General
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UNIT14: STELLAR DISTANCE AND RADIATION
UNIT14: STELLAR DISTANCE AND RADIATION
Topic Area: ASTROPHYSICS
Sub-Topic Area: Earth and Space
Key unit competence:By the end of the unit I should be able to analyze stellar radiation and stellar distances.
Unit Objectives: By the end of this unit learners will be able to;
◊explain the factors that affect the brightness of the star.
◊explain types of stars, their masses and use Hertzsprung-Russel diagram.
14.0 INTRODUCTION
The sun’s mass is 99.8 % of all the masses in the solar system. Because the sun is so large, its gravity is strong enough to hold all the planets and other distant objects in orbit. Unlike Earth, the sun does not have a solid surface. Like Earth, the sun has an interior and an atmosphere.
ACTIVITY 14-1: Description of Planets
Aim: the purpose of this activity is to master the planets and their descriptions.Procedures: using the sentences provided for down and cross words, fill the puzzle.
ACROSS
4. What planet resembles Neptune?
6. The Earth revolves around the ----
7. Pluto is known as a ---- planet
8. Neptune has ---- moons
9. The red planet is called ----
12. How many moons does Mercury have?
13. Uranus may have a lot of large ----
17. The Greek name for the Earth is ----
18. The hottest planet in the Solar System is ----
19. How many moons does Mars have?
20. Uranus spins on its ----
DOWN
1. What is the Earth’s moon called?
2. The ---- is the biggest of all the terrestrial planets
3. ---- has no solid surface5. Mercury has a ---- surface
6. The storm on Neptune is called the Great Dark ----
9. Jupiter has ---- moons10. Luna is covered with ----
11. Mars has the biggest ---- in the Solar System
14. ---- has many moons
15. What is another word for the hot molten substance you see after a volcano erupts?
16. Saturn has beautiful ----
17. What three letter word means Earth?
14.1. SUN’S ATMOSPHERE AND INTERIOR
14.1.1. The sun’s interior
The sun’s interior consists of the core, radiation zone and convection zone. Each layer has different properties.
Core
The core is the innermost part of the sun and takes10% of the Sun’s mass. The sun produces an enormous amount of energy in its core or central region. The sun’s energy comes from nuclear fusion. In the process of thermonuclear fusion, hydrogen in the sun join to form helium.Because of the enormous amount of gravity compression from all layers above it, the core is very hot and dense. Nuclear fusion requires extremely high temperatures and densities. The Sun’s core has a temperature of about 16 million Kelvin and has a density around 160 times the density of water. This is over 20 times denser than the dense metal iron. However, the Sun’s interior is still gaseous all the way to the very center because of the extreme temperatures. There is no molten rock in sun unlike that found in the interior of the Earth.
Radiative Zone
The radiative zone is where the energy is transported from the superhot interior to the colder outer layers by photons. Technically, this also includes the core. The radiative zone includes the inner approximately 85% of the Sun’s radius.
The light and heat produced by the sun’s core first passes through the middle layer of the sun’s interior, the radiation zone. The radiation zone is a region of very tightly packed gases where energy is transferred mainly in the form of electromagnetic radiation.
Convection Zone
The convection zone is the outermost layer of the sun’s interior. Hot gases rise from the bottom of the convection zone and gradually cool as they approach the top. Cooler gases sink, forming loops of gas that move heat towards the sun’s surface.
Energy in the outer 15% of the Sun’s radius is transported by the bulk motion of gas in a process called convection. At cooler temperatures, more ions are able to block the outward flow of photon radiation more effectively, so nature kicks in convection to help the transport of energy from the very hot interior to the cold space.
14.1.2. The sun’s atmosphere
The visible solar atmosphere consists of three regions: the photosphere, the chromosphere and the solar corona. Most of the visible (white) light comes from the photosphere, this is the part of the Sun we actually see. The chromosphere and corona also emit white light, and can be seen when the light from the photosphere is blocked out, as occurs in a solar eclipse.
The inner layer of the sun’s atmosphere is called the photosphere. Photo means “light,” so the photosphere is the sphere that gives off visible light.At the beginning and end of a solar eclipse, you can see a reddish glow around the photosphere. This glow comes from the middle layer of the sun’s atmosphere, the chromosphere. Chromo means “colour,” so the chromosphere is the “colour sphere.”During a total solar eclipse, a fainter layer called the corona is visible. The corona sends out a stream of electrically charged particles called solar wind.Features on or above the sun’s surface include sunspots, prominences and solar flares. Sunspots are areas of gas on the sun that are cooler than the gas around them. Sunspots usually occur in groups.
Reddish loops of gas called prominences link different parts of sunspot regions. Sometimes the loops in sunspot regions suddenly connect, releasing large amounts of energy. The energy heats gas on the sun to millions of degrees Celsius, causing the gas to explode into space. These explosions are known as solar flares. Solar flares can greatly increase the solar wind.
The sun’s atmosphere also consits of the planets in different positions from the sun. The inner solar system consists of the Sun, Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.
The planets of the outer solar system are Jupter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune and Pluto. Since planets are very small compared to the distances between them the solar system is mostly seen as an empty space.
Theses planets are always in motion around the sun, it sometime happens that the earth, the moon and the sun are in a straight line, this is called an eclipse. The type o the eclipse that occurs when the moon passes direclty between the sun and the moon is called a solar eclipse.
14.2. BRIGHTNESS AND MAGNITUDE SCALE OF STARS
The brightness of stars is specified with the help of a numerical magnitude system. It is assigned a number starting with the brightest star at 1 magnitude. Dimmer stars have zero or positive magnitude of brightness. The larger the number means dimmer the star is. For example, a star of 1 magnitude is brighter than a star of 0 magnitude. The decimal point is not used when star magnitudes are used on a star map.
14.3. STAR TEMPERATURE, COLOUR AND SPECTRA
Stars are dense hot balls of gases. So their spectra are similar to that of a perfect thermal radiator, which produces a smooth continuous spectrum. Therefore, the colour of stars depends on their temperature---blue stars are hotter than white stars which in turn hotter than red stars. Stars with intermediate temperature appear white to orange in colour.The surface layers of a star constitute photosphere and it emits continuous spectrum like a black body. The photosphere of the star is surrounded by relatively cooler layer called reversing layer. When the full spectrum radiation from the photosphere of the star passes through the reversing layer, the radiations of certain wavelength are selectively absorbed.
The dark lines in the spectrum correspond to the wavelengths which have been absorbed by reversing layer of the star and are characteristic of the composition of the reversing layer. Hence, by noting the position of the dark lines in the spectrum of a star, the constituents of the reversing layer of the star can be identified.
The stellar spectra have been divided into seven classes designated by letters O, B, A, F, G, K and M
• Class O spectra: It represents the hottest stars having temperature in the range from 30,000K to 40,000K. These stars are dark blue in colour and their spectra reveal ionized helium, hydrogen and calcium in their reverting layers.
• Class B spectra: The surface temperature ranges from 15,000K to 28,000K and they are bluish in colour. As their spectra contain mainly dark lines corresponding to neutral helium, they are called helium stars. They also contain ionized oxygen and nitrogen.
• Class A spectra: The surface temperature of such stars ranges from 9,500K to 11,000K. They are white in colour. The spectra of these stars show hydrogen lines predominantly. Their spectra contain lines corresponding to ionized magnesium, silicon, iron, calcium etc.
• Class F spectra: The surface temperature of stars in this class ranges from 6,500K to 7,500K. These stars appear green in colour. The spectra of these stars show a decrease in hydrogen lines and a sharp increase in the lines of ionized metals.
• Class G spectra: The surface temperature of this class is of order of 5,800K and they are yellowish in colour. The hydrogen lines further decrease and numerous metallic lines show up in spectrum. Their spectra also display lines corresponding to ionized calcium, iron and a band corresponding to carbon.
• Class K spectra: The surface temperature of the star belonging to this class is of order 4500K. These stars appear orange in colour. The spectra of stars in this class have bands due to the presence of hydrocarbons.
• Class M spectra: The surface temperature of stars in this class is about 3,500K. Such stars appear red in colour. Their spectra show absorption bands that indicate the presence of titanium oxide strongly.
14.4. TYPES OF STARS
By taking a close look into the components of sky, one will notice that there are a variety of stars up there. The following are all the different types of stars in the known universe.
Main Sequence Stars—A main sequence star is any star that has fusing hydrogen in its core and has a stable balance of outward pressure from core nuclear fusion and gravitational forces pushing inward. Our Sun is a main sequence star. A main sequence star will experience only small fluctuations in luminosity and temperature. Very massive stars will exhaust their fuel in only a few hundred million years. Smaller stars, like the Sun, will burn for several billion years during their main sequence stage. Very massive stars will become blue giants during their main sequence.
Most stars, including the sun, are “main sequence stars,” As the hydrogen fuel in thermonuclear fusion reaction, converting hydrogen into helium. For these stars, the hotter they are, the brighter they appear. These stars are in the most stable part of their existence; this stage generally lasts for about 5 billion years.
When the stars have depleted their hydrogen supply they begin to die. The core contracts as the outer layers expand. These stars will eventually explode (become a planetary nebula or supernova, depending on their mass). Later they become white dwarfs, neutron stars or black holes (again depending on their mass).
Smaller stars (like our Sun) eventually become faint white dwarfs (hot, white, dim stars) that are below the main sequence. These hot, shrinking stars have depleted their nuclear fuels and will eventually become cold, dark, black dwarfs.
Red Giants
A red giant is a large star that is reddish or orange in colour. It represents the late phase of development in a star’s life, when its supply hydrogen has been exhausted and helium is being fused. This causes the star to collapse, raising the temperature in the core. The outer surface of the star expands and cools, giving it a reddish colour. Red giants are very large, reaching sizes of over 100 times the star’s original size. Very large stars will form what are called red supergiants.
White Dwarfs
A white dwarf is an average-sized star that has passed through the red giant stage of its life. After the star has used up its remaining fuel. At this point the star may expel some of its matter into space, creating a planetary nebula. What remains is the dead core of the star. Nuclear fusion no longer takes place. The core glows because of its residual heat. Eventually the core will radiate all of its heat into space and cool down to become what is known as a black dwarf. White dwarf stars are very dense.
Brown Dwarfs
These are also known as failed stars. Just like normal stars, they are formed in the same way but they do not accumulate enough mass to generate nuclear fusion in the core hence the name failed stars. They are smaller than the normal stars.
Variable Stars
These are stars that tend to change their brightness. Unlike other stars that maintain a constant brightness, these stars tend to vary their brightness from time to time.
Binary Stars
This is a system of two stars that go around each other or a common centre of mass cloud. True binaries revolve around one another. A well known example of which stars is Polaris.
Black Holes
A black hole is a place in space where gravity pulls so much that even light can not get out. The gravity is so strong because matter has been squeezed into a tiny space. This can happen when a star is dying. While not technically stars, these are formed as a result of the massive gravity created by large stars collapsing in on themselves.
14.5. HERTZSPRUNG-RUSSEL DIAGRAM
The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram is actually a graph that illustrates the relationship that exists between the average surface temperature of stars and their absolute magnitude, which is how bright they would appear to be if they were all the same distance away.
The brightness of stars is affected by temperature and size. The brightest stars would be those that are large and hot. The least bright stars would be small and cool. The colour of a star is determined by its surface temperature, which is illustrated on the HR diagram.
14.6. STELLAR DISTANCE AND MASSES: PARALLAX,BINARY STARS AND MASS-LUMINOSITY RELATIONSHIP
Stellar Parallax
A nearby star’s apparent movement against the background of more distant stars as the Earth revolves around the Sun is referred to as stellar parallax. The parallax can be used to measure the distance to the few stars which are close enough to the Sun to show a measurable parallax. The distance to the star is inversely proportional to the parallax. The distance to the star in parsec is given by:
here p is the parallax angle observed, and d is the actual distance measured in parsecs. A parsec is defined as the distance at which an object has a parallax of 1 arcsecond. This distance is approximately 3.26 light years.Stellar mass is a phrase that is used by astronomers to describe the mass of a star. After many star masses have been measured a graph can be made of the masses versus the brightness of the stars. This produces a mass-luminosity relation for Main Sequence stars - but not other luminosity classes.
The relation can be approximated by the formula:
Inverse Square Law – Calculating Luminosity
A quick glance at the night sky will tell you that different stars have different brightness. But how much of that effect is due to the fact that some stars are further away, and how much is due to certain stars being intrinsically brighter?
If we know the distances from parallax, we can remove the effect of distance and calculate the intrinsic brightness, or luminosity – the total energy the star emits per second. Imagine building a gigantic shell centered around the star, giving that shell a radius d equal to the distance between the star and Earth. A detector placed on the inside of the shell receives a certain amount of energy per second – this is the brightness b we measure, in ergs per second per square centimeter. But while a single detector only receives a tiny fraction of the star’s energy, if we were to cover the entire shell in detectors, the shell would receive all the energy from the star. Since the surface area of the shell is 4pd2, and each unit of area receives b units of energy per second, the total luminosity (the energy per second captured by the whole sphere) is equal to
Luminosity is normally given in watts (joules per second) or ergs per second, or in solar luminosities, while the parallax formula gives d in units of parsecs. You have to convert the distance to meters or centimeters before plugging in – unless you use ratios.
Stellar Masses The most dependable method of “weighing” a star is to use Newton’s version of Kepler’s Third Law. Stellar masses can only be measured in binary star systems in which the orbital properties of the two stars have been determined.
Visual binary – a pair of stars that we can see distinctly as the stars orbit each other.
Eclipsing binary – a pair of stars that orbit in the plane of our line of sight. When neither star is eclipsed (or blocked), we see the combined light of both stars. When one star eclipses the other, the apparent brightness of the system drops. Example: Algol (the “demon” star in the constellation Perseus)
If binary system is neither visual nor eclipsing, we may be able to detect its binary nature by observing Doppler shifts in its spectral lines.
END OF UNIT QUESTIONS
1. What is a star?
2. Why does the main sequence form a line in the H-R diagram?
3. What are white dwarfs (and neutron stars) made of?
4. Which star has the lowest surface temperature?
5. Which star produces less energy per second (luminosity)? The extra luminosity is produced by more fusion reactions)
6. Which line shows the red giant planetary nebula stage on the Hertzsprung Russell Diagram? Remember that green line is actually between the red giant branch and the supergiant branch and occurs when stars start blowing off their outer layers in planetary nebulae.
7. How do black holes and neutron stars form?
8. What property of black holes can we measure with the velocity and distance of the gas orbiting the black hole? (Note : We can also use the orbital properties of companion star, if the black hole has one)
UNIT SUMMARY
Sun’s atmosphere and interior
• The sun’s interior consists of the core, radiation zone and convection zone. Each layer has different properties.
• The core is the innermost part.
• The radiative zone is where the energy is transported from the superhot interior to the colder outer layers by photons.
• The convection zone is the outermost layer of the sun’s interior.
The sun’s atmosphere
• The visible solar atmosphere consists of three regions: the photosphere, the chromosphere, and the solar corona.
Brightness and magnitude scale of stars
• The brightness of stars is specified with the magnitude system. And is assigned a number starting with the brightest star starting at about-1 magnitude.
Star temperature, colour and spectra
• Stars are dense hot balls of gas so their spectra is similar to that of a perfect thermal radiator, which produces a smooth continuous spectrum. Therefore, the colour of stars depends on their temperature---hotter stars are bluer and cooler stars are redder.
Types of stars
• Red Giants • White Dwarfs
• Brown Dwarfs • Variable Stars
• Binary Stars • Black Holes
Hertzsprung-Russel diagram
• The Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram is actually a graph that illustrates the relationship that exists between the average surface temperature of stars and their absolute magnitude, which is how bright they would appear to be if they were all the same distance apart.
INDEX
Acid Rain, 183, 192
Amplitude, 10, 30, 67, 100, 105,
Analogue signal, 325, 336 Angle, 42Angular Momentum, 255, 272Angular velocity, 30, 67antinodes, 107, 108, 109, 126Astronomy, 2Atomic models, 274Belt conveyor, 168binding energy, 16, 17, 308black body, 3, 13, 18, 24, 26, Blackbody radiation, 13Bohr’s atomic model, 278, 311bomb, 180, 190Boolean expression, 332bridge, 88, 96, 154brightness, 203, 290, Bucket elevator, 170capacitance, 89capacity, 168, 170, 171, 326, 329, 336, carboniferous, 159catastrophic, 16, 182cathode, 21, 202, 203, 204, 220, 283, 284, 286, 294, 300, 308, 312, 313Cathode ray oscilloscope, 203, 283, 312Cathode ray tube, 202, 219cell, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, 151, 158, 299, 308, 313, centripetal force, 214, 246, 247, 265, 278, 279, 311Channels, 316, 335Chemical propulsion, 245circuit, 2, 89, 90, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 294, 295, 300, 313, 326, 332, 333, 334Coal, 159, 163, 165, 166, 168, 169, 174, 190Coherent, 16, 26Coil, 45communication, 125, 246, 254, 259, 261, 272, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 323, 324, 328, 335, 336, 338, 339.complex circuits, 128, 136Compound pendulum, 53, 68Compton, 9, 16, 17, 26, 301, 302, 306, 307, 308, 313computer monitors, 203, 220Cosmic velocity, 264, 273Coulombic interactions, 16Critically damped, 77, 96crude oil, 172Damped oscillations, 71, 73damping, 72, 74, 75, 77, 78, 81, 82, 85, 95Data, 79, 143, 160, 263, 321, 329, 330, 336.Dead storage, 165, 191destructive interference, 117.Detectors, 22
Diffraction, 23, 118, 119, 121digital signals, 314displacement, 10, 29, 30, 31, 32, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 47, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 67, 69, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 93, 102, 103, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 126.e.m.fs, 141, 142Earthquake, 111, 112Einstein, 6, 14, 19, 24, 289, 290, 292, 293, 297, 299, 313electric dipole, 200, 201, 219Electric field, 193, 194, 218electric potential, 129, 130, 134, 194, 195, 196, 197, 199, 201, 216, 217, 218, 219Electric propulsion, 245Electrodynamics, 210, 220electromagnetic radiation, 16, 18, 19, 177, 210, 287, 290, 312electromagnetism, 1electron, 2, 3, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 217, 220, 275, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 285, 286, 287, 289, 293, 294, 295, 301, 302, 303, 304, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313 electron gun, 202, 286Electron Microscopes, 20energy, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 42, 55, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 69, 71, 72, 74, 85, 86, 90, 91, 98, 99, 101, 111, 112, 125, 134, 159, 160, 163, 164, 165, 174, 175, 176, 177, 179, 181,182, 185, 189, 190, 191, 194, 196, 197, 201, 202, 209, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 221, 244, 245, 256, 257, 258, 259, 266, 272, 273, 277, 278, 279, 281, 283, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 301, 302, 303, 304, 306, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 339 Environment, 317, 335 equipotential, 199, 200, 201, 219 equipotential lines, 199 equipotential surface, 199, 219 Escape velocity, 213, 221ether, 7, 9explosion, 179, 180Feedback, 317, 320, 335fission, 160, 176, 177, 178, 179, 181, 191Flight conveyor, 168fluorescent, 20, 23, 203fluorescent screen, 20forced oscillation, 81, 96Fossil, 159, 163, 164, 174, 176, 190Fraunhofer diffraction, 118, 120Frequency, 10, 25, 29, 67, 105, 291, 297, 313, 324, 336Fresnel’s diffraction, 118, 119fringe separation, 384, 387, 415fuel, 159, 163, 175, 176, 190, 191, 242Full-duplex, 323, 336G-clamp, 33Geostationary, 254, 261, 272Grab bucket elevator, 171gravitational field, 211, 248 gravitational potential, 193, 211, 221Half-duplex communications, 322, 335harmonics, 63, 123Highly elliptical orbit, 260, 273homogeneous, 7, 82, 316Huygen’s Wave, 24Huygens, 7, 8, 9, 24, 66, 100, 114Huygens principle, 7Inertia, 152Information transmission, 315, 335intensity, 8, 16, 72, 204, 205, 285, 286, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 300, 312, 313Intensity, 100, 126, 280, 291, 313interference, 18, 63, 117, 121, 126, 317Interference, 117internal resistance, 139, 140, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 150Kepler’s laws, 225, 269Kinematics, 28Kirchhoff‘s laws, 130, 157Levels, 317, 335light, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 40, 42, 49, 51, 62, 65, 68, 75, 114, 115, 116, 117, 120, 121, 180, 183, 184, 188, 192, 202, 210, 220, 223, 231, 280, 285, 286, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 298, 299, 301,302, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313, 314, 327 Linear acceleration, 31, 68 Linear velocity, 30, 67 Logic gates, 331, 337 longitudinal, 7, 98, 101, 110, 111, 112, 113Lorentz transformations, 367Low earth orbit, 260, 273 luminiferous, 7, 9 Luminiferous, 9 mass, 6, 14, 15, 16, 24, 26, 28, 34, 39, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 57, 58, 66, 67, 68, 73, 74, 79, 82, 94, 95, 123, 179, 187, 204, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 221, 223, 227, 229, 230, 231, 232, 235, 237, 239, 240, 247, 250, 255, 257, 258, 259, 265, 268, 269, 272, 275, 277, 310, 311matter, 1, 3, 6, 17, 19, 24, 26, 98, 113, 132, 152, 183, 210, 242, 245, 271, 274, 291, 292Maxwell, 210mechanics, 1, 5, 24, 292 medium, 7, 8, 16, 25, 99, 101, 102, 106, 110, 113, 116, 124, 125, 126, 224, 260, 273, 314, 315, 316, 319, 335medium earth orbit, 260, 273Meltdown, 185Message, 316, 319, 335Metre rule, 33Microscopes, 20, 26Microwave ovens, 90, 96Mie scattering, 378, 379Modulation techniques, 349, 355momentum, 14, 19, 24, 26, 39, 255, 256, 272, 279, 301, 302, 303, 308monochromatic light, 6, 8, 25 Musical instruments, 88, 96Newton, 8, 14, 56, 73, 223, 225, 242, 269nodes, 107, 108, 109, 121, 126, 133Noise, 152, 317, 330, 335non fossil, 159, 165Nuclear, 176, 177, 179, 180, 181, 182, 185, 187, 191, 245, 276Ocean, 111Oil, 163, 164, 175, 191Orbits, 222, 279, 280oxygen, 164, 167, 184ozone, 160, 181, 183Ozone, 183, 192Pair Production, 17, 26 particles, 3, 4, 6, 7, 16, 17, 19, 24, 26, 101, 102, 110, 132, 168, 184, 188, 192, 200, 201, 210, 211, 215, 220, 224, 275, 276, 277, 292, 301, 303, 310, 311Peat, 165Periodic Time, 29, 67Petroleum, 164, 191Phase modulation, 351, 352phosphorescence, 287, 288, 312Phosphors, 286Photodisintegration, 18, 26photoelectric, 6, 9, 18, 19, 24, 274, 275, 276, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 295, 297, 298, 299, 300, 308, 309, 310, 312, 313photoelectric current, 6, 292photoelectric effect, 6, 9, 19, 274, 275, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 298, 299, 300, 310, 312, 313Photoelectric emission, 25, 288, 290,312photoelectrons, 6, 290, 291, 292, 300, 308photon, 3, 4, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 23, 24, 26, 279, 287, 289, 290, 292, 293, 297, 298, 301, 302, 303, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 312photons, 2, 6, 15, 16, 20, 23, 24, 26, 98, 287, 289, 290, 293, 301, 308physiotherapy, 2Planck’s hypothesis, 6, 18Planck’s constant, 4, 6, 292, 298, 299, 309planet, 213, 221, 226, 227, 228, 229, 231, 246, 248, 250, 251, 256, 259, 261, 264, 268, 269, 270, 272polarisation, 9, 18pollution, 160, 161, 165, 174, 175, 184, 185, 189, 190, 192postulates, 6, 278, 311, 356, 357potential difference, 25, 129, 130, 138, 147, 196, 198, 199, 200, 218, 294, 313potential energies, 2, 62potentiometer circuits, 138Power, 152, 331principle of complementarities, 18Progressive waves, 101 prominences, 397propagation number, 100, 126pulses, 6, 106Quantum mechanics, 1, 24quantum physics, 19quantum theory, 3, 6, 24, 210, 289, 310Radio, 89, 90, 114, 320 Radiography, 2Rayleigh scattering, 16 Receiver, 319, 335rectilinear propagation, 8, 9relativity, 210, 220Resistors, 136resonance, 70, 71, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 287Resonances, 85Rockets, 242, 271Rutherford’s atomic model, 276, 310Salinity, 185, 192Sampling, 341Satellite, 246, 247, 249, 252, 254, 255, 256, 259, 272, 273Scanning, 20, 21, 22, 26, 204Scattering, 16, 26, 277Screw conveyor, 169 Sender, 316, 318, 335Shock Absorber, 71Sign conventions, 131Simple harmonic motion, 27, 29, 30simple pendulum, 32, 40, 42, 43, 44, 53, 54, 57, 58, 66, 67, 68, 69simple potentiometer, 138, 158Simplex transmission, 321, 322, 335sinusoidal, 60, 82, 107, 324solar cells, 3solar panels, 3, 300Spacecraft Propulsion, 243, 244, 271special relativity, 15, 356, 357, 371spectrum, 3, 24, 114, 276, 278, 280, 281, 287speed, 4, 6, 7, 8, 14, 15, 16, 17, 42, 57, 62, 65, 74, 99, 105, 106, 116, 121, 125, 210, 215, 217, 220, 248, 249, 259, 266, 269, 280, 292, 297, 308, 310spring, 28, 40, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 57, 58, 62, 65, 66, 67, 68, 73, 74, 79, 82, 94, 95stationary wave, 106Stopping potential, 25, 294, 309String, 42superposition, 63, 64, 105, 106, 117, 126, 224Surface Waves, 113Technology, 21, 330telecommunication, 339temperature, 13, 14, 160, 166, 167, 176, 180, 183, 186, 187, 192, 245, 327thermionic emission, 202, 276, 283thermodynamics, 1Thomson scattering, 17Torsion Pendulum, 51 trajectory, 207, 220transformations, 164, 181Transmission Electron Microscope, 20transmutation, 18Tuning circuit, 89, 96TV tubes, 285, 312Uranium, 177, 180, 182, 191Velocity, 58, 246, 247, 272voltage drop, 129, 130washing machine, 86, 87, 96water, 7, 10, 90, 91, 97, 98, 101, 111, 113, 160, 164, 166, 167, 170, 172, 176, 178, 181, 183, 184, 185, 186, 189, 192Physics Senior Five344345 Wave normal, 26wave number, 100, 104, 105, 126wave theory, 7, 8, 99, 302, 310Wave theory, 6, 25 wave-front, 7wavelength, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, 16, 19, 20, 25, 26, 99, 104, 108, 121, 125, 127, 279, 281, 287, 291, 307, 308, 309, 310wavelengths, 3, 7, 99, 114, 125, 281, 308, 309, 311 wavelets, 7, 25, 100, 116Wave-particle duality, 18, 26waves, 7, 8, 10, 13, 18, 19, 26, 88, 89, 91, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 125, 126, 127, 292, 316, 327, 330weapons, 177, 179, 180, 182, 191Work Function, 292, 297X-rays, 16, 23, 114, 308Young’s double slit, 18, 120
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