policies and practices. 
  The process of reconciliation includes the following steps: acknowledgement, 
  apology, forgiveness, restitution and redress among others.
  
  As far as acknowledgement is concerned, the perpetrators should acknowledge 
  wrongdoing and apologise to the victim group. This creates room for dialogue, 
  speeds up the reconciliation process and removes fear and suspicion between 
  the two groups. Apology is important towards attaining reconciliation and 
  repairing broken relationships. It serves to inspire forgiveness and reunion 
  between the perpetrator and victim group. Forgiveness greatly contributes to the 
  reconciliation process. The wronged party should be able to forgive. Forgiveness 
  enables the wrongdoer and the wronged one to move on. Restitution means 
  giving back what was wrongly taken away from the victims by the perpetrators. 
  As for redress, the perpetrator group should do something to correct wrongs 
  

  they had done to the victim group.

  
  

  Above all, peace building and benevolence are strong weapons in the process 
  of addressing consequences of genocide. Genocide begins in the minds of the 
  people; therefore, it is also in the people’s minds that defences of peace must 
  be constructed. Peace building involves various efforts that usually begin by 
  creating a culture of peace which is accompanied by harmony, cooperation and 
  coexistence among the people. A peaceful environment gives rise to behaviour 
  that respects life and human dignity. Peace building promotes observance of 
  human rights and fundamental freedom. It rejects violence and commits to 
  principles of freedom, justice, solidarity, and understanding between people. 
  Peace building finally encourages open communication, cooperation, harmony 
  and observance of the rule of law.
  
  Benevolence refers to the willingness to help, being generous or performing 
  acts of kindness. Human beings are usually capable of expressing benevolence 
  regardless of whether they are victims or perpetrators of violence. It involves 
  development of empathetic feelings, which leads an individual to take 
  responsibility for assisting victims. People who have suffered usually care about 
  other peoples’ suffering, especially if they have been involved in a protective
  and healing processes. This involves having been helped by others or acting 
  on other peoples’ behalf at the time of suffering. Therefore, the victim group 
  reaches out to assist other groups undergoing similar situations to them. 
  (Adapted from General Studies and Communication Skills for Rwandan Schools, book 6, 
  Moran Publishers Limited)
  
  • Comprehension questions
  
  1. Appreciate the contribution of the Gacaca courts in addressing the 
  consequences of the genocide against the Tutsi.
  2. Explain the term reconciliation.
  3. Evaluate the help of a third party in the reconciliation process.
  4. How can the government play the role of third party in reconciling people 
  after genocide?
  5. State and explain 5 steps of the reconciliation process as shown in the 
  above passage.
  6. Discuss efforts that should be made to promote peace building in a postgenocide community.
  7. What do you understand by benevolence in the process of addressing 
  

  the aftermath of genocide?

  

  Vocabulary, Sentence construction, summary writing and research 
  I. Vocabulary
  Using a dictionary or a thesaurus, explain the following terms used in the 
  above passage
  1. …reconciliation… (paragraph two)
  2. …impunity… (paragraph two)
  3. …cohesion… (paragraph three)
  4. …interactive… (paragraph four)
  5. …restitution… (paragraph five)
  6. …redress… (paragraph five)
  7. …benevolence… (paragraph six)
  8. …coexistence… (paragraph six)
  9. …empathetic… (paragraph seven)
  10. …protective… (paragraph seven)
  II. Sentence construction
  Use the above words to make correct and meaningful sentences.
  III. Summary writing
  In not more than 100 words, summarize the text: “Addressing the 
  consequences of genocide” 
  IV. Research and project
  Conduct a research on the consequences of the 1994 genocide against 
  the Tutsi. Devise ways that would prevent the genocide from happening. 
  Then work on a project to set strategies that will help reconstruct the 
  

  Rwandan society

  4.7. Language structure: Past simple tense, subordinating 

  conjunctions and phrasal prepositions

  1. Past simple tense

  Exercise

  Read the following paragraphs extracted from the text and identify different 
  tenses used. 
  Laue (1993:256) defined conflict as ‘escalated natural competition between 
  two or more parties about scarce resources, power and prestige’.
  
  The crime of genocide since it was initially formulated in 1948, in article 2 of 
  the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, the 
  definition of ‘genocide’ has remained substantially the same. Article 6 of the 
  Rome Statute borrows from this convention and for example, defines the crime 
  of genocide as “any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in 
  whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such.
  
  The term ‘genocide’ was coined by a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael 
  Lemkin who formed the word by combining the Greek word for race or tribe 
  (Geno) with the Latin word for killing (cide). In proposing this new term, Lemkin 
  had in mind “a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of 
  essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilating 
  

  the groups themselves.”

  Notes

  I. Past simple tense: 

  This tense is usually used to:
  • Describe events completed in the past at time indicated by such adverbs 
  of time as yesterday, ago, last month, last week and last year.
  Examples:
  a) Jimmy didn’t call me during memorial week!
  b) Mary went to Huye District three years ago.
  c) Sarah arrived in Kigali a week ago.
  • Express habits in past
  Examples:
  
  

  a) Robert went to Kigali memorial site every Friday.
  b) They sang different songs regularly during commemoration week.
  Such past habits are usually described in simple past with adverbs of frequency 
  like: always, never, frequently, sometimes, generally,…
  • Express actions that happened over a long time in the past.
  Examples:
  a) The orphan girl struggled and became rich.
  b) The perpetrators united with their neighbours. 
  The simple past is also used after conditional phrases such as if only, as if, as 
  though, wish, etc.
  Examples:
  a) If I were the leader during genocide against Tutsi in Rwanda, I would 
  support many people. 
  b) He spoke to me as if he were my boss.
  c) I wish I had wings I would fly far away.
  

  II. Spelling of regular verbs in past simple

  
  

  Exercise
  

  1. Use the correct past simple tense of the verb in brackets. 
  a. The genocide that___________ (occur) in Germany and its occupied 
  territories, It __________ (target) Jews of whom approximately 6,000,000 
  were killed by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime.
  b. The government of Rwanda__________ (show) that it was possible to 
  bring about reconciliation in a country. 
  c. Peter and his entire family__________ (be) executed during the Genocide. 
  d. RPF ____________ (stop) people who were killing innocents during 1994 
  genocide against Tutsi.
  e. The Security Council ____________ (create) the International Criminal 
  Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by the Resolution 955 of November 8th, 1994.
  2. Using the past simple tense, write a paragraph talking about the role of 
  

  youth in preventing genocide ideology.

  Notes

  A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects an independent clause to 
  a dependent clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. 
  In other words, it does not need any additional information to operate as a 
  sentence. The sentence “The student failed the test” is an example of an 
  independent clause.
  A dependent clause adds extra information to the main clause. These clauses 
  cannot stand by themselves and their meaning is dependent on the independent 
  clause. They are not complete sentences. For example, “because she didn’t 
  study” is not a complete sentence.
  However, combine the two clauses, and we have “The student failed the test 
  because she didn’t study.” A complete idea has been expressed and enough 
  information has been presented to fully explain the thought. What joined the two 
  clauses? It is the word “because.” And there we have our first subordinating 
  conjunction.
  Here are examples of other subordinating conjunctions and their uses;
  • Although
  Although—means “in spite of the fact that”:
  Example: 
  1) Although it was raining, I ran home.
  2) He came to work although he felt sick
  3) Although my mum told me to come home early, I stayed out late.
  • After
  “After” shows “subsequently to the time when”:
  Examples: 
  1) Call me after you arrive at the station.
  2) We couldn’t see the film after the electricity went out.
  3) I always tell my daughter that she can have dessert after she eats her 
  dinner.
  • Before
  “Before” shows “earlier than the time that”:
  Examples: 
  1) He had written a book on history of Rwanda before he died.
  2) Before he contacted me, I was going to call him.
  3) I need to finish the report before the manager arrives from Paris.
  • Because
  “Because” means “for the reason that”:
  Examples: 
  1) He became rich because he was smart and worked hard.
  2) They stopped building the house because it was raining hard.
  • If
  “If” means “in the event that”:
  Examples: 
  1) If it rains, it will be difficult to go to the memorial site.
  2) If I receive a promotion, you will be the first to help orphans.
  • Since
  “Since” means “from the time when”:
  Examples: 
  1) I’ve been a dancer since I was young.
  2) Since Paul graduated, he has been helping genocide survivors.
  3) This shop has been refurbished three times since 1994 genocide against 
  the Tutsi in Rwanda happened.
  • Until
  “Until” means “up to the time that”:
  Examples: 
  1) Don’t do anything until I come back.
  2) She didn’t know she was a talented singer until she sang in the school 
  concert.
  3) They won’t allow us to start until everyone arrives.
  • Unless
  “Unless” means “except, on the condition”:
  Examples: 
  1) You will not pass the exam unless you work harder.
  2) I will not tell you anything unless you tell me what you know about my 
  parents’ death.
  3) Unless you use dialogues, you will not easily improve your peace club.
  Exercise
  a) I visit our memorial site _________ a month. (once, whenever, wherever)
  b) This is the place _________ we stayed last time we visited. (where, when, 
  how)
  c) _________ you win first place, you will receive a prize. (wherever, if, unless)
  d) You won’t pass the test _________ you study. (when, if, unless)
  e) I could not get a seat, _________ I came early. (as, though, when)
  f) We are leaving Wednesday _________ or not it rains. (if, whether, though)
  g) Pay attention to your work _________ you will not make mistakes. (so that, 
  unless, or)
  h) The musicians delivered a rousing performance _________ they had 
  rehearsed often. (though, as, once)
  

  i) She’s honest _________ everyone trusts her. (if, so, when)

  IV. Phrasal prepositions

  Notes

  Phrasal prepositions are grouped into phrases of three or more words that 
  could include adverbs, verbs and other words that function as one phrasal 
  preposition. All words are separated to form one phrasal preposition. Phrasal 
  prepositions include: in addition to, in spite of, on account of, as soon as, as 
  opposed to, as far as, in reference to, on top of, with the exception of, in front 
  

  of, as long as etc.

  Examples of phrasal prepositions
  
  1) They told me that in addition to all the work done I also needed to finish 
  the project.
  2) Rafael is playing tennis very well; he’s surely on top of his game at the 
  moment.
  3) As opposed to seeking advice from your sister, why don’t you talk to 
  your close friend Harriet?
  4) I was speaking in reference to the climate change issues.
  5) I stand here in front of you all to demonstrate my qualities as a great 
  leader.
  6) On account of the new law enacted by the minister, our society is now 
  able to declare their own taxes.
  7) I’ll tell you once more, as long as I run this board I am the man in charge.
  

  Exercise

  Exercise 

  Write a paragraph talking about how to prevent genocide and how to promote 

  peace building using prepositional phrases. 

  4.8. Spelling and pronunciation

  
  

  A. Practice the pronunciation of the words below. Pay attention to where you 

  put stress. You can use a dictionary where necessary. 

  a) Genocide

  b) Victims

  c) Perpetrators

  d) Survivors

  e) Reconciliation

  f) Peace

  g) Violence

  h) conflict

  B. Match the words with their corresponding phonetic transcriptions

  

  

  4.9. End unit assessment 

  I. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
  1. _________ 1994 genocide against Tutsi, the government spent many 
  efforts in unity and reconciliation programs. 
  a) After
  b) Although
  c) Before
  d) Even if
  2. I don’t want to go to the movies _____________ I hate seeing people 
  killing each other.
  a) Although
  b) Because
  c) Whenever
  d) So that
  3. I like to give my support; ___________ there is a fundraising campaign 
  to help orphans. 
  a) Whenever
  b) Whose
  c) After
  d) If
  4. ___________ spring arrives, we have to be prepared for more snow.
  a) Because
  b) Until
  c) Although
  

  d) Now that

  5. _____________ the alarm goes off, I hit the snooze button.
  a) As soon as
  b) Because
  c) Before
  Now that 
  II. Complete the following sentences using phrasal prepositions given 
  below.
  1. ……………….. his hard work, he failed the test.
  a) By means of
  b) In spite of
  c) Because of
  2. ………………… doctors, smoking can cause cancer.
  a) In accordance with
  b) According to
  c) On behalf of
  3. I am standing here ………………… my colleagues.
  a) instead of
  b) by means of
  c) on behalf of
  4. The trains arrived late ……………….. heavy rains.
  a) in spite of
  b) on behalf of
  c) because of
  5. I stayed in bed all day ……………… going to work.
  a) in addition to
  b) in spite of
  c) instead of
  6. Thoughts are conveyed ………………… words.
  a) on account of
  b) by means of
  c) by virtue of
  7. Gandhi gave up his legal practice ………………… his country.
  a) by virtue of
  b) for the sake of
  c) on behalf of
  8. ……………….. his own family, he has to support his brothers.
  a) In addition to
  b) Instead of
  c) In spite of
  9. There is a school …………………. my house.
  a) front of
  b) in front of
  c) in front
  10. I would like to have lemon juice ………………… coffee.
  a) Instead
  b) instead of
  c) in spite of
  III. Complete the following story with the correct tenses from the brackets. 
  Last summer, my family and I 1. -------------( spend) our holidays in Germany, 
  an amazing country. The city 2. --------------( be) very big and there 3. ---
  -----------(be) lots of things to see and do. We 4. ------------(stay) at a 
  comfortable hotel and 5. -------------(go) swimming every day at the beautiful 
  beaches…I 6. ------------ (learn a lot there! We also 7. --------------(visit) 
  the memorial site. There 8. ------------( be) various historical information 
  about Holocaust genocide. The following day, We also 11. ----------- (visit) 
  many interesting sights, like the archaeological museum and other prehistoric 
  settlements, which I 12. --------------- find) pretty impressive. I also 13. ---
  ------------ ( love) the local people. They 14. ------------- (be) very friendly 
  and welcoming! We 15. ------------ (have) a great time in Germany as far as 
  understanding their history was concerned and I would really love to go there 
  again someday!
  IV. Write an article about the role of RPF in the achievements of 
  Rwandan government on socio-economic development after 1994 
  genocide against Tutsi. Pay attention to the use past simple tense and 
  

  subordinating conjunctions.

  
  

• UNIT 5 STUDY SKILLS AND WRITING

  Key Unit Competence: 

  To use language learnt in the context of study skills and writing.

  

  1. Do you think experienced teachers can have difficulties giving 
  instructions in classroom? Justify your answer. 
  2. What should students do when they have not understood an 
  instruction in class?
  3. How can one make notes for revision?
  

  4. Outline at least 4 study skills you know.

  5.1 Instructions for working in class.

  
  

  
  

  • Text: Good instruction-giving in the second-language classroom

  Imagine you are attending a seminar. The facilitator gives instructions, and you 
  have a vague notion of what you are supposed to do, but you do not want to ask 
  the facilitator to clarify because you are sure you are the only one who has not 
  understood. After the facilitator tells you to start working, you turn to the person 
  next to you and ask, “What are we supposed to do?” That person says, “I’m not 
  sure. I thought you would know.” Soon you realize that almost everyone in the 
  room is confused, while the facilitator is standing behind the lectern wondering 
  why no one has started engaging in the activity she just explained. 
  
  Most of us can recall an experience where the facilitator delivered instructions, 
  but we were unclear about what we were expected to do. And, as student 
  teachers, most of you may have had experiences of giving instructions that 
  were misunderstood or incomprehensible to your learners. While occasional 
  foibles in giving instructions are understandable, mastering instruction-giving 
  is a fundamental aspect of good classroom teaching practice. Instructions and 
  their delivery can be the determining factors as to whether a lesson succeeds or 
  fails. Learners see the ability to explain things well as one of the most important 
  

  qualities of a good teacher.

  Instruction-giving has a direct effect on learning; a lesson or activity becomes 
  chaotic and fails when students do not understand what they are supposed 
  to do. Nonetheless, good instruction-giving is a challenge for both native 
  and non-native language teachers, as well as for both seasoned and novice 
  teachers. However, instruction-giving is a skill that is sometimes neglected for 
  pre-service and in-service teachers in teacher-training programs. New teachers 
  might assume that it is a skill that will be naturally mastered; more experienced 
  teachers might assume that it is a skill they have already mastered. For all 
  teachers, however, instruction-giving is an area that deserves attention and 
  practice, as it has a major impact on how well students are able to carry out 
  activities and, as a result, how well they learn.
  
  After year 3, you may be hired to teach in upper primary and thus be obliged 
  to teach in English. In this case, Total Physical Response (TPR) can help you. 
  TPR is a method of language teaching developed by James Asher where the 
  teacher gives a command and the students perform the action. In short, TPR is 
  based on the coordination of language and physical movement. To apply it, you 
  can first give students a hand-out with a list of common instructional commands 
  used throughout the course, such as take out a pen or pencil, Turn to page…, 
  take out a pen or pencil, take out a piece of paper, write your name on the paper, 
  open your books, close your books, put your books away, stand up, sit down, 
  find a partner, put your desks face-to-face, repeat after me, raise your hand, 
  work in groups, choose a group leader, you have 5 minutes, get ready to report 
  in English etc.
  After demonstrating the actions and going over the list with students, you should 
  give commands and have the students perform them. Starting the course with 
  TPR for common instructions helps students understand typical classroom 
  language, which has a positive impact on classroom management. Remember, 
  good instruction-giving begins in the preparation stage. Although teachers 
  may feel they can easily improvise, instructions are often not as clear to their 
  students as they are to themselves. A good way to make sure your instructions 
  for an activity are clear and concise is to write them out as you develop your 
  lesson plan. 
  (Adapted from Good Instruction-Giving in the Second-Language Classroom by JIMALEE 
  Sowell- ‎2017)
  • Comprehension questions
  1. What do you understand by “you have a vague notion of what you are 
  supposed to do”?
  2. Referring to paragraph one, explain why some students don’t ask when 
  they have not understood instructions. 
  3. How do you think students would judge a teacher whose instructions are 
  not easily understandable?
  4. Discuss effects of instruction-giving on a lesson or activity.
  5. Can good instruction-giving be a challenge to native language teachers? 
  Explain.
  6. What do you understand by “Total Physical Response”?
  7. List eighteen common instructional commands mentioned in the fourth 
  

  paragraph. 

  

  Vocabulary, paragraph and composition writing.
  I. Vocabulary
  Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings of the 
  words/phrases in the table below. Copy the table into your book and fill in 
  

  the blank spaces.

  

  II. Paragraph writing.

  In one paragraph, detail characteristics of a good classroom instruction.

  III. Composition writing.

  Suppose you are going to teach English in primary one. Step by step 

  explain how you would give instructions to primary one learners. 

  5.2 Reading extracts from literature.

  
  

  The extract tells us about Pip, an orphan who is about seven years old. While 
  visiting the graves of his parents and siblings, the boy encounters an escaped 
  convict in the village churchyard.
  ‘Hold your noise!’ cried a terrible voice, as a man started up from among the 
  graves at the side of the church porch. ‘Keep still, you little devil, or I’ll cut your 
  throat!’ A fearful man, all in coarse grey, with a great iron on his leg. A man with 
  no hat, and with broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. A man 
  who had been soaked in water, and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones, 
  and cut by flints, and stung by nettles, and torn by briars; who limped, and 
  shivered, and glared, and growled; and whose teeth chattered in his head as he 
  

  seized me by the chin.

  ‘O! Don’t cut my throat, sir,’ I pleaded in terror. ‘Pray don’t do it, sir.’ 
  ‘Tell us your name!’ said the man. ‘Quick!’ 
  ‘Pip, sir.’
  ‘Once more,’ said the man, staring at me. ‘Give it mouth!’ 
  ‘Pip. Pip, sir.’ 
  ‘Show us where you live,’ said the man. ‘Point out the place!’ 
  I pointed to where our village lay, on the flat in-shore among the alder-trees and 
  pollards, a mile or more from the church.
  The man, after looking at me for a moment, turned me upside down, and emptied 
  my pockets. There was nothing in them but a piece of bread. When the church 
  came to itself, — for he was so sudden and strong that he made it go head 
  over heels before me, and I saw the steeple under my feet, — when the church 
  came to itself, I say, I was seated on a high tombstone, trembling while he ate 
  the bread ravenously. 
  ‘You young dog,’ said the man, licking his lips, ‘what fat cheeks you ha’ got.’ 
  I believe they were fat, though I was at that time undersized for my years, and 
  not strong.
  ‘Darn Me if I couldn’t eat em,’ said the man, with a threatening shake of his head, 
  ‘and if I hadn’t half a mind to ’t!’
  I earnestly expressed my hope that he wouldn’t, and held tighter to the tombstone 
  on which he had put me; partly, to keep myself upon it; partly, to keep myself 
  from crying. 
  ‘Now look here!’ said the man. ‘Where’s your mother?’ 
  ‘There, sir!’ said I. 
  He started, made a short run, and stopped and looked over his shoulder. 
  ‘There, sir!’ I timidly explained. ‘Also Georgiana. That’s my mother.’ 
  ‘Oh!’ said he, coming back. ‘And is that your father along your mother?’ 
  ‘Yes, sir,’ said I; ‘him too; late of this parish.’
  ‘Ha!’ he muttered then, considering. ‘Who d’ye live with, - supposin’ you’re kindly 
  let to live, which I han’t made up my mind about?’ 
  ‘My sister, sir, — Mrs Joe Gargery, — wife of Joe Gargery, the blacksmith, sir.’ 
  

  ‘Blacksmith, eh?’ said he. And looked down at his leg.

  After darkly looking at his leg and me several times, he came closer to my 
  tombstone, took me by both arms, and tilted me back as far as he could hold 
  me; so that his eyes looked most powerfully down into mine, and mine looked 
  most helplessly up into his. 
  ‘Now lookee here,’ he said, ‘the question being whether you’re to be let to live. 
  You know what a file is?’ 
  ‘Yes, sir.’ 
  ‘And you know what wittles is?’ 
  ‘Yes, sir.’
  After each question he tilted me over a little more, so as to give me a greater 
  sense of helplessness and danger. 
  ‘You get me a file.’ He tilted me again. ‘And you get me wittles.’ He tilted me 
  again. 
  ‘You bring ‘em both to me.’ He tilted me again. ‘Or I’ll have your heart and liver 
  out.’
  He tilted me again. 
  I was dreadfully frightened, and so giddy that I clung to him with both hands, and 
  said, ‘If you would kindly please to let me keep upright, sir, perhaps I shouldn’t 
  be sick, and perhaps I could attend more.’ 
  He gave me a most tremendous dip and roll, so that the church jumped over its 
  own weathercock. Then, he held me by the arms, in an upright position on the 
  top of the stone, and went on in these fearful terms:
  ‘You bring me, to-morrow morning early, that file and them whittles. You bring 
  the lot to me, at that old Battery over yonder. You do it, and you never dare to 
  say a word or dare to make a sign concerning your having seen such a person 
  as me, or any person sumever, and you shall be let to live. You fail, or you go 
  from my words in any partickler, no matter how small it is, and your heart and 
  your liver shall be tore out, roasted, and ate. Now, I ain’t alone, as you may think 
  I am. There’s a young man hid with me, in comparison with which young man I 
  am an Angel. 
  That young man hears the words I speak. That young man has a secret way 
  peculiar to himself, of getting at a boy, and at his heart, and at his liver. It is in 
  vain for a boy to attempt to hide himself from that young man. A boy may lock 
  his door, may be warm in bed, may tuck himself up, may draw the clothes over 
  his head, may think himself comfortable and safe, but that young man will softly 
  

  creep and creep his way to him and tear him open. I am keeping that young man

  from harming you at the present moment, with great difficulty. I find it very hard 
  to hold that young man off of your inside. Now, what do you say?’ 
  I said that I would get him the file, and I would get him those broken bits of food 
  I could, and I would come to him at the Battery, early in the morning. 
  ‘Say Lord strike you dead if you don’t!’ said the man. 
  I said so, and he took me down. 
  (Adapted from Charles Dickens’ (1861). Great Expectations. London: Chapman and Hall.)
  • Comprehension questions 
  1. Describe the man who is talked about in this extract.
  2. Describe the character of the narrator in this extract. 
  3. Where does the conversation between Pip and the escapee take place? 
  4. How does the escapee end up snatching Pip’s loaf of bread? 
  5. The man told Pip that he was with a young man who was more awesome 
  

  than him. Do you think he was telling the truth? Explain

  

  Vocabulary, paragraph and composition writing.

  I. Vocabulary
  In full sentences, explain the following words as used in the above passage. 
  a. ... soaked... 
  b. ...smothered... 
  c. ...rag... 
  d. ...briar.../ (brier) 
  e. ...steeple... 
  f. ...tombstone... 
  g. ... tilted... 
  h. ...clung... 
  i. ...tremendous... 
  j. ...peculiar... 
  II. Paragraph writing 
  In two paragraphs, explain what Pip’s reaction towards the escapee in the 
  above extract reveal about his character.
  

  III. Composition writing.

  a. Write a 6 paragraph composition, describing the character of the 

  escapee in this extract. 

  b. Pip almost got killed as he visited the graveyard where his parents and 

  relatives are buried. Write a short composition explaining whether visiting 

  our ancestor’s graveyard is or it is not a worthwhile practice.

  c. Step by step, explain how you would have reacted if you were in Pip’s 

  situation.

  5.3 Describing different study skills

  
  

  
  

   Text: Basic study skills

  Acquiring good study habits can make you a more effective learner in school 
  and at work. The key to becoming an effective student is learning how to study 
  smarter, not harder. This becomes more and more important as you advance in 
  your education. An hour or two of studying a day is usually sufficient to make it 
  through in high school with satisfactory grades, but you can’t make it if you don’t 
  know how to study smarter. Basic study skills include: elaborative interrogation, 
  self-Explanation, practice testing, distributed practice and Interleaved Practice. 
  Elaborative interrogation is a great way to learn. In elaborative interrogation 
  you ask yourself questions. Little kids know this intuitively, as they run around 
  asking “Why, why, why?” Asking yourself questions like “why is this fact true?” 
  aids learning. The main reason asking why questions seems to work is that it 
  encourages you to integrate the new fact with things you already know. Doing 
  

  so improves your memory for the new fact by giving you more eagerness to find

  The idea behind self-explanation as a reading strategy is to pause from reading 
  your textbook periodically and explain to yourself what it means to you. You can 
  do this after a section of text, or when studying an example problem. When 
  trying to self-explain, you may find that you need to look back over parts of the 
  text to fully understand what’s being said. Self-explanation encourages you to 
  make inferences based on what you are reading. You don’t just summarize the 
  text, but say a little more than what was in it. As you try to explain, you also 
  identify problems and so revise your explanation. These serve to enrich and 
  repair your understanding.
  Actively testing your memory improves learning far more than passively reviewing 
  material. Tests are not just for evaluation. Testing improves learning by exercising 
  memory retrieval. When you answer a test question, you have to actively search 
  your long-term memory. Doing so creates more and better pathways to the 
  answer. This makes the answer easier to find the next time around. Scientists 
  sometimes call it, “retrieval practice.” Practice testing is easy to do. You can do 
  it by answering questions from your textbook or past papers. 
  Distributed practice helps you do better since it allows you to space your 
  studying out over the time you have. Do a little at a time over several study 
  sessions. If you have a test coming up tomorrow, you should not try to cram 
  everything in one session. Successful students typically space their work out 
  over shorter periods of time and rarely try to cram all of their studying into just 
  one night. One reason distributed practice aids learning is that you have to restart your memory for the topic during each study session. This technique is 
  best when combined with practice testing. 
  The idea behind interleaved practice is that you are better off mixing some area 
  problems with some perimeter problems when you study. When studying math, 
  for instance, you need to learn a few different kinds of formulas. You may learn 
  one equation to compute the area of a circle and learn another to figure out the 
  perimeter. Interleaving is a process where students mix, or interleave multiple 
  subjects or topics to improve learning. 
  In a nutshell, the above mentioned five study skills all work quite well. There are 
  many other study skills but these five ones are more strongly recommended 
  than others. These techniques will not be a panacea for improving achievement 
  for all students, and perhaps obviously, they will benefit only students who are 
  motivated and capable of using them. Nevertheless, when used properly, they 
  may produce meaningful gains in performance in the classroom, on achievement 
  tests, and on many other tasks encountered across the life span. 
  

  Adapted from Five Study Skills to Accelerate Your Learning by WINSTON SIECK

  • Comprehension questions

  1. What is the key to becoming an effective student as described in the first 
  paragraph?
  2. What do you understand by “to study smarter, not harder”?
  3. Outline the five study skills as mentioned in the passage.
  4. To what extent is elaborative interrogation as a study skill is important?
  5. Appreciate the role of self-explanation in studying.
  6. If you have a test coming up tomorrow, should you try to cram everything 
  

  in one session? Justify your answer

  

  Vocabulary and composition writing.
  I. Vocabulary
  Explain the following words as used in the above passage. 
  a. Satisfactory
  b. Eagerness
  c. Inferences
  d. Repair
  e. Retrieval
  f. Long-term memory
  g. Pathways
  h. Cram
  i. Panacea
  j. Encountered
  II. Composition writing
  Write a short composition explaining how you use distributed practice as 
  a study skill. 
  
  5.4 Writing compositions
  
  • Text: Aspects of a Composition
  When we write, our objective is to communicate with the reader. Your 
  composition should therefore convey a clear message to the readers. Any piece 
  of composition is made of three main parts: 
  a. Introduction 
  An introduction is always intended to draw the reader’s attention to the whole 
  composition. It could begin with a general statement or question, sometimes 
  called the thesis statement or thesis question. This should be followed by a 
  summarised presentation of the main point with which to develop the body of 
  the composition. The introduction should also set the stage for the writer to 
  guide the reader into the gist of the topic. An introduction should be concluded 
  with a transition sentence that leads the reader into the body of the composition.
  b. Body (Argument) 
  The body of a written piece is where one elaborates, defends, and expands 
  the main points stated in the introduction. The body should support the main 
  argument with supporting evidence or examples to illustrate the point. 
  The body of the composition is always made of different paragraphs based on the 
  number of points making the topic. Each point takes an independent paragraph. 
  As one makes or argues a case, it is better to ensure that the strongest point is 
  presented as early as possible. 
  c. Conclusion 
  A conclusion is normally a single and concise paragraph in which a final appeal 
  to the reader is made. It is a finishing, all-encompassing statement that wraps 
  up the whole presentation in a powerful statement. The writer is expected to 
  express his or her final opinion on the matter discussed. The purpose of the 
  conclusion is to leave the reader with an idea or thought that captures the 
  essence of the body while provoking further reflection and consideration.
  • Comprehension questions
  1. What are the characteristics of a good composition?
  2. Outline the parts of a composition.
  3. How should one start his/her composition?
  4. In which part should the writer support his/her main argument with 
  supporting evidence or examples?
  

  5. How should one conclude his/her composition?

  

  Writing a composition.
  I. Write a 300 word composition explaining how a student should 
  prepare his/her exam. 
  II. Suppose that you are going to teach in a second language and you 
  expect learners not to be able to decode instructions. Write a 250 
  word composition detailing how you would help them.
  III. Write a 300 word composition explaining whether failing an exam 
  

  means that a student is not intelligent.

  5.5. Making notes

  
  

  Note making is not just about writing down everything you hear or read. It is a 
  process of reviewing, connecting and synthesising ideas from your lessons or 
  readings. In secondary schools, students are expected to become proficient
  note-takers, and those notes are essential study tools that they use to review 
  material for quizzes and tests. Note-taking should augment student learning and 
  help students recall difficult concepts more easily and remember what teachers 
  teach. Good note-taking strategies that will help you retain what you learn and 
  study smarter include: Recording meaningful facts, grouping ideas, thinking 
  quality over quantity, following along in the book if appropriate, indicating date 
  and title notes, highlighting the clues and saying it another way.
  
  Recording meaningful facts is very useful while taking notes. The goal of notetaking should be to summarize the most important parts of what a teacher 
  shares during a lesson: dates, names, places, formulas or anything else that is 
  emphasized. It’s good to write lots of notes, but you should focus on recording 
  points that seem important, recurring themes or other details that are critical to 
  their overall understanding.
  
  Grouping ideas is equally a good strategy since lots of raw notes may not make 
  studying easier for a student. It’s a good idea to leave space on the left- or righthand side of the notebook for condensing and recapping concepts. During 
  
  class or while reading a book, you can write down any main ideas on the side of 
  notes, or at a minimum, subtitles of what was discussed or read
  . 
  Apart from grouping ideas, another strategy you need to think of is thinking 
  quality over quantity. New secondary school students tend to think good notetaking means recording everything the teacher says. It’s a common challenge
  for students: focusing so intently on taking notes that they forget to listen and 
  process information enough to be thoughtful about what they record in their 
  notebooks. While taking notes you should concentrate on what the teacher 
  wants the class to know. That may very well mean students’ pencils should not 
  be moving during the entire class period, and that’s perfectly fine.
  
  Following along in the book if appropriate is another advantageous strategy. 
  When the teacher focuses on a particular chapter or topic, it can be helpful 
  later on to have page numbers to refer to for clarification or more information. 
  Secondary school students should ask at the beginning of the period if the 
  teacher is referencing textbook material.
  
  The strategy of indicating date and title notes is a minor thing but it can make a 
  huge difference: labelling notes will prove helpful when it comes time to study 
  for a test. Teens should always put the date, class topic(s) discussed at the top 
  of their notes. 
  
  In addition to the above mentioned strategies, highlighting the clues is a strategy 
  that can help you retain the most important information. Teachers usually point 
  out information that students need to know and it is a smart idea to call out 
  these cues in notes. Secondary school students should listen for phrases like 
  the most important part, for example, in summary, as a review and the only 
  exception to this is. These should trigger careful note-taking and you should 
  notate these important points with an asterisk or other symbol.
  The last strategy but not the least is saying it another way. One of the most 
  important parts of note-taking is not the note-taking itself is the reflection 
  process. Secondary school students should write down complex points in their 
  own words so they are easier to understand later. This helps information click 
  and reinforces long-term retention.
  In conclusion, students should know that taking notes is not a natural skill. It 
  must be taught and practiced. Organized students tend to take cleaner notes, of 
  course, but note-taking is meant to solidify knowledge and make studying easier 
  and more effective, and that doesn’t come easily to many students. Secondary 
  school students should know note taking strategies in order for their revision to 
  be successful. 
  (Adapted from Seven note-taking strategies for high school students by Huntington 
  Learning Centre)
  
  • Comprehension questions
  
  1. What do you understand by “note making”?
  2. Discuss the role of taking notes. 
  3. State seven note-taking strategies as mentioned in the above passage. 
  4. What should a student focus on while taking notes?
  5. Why is it import to group ideas while taking notes?
  6. What do you understand by “thinking quality over quantity”?
  7. How can a student identify the clues to highlight?
  
  
  vocabulary, note taking and paragraph writing.
  I. Vocabulary
  Explain the following words as used in the text above.
  a. Synthesising
  b. Augment
  c. Raw notes
  d. Recapping
  e. Intently
  f. Thoughtful
  

  g. Trigger

  II. Note taking 
  Visit the school library and read a section of a book of your choice. Take 
  notes on the important information and be ready to present it in class. 
  III. Paragraph writing 
  Write a paragraph explaining why students need to be guided on how to 
  take notes.
  
  

  5.6 Writing a summary

  
  

  • Text: How to Write a Summary

  A summary is a brief statement or account that presents the essential information 
  or main idea of a reading or lecture. Proficient students understand that 
  summarizing, identifying what is most important and restating the text (or other 
  media) in your own words, is an important tool for success. 
  
  If you really understand a subject or a chapter, you will be able to summarize it. 
  If you cannot summarize what you read, even if you have memorized all the facts 
  about it, you can be absolutely sure that you have not learned it. If you truly learn 
  the subject, you will still be able to summarize it months or years from now.
  
  Talented students may monitor their understanding of a text by summarizing 
  as they read. They understand that if they can write a one- or two-sentence 
  summary of each paragraph after reading it, then that is a good sign that they 
  have correctly understood it. If they cannot summarize the main idea of the 
  paragraph, they know that comprehension has broken down and they need to 
  use fix-up strategies to repair understanding. Below are tips on how to write a 
  summary:
  - Write main ideas in your own words.
  - Shape these ideas into sentences that express the purpose and point of 
  view of the writer or speaker.
  - Remember that a summary is written in paragraph form.
  - A summary begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title, 
  author and main point of the text.
  - A summary is written in your own words.
  - A summary contains only the ideas of the original text. Do not insert any 
  of your own opinions, interpretations, deductions or comments into a 
  summary.
  - Write a last sentence that wraps up your summary; often a simple 
  rephrasing of the main point.
  - The final material should be not more than one third of its original length. 
  • Comprehension questions:
  1. In your own word define the term “summary”.
  2. Does memorising a section of a book prove that you understand it? 
  Explain.
  3. How should one introduce a summary?
  4. How should one conclude a summary?
  

  5. Appreciate the contribution of a summary to studying.

  

  Vocabulary and summary writing. 
  I. Vocabulary
  Explain the following words as used in the above text.
  a. Proficient
  b. Monitor
  c. Fix-up strategies
  d. Deductions
  e. Wraps up
  II. Summary writing.
  Go back to unit 1 and read the text on Components of communication. 
  Summarise it in not more than 80 words.
  

  

  • Text1: A business letter

  A business letter, as the name suggests, is a letter which has a formal tone 
  and is used for business purposes. Apart from this, business letters are also 
  written for conveying messages to people whom we do not know personally. 
  This makes the business letter different from the usual casual or informal letter.
  While writing a business letter, a person has to follow certain rules. One of the 
  most important rules is that it should be short and concise. Businessmen do not 
  have the time to read long letters and hence, the letter should not be more than 
  a page. Apart from this, you have to follow a unique format for business letters, 
  which differs to a large extent from informal letters.
  A business letter is a formal letter like other formal letters. It is a good idea to 
  gather some crucial information on the things that you have to keep in mind while 
  writing a business letter. Below are some important tips for a good business 
  

  letter

  - Margin: To start with, leave a margin from all the four sides of the paper.
  - Sender’s address and date: According to the rules, it is important to begin 
  the letter with the address and other contact details of the sender. However, 
  this can be avoided, if the letter is typed on the letterhead. Followed by 
  this, one has to mention the date on which the letter is written.
  - Recipient’s name and address: After you have written the date, you have 
  to mention the recipient’s name and full address. This should come some 
  lines after the date
  - Salutation: Once you are done with the address of the recipient, you have 
  to begin the letter with a salutation. The salutation should have a greeting 
  word or phrase followed by a personal title - Mr./Ms. – and sometimes the 
  full name of the person. Some of the letter salutations that you can use for 
  business letters include Dear (full name), Dear Sir/Madam, etc. 
  - Subject: After the salutation comes the subject line where you have to 
  mention the purpose of the letter in short. In some letters it is called 
  Request.
  - Body: The body of the letter can have 2-3 paragraphs. In the introduction, 
  talk about the reason for writing the letter and in the following paragraphs, 
  you can give the necessary details. 
  - Complimentary closing: Once you finish writing the letter, you have to end 
  it with a complimentary closing. Some of the closings include Respectfully 
  Yours, Sincerely yours, Yours faithfully, etc. if you are using a computer, 
  leave four blank spaces after the complimentary closing and then, write 
  your full name. The blank space should be used to sign your name.
  - Enclosure: If you have enclosed some document with your letter, it is 
  important for you to mention it just below your name. Leave two spaces and 
  write ‘Enclosure’ or ‘Enclosures’ below it. If you have attached more than 
  one enclosure, do not forget to mention the correct number in brackets.
  - CC: If you are sending the same letter to more than one person write “cc” 
  below the enclosure and write the name of the other person to whom you 
  are sending the same letter. 
  Types of Formats
  Although the information given below can help you in understanding the 
  business letter format correctly, looking at a sample will make it very clear. Types 
  of formats include: Block Letter Format, Semi-block Format and Modified Block 
  Format. 
  a) Block Letter Format
  In this type, all the text in the letter is left-aligned. Indent is also not required if 
  you are using a block letter format for writing a letter. The paragraphs are spaced 
  either using double or triple paragraph spacing, but there is no indention for the 
  

  paragraphs.

  Address
  Telephone Number
  Email Address
  Date
  Recipient’s
  Address
  Dear Mr./Ms. 
  Subject/Re: (PURPOSE OF THE LETTER)
  In the first paragraph, you can introduce yourself, if the recipient does not 
  know you. After this, mention the purpose of the letter.
  In the second paragraph, give out the details i.e., the facts that support 
  the statement you made in the first paragraph. You can end the letter 
  with this paragraph or you can have another one, if the information 
  you want to convey does not fit in this paragraph. Complete the 
  letter by thanking the recipient for taking out time to read the letter.
  Respectfully Yours,
  (Your Signature)
  (Your Name)
  Enclosure(s) (mention the number)
  

  cc:

  b) Semi-block Format
  This type of format follows the same arrangement as the block format (i.e., left 
  alignment) except for paragraphs where indention is applied.
  c) Modified Block Format
  In this type also all the text is left-aligned with the exception of the sender’s 
  address, business date and closing signature, which are placed toward the 
  right hand side. In this format also, there is no indention of paragraphs.
  N.B: Apart from the above mentioned formats, there are other formats of formal 
  letters. For example, a letter in which the sender’s address is put in the top right 
  

  corner of the paper. 

  

  

  • Comprehension question 

  1. What is a business letter?
  2. Give at least one reason why a business letter should be short and 
  concise.
  3. Is there any difference between business letters and other formal letters?
  4. Give two examples of letter closing terms. 
  5. Mention at least 3 types of business letter format. 
  • Text 2: Curriculum vitae (CV)
  A CV is an abbreviation of curriculum vitae. It is a document used to present 
  personal life details to prospective employers. In the case of a job application, 
  it should tell about professional history and skills, abilities and achievements. 
  

  Ultimately, it should highlight why you’re the best person for the job.

  What to include in a CV: 

  While the structure of a CV is flexible, there are particular sections that employers 

  expect to see on a CV. Here below are the sections that must be included in a 

  CV: 

  Name, professional title and contact details: The first part of a CV, positioned 
  at the top of the page, should contain the name, professional title and contact 
  details. The title of your CV should be ‘curriculum vitae’. When it comes to 
  contact details, email address and phone number(s) are essential. 
  
  Experience and employment history: Employment history section provides 
  opportunity to outline previous occupations, internships and work experience. 
  Experience starts with the most recent. When writing about experience, for 
  each position held, it is important to state the job title, employer, the period of 
  that employment and a one-line summary of the duties assigned, including key 
  responsibilities, skills and achievements. Bolster each point with active verbs 
  and figures to support each claim to show impact on the organisations served.
   
  Education and qualifications: Like experience section, the education background 
  should start with the highest qualification towards the lowest. The name of the 
  institutions and the period of study are required too.
  
  Hobbies and interests: Depending on the type of job applied for, one can boost 
  his or her CV by inserting hobbies and interests section at the end, focusing on 
  interests that make them stand out or are relevant to the job. 
  References: Referees are needed to confirm the information given in the CV. 
  • Comprehension questions
  1. Appreciate the importance of CV.
  2. List five particular sections that employers expect to see on a CV.
  3. Using an example, explain how hobbies and interests in the CV can 
  

  increase the chance of getting a job.

  Letter and CV writing.

  I. Letter writing.

  a. Suppose that you are head of Human Resource Department of a 
  large bank. Write a letter to the governor of the National bank 
  recommending a job applicant for a position. 
  b. Suppose that you have finished TTC studies. Write a letter to the 
  District Education Officer (DEO), requesting a teaching job in primary 
  school. 
  II. CV writing.
  Write a CV that will accompany the application letter mentioned above in 
  

  question b

  5.8. Language structure: Connectors of contrast, explaining 

  and listing

  Notes: As their name itself suggests sentence connectors are used to combine 
  sentences. They also express the relationship between ideas. We can add variety 
  and sophistication to our writing by using appropriate sentence connectors. 
  They can also be used to connect paragraphs to give them coherence.
  I. Connectors of contrast
  Connectors of contrast are sentence connectors that join two contrasting 
  ideas. They include: But, although, despite the fact that, however, nevertheless, 
  despite, in spite of, yet, etc. 
  Examples:
  1. His rope was thin but it was strong. 
  2. He is fat but he runs fast.
  3. Although the boy was injured, he didn’t give up.
  4. We went out in spite of the rain.
  5. In spite of having a headache, I enjoyed the film.
  6. Despite working hard, she failed the exam.
  7. She got good marks in spite of her teacher. (= She had a bad teacher.)
  8. Her advice seems strange, yet I believe she’s right
  9. He says that he is a socialist. However, he owns three houses and four 
  luxury cars.
  10. There was little chance of success. Nevertheless, we didn’t give up.
  Nevertheless is very formal. In a less formal style, we can use conjunctions 
  like but or yet. Nevertheless and however don’t combine two clauses. They 
  are used to emphasize the fact that the point expressed by the second clause 
  contrasts with the first. In writing, they are separated from the rest of the 
  sentence by a comma.
  II. Connectors of listing 
  Connectors of listing include:
  - firstly, secondly ...
  - to begin / start with ..., to conclude with
  - in the first place, in the second place
  - next , then , finally, last(ly)
  - to conclude ...
  - last but not least ...
  - to summarise , to sum up 
  III. Connectors of example
  Connectors of example include: 
  - for example (e.g.), for instance
  - that is (i.e.)
  - that is to say
  - ... such as ...
  - namely ...
  Exercise
  1. Some people believe in ghosts and supernatural phenomena…….others 
  are sceptical about all that. (however, in spite of, whereas)
  2. GDP in developing countries………. Rwanda will continue growing at a 
  high rate. (such as, for example, although)
  

  3. She didn’t get the job……….her brilliant qualifications. (despite, though, 
  

  yet)
  

  4. They brought lunch, ………..sandwiches and soda.( namely, in spite of, 
  even though)
  

  5. I’m not going to speak to her…………….she begs me pardon(but, 

  although, however)

  6. …………….the risks thousands of people climb the Everest every year.( 

  in spite of, even though, nevertheless)

  7. ……………….I went to the store, and………..I got gas. (then/first) 

  8. ……………..I learned so much, I didn’t manage to pass my exam. ( But/ 

  Even though) 

  9. You’ll be nauseous ……………you stop eating so many sweets. 

  (whereas/ unless)

  10. ………………we’re at the bus station by seven o’clock, we’ll miss our 

  bus. (Therefore/Unless)

  
  

  5.9. Spelling and pronunciation 

  A. Spelling

  Correct spelling mistakes in the following paragraph.
  Iffective revision is not something that can be rushed. So start well in advanse of 
  the exam date. This will lesseen the chance of having to do last minute craming 
  and spending the whole night in the library. It’s a good idea to have a rautine 
  with your revision where you aim to start and finish at roufly the same time each 
  

  day

  B. Phonetic transcription 

  Give phonetic transcriptions of the following words

  a. Synthesising

  b. Augment

  c. Raw notes

  d. Recapping

  e. Intently

  f. Thoughtful

  g. Trigger

  5.10.End unit Assessmen

  I. Write a letter to the Director General of REB asking him to address the 
  problem of book scarcity in your school. Use connectors of example 
  and other connectors in your composition.
  II. Choose the best alternative from the brackets to fill in the blank space. 
  1. ………………… (Even if/whereas) you saved a lot, you wouldn’t be 
  able to afford that house.
  2. He eats only healthy food………………. (because of/ whereas )his 
  sister gorges herself with junk food.
  3. You should learn more,……………….. (although/otherwise) you might 
  fail your exams.
  4. Martha wanted to work in England, …………… (therefore/despite) , 
  she studied English very hard.
  5. ………………….. (Otherwise/ Even) if your chances are small, you 
  should try to do it.
  6. ………………….. (Although/Unless) he was very tired, he worked 
  very hard.
  7. Slice this meat and ……………… (because of/ afterwards) you can 
  boil it for thirty minutes.
  8. I cooked dinner……………….(so that/then) my friends wouldn’t have 
  to eat out.
  9. This street is slippery …………….. (otherwise/because of) the snow.
  10. Something must be wrong; …………… (otherwise/unless ) Keza 
  would be at school.
  11. ……………….(In spite of /Although) he is very rich, he doesn’t help 
  his parents.
  12. ……………….( So that/ Even though) the weather was windy, we 
  went for a walk.
  13. She is always helpful and friendly to me, ………………… (although/
  therefore), I like her very much
  14. He must be very clever; ………………….. (whereas /otherwise) he 
  wouldn’t have passed such a hard exam.
  15. ……………..(Unless /Although) I have a bike, I don’t often ride it.
  16. I like horror films ……………..(despite/ whereas) my friend prefers 
  comedies.
  III. Write a short composition, narrating the difficulties you encountered 
  decoding instructions in any lesson. 
  IV. Write one paragraph, explaining the importance of note taking
  

  
  

  REFERENCES

  Books 

  1. Berridge G.R. (2015) Economic and Commercial Diplomacy. In: 

  Diplomacy. Palgrave Macmillan, London

  2. Amudavalli, A. (2016). Theories & Models Of Communication. Chennai: 

  University of Madras. 

  3. Kurbalija, E. J. (1998). Modern Diplomacy. DiploPublishing

  4. Willkomm, A.C. (2018). Communications for Professionals: Five 

  Types Of Communication. Philadelphia: Drexel University. (Also 

  available at https://drexel.edu/goodwin/professional-studies-blog/

  overview/2018/July/Five-types-of-communication/)

  5. Kioko, A and Jepkirui, M. (2010). Spot on Grammar for Secondary 

  Schools. Nairobi: Oxford University Press.

  6. Judith, L. F and Julia, M. D. (2019). Genetically modified organism (GMO). 

  Encyclopaedia Britannica (Available at https://www.britannica.com /

  science/genetically-modified-organism accessed on 25th November 

  2019) 

  7. Braille Works. (2019). History of Braille. (Available at https://brailleworks.

  com /braille-resources/history-of-braille/) 

  8. Donlosky et al. (2013). Improving Students’ Learning With Effective 

  Learning Techniques: Promising Directions From Cognitive and 

  Educational Psychology: Psychological science in the public interest 14 

  (1) 4-58.

  9. Joyce A, et al. (2003). Writing and grammar. Massachusetts: Pearson 

  Education

  10. Betty S.A. and Stacy A. H. (1941). Understanding and using English 

  grammar, fourth edition with answer key. United states of America, library 

  of congress: cataloging-in- publication data

  11. Raymond M, (2012).English Grammar in use, fourth edition: Cambridge 

  . Cambridge university press

  12. REB. (2019). History for Rwanda Schools senior six student’s book 

  second edition. Kigali: Rwanda Education Board

  13. REB. (2019). History for Rwanda Schools senior five student’s book 

  second edition. Kigali: Rwanda Education Board

  14. Allan V.C., et al. (2018) Reimagining the way humans, machines, and 

  data interact Deloite Insights. 

  15. Michael, B. (2019) Key Events in the Story of Technology. London: 

  Bonhill Group Plc, 

  16. Bill, J. (2000) “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us”. California: Stanford 

  University

  17. Gahima, A. (2007). The socio-economic impacts of the genocide and 

  current developments in Rwanda: Case studies of the towns of Butare 

  and Cyangugu (unipublished)

  18. REB (2017). History for Rwanda schools, senior five learner’s Book 

  second edition. Kigali: Rwanda Education Board

  19. Aegis trust, (2016). Education for sustainable peace in Rwanda: 

  Facilitators’ guide on sustainable peace: Kigali 

  20. REB (2017).General Studies and Communication Skills for Rwandan 

  Schools, senior six student book second edition. Kigali: Rwanda 

  Education Board

  Reports and plans 

  1. S/RES/2150 (2014) on Threats to International Peace and Security.

  2. UNESCO. (2017). Education about the Holocaust and preventing 

  genocide: policy guide. Pg.16.

  3. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights 

  has been implementing the World Program for Human Rights Education 

  since 2005.

  Online resources 

  1. https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal ;

  2. https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/12/23/rwanda-international-tribunalclosing-its-doors (Accessed on 25th November 2019)

  3. https://www.accord.org.za/ajcr-issues/%EF%BF%BCenvironmentalcauses-and-impacts-of-the-genocide-in-rwanda/

  4. https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/ADD16852-AEE9-4757-ABE7 ;

  9CDC7CF02886/283503/RomeStatutEng1.pdf

  5. http://neveragainrwanda.org/peace-building

  
  
  
   
  

  
  

• Topic 6
• Topic 7
• Topic 8
• Topic 9