Course: S6: English , Topic: UNIT 8: WRITING AND EXAMINATIONS

General

UNIT 8: WRITING AND EXAMINATIONS
UNIT 8: WRITING AND EXAMINATIONS
Key Unit Competence:
Language use in the context of writing and examinations
Introductory activity:
Observing and interpreting pictures
1. Explain how scanning and skimming, as reading techniques, can be
applied in examination.
2. Discuss the view that instructions are part and parcel of the test in an
examination.
3. State and explain at least four verbs commonly used in examination
questions.
8.1. Finding Information in Books Using the Table of Content  and Index
8.1.1. Table of contents
Definition of a table of contents

A table of contents is a list of titles or headings or topics representing the content
contained in big document or in a book. Items in the table of contents are always
organised chronologically reflecting the order in which the content is presented in
the document.
The table of contents guides us as to where or the pages on which the title or heading
of a given content is located in the document.
Below is an example of a table of contents. To assist you check and learn how a
table of contents is used, we decided to use the one for this very book. As indicated
below, the content for Unit 1 can be located starting from page 5 of this very book.
Unit 1. Rwanda and the Region: Geology....................................................................................................14
1.1 Describing Maps.................................................................................................................................. 15
1.1.1. Reading and Writing:..................................................................................................................15
1.1.2. Listening and Speaking: Debating Techniques.....................................................................17
1.2. Describing Geological Features.........................................................................................................18
1.2.1. Reading and Writing: Exploring images and dialogues........................................................19
1.2. 2. Definition and Characteristics of a Piece of Discourse.........................................................23
1.2. 3. Listening and Speaking: Role-play...........................................................................................25
1.2. 4. Language structure.....................................................................................................................25
1.3. Describing Lakes and Rivers...............................................................................................................29
1.3.1. Listening and Speaking : Question and answer.....................................................................29
1.3.2. Reading and Writing:..................................................................................................................29
1.3.3. Sounds and Spelling : Stress in Words......................................................................................30
1.4. Describing a Geological Event..........................................................................................................31
1.4. 1. Reading for Information.............................................................................................................31
1.5. UNIT ASSESSMENT..............................................................................................................................37
1.5.1. Reading and Writing....................................................................................................................37
1.5.2. Grammar and Phonology...........................................................................................................38
1.5.3. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 40
8.1.2. Application Activities
Look at the table of contents above and answer the following questions.
1. In which unit and pages of this book can we find the topic about lakes
and rivers?
2. In which unit is Direct and Reported Speech taught?
3. Visit your school library, borrow a grammar book and then locate pages
on which parts of speech are found.
8.1.3. Index
Definition of Index
A book index is a list of important words and names contained in a book. The index
shows us the page on which such a word or name can be found in the book. The
index is normally placed at the end of a book.

By perusing through the index, the reader will easily locate the page on which a
word and related information can be found.

Here is an index of Flesh-Eating Machines: Maggots in the Food Chain by June
Preszler.

8.1.4. Application Activities
I. Look at the index above and answer the following questions
a. Where can you find the information on food chain?
b. Does this book talk about predators? Explain.
c. Do you think this book focuses on animals or people? Justify your
answer.
II. Critically read Unit 1, 3 and 5 of this book and choose ten items from each of
the three units with which to construct an index.
8.1.5. Finding information in texts: Skimming and Scanning

In unit 2, we discussed scanning and skimming as some of the techniques of
extracting information from a text. We saw that skimming refers to act of reading very
fast through a written text in order to get general information about it. On the other
hand, scanning refers to reading through a text quickly in order to find specific facts.
In other words, scanning means looking at a text to find some particular information
such as a date, names of places, a telephone number, names of people, etc.

In most English examinations, there are always some questions on a reading
comprehension. Answering comprehension questions will always require our
knowledge and skills of skimming and scanning. With these skills, we are able to
extract information from comprehension texts with which to answer comprehension
questions.
1. Skimming
Many students try reading the questions first and then looking for answers in the
passage thinking this approach is more efficient. Before answering comprehension
questions, you should first skim for the gist and then look for answers in the passage.
2. Scanning
After skimming the text, you can now read questions and then look for answers in
the passage. We normally scan a text when we are trying to locate where the correct
answer is, but this technique alone does not give us the correct answer, rather it tells
us the correct location of the correct answer. Thus, after locating where the right
answer is, you should then read the text very closely to be able to internalise an
answer in line with the question asked.

Therefore, there should be three steps in answering comprehension questions: first
skimming the text to get the general view or gist about it. Thereafter, you scan the
text in order to ear-mark the probable answers and finally, closely reading to identify
the actual answers.
8.1.6. Application Activity: Exploring a text
The course of World War II 1940-41

On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark,
and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium
and the Netherlands in what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war.
Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces
at Sedan, located at the northern end of the Maginot Line, an elaborate chain
of fortifications constructed after World War I and considered an impenetrable
defensive barrier. In fact, the Germans broke through the line with their tanks and
planes and continued to the rear, rendering it useless.
The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from Dunkirk in late
May. In the meantime, from the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance.
With France on the verge of collapse, Benito Mussolini of Italy put his Pact of Steel
with Hitler into action, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June
10
On June 14, German forces entered Paris; a new government formed by Marshal
Philippe Petain (France’s hero of World War I) requested for an armistice two
nights later. France was subsequently divided into two zones, one under German
military occupation and the other under Petain’s government, installed at Vichy.

On this round this time, Hitler turned his attention to Britain, which had the
defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English
Channel. To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed Operation Sea
Lion), German planes bombed Britain extensively throughout the summer of 1940,
including night raids on London and other industrial centres that caused heavy
civilian casualties and damage. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the
Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain, and Hitler postponed his plans
to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister
Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease
Act, passed by Congress in early 1941.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed
Operation Barbarossa. Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly
outnumbered the Germans, their air technology was largely obsolete, and the
impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow
by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next
German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counter-offensive
and the onset of harsh winter weather.

Adapted from https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history, retrieved on 24th April
2018
Read the text on page 178 and carry out the following tasks:
1. Skim the above text and identify the main states that were involved in the
Second World War.
2. Scan the text below and state:
a. What happened on May 10, 1940.
b. Names of two dictators mentioned in the text.
c. What the acronym “RAF” stands for.
d. The name of the German Air Force.
3. Scan the above text and choose the right answer
a. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by air
from Dunkirk in late May.
b. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by train
from Dunkirk in late May.
c. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea
from Dunkirk in late May.
d. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by truck
from Dunkirk in late May.
4. In full sentences, explain the following words and phrases as used in the
said passage.
a. …simultaneously… (paragraph 1)
b. …fortifications… (paragraph 1)
c. ...evacuated.. (paragraph 1)
d. …on the verge of…(paragraph 1)
e. ...armistice… (paragraph 2)
f. …defensive advantage… (paragraph 3)
g. …extensively… (paragraph 3)
h. …casualties… (paragraph 3)
i. …code-named.. (paragraph 4)
j. …obsolete… (paragraph 4)
k. …stalled… (paragraph 4)
l. …counter-offensive… (paragraph 4)
m. ... in earnest ... (paragraph 1)
5. Composition Writing: Write a 200 word composition explaining how
skimming and scanning can help a learner in an exam.
6. Class debate:
Motion:” Learners from Urban and rural schools shouldn’t do the same exam”.
8.2. Reading extracts from literature

The extract tells us about Pip, an orphan who is about seven years old. While visiting
the graves of his parents and siblings, the boy encounters an escaped convict in the
village churchyard.

‘Hold your noise!’ cried a terrible voice, as a man started up from among the graves at
the side of the church porch. ‘Keep still, you little devil, or I’ll cut your throat!’ A fearful
man, all in coarse grey, with a great iron on his leg. A man with no hat, and with
broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. A man who had been soaked
in water, and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones, and cut by flints, and stung
by nettles, and torn by briars; who limped, and shivered, and glared, and growled;
and whose teeth chattered in his head as he seized me by the chin.

‘O! Don’t cut my throat, sir,’ I pleaded in terror. ‘Pray don’t do it, sir.’

‘Tell us your name!’ said the man. ‘Quick!’

‘Pip, sir.’

‘Once more,’ said the man, staring at me. ‘Give it mouth!’

‘Pip. Pip, sir.’

‘Show us where you live,’ said the man. ‘Point out the place!’

I pointed to where our village lay, on the flat in-shore among the alder-trees and
pollards, a mile or more from the church.

The man, after looking at me for a moment, turned me upside down, and emptied
my pockets. There was nothing in them but a piece of bread. When the church came
to itself, — for he was so sudden and strong that he made it go head over heels
before me, and I saw the steeple under my feet, — when the church came to itself, I
say, I was seated on a high tombstone, trembling while he ate the bread ravenously.

‘You young dog,’ said the man, licking his lips, ‘what fat cheeks you ha’ got.’
I believe they were fat, though I was at that time undersized for my years, and not
strong.

‘Darn Me if I couldn’t eat em,’ said the man, with a threatening shake of his head, ‘and
if I hadn’t half a mind to ’t!
I earnestly expressed my hope that he wouldn’t, and held tighter to the tombstone
on which he had put me; partly, to keep myself upon it; partly, to keep myself from
crying.
‘Now look here!’ said the man. ‘Where’s your mother?’
‘There, sir!’ said I.
He started, made a short run, and stopped and looked over his shoulder.
‘There, sir!’ I timidly explained. ‘Also Georgiana. That’s my mother.’
‘Oh!’ said he, coming back. ‘And is that your father along your mother?’
‘Yes, sir,’ said I; ‘him too; late of this parish.’
‘Ha!’ he muttered then, considering. ‘Who d’ye live with, - supposin’ you’re kindly let
to live, which I han’t made up my mind about?’
‘My sister, sir, — Mrs Joe Gargery, — wife of Joe Gargery, the blacksmith, sir.’
‘Blacksmith, eh?’ said he. And looked down at his leg.
After darkly looking at his leg and me several times, he came closer to my tombstone,
took me by both arms, and tilted me back as far as he could hold me; so that his eyes
looked most powerfully down into mine, and mine looked most helplessly up into
his.
‘Now lookee here,’ he said, ‘the question being whether you’re to be let to live. You
know what a file is?’
‘Yes, sir.’
‘And you know what wittles is?’
‘Yes, sir.’
After each question he tilted me over a little more, so as to give me a greater sense
of helplessness and danger.
‘You get me a file.’ He tilted me again. ‘And you get me wittles.’ He tilted me again.
‘You bring ‘em both to me.’ He tilted me again. ‘Or I’ll have your heart and liver out.
He tilted me again.
I was dreadfully frightened, and so giddy that I clung to him with both hands, and
said, ‘If you would kindly please to let me keep upright, sir, perhaps I shouldn’t be
sick, and perhaps I could attend more.’
He gave me a most tremendous dip and roll, so that the church jumped over its
own weathercock. Then, he held me by the arms, in an upright position on the top
of the stone, and went on in these fearful terms: —
‘You bring me, to-morrow morning early, that file and them whittles. You bring the
lot to me, at that old Battery over yonder. You do it, and you never dare to say a word
or dare to make a sign concerning your having seen such a person as me,
or any person sumever, and you shall be let to live. You fail, or you go from my words
in any partickler, no matter how small it is, and your heart and your liver shall be tore
out, roasted, and ate. Now, I ain’t alone, as you may think I am. There’s a young man
hid with me, in comparison with which young man I am an Angel.
That young man hears the words I speak. That young man has a secret way peculiar
to himself, of getting at a boy, and at his heart, and at his liver. It is in vain for a boy
to attempt to hide himself from that young man. A boy may lock his door, may be
warm in bed, may tuck himself up, may draw the clothes over his head, may think
himself comfortable and safe, but that young man will softly creep and creep his
way to him and tear him open. I am keeping that young man from harming you at
the present moment, with great difficulty. I find it very hard to hold that young man
off of your inside. Now, what do you say?’
I said that I would get him the file, and I would get him those broken bits of food I
could, and I would come to him at the Battery, early in the morning.
‘Say Lord strike you dead if you don’t!’ said the man.
I said so, and he took me down.
Adapted from Charles Dickens’ (1861). Great Expectations. London: Chapman and Hall.

Carefully read this extract from Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations and answer the
questions that follow:

1. Where does the conversation between Pip and the escapee take place?
2. How does the escapee end up snatching Pip’s loaf of bread?
3. The man told Pip that he was with a young man who was more awesome
than him. Do you think he was telling the truth? Explain.
4. In full sentences, explain the following words as used in the above passage.
a. ... soaked... f. ...tombstone...
b. ...smothered... g. ... tilted...
c. ...rag... h. ...clung...
d. ...briar.../ (brier) i. ...tremendous...
e. ...steeple... j. ...peculiar...
8.3. Application activities
I. Write a 6 paragraph composition, describing the character of the escapee in
this extract.

Please refer to the notes on the techniques of descriptive writing in Unit 1,
page ... of this book.

II. Pip almost got killed as he visited the graveyard where his parents and
relatives are buried. Do you think visiting our ancestor’s graveyard is a
worthwhile practice? Give reasons for your answer.

III. What does Pip’s reaction towards the escapee in the above extract reveal
about his character? Present your answer in detailed paragraphs.

IV. Step by step, explain how you would have reacted if you were in Pip’s
situation.

8.4. Essay Writing
8.4.1. Explanations on Essay Writing
Essay writing is an important section of an English exam.
So, you should know how to write different types of essays.
In English, an essay is a piece of argumentative
writing that contains several paragraphs written about one topic, usually based on
your reading.
The purpose of an essay is to say something for yourself using the
ideas of the subject, in order to present specific ideas.
Effectiveness in the art of writing different types of essays has become critical to
academic success. Essay writing is a common school assignment, a part of standard
test especially for advanced secondary school level, and a requirement for college
applications. Often on tests, choosing the correct type of essay to write in response
to a writing prompt is key to getting the question right.

To succeed at school, you need to be able to write different types of essays. Your
teachers will seldom tell you exactly which type of essay you should be writing, so
you need to be able to figure it out from the question you have been asked. Once
you’ve identified the right type of essay to answer the question, you’re not home
free yet, but at least you’ll know how to structure it and what type of content to
include.
8.4.2. Types of Essays
The simplest interpretation says that there are only four types of essays:
1. Narrative essays
2. Descriptive essays
3. Expository essays
4. Persuasive essays
But, there are over a dozen types of essays, a situation which may confuse a reader.
However, it should be noted that all these are subsets of the four main ones. Here
below, look at a more detailed explanation of the four types of essays:
Exploring Nine Types of Essays
1. Narrative essay

In a narrative essay, the writer tells the story by recounting the course of events as
witnessed or told by another person. Sometimes, narrative stories revolve around
real-life experiences. While telling a story may sound easy to do, the narrative essay
challenges writers who tend to write about themselves. When writing a narrative
essay, writers should try to involve the reader by making the story as vivid as possible.
The fact that narrative essays are usually written in the first person helps engage the
reader. “I” sentences give readers a feeling of being part of the story. A well-crafted
narrative essay will also build towards drawing a conclusion or making a personal
statement.
Five steps in the writing process of a narrative essay
a. Prewriting
When planning how to start a narrative essay, think about your life experiences in the
context of the assignment’s theme, for example ‘write about achieving a goal.’ When
selecting an experience to write about, keep in mind that even a small incident can
make a good essay topic if it has significance for you.

Once you’ve chosen a topic, spend time sorting through your memories and
recalling details, including the year, season, setting, people, and objects involved.
Think about the sequence of events and remember; no detail is too small.

b. Drafting

When creating the initial draft of a narrative essay, follow the outline, but focus on
making the story come alive, using the following techniques:

Personal narrative essays are most naturally written in the first person, and using “I”
gives the story an authenticity that engages the reader.

While telling a story, one should not neglect details. Readers have no prior knowledge
of the story, and many times even one detail accidentally left out will skew their
understanding.

Vivid descriptions are always preferred to illustrate facts. In narrative writing, the
writer’s job is to involve the reader, rather than simply inform.

While narrative essays are non-fiction, elements of fiction can be tolerated.

c. Revising

In this phase, the essay is reviewed, modified, and reorganized with the goal of making
it the best it can be. At this stage, the following must be taken into consideration:

Does the essay unfold in an easy-to-understand progression of events? Do the
transitions make sense or confuse the reader?

Does the essay involve the reader in the experience?

Is the word choice descriptive, or merely informative?

Has the larger message of the essay been conveyed effectively? Has a connection
been made between the experience and its meaning to the writer? Will the reader
be able to identify with the conclusion made?

d. Structuring

In structuring a narrative essay, it’s the writer’s choice when to reveal the significance
of the experience. Some writers make this connection in the opening paragraph.
Others like to focus on the experience and reveal its significance at the end. Writers
should experiment which way works best for the essay.
e. Editing

At this point in the writing process, writers proofread and correct errors in grammar
and mechanics like punctuation and spelling to improve style and clarity.
Transitions and connectives that will help you while writing narrative essays:

A sample narrative essay

Best summer memory of my childhood
When I was 11 years old, I attended a Unitarian church camp for a summer vacation
with my family. It was a pleasant area, with the Puget Sound not far away, grass
fields, many old-style wooden buildings, an expansive forest, and an elongated
pond between the road and the camp.
As an 11-year-old boy, it was a place for me to meet my friends. However, this
summer camp was more spiritual than others—not because of a religious message,
but because I had an awakening at the camp that year.
I had been going to this summer retreat almost every year since I was very young.
But somehow, this year was different. It seemed my mind and soul were ripe for a
transformation. I was less interested in playing and joking around with my friends. I
was searching for answers to deep questions about life and God.
I attended a baptism ceremony in Church, which was more of a ritual than anything
else, in my opinion. The real baptism is an inner transformation. It was like a light was
switched on in my consciousness, and I saw everything as new again.
From that moment, the world around me and within me was never the same. The
only problem was that I was too young to fully grasp what had happened. In fact,
I thought I was some sort of prophet. What I learned from this experience is that
baptism, or spiritual rebirth, is a spontaneous happening, and not done only from
the hand of a priest. Also, I learned about getting a spiritual ego, where you think
you are important based on spiritual experiences. My natural baptism and my
knowledge of spiritual ego has allowed me to gain much in life: more creativity,
inner peace, and how to be humble in the face of achievements.
© 2011 - 2018, Academic Help.
Adapted from https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/narrative/best-summer-memorychildhood.html, retrieved on April 25, 2018
Read the sample narrative essay on page 186 and answer comprehension questions
that follow.
1. State the three benefits the author gained for attending the summer
vacation
2. In two paragraphs, explain how the content of the above essay is related to
its title and the author’s life.
3. In an 80 word paragraph, summarize the above passage focusing on the
author’s life experience
8.4.3. Application Activity

Write a narrative essay of 250 words narrating an exciting event that you have
ever experienced in your life.

2. Descriptive Essay

Writing a descriptive essay is comparable to painting a picture of someone,
something or a situation. A writer might describe a person, place, object, or even
a memory of special significance. However, this type of essay is not description for
description’s sake. The descriptive essay strives to communicate a deeper meaning
through the description. In a descriptive essay, the writer should show, not tell,
through the use of colorful words and sensory details. The best descriptive essays
appeal to the reader’s emotions, with a result that is highly evocative.

Here are descriptive essay writing tips for each phase of the writing process:

a. Prewriting

In the prewriting phase of descriptive essay writing, the writer should take time to
think about who or what she/he wants to describe and why. Memory and emotion
play an important role in conveying the subject’s significance.

b. Drafting

When creating the initial draft of a descriptive essay, a writer should follow the
outline, but remember that, the goal is to give the reader a rich experience of the
subject, keep in mind that the most important watchword of writing a descriptive
essay is show, not telling.

c. Revising

In revising a descriptive essay, writers should re-read their work with these
considerations in mind:
1. Does the essay unfold in a way that helps the reader to have a full view of
the subject being developed?
2. Do the word choice and figures of speech clearly invoke the five senses
(sight, feeling, smell, etc) to convey emotion and meaning?
3. Are there enough details to give the reader a complete view of subject
under discussion?
4. Will the reader be able to identify with the conclusion made?
5. There is also need to proofread and correct errors in grammar and mechanics
like punctuation and spellings. It’s also the time to improve style and clarity.

A sample descriptive essay: Description of a desert

A desert is a vast plain of sand and stones, interspersed with mountains of various

sizes and heights, usually without roads or shelters. They sometimes have springs of
water, which burst forth, and create verdant spots.
The most remarkable of all the deserts is the Sahara. This is a vast plain, but a little
elevated above the level of the ocean, and covered with sand and gravel, with a
mixture of sea shells, and appears like the basin of an evaporated sea.
Amidst the desert, there are springs of water which burst forth and create verdant
spots, called oases. There are thirty-two of these that contain fountains and palm
trees; twenty of them are inhabited. They serve as stopping places for the caravans,
and often contain villages.

To be thirsty in a desert, without water, exposed to the burning sun, without shelter,
is the most terrible situation that a human being can be placed in, and one of the
greatest sufferings that a human being can sustain; the tongue and lips swell; a
hollow sound is heard in the ears, which brings on deafness, and the brain appears
to grow thick and inflamed.

If, unfortunately, any one falls sick on the road, he or she must either endure the
fatigue of traveling on a camel, (which is troublesome even to healthy people,) or he
or she must be left behind on the sand, without any assistance, and remain so until
a slow death comes to relieve him or her.

By Academic Help 2018.
Adapted from: https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/descriptive/description-of-a-desert.
html, retrieved on April 25, 2018

Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions that
follow.
1. What are the main features of a desert as described in the above text?
2. Why does the author say that it is possible to live in desert?
3. What do you think would happen if someone dies in desert?
8.4.4. Application Activity
Write a 200 word essay describing ‘Mountain gorillas’
3. Expository essay

An expository essay should be an informative piece of writing that presents a
balanced analysis of a topic. In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a
topic using facts statistics and examples. An expository essay can take a wide range
of essay forms which include comparison and contrast, cause and effect, explanatory
or process essays.
Expository writing is a life skill. More than any other type of writing, expository
writing is a daily requirement of most careers. Understanding and following the
proven steps of the writing process helps all writers, including students, master this
type of essay writing.
Normally, the expository essay is composed of five paragraphs. The introductory
paragraph contains the thesis or main idea. The next three paragraphs, or body of
the essay, provide details in support of the thesis. The concluding paragraph restates
the main idea and ties together the major points of the essay.
Here are tips for each part of the expository essay structure and writing process:

1. In the prewriting phase, writers should take time to brainstorm about the
topic and main idea. Next, do research and take notes.
Create an outline showing the information to be presented in each
paragraph, organized in a logical sequence.
• When creating the initial draft, consider the following suggestions:
• The most important sentence in the introductory paragraph is the
topic sentence, which states the thesis or main idea of the essay. The
thesis should be clearly stated without giving an opinion or taking a
position.
• Each of the three body paragraphs should cover a separate point that
develops the essay’s thesis. The sentences of each paragraph should
offer facts and examples in support of the paragraph’s topic.
• The concluding paragraph should reinforce the thesis and the main
supporting ideas. Do not introduce new material in the conclusion.
2. Since an expository composition discusses an event, situation, or the views
of others, and not a personal experience, writers should use the third person
(“he,” “she,” “it” and “they”), and avoid “I” or “you” sentences.
3. In the revision phase, writers review, modify, and reorganize their work with
the goal of making it the best it can be. These considerations should be
kept in mind:
• Does the essay give an unbiased analysis that unfolds logically, using
relevant facts and examples?
• Has the information been clearly and effectively communicated to the
reader?
4. Watch out for “paragraph sprawl,” which occurs when the writer loses focus
and veers from the topic by introducing unnecessary details.
5. Is the sentence structure varied? Is the word choice precise?
6. Do the transitions between sentences and paragraphs help the reader’s
understanding?
7. Does the concluding paragraph communicate the value and meaning of
the thesis and key supporting ideas?
8. At this level, proofreading, correction of errors in grammar and mechanics
like spellings and punctuation marks and editing to improve on style and
clarity are very important.
8.4.5. Application Activity: Exploring an expository essay
The impact of rising of Teenage Gangs and its negative consequences
Teenagers constantly look for the place they belong to. Unfortunately, a vast
majority of teenagers take a wrong turn and get lost on their path to acceptance.
The rise of teenage gangs is a major problem nowadays.
Teenage gang is defined as an organized group of adolescents and/or young
adults who rely on group intimidation and violence to commit criminal acts with
the purpose to gain power, recognition and control.
The rise of teenage gangs is perfectly explained in a study published in the
Journal of Adolescent Health where researchers discovered there were 1,059,000
youth gang members in the United States in 2010. The primary reason why this
staggering number of gang members goes unnoticed is due to the fact that they
may not conform to popular perceptions of teen gang demographics.
Another potential reason why the total number of gangs and gang members
keeps increasing is because a great majority of crimes they commit usually goes
unreported. As a result, government officials find it difficult to gather exact data
about this growing issue.
Risk factors that enhance a teenager’s odds of joining a gang include drug or
alcohol abuse, negative influences, peer pressure, a strong desire for recognition
and belonging, lack of parental supervision and limited attachment to the
community.
Although the current data shows the staggering number of gang members, it is
assumed the problem could be even more severe as most of them do not fit into
the gang demographics and many crimes are not reported.
Finally, there is a growing need for the entire society to take necessary measures
and work on this issue. If not, the consequences could be far more severe.
Adapted from: https://au.edusson.com/bundles/asterfreelance/_layout/files/AuEdussonCom/
ExpositoryEssay.pdf retrieved on May 5, 2018
Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions
that follow.
1. What should society do in order to curb down the cropping up of
teenager gang groups? Use the following transitions and connectors for
expository essays .

2. Write an expository essay of 300 words about “the measures taken by the
government of Rwanda to curb the emergence of teenager gangs.”
4. Persuasive Essay
• Like an expository essay, a persuasive essay should always be based on facts.
This is the mere reason that persuasive essays are supposed to convince
the reader about a given issue or situation. But since the main purpose of a
persuasive writer is convincing, some little exaggeration could be allowed in
persuasive essays.
• A persuasive writer must build a case using facts, logic and building a sense of
clarity. The writer should present all sides of the argument.
Here are persuasive essay tips for each phase of the writing process:
1. The prewriting phase of writing a persuasive essay is extremely important.
During this phase, the writer should plan every aspect of the essay by:
• Choosing a position. Students should think about the issue and pick
the side they wish to advocate for.
• Understanding the audience. In order to write an effective persuasive
essay, the writer must understand the reader’s perspective. Is the reader
undecided or inclined to favor one side or the other?
• Doing research. A persuasive essay depends on solid and convincing
evidence.
• Don’t rely on a single source. Pull information from multiple websites
and reference materials. Speak with community experts and teachers.
Read and take notes. There is no substitute for knowledge of both sides
of the issue.
• Identifying the most convincing evidence, as well as the key points for
the opposing view.
• Creating an outline. Organize the evidence to build the strongest
possible argument.
2. Typically, the persuasive essay comprises five or six paragraphs: Introductory
paragraph, body paragraphs, opposing view paragraph and concluding
paragraph.
3. When writing the initial draft of a persuasive essay, consider the following
suggestions:
• The introductory paragraph should have a strong “argument” that grabs
the reader’s attention.
• Open with an unusual fact or statistic, a question or quotation, or an
emphatic statement.
• The thesis statement should leave no doubts about the writer’s position.
• Each body paragraph should cover a separate point, and the sentences
of each paragraph should offer strong evidence in the form of facts,
statistics, quotes from experts and real-life examples.
4. In the revision phase, the writer reviews, modifies, and reorganizes his/her
work with the goal of making it the best it can be. The following must be
taken into consideration:
• Does the essay present a firm position on the issue, supported by
relevant facts, statistics, quotes, and examples?
• Does the essay open with an effective “argument” that intrigues readers
and keeps them reading?
• Does each paragraph offer compelling evidence focused on a single
supporting point?
Is the opposing point of view presented and convincingly refuted?
• Do the transitions between sentences and paragraphs help the reader’s
understanding?
• Does the concluding paragraph convey the value of the writer’s position
and urge the reader to think and act?
5. Next, proofread and correct errors in grammar and mechanics like spellings
and punctuation marks, and edit to improve style and clarity.
Transitions and connectives that are used while writing persuasive essays:

8.4.6. Application Activity: Analysing a sample persuasive essay
Why Freelance work is better than Full-time work
Since the time freelancing became an option, wide discussions about what is better
between full-time jobs or freelancing have continued. An employee working in an
office has a guaranteed monthly salary, all kinds of bonuses, paid vacations and
sick days, and a number of other social benefits. On the other hand, a freelancer
is a self-employed person, so it is always his or her problem and responsibility
whether he or she wants to take a break, get sick, or lack income.
The first benefit of freelancing is a flexible working schedule and conditions. A
regular office worker gets up close to 7 a.m. and rushes through half the city
through bad weather, traffic jams and crowds of people to spend eight hours in
a cubicle, and then go back home. On the other hand, a freelancer does not have
to go to work every day: his or her home is the workplace in the majority of cases.
Besides, a freelancer often does not have a specific work schedule.
There is a tendency for workers to overstay in their offices, trying to deal with
the ever-increasing flow of daily tasks. Even when an office worker is at home
or on vacation, he or she continues being bombarded with work emails, phone
calls, and notifications and, in fact, office workers are expected to be available. A
freelancer, on the other hand, is his or her own manager, having to accomplish
only the work he or she has applied for. Freelancing may be an even better option
if you are a woman willing to dedicate your time to raising your children, but
without abandoning your career; men will find this option useful as well.
  Being a corporate employee has its own advantages, and it would be wrong to say
that full-time work is somehow inferior to freelancing. Office workers get a stable
income, enjoy social benefits such as paid vacations and sick days, and are, in
general, more protected than freelancers. However, freelancing can offer a number
of benefits that could make office work seem dull. Freelancing might not be for
everyone but perhaps everyone should try freelancing at least once in their life.
By Academic Help 2018.
Adapted from https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/persuasive/freelance-is-betterthan-full-time-work.html, retrieved on May 4, 2018
Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions
that follow.
1. State advantages and disadvantages of full-time work.
2. According to you, which style of work would you like to choose and why?
3. In 200 words, write a persuasive essay on “why and when to start learning
a foreign language.”
5. Definition Essay

In this kind of essay, the writer develops a long discourse in a style and by words
or phrases that seem to define a given subject. A definition essay discusses an
idea or concept or some personality in a manner that seeks to explain the nature
or its characteristics in greater details. Definition essays usually revolve around
philosophical and abstract topics.

There are some steps to follow for writing a definition essays:
• Choose a term you want to define, and introduce it to your readers. This can
be done in several ways, but your main goal at the outset is to indicate the
contents of your paper clearly.
• Use several sources (dictionaries or encyclopedias) to see how the term you
have chosen is usually defined. Then, think of a way to combine or merge them
to give your own, unique definition.
• Present the term you’ve chosen to your readers in the introductory part of your
paper.
• In the main body paragraphs, provide your readers with information about the
term.
• Think of a couple of sound examples that will fully illustrate and explain your
definition.
8.4.7. Application Activity: Analysing a sample definition essay:
Defining an educated person
We understand that if you go to school, you will learn a subject well, but we also
understand that many of us will see career paths that are not traditional, or linear
in nature. If all we learned was basic skills and knowledge, we would cease to
be educated the minute we stepped away from our chosen field of study. An
educated person is one who has undergone a process of learning that results in
enhanced mental capability to function effectively in familiar and new situations
in personal and intellectual life.

Being an educated person means being able to continuously learn. To have
knowledge and to know how to use it are both components of being educated. It
implies that the process of becoming an educated person is something that will
deliver a lifetime value, rather than simply a skill that can be used to get a job.

This lifetime value is one of the reasons education usually pays for itself down
the road. As students who become educated people are more adaptable, more
successful and better able to succeed when placed in difficult situations.

By ©2016 Bartleby.com, 2018.
Adapted from https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Definition-of-an-Educated-Person-P3QBWFMYRFA,
retrieved on May 4, 2018.
Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions
that follow.
1. According to the passage, what are characteristics of an educated person?
2. What do you understand by being an Educated person?
3. Write a definition essay of 250 words on this topic: Defining ethical
behaviour.

6. Compare and Contrast Essays

Compare and contrast essays are always constructed about two concepts or items
bringing out their similarities and differences. Point by point, the writer is supposed
to construct paragraphs which elaborate on the similarities of the two concepts,
ideas, or items. After exhausting the points of similarity, then point by point,
elaborate where the two concepts, items or personalities are similar.

There are six steps for writing a compare and contrast essay:
• Carefully considering two (or more) texts or items from which to develop the
compare and contrast essay. This is a kind of pre-writing work which can give
the basis to start the actual essay head-on.

• Making a list of identified key similarities and differences from the texts, that is
writing down everything regardless its size or importance.

• Selecting the most important points to become the central argument. At this
level, the most important points that mark similarities and differences are
noted.

• Writing an outline that will form the skeleton of the compare and contrast
essay. This is a breakdown or the flow of the essay, only the main points to
develop are noted. The introduction that lays out the general idea behind the
argument is set, followed by the body of the essay. This should be around four
paragraphs long.

• Adding textual details to the set outline to make the whole essay. This involves
supporting the major points with evidence from read texts.

• Editing after the essay has been fully developed to ensure that all errors have
been checked and corrected. This should be done for both content (faulty
arguments) and form ( grammar, spelling, etc.).

Transitions and connectives that will help you while writing compare and contrast
essays

8.4.8. Application Activity: Analysing a sample compare and contrast
essay:
Differences between good and bad bosses
Everyone knows how important it is to have favorable conditions at the workplace.
One of the most important factors, is the manager or the boss who directs the
working process. Let us try to figure out the differences between good and bad
managers, or bosses.There are bosses who are typical “emotional vampires or bad bosses.” These
people are extremely difficult to work with, and even though they may possess
traits necessary for performing their duties excellently, their subordinates usually

suffer severe stress because of their bosses’ psychological peculiarities.
According to the clinical psychologist Albert Bernstein, vampires or bad bosses
fall under four categories: anti socials, obsessive and compulsives, histrionics and
narcissists.

Bad bosses may be highly competent in regarding their field of work, but it is
the skill to manage personnel, to inspire rather than to enforce, which makes yet
another difference between the good and the bad boss.

A “good boss,” on the contrary, does not try to regulate everything, or put himself
or herself on a pedestal. Such a person is supportive, knows the weak and the
strong professional traits of each of his or her subordinates, listens to what staff
has to say, encourages personnel, and cares not just about the work done but also
about the team in general and about each of the team’s members.

And even though it is important for a manager to care about the tasks his or her
team must accomplish, a good manager will always consider the capabilities and
skills of his or her team, instead of blatantly demanding results without regarding
how people in the team feel. In fact, a “good” boss can possess all the traits of a
“bad” one: he or she can criticize, yell, or force people to do a lot of work within a
short period of time, for example.

In other words, many of the “nasty” things “bad” bosses do can be done by “good”
bosses as well, but a “good” boss uses such tactics only when it is necessary and
knows when to stop being pushy, unlike “bad” bosses, who know no other manner
of management.

The relationships between bosses and their employees greatly affect the
productivity and the quality of work within any company—this is why it is
important that these relationships are, if not friendly, then at least constructive
and respectful.

On the contrary, good bosses treat their subordinates with respect, consider
their emotions and professional capabilities, care about teamwork, try to inspire
employees instead of forcing them to do something, and even when they need to
be pushy and harsh, such bosses always know when to stop.
Academic Help 2018. Adapted from https://academichelp.net/
samples/academics/essays/comparecontrast/
differences-between-good-and-bad-bosses.html, retrieved on May 3, 2018
Read the text on pages 197-198 and carry out the following tasks:
1. Explain how some managers may impede the progression of a company.
2. Write a short summary of fifty words that justifies how to work with a bad
boss could affect harmony in family.
3. Write a compare and contrast essay of 150 words on this topic: Differences
between creation and evolution.

7. Cause and Effect Essay

Cause and effect essays are about reasons why things happen (causes) and what
happens as a result (effects). Cause and effect is a way of organizing and discussing
ideas in which situation one comes as a result of the other.

When writing a cause and effect essay, the chronology or order of events is of great
importance. For clarity one has to show how some events or situations lead to others.
In this case, the order of importance in which the events occur should be adhered
to. This order of events should be presented from the most or to the least important.
Steps to follow when writing a cause and effect essay:
• Distinguish between cause and effect:
To determine causes, ask, to identify effects, ask, “What happened because of
this?” Develop your thesis statement. State clearly whether you are discussing
causes, effects, or both. Introduce your main idea, using the terms “cause”
and/or “effect.
• Find and organize supporting details:
Back up your thesis with relevant and sufficient details that are organized. You can
organize details in the following ways:

• Chronological order: Details are arranged in the order in which the events
occurred.
• Order of importance: Details are arranged from least to most important or
vice versa.

• Categorical order: Details are arranged by dividing the topic into parts or
categories.
It is important to use appropriate transitions in order to blend details smoothly in
cause and effect essays. For this, the following transitional words and phrases are
needed:
• For causes:
Because, due to, one cause is, another is, since, for, first, second etc.
• For effects:
Consequently, as a result, thus, resulted in, one result is, another is, therefore
etc.
8.4.9. Application Activity: Analysing a sample cause and effect essay:
Causes and effects of global warming

There are many causes of global warming which affects human lives and health
in many aspects. Increase in environmental temperature and climate change
has become very clear over the last 50 years because of the increasing level of
greenhouse gases concentration (like water vapour, CO2, methane, ozone, sulphur
and nitrogen gases, etc.) in the atmosphere. Such greenhouse gases contribute to
increasing greenhouse effects.

The major cause of increasing greenhouse gas in the environment is burning of
fossil fuels which emit carbon dioxide and heat the atmosphere. Such greenhouse
gases have the capacity to absorb more heat from the sun and electricity used
by human beings in many ways, which in turn warm the whole atmosphere of
this planet. The effects caused by the greenhouse gases (water vapour, CO2,
methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, hydro fluorocarbons, Sulphur hexafluoride, per
fluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, etc) are called greenhouse effects.

Heating of the environment increases atmospheric temperature (by 3° to 5° C by
the year 2100), increases sea level (by 25 meter by year 2100) and heat, melts
glaciers, increases health disorders, changes climate, changes weather, increases
annual power of hurricanes, calls natural disasters (floods, heat waves, droughts,
tornadoes), lowers down the amount and quality of agricultural yields, enhances
glacial retreat, reduces summer stream flows, extinctions of various important
plants and animal species and so many. There are some other dangerous effects
of the global warming which continuously affect the lives of human beings, plants
and animals.

Global warming needs to be solved urgently by the active effort of each and every
human being living on this planet.

Read the text on pages 199-200 and answer the following questions:

1. List causes and effects of global warming mentioned in the passage.
2. What are the negative effects of global warming on human beings and
other living creatures?
3. Write a causes and effects essay of 200 words on “Environment pollution”
8. Process Essays
Process Essays are always written about topics which seek to explain how something
is done or works. In this kind of essay, the writer is supposed to lay down instructions
or directions one follows in the process of doing something. This may include how,
for example, to repair your computer or to bake bread (how to do something). On
the other hand, process essays which seek to elaborate on how something works
craft/develop their discourse in a style and phrases that inform the reader. Such
topics could revolve on, for example, how a computer works or a baking machine
works or how an X-ray works.

This type of essay involves a step by step explanation of how something happens or
is done. Getting steps in the correct order, helps to avoid confusion in the process
described. Thus keeping chronological order is important in this type of essays.

Writing a process essay is very simple, but only when the step-by-step approach that
allows for crafting a brilliant paper is respected:

Determine the target audience

Before starting writing, it’s important to think about the targeted audience and what
their expectations are.

Create a list of materials or tools

A process essay discusses how something is done, and we all know that in order
to do something, some materials or tools are needed. Therefore, before starting to
write, the writer should create a complete list of the tools or materials the reader will
need to understand the task being explained.

Make an outline or a plan

If research has been completed for this essay, the notes about what is planned for
the content should be available. It is always required for a process essay that the
writer goes through the task him or herself.

Start writing

It is always important to uphold the main structure of an essay. Every essay must
include an introduction, body and conclusion. In addition to this, the following tips
must be implemented:

• Draw the reader’s attention in the introduction
• Give the reader some clues
• Use transition words or phrases between sections
• Use the outline for guidance
• Group the steps in paragraphs
• Get into details
• Mention and describe the end product
• Reiterate and restate everything in the conclusion
• Proofread the essay several times
Conclusion
The conclusion of an essay is a short summary of what has been discussed in the
body.
8.4.10. Application Activity: Analysing a sample process essay: Seven
easy steps to quit smoking

Smoking is a scourge to countless individuals. Despite the numerous anti-smoking
campaigns held all over the world, the number of smokers has been declining
slowly. In addition, thousands of ex-smokers succumb to temptation and return
to this bad habit. They feel depressed due to the fact that their will was not strong
enough. All you need in order to quit is your intent to do it and your personal will.
This is the process that you can follow:
• The first step is to make a final decision to quit. Do not just fall for others’
exhortations; do not persuade yourself that you have to quit smoking as
soon as possible. Give your decision some time to ripen and make it when
you understand that you actually want to quit.
• Second, help yourself develop motivation. Start reading stories of people
who managed to quit for good; count how much money smoking costs you
per month, or per year; study statistics of deaths caused by smoking; find
some information about its impact on the human body.
• When you are done with steps 1 and 2, the third step is not to rush throwing
away your cigarettes. Instead, observe situations when you usually smoke.
You think about cigarettes in a number of typical situations: in the morning,
after taking food, when stressed or bored, while waiting, before going to
bed, and so on.
• The forth step is to assign a day when you are going to smoke your last
cigarette. Do not wait for this date with despair or fear of terrible trials
coming; do not delay. Instead, think of this day as the date of your release.
Then smoke your last cigarette.
• Fifth step is to understand that smoking is much more about psychological
addiction than physical addiction, so make a list of activities that would help
distract you from thoughts about cigarettes when they appear. For instance,
you can delve deeper into your job or hobbies, go jogging, ride a bike, go to
a concert, or perform any other healthy activity.
• Next step is to start a physical exercise routine. This will help you feel you
have moved on to a new life.
• Finally, you will experience a temptation to check if you have quit, to test
your willpower. Usually, a person decides to see if everything worked out,
smokes a cigarette, thinking that the habit is broken and that there is
nothing to worry about and returns to it again.

It is easier to say than to do. Still, quitting is an act worth doing. It will have a
significant, positive impact not only on your health, but also on your self-respect,
faith in yourself, and your ability to succeed in many more facets of life.

© Academic Help, 2018.
Adapted from: https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/process-papers/ retrieved on May 4, 2018
Read the essay on pages 202-2003 and answer the following questions:
1. How do you think people are engaging in smoking?
2. Write a short paragraph of 50 words that summarizes the process of
abandoning smoking.
3. Write a process essay of 200 words on the following topic: Process of self realization.
9. Recounting essays
Writing a type of recounting essay involves narrating about something that
happened in the past. Here, one must take care to explain what happened, where it
took place, when it happened, who was involved, and why it occurred.

Recounting essays should usually detail the order in which the events took place.

This means chronology or order of events is an essential aspect of recounting essays.
Normally, recounts should be based on facts, indicate procedures and revolve
around personal experience topics.

The purpose of a recount essay can be to inform, entertain or reflect and evaluate. It
can focus on a specific section of event or retell the entire story.

Pick an appropriate title: Most recounts have a title, and that title should summarize
the text in a few words.

Set the orientation: The orientation includes all of the background details the reader
will need to understand your story. You could also label the orientation as the
“setting” of your story.

Recall and relay the correct sequence of events. Your recount should describe one
significant incident, but each event or step that happened during that incident
happened in a specific order.

Pick out important details. A lot may have happened during the activity you describe
in your recount, but if you provide too many details, you can overwhelm or bore the
reader. Stick with important details that push the story along instead of slowing it
214 English Language For Associate Nurses, Student’s Book 6
down. As a general rule, only describe events that the reader would not be able to
predict.

Separate major parts into different paragraphs. Each major event in your recount
should have its own paragraph.

Include descriptive details as needed. Descriptive details may not seem necessary at
first, but they can help strengthen the image you’re describing in the mind of your
readers. Re-orient the reader. Near the end of the recount, you should note the setting again
to tie things up and remind the reader of what you were describing.

Transitions describe the order of events. A few examples include: first, next, later,
meanwhile, then, finally.
8.4.11. Application Activity: A nalysing sample recounting essay: A trip
to the national park

Last Saturday, my friends and I went for a trip to the National Park. The trip was
organized by Abu Bakar. We went there by bus. The journey took about 2 hours.
We chose the National Park because we wanted to get away for a few days
after a stressful week of final examination. The purpose of this trip was to let us
appreciate the beauty of nature and at the same time learn more about flora and
fauna species found there.

Our first activity was boat riding. We crossed a river to visit the Orang Asli
settlement. It was a unique experience as we got a chance to learn their culture
and how they lived. At that time, we knew the Orang Asli have equally varied
occupations and ways of life.

The next activity was cave exploring. The cave was very dark but luckily we
brought torchlight to explore what was in there. While we were walking, we saw
a population of bat hanging upside down. The supervisor in charge told us that
the bats were sleeping. They slept during the day and find food at night. We all
spellbound on how they slept without falling. After a while, we found a waterfall.

We made hay while the sun was shining and we took a dip in the waterfall. It was
breathtaking with beautiful scenery, chipping birds and cool crystal clear water.
We all shrieked and splashed each other as the icy water stung our bare skin. It
was definitely a relief from stress from the intense weather and exhausted day.
How could we resist such a great temptation? We saw a lot of fish swam around
full of life. We caught the fishes for barbecue at night. We decided to wrap our day
as the sun started to disappear.

On the next morning, we went for jungle trekking. This activity not only gave
us the rush of adrenaline but also built our stamina. All of us were fascinated at
seeing the wild animals, plants and rich biodiversity found in Malaysia. The flora
and fauna were very beautiful and colourful. My friend, Shasnaa, screamed as she
saw a huge millipede. We all burst into tears. We took photographs to parcel these
unique experiences. It was cool and refreshing in the vegetation. The fresh air that
surrounds the area was good for us to recover from the hustle and bustle of city
life. It is a pity this vegetation is facing greater danger of being lost to development.
Many people do not realize that it is a real gem. We returned to the chalet as the
clouds started to roll in. Thank God we had the chance to explore the jungle.

On the last day, we woke up early and packed our things to go home. All of us
craved to go for another trip as soon as possible.

© Copyright 2011 Diary/Notebook Theme by Site5.com
Adapted from http://teachernuha.blogspot.com/2012/10/writing-recount-trip-to-national-park.html,
retrieved on May 5th, 2018

Read the essay on pages 204-2005 and answer the following questions:
1. What was the purpose of the trip?
2. Mention some amazing places visited in the passage.
3. Write a recounting essay of 150 words on the trip that you have ever
attended or read from the newspapers or books.

8.4.12. Listening and speaking
Class Debate
Motion: “Failing an exam means that one is not intelligent”

8.5. Understanding and Responding to Instructions in
Examinations
8.5.1. Listening and Speaking: Role-Play a Dialogue
A Dialogue between two students after exams
Kalisa: Hello, Isimbi. How are you doing?
Isimbi:I am not actually fine today.
Kalisa: Why? Are you sick?
Isimbi: No, I am not sick but I think I failed.
Kalisa: But the questions were very clear.
Isimbi: How do you dare saying that questions were very clear while I could not even
understand what the teacher wanted us to do?
Kalisa: I am not getting you. Do you mean you didn’t understand examination
instructions?
Isimbi: Yes, the teacher was using fancy terms like “discuss”, “outline” etc.
Kalisa: Ooh! You should learn examination instructions. For example when the
teacher uses the term “discuss” they want you to investigate and examine, and
thereby explore the implications, advantages and disadvantages before drawing
your own conclusion.
Isimbi: What about “outline”?
Kalisa: If the examiner uses the term “outline” they want you to state your points in
a sketch form. While answering such questions, you do not have to present your
points in full sentences, but in the shortest and clearest possible form. You should do
this showing how points connect, develop or relate to other points.
Isimbi: Then why don’t they just tell us what to do instead of using those fancy terms?
Kalisa: Normally, teachers don’t use these terms to make our life a hell. On the
contrary, they want to make our task clear using very few words.
Isimbi: But I still think that we could understand better if they give instructions in the
straightforward way.
Kalisa: Yes, I am getting you. But it takes quite a lot more words to give instructions
in the straightforward way. Now, remember the terms I have just explained to you,
do you think the examiner should use all of those words while they could just use
one word?
Isimbi: I think you are right. We should learn the meaning of examination instructions.
See you.
Kalisa: See you, Isimbi.

Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions that
follow.
Notes:
1. Identify the problem Isimbi faced during the examination.
2. Does Isimbi appreciate the way teachers construct questions? Explain.
3. Do you think it is worth using terms that Isimbi refer to as “fancy terms” in
examination instructions? Justify your answer.
4. Account for Isimbi’s conviction as far as the importance of words used in
examination instructions that she called “fancy terms” are concerned.

When looking at an instruction or exam question, study the verbs your teacher or
examiner has used. You may be wondering why teachers or examiners use fancy
terms like ‘discuss’ or ‘evaluate’ in questions.

The person who sets the questions isn’t using ‘fancy terms’ to try to catch you out.
On the contrary, their purpose is to clarify your task. That way, there’s no ambiguity
and no room for misunderstanding. For instance, ‘illustrate’ asks you to explain using
examples, diagrams or drawings, not just to explain generally. But if you’re asked to
‘summarise’, should you give an example? No. So it’s to help you, not to hinder you,
that these terms are used in assignments and exams. (Tracy, 2008)

The above words may look ambiguous, but they can be translated into very
straightforward language. So why not just use the straightforward language in the
first place? Simply because it takes quite a lot more words to say it the straightforward
way. For instance words such as:

Compare would mean find similarities and differences, then weigh up whether the
items have more or less in common.

Discuss would mean examine important aspects of; argue all sides before drawing
a conclusion one way; outline the arguments, backing them up with evidence;
consider the implications.

Therefore, it’s worth spending some time and effort now learning the meaning of
question instructions that come up most frequently in different subjects. Not only
will you improve your grades, you’ll also do so while spending considerably less time
and effort than before. For instance, “contrast” usually means, “Show differences”. It
tells that you don’t need to focus on similarities. “Outline” asks for a brief description
only. “Comment” invites you to give your own opinion, not anyone else’s. Can you
see how much time and hassle you could be saving yourself?

Learn the translations that are useful for your exams. Remember that the examiner
isn’t trying to catch you out. He or she has a marking scheme (a score sheet, basically)
and for every point that you make that’s also on that scheme, you effectively get a
mark. The better you understand the tasks that the examiner has in mind, the more
marks you’ll get.

How do you learn this huge list? You don’t. Instead, look over a few past papers in
your subject to find out what kind of question instructions you’re likely to get in each
topic. For instance, in English, you’ll often see question instructions like “discuss” or
“compare and contrast”. In Geography and History you may be asked to “outline” or
“evaluate”. Economics questions often ask you to “calculate”.

Once you’ve familiarised yourself with the question instructions that relate to your
topic, you may find it helpful to try a few past exam questions in timed conditions
to get some practice at carrying out the relevant tasks. You don’t necessarily need to
write out your answer in full; it’s usually enough to do timed plans.

Past paper practice of this kind will help you to get proficient at handling these terms
so that they stop antagonizing you and give you confidence in the exam.

Adapted from Understanding Question instructions in Assignments and Exams by Eileen Tracy (2008)

There are two categories of questions:

Objective and subjective questions. With this background, it’s recommended to take
time to carefully read the question.

a. Objective Questions
They require plain and definite answers which can be easily traceable in the text. As
far as other types of questions are concerned, Task Oriented Objective Prose Passage
here, is used to refer to either a comprehension passage, an extract from a text/
novel and speech. Questions require factual answers that are not influenced by your
personal emotions, feelings or beliefs.

Below are the common instruction terms for the Task-Oriented Questions:

1. State: In questions on prose passage, this instruction requires you to
briefly present your points as laid down in the text. There is no need for
any explanation. However, in the Anglo-phone system, the conventional
approach is having your answer in full sentences. In other general questions
2. Outline: This is stating your points in a sketch form. You do not have to
present your points in full sentences, but in the shortest and clearest
possible form. Do this showing how points connect, develop or relate to
other points.
3. Define:(something, concept, or anything as the examiner may wish). This
is to identify and briefly state the traits or characteristics or appearances or
attributes of something, someone or a specified concept as required by the
examiner.
4. Describe: (something, place, someone or a process of…). Describing
involves talking about the how and what of an event, person, or process in
ample detail. Such questions where you are asked to describe demand your
effort in creating a clear and vivid image of something.
5. Compare and Contrast: Comparing and contrasting involves laying down
the similarities and differences between two or more items, events, persons,
processes, situations, activities and so on. Normally, such questions demand
factual ideas not subjective ones. It is, therefore, unnecessary to patch up
the aspects of your personal views whenever dealing with such questions.
This is especially so while attempting passage prose questions. In most
cases, these points are clearly laid out in the passage.
6. Summarize: (the process of doing… or making,…the attributes of…, the
reasons of what or whatever…). Summarizing requires stating the major
points on something with utmost precision and conciseness. Your response
to a question of summary does not demand illustrations or examples to
support the points raised. Simply state your point.
7. Enumerate: The instruction term “Enumerate” whenever used by the
examiner, shows that he or she is not interested in a detailed response or
answers. Such a question requires that you recount your points one by one,
in a concise form. The term is equivalent to and demands as much as list or
outline questions.
8. Identify: The Instruction term “Identify” as used in Examination questions,
if used in isolation, invites a candidate to pick out the key features of
something. For instance, identify the figures of speech in the passage above.
The answer to such a question constitutes a simple outline of the figures
of speech like metaphors, symbolism, personification, allusions, similes,
metonymy, and the like as may be traceable in a given passage prose.

Although this instruction term is possible in the Prose and Poetry
examinations, it is very unlikely in the examination questions of other
literary genres. More often than not, examination questions on the novel
and Drama demand very comprehensive discussions.
(that are not on prose passage) this instruction simply requires you to
present ideas clearly but briefly.

b. Subjective Questions
Content - Oriented or Subjective Questions do also require the candidate’s knowledge
of the text or a passage prose. The textual knowledge has to be backed up by one’s
personal views and analysis. Sometimes, a candidate may have to borrow some
illustrations and examples outside the particular passage being examined. For that
matter, the marking scheme (guide) of such questions is always open and flexible.
The major reason being that the answers and illustrations may vary from one
candidate to another. No matter the variation in illustrations, the core points must
owe their bearing to the content of the text, that is, the passage under examination.
(Amooti, 2016)

Below is a check list of the common instruction terms used in subjective Essay
questions:
1. Account for: Explain the reasons for, one must give an indication of all
relevant circumstances leading to a given situation. In other words, this
Instruction phrase “account for” requires the candidate to give reasons why
something or someone is the way he or she is or what happened, and how
it happened. The phrase should not be confused with “Give an account of…”
which asks only for a detailed description.
2. Analyze: The process of analyzing involves studying something in depth,
identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics or elements or
nature of that object in detail. On the other hand, analyzing entails breaking
down an issue or idea into its component terms, discussing each of the
components, and then showing how they interrelate.
3. Assess: A question which uses “assess” as the key instruction term requires a
candidate to make clear judgment about an issue or concept. The process of
assessment consists of examining the idea closely with a view weighing up
all the elements of the idea or situation. One has to consider, in a balanced
way the strengths and weaknesses or points for and against a proposition in
a given situation. Some other times, assessing may involve considering the
value or importance of something, paying attention to its positive, negative
and disputable aspects.
Finally, a candidate is expected to point out some resolution by giving a
neutral position
4. Comment: The Instruction term “Comment” is common in essay questions
of subjective orientation. It has more or less the same connotation with
“analyze” or “assess” as already explained above.
The act of commenting as some essay questions may demand requires
analyzing an issue or idea with a focus on giving your opinion on the
strengths and loopholes of the subject. Of course, it would be more
convincing to support your views with reference to appropriate sources.
5. Criticize or “write a critical analysis”: A question that asks a candidate to
criticize seeks for one’s skill of judgment. The onus is on giving your judgment
about a statement or a body of work or emerging trends as advanced in
a given text: passage prose, film, novel or poem. This demands that you
spell out a judgment on the value or truth or sustainability of something
or a tendency. In all cases of criticism, we are expected to express ourselves
on the correctness or merit of the factor under consideration. Depending
on the nature and content of what you are asked to criticize, you can also
discuss both the limitations and good points of the matter.
Whatever the case, your discussion should keep in the confines of the text
under consideration. And needless to say, you have to base your judgment
on convincing evidence and concrete examples.
6. Discuss: “Discuss” is probably the most common Instruction term ever used
by examiners in all disciplines across all combination options. The instruction
term invites a candidate to give his or her views on the topic in question.
Discursive question topics require that we investigate and examine, and
thereby explore the implications, advantages and disadvantages. Your
personal view is of paramount importance in questions of such nature. This
type of question calls for a complete and detailed analysis of both sides
of the coin. The best way of crowning a discursive answer is to stress your
personal standpoint about the matter in the conclusive paragraph.
7. Evaluate: In an evaluation question, a candidate is expected to present a
careful appraisal of the issue or notion at hand. The appraisal should stress
both the advantages and limitations; that is, the pros and cons of, let us say,
a situation like crisis, an invention, or one’s apparent statement of victory.
The act of evaluating an issue or notion calls for a critical examination first.
Subsequently, you should give a judgmental observation regarding the
utility, validity, and authenticity of the matter under consideration. Besides
your personal opinion, an evaluation will be more convincing if supported
by relevant illustrations.
8. Explain: The “explain” question expects a candidate to clarify, elucidate,
and interpret the point or notion he or she is presented with. In the
answer to such a question, it is imperative that one fully states the “how”
and “why” to reconcile any differences in opinion or experimental results.
This is possible by stating causes, progression and effect of trends or
tendencies. The purpose should be making the conditions or ideas that
give raise to whatever you are examining very crystal clear. In most cases,
this is achievable by spelling out the reasons accounting for the important
features or developments related to a debatable issue.
9. How far…?: The “How far…?” question is similar to questions running thus
“To what extent…?”. Questions of this nature expect you to make a case
or present your argument. Your argument should reflect an awareness of
alternate or even contradictory views about the concept or idea under
discussion.
The opening or introductory paragraph should clearly state your verdict
as to whether there is a big extent or insignificant level of what you are
requested to discuss. If the question is on prose passage, your stand should
always be based on the evidence portrayed in the text.
10. Illustrate: A question which seeks illustrations usually requires that you
explain or clarify your point or argument. The best aspects of illustration
are presenting a figure, pointing out a case or event in the text (for prose
passages), and giving a concrete example to justify your view. Illustrations
are meant to make your point clear and explicit by use of valid examples.
11. Justify: “Justify” is another common instruction term in essay examinations
across the Humanities. When you are instructed to justify your answer or
idea, you must present evidence to prove or show grounds for a decision
or an event. In this kind of a question, the evidence or illustration should
be presented in a convincing manner to make the examiner or any other
reader believe what you say.
The examination instruction terms above are adopted from An Integrated Approach to Prose Appreciation
by Mugumya Amooti
8.5.2. Application Activity
Copy the crossword puzzle below into your exercise book and complete it with
words in relation to writing and examinations.
Across
1. Act of reading very fast through a written text in order to get general
information about it.
2. Advice and information about how to answer a question.
3. An examination instruction that requires you to explain using examples,
diagrams or drawings.
4. An examination instruction that requires you to investigate and examine,
and thereby explore the implications, advantages and disadvantages
before drawing a conclusion.
5. An alphabetical list, such as one printed at the back of a book showing
page on which a subject, name, etc. is found.
Down
1. A short piece of writing on a particular subject, especially one done by
students as part of the work for a course.
2. A way of discovering, by questions or practical activities, what a student
knows or can do.
3. A problem used in an exam to test a person’s knowledge or ability.
4. A reaction to a question.
5. A person who sets and marks exams to test people’s knowledge or
proficiency.
8.5.3. Sounds and spelling
Spellings
Rewrite the paragraph below by correcting misspelled words.

All examinations are anonymous. Therefore, do not write your name on the answer
booklet. You should write only your matriculation/ registration number, correctly
and legibly, in the space provided on the cover of each answer booklet. Providing
incorrect/illegible matriculation number could risk your answer book being
considered void.
Pronunciation

Practise reading the words below. You can use the dictionary to check their
pronunciation. The words are read as follows:
1. Index / ‘ɪndɛks/
2. Essay / ˈɛseɪ/
3. Contents / ˈkɒntɛnts/
4. Instructions / ɪnˈstrʌkʃənz /
5. Evidence / ˈɛvɪdəns/
6. Question / ˈkwɛsʧən/
8.5.4 Listening and speaking
Recite the following poem:
Exam Stress
What’s this convulsion all around my neck?
I’ve bitten all my nails like a nervous wreck!
Hormones are flying from all of glands
Thinking my entire future lay right here in my hands.

My heartbeat is towering, I’m breathing so fast,
I’m still wondering how long these feelings will last!
All these negative thoughts are rising to my head
How I really wish I was dead instead!

Relaxing is the key many people told me,
But I never realised how hard it would be.
So all I can do now is hope and pray
That when I enter my exam these feelings will go away!

If those thoughts remain fixed in my head,
I would certainly fail my mother always said!
So I’m trying to think of things which are more cheerful,
But I’m unable to forget the thoughts that are truly fearful!

By Sujan Siva
Read the above poem and answer the questions:
1. Explain the speaker’s feelings as depicted in the first and second stanza.
2. Does the speaker accept the solution suggested by people around her?
Explain.
3. What does the speaker’s mother advise her or him to do?
4. Identify and comment on the speaker’s resolution.

8.6. UNIT SELF ASSESSMENT
8.6.1: Comprehension and vocabulary
Effects of Social Media on Communication Skills

With the emergence of Facebook, the way people communicate with each other
changed forever. A social network allowing users to share the events of their
lives through posting photos and status updates, to monitor the lives of their
friends, and to communicate directly via a built-in messenger has revolutionized
Internet communication, causing millions of people all over the world to share
all kinds of information about themselves. There were, of course, other social
networks before Facebook, but none of them garnered such a significant user
base, remained as persistent, and continued to act as an effective form of
communication as much as Facebook did.

Along with Facebook, currently there are many other social networks, each with
their own features and purposes; what unites them all, though, is the idea of
sharing. Seemingly, this should positively impact the communication skills of
users, since it allows communication even for people far away from each other,
or who are unable to communicate live. However, there have been numerous
research studies proving the opposite: social media platforms not only impair a
user’s ability to share thoughts, but distort communication processes, creating
more problems than they solve.

Speaking of the positive effects of social networks, they lie on the surface.
According to surveys, 39% of respondents reported feeling closer to their friends
because of social media, while 26% of the sample felt that they had more friends
because of social media (NR Media). Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and other similar
services make daily communications between family members, friends, and
business partners easier, more accessible, and independent of circumstances,
such as distance. Communities existing on such platforms unite people sharing
similar interests or concerns, and allow the representatives of various cultural
backgrounds to reach each other with no constraints. Helping strangers meet and
enabling initial communication between them. This is what social networks are
definitely good for.

At the same time, numerous research studies prove that social media platforms
negatively affect people’s social skills. Probably the most alarming phenomenon
connected to the extensive use of social media services is the decrease in
quality of interpersonal communication. One of the big problems in modern
interpersonal communication is the lack of interest people have for face-to-face
communication; even today, there are many people (especially millennials, or
younger) who prefer to solve work or personal problems via social messaging
systems. Approximately 93 percent of communication today is already nonverbal,
and thus requires an additional means of helping people understand each
other (such as smileys or emojis ), since text does not convey the total palette of
intonations or facial expressions. This brings up several problems; for example,
without these means, it is often more difficult to understand another person in
a messenger system (the classical “he/she did not insert smileys, so I thought
he/she is mad at me”); or, in real life, it may become harder to differentiate and
understand real emotions. According to some experts, even families prefer
texting over face-to-face chat. All this leads to difficulties in professional and
personal relationships (Rampages.us).

Substituting real life experiences and events with Facebook-format online
updates is another problem. Studies show that about 11 percent of adults
prefer to stay at home on weekends and make posts on Facebook about
how much fun they are having, instead of going out and acquiring real-life
experiences. According to Hussein Chahine, the founder of the service Yazino,
“Communication is constantly evolving. Some people are as used to seeing their
friends’ online avatar as they are their face […] People increasingly prefer quick
and frequent engagement with instant updates on news than a prolonged chat
and are also finding new ways to catch up with friends from the comfort of
their sofa.” Mark Clennon, a graduate of the University of South Florida, says
that “People tend to want to show others that they are having fun than actually
having fun themselves […] There’s a greater desire to share with other people
you barely know, than actually hanging out with friends and making memories”
(USA Today College).
This is directly connected to another problem: “Facebook depression.” Generally
speaking, it is the sense of inferiority occurring when people (teenagers, mostly)
compare their real lives to the lives of their Facebook friends based on the posts
these friends make online and completely missing out on the fact that what
they see is not necessarily true (NYBH). As a result, an interesting and alarming
phenomenon emerges: many people sit at home, busy creating visibility of
living fulfilled, happy lives, and suffer when they see how fulfilled the lives of
other people are—who, in their turn, sit at home, busy creating visibility of
living fulfilled, happy lives. This is a poignant example of a vicious circle.

Yet another impairment of communication skills caused by the extensive use of
social media platforms is the impoverishment of language. Using messengers,
people often use shorthand and shortened versions of words in order to
type and deliver their messages as quickly as possible. However, such means
of communication are much less effective than conventional ones (or rather,
traditional, since contractions, slang, and abbreviations such as “brb,” “u r,” “m8,”
“dunno,” and so on have already become almost conventional), and people
getting used to them can experience difficulties in real-life interpersonal
communication (Rampages.us). This is not to mention illiteracy, which is already
becoming a scourge of this generation communicating through messengers.

Although social media may help people establish initial contact and aid people
in uniting into groups under certain interests, they also cause a number of
problems. In particular, nonverbal communication is gradually becoming one of
the dominant forms of interpersonal interaction, negatively affecting people’s
ability to deal with personal contact and meet the reactions and emotions of
other people in real life. A significant percent of adults (up to 11 percent) prefer
staying at home and communicating via their devices rather than going out
and acquiring real-life experiences. This, along with “Facebook depression” and
the overall impoverishment of language and communication skills, is alarming,
and requires adequate and timely measures.
Adapted from https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/cause-effect/the-effects-of-socialmedia.html retrieved on April 26, 2018

Read the text on pages 215-217 and answer the following questions:
1. Explain how anyone can avoid Facebook depression.
2. Identify at least three effects of social media on interpersonal
communication skills.
3. Write a paragraph of 60 words to justify how people are positively
benefiting from social media in different ways.
4. How do Hussein Chahine and Mark Clennon consider people who are
using social media on communication nowadays?
5. Match the following words in column A to their meanings in column B

8.6.2: Grammar and phonology

I. Fill in gaps with the transition words in the box below:
As soon as, in order to, since, until, whenever, although, moreover,
nevertheless, otherwise & therefore.
a. Mukamana did not revise her notes; ………………….she passed the
exam. (nevertheless)
b. You must reach the examination room on time, …………….you will
be dismissed. (otherwise)
c. Students need to understand examination instructions…………
answer correctly. (in order to)
d. ………he can, the teacher will give you past papers to revise. (as soon
as)
e. Please be on time; ………………try to be early. (moreover)
f. …………..you are given an exam, read instructions carefully before
answering. (whenever)
g. Kalisa is sitting for the national examination this year, …………….he
is studying seriously. (therefore)
h. ……………….she was sick, she did all the exams. (although)
i. ……………….last week, we have done ten tests. (since)
j. Don’t open your exam booklet…………. the bell rings. (until)
II. Circle the letter of the word that correctly identifies the appropriate
transition word or phrase. Then underline the kind of transition word you
have used.
a. . …………. REB introduced online registration programme, candidates
had difficulties registering.
a. Nevertheless b. Because c. Before d. Thus
The transition word indicates: addition, cause and effect or time
b. If you want to pass an exam, there is a number of things you need to
care about. …………… , reading instructions.
a. for instance b. in contrast c. similarly d. whereas
The transition word indicates: illustration/example, comparison or
contrast
c. ... ……….most of students don’t like fancy terms in exams, those terms
help to avoid ambiguity .
a. Until b. Because c. Even though d. Consequently
The transition word indicates: time, contrast or addition
d. The exam of English was as difficult……………the one of Kinyarwanda.
a. after b. as c. as a result d. like
The transition word indicates: cause and effect, time or comparison
e. The exam questions were badly designed, …………………they were
not readable.
a. Moreover b. Because c. Just as d. Since
III. The transition word indicates: comparison, addition or cause and effect6)
Give phonological transcription of the following words.

8.6.3. Summary Writing
Causes of lung cancer
Among the terminal diseases humanity has not yet learned to treat, cancer is
probably one of the most feared illnesses. Unlike AIDS or other diseases widely
spread in countries with low standards of living, cancer affect many countries
including both rich and poor equally. Among the variety of different types of
cancer, one of the most common is lung cancer; the environment in which people
live in the 21st century greatly contributes to the development of this type of
cancer.

8.6.4. Essay writing
Write an essay of around 350 words on one of the following topics:
1. Should student’s textbooks be replaced by notebook computers?
2. Should money be spent on space exploration?

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S6: English

General

UNIT 8: WRITING AND EXAMINATIONS

UNIT 8: WRITING AND EXAMINATIONS

Table of contents