Course: S6: English

Topic outline

General
UNIT 1: RWANDA AND THE REGION: GEOLOGY
UNIT 1: RWANDA AND THE REGION: GEOLOGY
Key unit competence:
Language use in the context of Geology of Rwanda and the region.
Introductory Activity:
Observing and interpreting pictures
Fig 1: Rwandan mountains and valleys Fig 2: Rwanda location in Africa
After observing the above pictures, carry out the following tasks
1. Rwanda has a lot of mountains and valleys. Discuss the theories on
how they were formed. Use the Passive Voice with Present Simple and
adverbial clauses of time in your answers.
2. Discuss the consequences of volcanic eruption on agriculture and
tourism. Use adverbial clauses of time in your answers.
3. Narrate any geological event you have ever witnessed or heard of.
4. Look at the map in Fig.2 above and identify the location of Rwanda in
Africa.
5. Write two paragraphs explaining the compass location of Rwanda in
terms of its borders with neighboring countries.
1.1. Describing Maps
1.1.1. Reading and Writing
Reading Comprehension: Location of Rwanda
Rwanda is a mountainous landlocked country located in central eastern Africa. It
covers 24,668 square kilometres of land and 1,670 square kilometres of water. The
capital city of Rwanda is called Kigali where all the ministries and headquarters of
big institutions are found. In the west it is bordered by the Democratic Republic of
Congo, Uganda in the north, Tanzania in the east, and Burundi in the south. Rwanda’s
latitude and longitude is 2° 00’ S and 30° 00’ E respectively. Kigali, the capital, is
located within 1º 57’ S and 30º 04’ E latitude and longitude.
When tourists come to Rwanda, they can visit different tourist destinations, among
which are jungles, savannahs, volcanoes, lakes, and forests. People like visiting
Rwanda for different reasons but mountain gorilla population is popularly perceived
as the key reason for many tourists to visit Rwanda. The Volcanoes National Park is
the only place where tourists can see these mountain gorillas.
Besides mountain gorillas, tourists can also visit chimpanzees and monkeys in
Nyungwe National Park. People who visit Nyungwe National Park can also enjoy
watching more than 300 different bird species.
A significant portion of Rwanda’s economy is based on mineral extraction. Rwanda is
the foremost producer of tungsten in Africa, producing 70% of Africa’s total output.
Rwanda is Africa’s second highest producer of tin and coltan, accounting for 20%
and 30% of the country’s output, respectively. Rwanda also produces 9% of the
world’s tantalum and gemstones. Even though a substantial portion of the country’s
economy is based on mineral extraction, Rwanda has in the past shut down mineral
extraction due to environmental concerns.
Read the above text and using complete sentences, answer the questions below:
1. Tell where Rwanda is located pointing out latitude and longitude degrees.
2. Name different attractive tourist destinations of Rwanda.
3. Which is the most attractive tourist destination in Rwanda and why?
4. Point out any other three tourist destinations that are not mentioned in the
text.
5. Discuss the contribution of tourism industry to the economy verse other
economic activities in Rwanda.
1.1.1.1. Writing: Aspects of a Composition
When we write, our objective is to communicate with the reader. Your composition
should therefore convey a clear message to the readers. Any piece of composition is
made of three main parts:
a. Introduction
An introduction is always intended to draw the reader’s attention to the whole
composition. It could begin with a general statement or question, sometimes called
the “thesis statement” or “thesis question.” This should be followed by a summarised
presentation of the main point with which to develop the body of the composition.
The introduction should also set the stage for the writer to guide the reader into the
gist of the topic. An introduction should be concluded with a transition sentence
that leads the reader into the body of the composition.
b. Body (Argument)

The body of a written piece is where one elaborates, defends, and expands the main
points stated in the introduction. The body should support the main argument with
supporting evidence or examples to illustrate the point.

The body of the composition is always made of different paragraphs based on the
number of points making the topic. Each topic takes an independent paragraph. As
one makes or argues a case, it is better to ensure that the strongest point is presented
as early as possible.
c. Conclusion

A conclusion is normally a single and concise paragraph in which a final appeal to
the reader is made. It is a finishing, all-encompassing statement that wraps up the
whole presentation in a powerful statement. The writer is expected to express his
or her final opinion on the matter discussed. The purpose of the conclusion is to
leave the reader with an idea or thought that captures the essence of the body while
provoking further reflection and consideration
1.1.1.2. Techniques of writing a good paragraph
• A paragraph is normally a body of sentences developing one main point. Thus,
each sentence of the paragraph should explain more on the main point. They
shouldn’t raise a different point.
• Every paragraph should have a topic sentence. A topic sentence gives the main
idea of a paragraph. It usually occurs as the first sentence of the paragraph.
• Every sentence in a paragraph must be grammatically correct.
• After explanatory sentences which give details about the main topic, there is
always need to have a closing sentence. This should sum up the topic in the
paragraph.
• A good paragraph must focus on the main idea, presented logically and should
have a sense of coherence and completeness.
For example
Rwanda has a temperate tropical climate. It has four seasons, two of them being
wet and the others hot. The hot seasons always alternate with the cold ones. This
makes it conducive for agricultural production throughout the year.
1.1.2. Application Activities
I. Write a short paragraph explaining the relationship between latitude and
longitude, and time and climate.
II. Suppose that you won a competition and as a reward you are allowed
to visit a tourist destination of your choice. Write a short composition of
around 200 words specifying your choice and expectations during the tour.
III. Write a 300 word composition explaining what would happen if all Rwanda
National Parks were given to farmers.
1.1.3. Listening and Speaking: Debating Techniques
1.1.3.1. Definition of a Debate
A debate is a structured contest in form of oral arguments about an issue or a topic.A
A formal debate involves two teams expressing their arguments on the topic.
Normally, there is a team which proposes or argues in support of the topic while
the second team is on the opposition side. Each team consists of two or more main
speakers.

Such a debate is always governed by a number of rules, as explained below:

• Each team is expected to advance two or three arguments, and two to three
rebuttal speeches. The proposing team gives its argument first, followed by
the rebuttals from the opposing team. There is always a winding up speech or
summarised argument by a selected member of each team.
• The first speaker on each side is supposed to define the key words or terms of
the motion as the basis of advancing his or her points.
• If the opposing side challenges the correctness of a definition advanced by the
proposer, the opposing team provides its view on the matter.
• Each team of the class debate must advocate or argue in support of his or her
view on the topic.
• In order to establish an assertion, a team must support its arguments with
enough evidence and logic to convince the judges. Facts must be accurate.
Visual materials are permissible to convince the judges.
• In case of a query, the question should be clear and relevant to the motion of
the debate.
• As a matter of procedure, each speaker is expected to respond to questions
as soon as he or she concludes his or her presentation speech. The speaker
concerned may respond to the question personally, although any other
member of his or her team can come in to assist.
• If anyone, whether in the audience or among the main speakers, feels
unconvinced by a speaker’s argument, he or she is at liberty to interrupt the
speaker by raising a point of information. However, the chairman of the debate
is also at liberty to either permit or object to the point of interruption.
• The decision about the winning side will be entirely based on the arguments
made and points awarded by a team of juries or judges.

Adapted from George H.W. Wilson (1957) Competitive Debate: Rules and Techniques, New York:
McCoy Musgrave http://homepage.ntu.edu.tw/~karchung/debate1.htm retrieved on March 20th,
2018
1.1.3.2. Important Prerequisites and Tasks for a Debate
Team members should:
• Research on the topic and prepare logical arguments.
• Gather supporting evidence and examples to back their arguments.
• Anticipate counter arguments and prepare rebuttals or responses.
• Plan the order and ideas or points with which to argue and support their points
of view.
Motion: “Farmers should be allowed to grow crops in national parks”
1.1.4 Application Activity
Class Debate
1.2. Describing Geological Features
1.2.1. Reading and Writing: Exploring images and dialogues
1.2.1.1. Observing and Discussing Images
Study the following images and discuss what is expressed in each of them.
Information provided in the dialogue below can help you.

affectionate adventurous, etc.
For more information, visit: https://descriptivewriting.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/
describing-aforest/ to learn how you can describe a forest. Retrieved on March16th, 2018
1.2.1.2. Reading Comprehension: A dialogue
Kamali: Hello, Kayitesi
Kayitesi: Hello, Kamali.
Kamali: I am curious about what I heard students of senior two discussing.
Kayitesi: About which subject?
Kamali: Geography.
Kayitesi: You are lucky! I may help you understand since I am in senior six MEG. What
were they talking about?
Kamali: I don’t know whether it is true, but one of them was saying that mountains
were not originally there. He said, if I remember well there is a kind of magic force
that creates them.
Kayitesi: No, it’s not magic. Normally, mountains and valleys are formed by the
process of faulting and folding.
Kamali: What is faulting?
Kayitesi: Faulting refers to the fracturing or cracking of the crystal rocks caused by
tectonic forces of compression and tension that operate in the earth’s crust. For
example, block mountains and rift valleys are formed by faulting.
Kamali: Could you explain more? I am not getting it.
Kayitesi: Have you ever heard of “earth crust”?
Kamali: Yes, my friend who is in senior five told me that it is the solid outermost part
of the earth which consists of rocks that make up the continents and bed of oceans.
Kayitesi: Right. Now I think that you will understand. In brief, faulting is an internal
process in which the earth’s crust is fractured and rocks get displaced. This happens
as a result of compression and tension. You can borrow Geography books of senior
two and see the figures.
Kamali: Now I think that I am getting it. Tell me more about those block mountains
and rift valleys.
Kayitesi: Block mountains are created when compressional forces produce parallel
faults and the middle block between the faults is lifted due to further compression.
And remember, a fault is a fracture along which movement occurs.
Kamali: Do you mean that a block mountain is formed when the land is pushed
upwards by compression and tension?
Kayitesi: You have got it.
Kamali: Can’t that faulting cause natural calamities?
Kayitesi: Yes, you are right. When the movement caused by tensional forces occurs
rapidly. This can cause the earth to shake and vibrate thus resulting into earthquakes.
Kamali: Can you give me an example of a block mountain?
Kayitesi: Yes, examples of block mountains include the Rwenzori (Uganda), Usambara
(North Eastern Tanzania), Nyiru and Ndotoi ranges between Mt. Kenya and Lake
Turkana in Kenya.
Kamali: Now tell me about folding.
Kayitesi: Folding happens when two pieces of a tectonic plate come together and
push against each other.
Kamali: And how does it result into a mountain?
Kayitesi: When those two pieces of tectonic plates push against each other as a result
of compressional forces, rocks bend slowly over a long period of time and form folds
which are called mountains.
Kamali: Can you explain a bit further?
Kayitesi: Take a piece of paper and place it on the table.
Kamali: Let me look for a paper.
Kayitesi: Now push the ends of the paper together. Don’t you see that the paper is
getting a big bulge in the middle?
Kamali: Yeah
Kayitesi: That bulge is like the folding that happens on Earth. You have got ripples in
the surface. These high points of the ripples are called anticlines. These low points of
the ripples are synclines.
Kamali: This is amazing. I think that now I can let you go to the library. Thank you
very much.
Kayitesi: See you.
Read the above conversation and answer questions that follow:
1. On the basis of the above dialogue, explain how tensional forces can cause
an earthquake.
2. Giving examples, explain what is meant by the term block mountains. How
are they formed?

1.2.2. Application Activities

1.2.3. Definition and Characteristics of a Piece of Discourse
a. The definition of a descriptive piece of discourse
b. The characteristics of descriptive discourse
c. Some adjectives you can use to describe things, places and people.
For example:
City: active, bustling, noisy, busy, clean, dirty, windy,
Traffic: loud, congested, snarled,

Before doing the activity above, read the following notes on how to construct a
descriptive piece of discourse.
Descriptive discourse is an art of portraying the appearance or features of a place,
event, person, objects etc. in the reader’s mind so that he/she gets a clear view of
what is being said.
• A good descriptive piece of work whether oral or written, includes vivid sensory
details that paint a picture. It should appeal to all the reader’s senses of sight,
hearing, touch, smell and taste.
• A good descriptive discourse often makes use of figurative language such as
analogies, similes and metaphors to help the writer make his or her message
clear.
• A good descriptive discourse uses active verbs and clear adjectives to give the
reader a clear understanding and view of what the writer says.
• By choosing vivid details and colourful words, good writers bring objects,
people and places into their readers’ minds and make them see what they saw
or felt themselves. To achieve this, the writers use descriptive words.

Buildings: old, shabby, rundown, crumbling, modern, futuristic, sleek, towering,
squat,

Buildings (walls): brick, stone, marble, glass, steel, graffiti-covered,
Monuments or statues: stone, copper, carved, ancient, moss-covered, faded, green,
bronze,

A sidewalk: concrete, cement, slick, cracked, tidy, littered, swept,
Paint: fresh, weathered, peeling,
Buses or cars: speeding, honking, screeching,

People: smiling, frowning, eager, rushed, courageous, compassionate, ambitious,
The sentences below can give an idea of how to describe a forest:
1. The forest was nut-brown. (Colour)
2. The twigs were crunching under my feet. (Sound)
3. The trees were the towers of the forest. (Metaphor)
4. I heard a wildcat slinking away. (Animal sounds)
5. The morning stars shone like silver petals. (The stars)
6. Nuts were scattered on the floor of the forest. (Forest edibles)
7. We took the leaf-carpeted path home. (Other images)
8. The beauty of the forest comforted our hearts. (Sensation)
9. The smell of the forest was pulpy. (Smell)
10. We picked some berries and they tasted orchard sweet. (Taste)

For more information, visit: https://descriptivewriting.wordpress.com/2012/12/01/
describing-aforest/ to learn how you can describe a forest. Retrieved on March16th, 2018

A good piece of descriptive discourse should be well and logically presented. Below
are different ways of presenting a descriptive discourse.
a. Chronological in terms of time
Describing events respecting the chronological order in which they happened,
helps the readers visualise what is being described. It is as if they are walking with
the author from place to place, and for them, they are not being told but shown
through words.
b. Spatial (location)
With a spatial organization of a piece, the reader should be able to step through the
threshold and moves forward with the writer in space. This means that whenever

developing a descriptive piece of writing, it is advisable to expand one’s own views
or points from the central or bottom part upwards into the topmost. It is like adding
branches on the stem of a tree.

c. Order of importance

If there is need of developing a paragraph about many items or elements belonging
to the same category, it is better to arrange these items or elements in their order
of importance. For example, one may decide to begin from the most to the least
important. In case of writing about a group of officers of different ranks, one should
begin from the topmost to the lowest rank.

  Adapted from https://Writeshop.Com/Choosing-Vocabulary-To-Describe-A-Place/
retrieved on March 16th,2018

1.2.4. Listening and Speaking: Role-play
Re-read the dialogue on page 18 and role-play it with your desk mate
1.2.5. Language structure
1.2.5.1. Adverbial Clauses of Time
a. Definition
An adverbial clause of time is a dependent clause that shows when something
happens. It is generally introduced by adverbs of time such as when, before, after,
as, while, until, as soon as, since, no sooner than, as long as etc.

b. Examples of adverbial clauses of time
In the sentences below, adverbial clauses of time are underlined
1. Block Mountains are created when compressional forces produce parallel
faults.
2. A block mountain is formed when the land is pushed upwards.
3. When the movement caused by tension and compression forces occurs
rapidly, it can cause earthquake.
4. When those two pieces of tectonic plates push against each other , as a
result of compressional forces, rocks compress slowly over a long period of
time and gradually form folds which are called mountains.
When an adverbial clause of time comes before the main clause, we usually separate
them with a comma. Commas are omitted when the adverbial clause of time comes
after the main clause
Example:
a. Folding takes place whenever two pieces of a tectonic plate come
together.
b. When two pieces of a tectonic plate come together, Folding happens.
When talking about something that is yet to happen in the future, Present Tense is
usually used in the adverbial clause of time while the future tense is used in the main
clause.
Example:
a. You will start mining when they give you a permit. (NOT, You will start
mining when they will give you a permit.)
b. I will continue to teach you until you understand the dangers
of deforestation. (NOT, I will continue to teach you until you will
understand the dangers of deforestation.)
1.2.5.2. Adverbial Clauses of Place
a. Definition
An adverbial clause of place is a dependent clause that shows the place where
something happens. It is generally introduced by adverbs of place such as where
and wherever, etc.
b. Examples of adverbial clauses of time
In the sentences below, adverbial clauses of place are underlined.
1. The Volcanoes National Park is the only place where tourists can see these
mountain gorillas.
2. The government showed miners where they should conduct their mining
activities.
3. Environment activists tell people to protect forests wherever they go.
4. Wherever we wanted to plant trees, the minister supported us.

c. Application Activities

1.2.5.3. Passive voice with Present Simple Tense
In the dialogue on pages 7-9 you must have come across the following sentences.
Study them carefully and identify what is common between their subjects and verbs.
Normally, Mountains and valleys are formed by faulting and folding.
A block mountain is formed when the land is pushed upwards by compression and
tension.
You should have noticed that in each of the sentences above, the subject does not
perform the action described by the verb. Instead, the subject undergoes the action.
In this case the sentence is in Passive Voice.
Notes
The passive voice is used to show interest in the person or object that experiences
an action rather than the person or object that performs the action. In other words,
the most important thing or person becomes the subject of the sentence.
The easiest way of identifying the Passive Voice is to look for the form of verb “to be
+ past participle”.
For instance, in the sentence, “The land is pushed upwards, the verb to be is “is” + the
past participle of the verb “to push” which is “pushed”
1.2.5.4. Application Activities
I. Copy the sentences from activity 1 and underline all the verbs
used in passive voice.
II. Re-read the dialogue on page (7-8) and identify at least 5 other sentences
that are in the passive voice.
III. Re-visit the passage on p7 and identify other 4 sentences that are in Passive
Voice.
How to form the passive voice with present simple tense
• The object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive sentence.
• The form of the verb changes, it has two parts: the verb “to be” in Present Simple
Tense is added as auxiliary and the main verb changes into the past participle.
• The subject of the active sentence comes at the end of the sentence after the
preposition “by” or is left out altogether.
The “active voice” is commonly used but in certain situations the passive voice must
be used. Such situations are:
a. When we want to draw the attention of the receiver rather than the
performer of the action.
Example
The local newspapers confirmed that the ranger who was killed by a buffalo had
left his gun in the car.
b. When we want to show the receiver of an action but the performer is
unknown or not important.
Example
The forest was burnt just some minutes after the authorities had declared that all
the forests are highly protected
c. When writing scientific, technical or laboratory reports, where the
process being described is more important than anything else.
Example
Learn what happens when two compounds are mixed together in aqueous
solution.
1.2.5.5. Application Activity
Change the following sentences into Passive Voice. You can leave out the phrase
by+ noun/pronoun if you think it is not necessary:
1. Tensional forces lift the middle block between the faults.
2. Compression and tension forces push the land upwards to form a block
mountain.
3. Teachers push the ends of the paper together to show students how
folding looks like.
4. Tourists visit Rwanda for different reasons but Volcanoes National park is
the most important one.
5. We call the capital city of Rwanda Kigali.
6. Volcanic eruptions kill hundreds of people when not evacuated on time.
7. People believe mountain gorilla population is the key reason for many
tourists to visit Rwanda.
8. Farmers cut down a lot of trees and burn them in a process known as slash
and burn agriculture.
9. People plant trees each year but the total number of them still equals a
tiny fraction of the earth’s forest.
10. Volcanic eruptions exterminate many people because no one knows
when they can erupt.
1.3. Describing Lakes and Rivers
1.3.1. Listening and Speaking : Question and answer
Carefully listen as your teacher reads a short text. You’re expected to answer
questions on the text. You can also ask questions for more clarification.
1.3.2. Reading and Writing
1.3.2.1. Application Activity
1. Write a 200 word composition detailing the economic value of rivers and
lakes in Rwanda.
2. Copy words in column A in your exercise book and match them with
their meanings in column
You can use a dictionary. Don’t write in this book.

1.3.3. Sounds and Spelling: Stress in Words
Practise reading the words in column A in the above table. You can use the dictionary
to check their pronunciation.
The words in column A are read as follows:

(In British phonetic convention the [r] sound at the end of the word is only voiced if
followed by a vowel)
1.4. Describing a Geological Event
1.4.1. Reading for Information
Text 1: Agung erupted and killed more than 1600 people
The last time Bali’s Mount Agung erupted 50 years ago, 1,600 people died in lava,
mudslides and 1,000oc gas clouds. The huge volcano spewed ash 10km into the air
and the superheated gas and debris cloud killed more than 1,000 people when it
exploded in 1963. Lava flowed 7km from the summit, missing the island’s biggest
and most important temple by metres, and a volcanic mudslide killed hundreds
more.
More than 1,600 people died and numerous villages were incinerated when Bali’s
Mount Agung erupted in 1963.

Agung erupted on Tuesday after months of rumbling, but was considered very small,
only spewing grey ash and gas 700m above the peak could be seen.

Numerous villages were instantly incinerated when the gas cloud engulfed them,
while others were buried under mud or burned by lava.

Pyroclastic flows which are clouds of smoke, ash, and gas heated up to 1,000ºc are
easily the deadliest effects of volcanic eruptions. They moved incredibly quickly at
up to 700km/h giving victims no time to evacuate, and were responsible for most of
the 1,600 deaths in the last eruption.

The same effect was what destroyed the city of Pompeii when Mount Vesuvius
erupted in 79 AD, killing thousands of Roman townsfolk.

A volcanic mudslide like this one killed hundreds more in the days after the eruption.
Indonesian authorities this time set up a 7.5km radius danger zone around Agung
with 29,000 people fleeing their homes for disaster shelters.

This was still far less than the 150,000 who evacuated last month in fear that the
volcano would erupt, before its activity died down and they returned.

By Nic White and Mikaela Barwick For Daily Mail Australia
Published: 00:15 GMT, 22 November 2017 | Updated: 00:44 GMT, 22 November 2017

Adapted from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-5105891/More-1-600-died-time-Mount-Agungerupted-Bali.html retrieved on March 5th 2018
Read the above news report from the Daily Mail and carry out the following tasks:
1. In 80 words, summarise the passage above pointing out the negative
consequences of volcanic eruptions. Please look for guidance from the
notes about summary writing in unit three on page 66-67.
2. Conduct a research and write a short composition explaining economic
impact of volcanic eruptions.
3. Write a narration on any geological event you have ever witnessed or heard
of.
4. Write two paragraphs to differentiate an active volcano from an extinct
volcano.
5. Copy the table below in your exercise book and match the words in column
A with their synonyms in column B
6. In full sentences, explain the following words as used in the above passage.
a. …“rumbling”… (paragraph 3)
b. …“incredibly” …. (paragraph 4)
c. …“townsfolk”… (paragraph 5)
d. …“mudslides”… (paragraph 6)
e. …“evacuated”…. (paragraph 7)

Text 2: The Real cost of gold mining in South Africa

South Africa has failed to meet its human rights obligations to address the
environmental and health effects of gold mining in and around Johannesburg, the
Harvard Law School International Human Rights Clinic (IHRC) said in a new report
released today on 18th October 2016.

The 113-page report, The Cost of Gold, documents the threats posed by water, air,
and soil pollution from mining in the West and Central Rand District. Acid mine
drainage has contaminated water bodies that residents use to irrigate crops, water
livestock, wash clothes, and swim. Dust from mine waste dumps has blanketed
communities. The government has allowed homes to be built near and sometimes
on those toxic and radioactive dumps.

Examining the situation through a human rights lens, the report finds that South
Africa has not fully complied with constitutional or international law. The government
has not only inadequately mitigated the harm from abandoned and active mines,
but it has also offered scant warnings of the risks, performed few scientific studies
about the health effects, and rarely engaged with residents on mining matters.

“Gold mining has both endangered and disempowered the people of the West and
Central Rand District,” said Bonnie Docherty, senior clinical instructor at IHRC and the
report’s lead author. “Despite some signs of progress, the government’s response to
the crisis has been insufficient and unacceptably slow.”He said.

The report is based on three research trips to the region and more than 200 interviews
with community members, government officials, industry representatives, civil
society advocates, and scientific and legal experts. It provides an in-depth look at
gold mining’s adverse impacts and examines the shortcomings of the government’s
reaction.

For example, although acid mine drainage reached the surface of the West Rand
in 2002, the government waited 10 years before establishing a plant that could
stem its flow. In addition, the government has not ensured the implementation of
dust control measures and has left industry to determine how to remove the waste
dumps dominating the landscape.

The Cost of Gold calls on South Africa to develop a coordinated and comprehensive
program that deals with the range of problems associated with gold mining in the
region. While industry and communities have a significant role to play, the report
focuses on the responsibility of the government, which is legally obliged to promote
human rights.

The government has taken some positive steps to deal with the situation in the West
and Central Rand. This year, it pledged to improve levels of water treatment by 2020.
In 2011, it relocated residents of the Tudor Shaft informal settlement living directly
on top of a tailings dam. The government along with industry has also made efforts
to increase engagement with communities.

Nevertheless, The Cost of Gold finds that the government’s delayed response and
piecemeal approach falls short of South Africa’s duties under human rights law. As a
result, the impacts of mining continue to infringe on residents’ rights to health, water,
and a healthy environment, as well as rights to receive information and participate
in decision making.

Therefore, the government should act immediately to address the ongoing threats
from gold mining, and it should develop a more complete solution to prevent
future harm,” Docherty said. “Only then will South Africa live up to the human rights
commitments it made when apartheid ended.”

From https:// Adapted www.environment.co.za/mining-2/acid-mine-drainage-cost-gold.html ;
Retrieved onMarch13th 2018.
(Copyright 2017 Environment.co.za and Respective Authors and Contributors.)

Read the text on pages 21-22 and in complete sentences, carry out the following
tasks:
1. Write two paragraphs explaining advantages and disadvantages of living
near a mining site. (Use adverbial clauses of time in your composition).
2. Discuss: The government should let industries or mining companies
determine how to protect people from the environmental and health
effects of mining.
3. What do the following words/phrases mean as used in the above passage?
a. … “to address” …(paragraph 1)
b. …“risks”… (paragraph 2)
c. …“endangered”… (paragraph 4)
d. …“acid mine drainage”… (paragraph 5)

1.4.2. Application Activity

Write a letter to the minister of natural resources asking him to address the
ongoing threats from the local mining site. Use Passive Voice with present
simple in your composition.
Before writing the letter, first read the following instructions on how to write an
official letter:
• Write the sender’s address and telephone number on the top left hand side of
the page.
• Place the date directly below the sender’s address. It should be one line
beneath the sender’s address. The date is important for two reasons: if you’re
trying to get the person or organization to complete a task in a timely manner
(send a pay check, fix an order, etc.), it will give them a time frame to work with
or if you need to save a copy of the letter for legal reasons or posterity, the date
is absolutely necessary.
• Place the recipient’s name one line beneath the date.
• Include his or her title (Mr., Mrs., Ms., Miss, Dr. etc.). Follow the recipient’s name
with his/her job title. Give the person you’re addressing a salutation. “Dear Sir/
Madam”
• Write the body of the letter. This need not be more than three paragraphs.
If you can’t say it in three paragraphs or less then you’re probably not being
concise enough.
• In the first paragraph, write a friendly opening and then state the reason or
goal of the letter. Get straight to the point.
• In the second paragraph, use examples to stress or underline your point, if
possible. Concrete, real examples are always better than hypothetical examples.

• In the final paragraph, briefly summarise your purpose in writing and suggest
how you might want to proceed further.

• Sign off your letter with the appropriate salutation. Leave space between your
salutation and your printed name for a signature, if possible. “Yours sincerely,”
“Best regards,” or simply “respectfully” are all appropriate.
Adapted from https://www.wikihow.com/Write-a-Formal-Letter retrieved on March15th 2018
A Sample official letter
Kanombe Kabeza

Nyarugunga District
Tel +250783653602

Minister for Natural Resources
Kigali-Rwanda

July 20th , 2018
Dear Sir/Madam

Re: REQUEST TO ADDRESS THE ONGOING THREATS IN THE MINING SITE

I would like to request you to address the ongoing threats in the mining site
To begin with, we have observed so many threats in this mining site. some of these
threats are: over exposure to ultraviolet radiation in sun light, noise, muscular
skeletal disorders, thermal stress, and chemical hazards like polymeric chemicals.
To mention but a few.

Wishing that my request will highly be considered.

Yours Sincerely
................................
MUTESI Jackline
1.4.3. Listening and Speaking: Debate
Motion: “Mining should be banned to protect the environment”
1.5. UNIT SELF- ASSESSMENT
1.5.1. Reading and Writing
Effects of deforestation
Deforestation is clearing Earth’s forests on a massive scale, often resulting into
damage to the quality of the land. Forests still cover about 30 percent of the
world’s land area, but swaths half the size of England are lost each year.
The world’s rain forests could completely vanish in a hundred years at the current
rate of deforestation.
The biggest driver of deforestation is agriculture. Farmers cut forests to provide
more room for planting crops or grazing livestock. Often, small farmers will clear
a few acres by cutting down trees and burning them in a process known as slash
and burn agriculture.
Logging operations, which provide the world’s wood and paper products, also cut
countless trees each year. Loggers, some of them acting illegally, also build roads
to access more and more remote forests which leads to further deforestation.
Forests are also cut as a result of growing urban sprawl as land is developed for
dwellings.
Not all deforestation is intentional. Some is caused by a combination of human
and natural factors like wildfires and subsequent overgrazing, which may prevent
the growth of young trees.
Deforestation can have a negative impact on the environment. The most dramatic
impact is a loss of habitat for millions of species. Eighty percent of Earth’s land
animals and plants live in forests, and many cannot survive the deforestation that
destroys their homes.
Deforestation also drives climate change. Forest soils are moist, but without
protection from sun-blocking tree cover, they quickly dry out. Trees also help
perpetuate the water cycle by returning water vapor to the atmosphere. Without
trees to fill these roles, many former forest lands can quickly become barren
deserts.
Removing trees deprives the forest of portions of its canopy, which blocks the
sun’s rays during the day, and holds in heat at night. This disruption leads to more
extreme temperature swings that can be harmful to plants and animals.
Trees also play a critical role in absorbing the greenhouse gases that fuel global
warming. Having fewer forests means larger amounts of greenhouse gases
entering the atmosphere and increased speed and severity of global warming.

The most feasible solution to deforestation is to carefully manage forest resources
by eliminating clear-cutting to make sure forest environments remain intact. The
cutting that does occur should be balanced by planting young trees to replace
older trees felled. The number of new tree plantations is growing each year, but
their total still equals a tiny fraction of the Earth’s forested land.
Adapted from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/deforestation ;retrieved on March 13th 2018.

Read the above text and in complete sentences, answer the following questions:
1. Point out any three other effects of deforestation which are not mentioned
in the above passage.
2. Suppose that you work with an Environment Protection Agency. In
three paragraphs explain strategies you would devise to fight against
deforestation.
3. What do the following words/phrases mean as used in the above
passage?
a. …“vanish”… (paragraph 2)
b. …“slash and burn agriculture”… (paragraph 3)
c. …“urban sprawl”… (paragraph 4)
d. …“deprives”… (paragraph 8)
e. …“severity”… (paragraph 9)
f. …“feasible solution”… (paragraph 10)
g. ...”felled”... (paragraph 10)
1.5.2. Grammar and Phonology
1.5.2.1. Grammar
I. Choose the right words from the brackets to fill in gaps in each of the sentences
below.
1. The superheated gas and debris cloud … a lot of people when
volcanoes erupt. (kill/are killed).
2. A lot of people……..by the superheated gas and debris cloud when
volcanoes erupt. (kill/are killed).
3. Numerous villages …… by lava when volcanoes erupt. (sometimes
burn/ are sometimes burned).
4. Volcanic eruptions ………. hundreds of people when they don’t evacuate
on time. (kill / are killed).
5. Hundreds of people………..by volcanic eruptions when they don’t
evacuate on time. (kill / are killed).
6. When a volcano erupts, it ………….lava. (releases/ is released).
7. Lava ……………… when a volcano erupts. (releases/ is released).
8. Rwanda …………… to as the “Land of a Thousand Hills”. (refers/ is
referred).
9. Rwanda is a country which …………….. by mountain ranges
(geographically dominates/ is geographically dominated).
10. Faulting ……….to the fracturing or cracking of the crystal rocks caused
by tectonic forces of compression and tension that operate in the earth’s
crust.(refers/ is referred).
II. Complete the following sentences with your own clauses to form adverbial
clauses of place or time. Use punctuations correctly.
1. Trees can only be cut ……………………………………….
2. ………………………………………, a lift valley is formed.
3. Deforestation occurs ……………………………………………….
4. ................................................volcanic eruptions can engulf them.
5. Carpenters must get a permit from the sector agronomist ……………….
6. ……………………………………………, fish will be very cheap.
7. I thought I had seen a picture of block mountain formation but I couldn’t
remember …………………………………………….
8. Volcanoes erupted …………………………………………………….
9. ……………………, the company will be allowed to start mining
activities.
   10. …………………………………………….., it releases lava.

1.5.2.2. Phonology
Give phonological transcription of the following words
a. Deforestation   d. Mining
b. Geology   e. Mountain
c. Folding

1.5.3. Summary
In 80 words, summarise the passage on pages 26-27 pointing out the role of
human beings in deforestation.
1.5.4. Essay Writing
Write a 300 word composition suggesting the best solution to deforestation in
Rwanda.
UNIT 2: NEWSPAPERS AND REPORTING
UNIT 2: NEWSPAPERS AND REPORTING
Key Unit Competence:
Language use in the context of Newspapers and Reporting
Introductory Activity:
Observing and interpreting pictures
Discuss the following questions
1. Narrate a past event that you have read from any newspaper or magazine.
2. Tell why one must read newspapers and magazines.
3. Discuss the role of media in Rwanda during the genocide against Tutsi
in 1994.
4. Brainstorm on the most recommended techniques of extracting
information from newspapers and magazines.
5. Which techniques are required in composing a good news article?
2.1. Aspects of Newspapers and Magazines
2.1.1. Reading and Writing:
Text 1: News articles and feature articles
A Newspaper is a printed publication (usually issued daily, weekly or monthly)
consisting of folded unstapled sheets and containing news, articles, opinion,
advertisements and correspondence. It gives information and opinions about
current events and news. While, a Magazine is a periodical publication containing
articles and illustrations, often on a particular subject or aimed at a particular
readership or audience.

Newspaper articles are in two categories: News articles and feature articles. News
articles cover the basics of current events while feature articles are longer and more
in depth than regular news articles. Feature articles are often research-based.

The best way to structure a newspaper article is to first write an outline. Review
your research and notes. Then jot down the ideas in a continuous flow. There are six
structural aspects which can lead us to constructing a good article. They include
headline, sub-heading (if applicable), topic sentence, paragraphing, main body, and
conclusion. Where necessary, one could use relevant quotations and sayings to
contextualize the content of the article.
A newspaper always contains many different kinds of articles. Most of us do not read
the whole newspaper, we choose articles we are most interested in. We find these
articles by reading the headlines. A headline is a heading for an article. It is printed
in large, bold letters. It gives you a short description of what the article is about.
Headlines are not written in full sentences; they start with capital letters, but they
do not end with a full stop.
There are two types of newspapers: Tabloid and broadsheet. In newspapers or
magazines some terms are commonly used: back copy, back issue, biweekly,
broadcast, brochure, bulletin, daily, edition, gazette, glossy magazine, the gutter
press, issue, journal, publication, paper, news-sheet and print media.
There is a multitude of different types of articles, including news stories, features,
profiles, instructional articles, and so on.
2.1.2. Application Activities
I. Using a dictionary, look up the meanings of all the bolded words in
theabove notes.
II. In a paragraph of fifty words, write a summary explaining the main aspects
and types of newspapers.
2.1.3. Listening and Speaking: Comparing Magazines and Newspapers
The following task will help you to listen to your peers’ views as well airing your ideas
about newspapers and magazines.
2.1.4. Picture observation and interpretation
Observe the pictures below and answer the questions.
1. Critically observe and share about the pictures below and explain the
difference between a Newspaper and a Magazine.
2. Describe the different types of magazines and newspapers
3. State the different components that make a newspaper
4. List the different magazines and newspapers published in Rwanda

2.1.5. Skimming and Scanning
Definitions
• Skimming and scanning are some of the techniques of extracting information
from newspapers or magazines.

• Skimming refers to act of reading very fast through a written text in order to
get general information about it.

• Scanning, on the other hand, refers to the act of quickly reading through a text
in order to find specific facts. It means looking at a text to find some particular
information.

Text1: The Fall of the African Wall
“If you want to avoid solving a problem, you must start at the end”, a maxim is known
to say. Tales of a United Africa are told through songs, literature and speech. The first
wave of African independence since early 60s included galvanising guerrilla groups,
university agitations and popular uprising across our continent, with Romanesque
ideology and a sense of moral high ground.

Anywhere else, the hour for revolution and romance,
dreams of chaos and system ic change had come and gone,
except in Africa where the music had to be stopped and
in ushered sobriety and substance, empty slogans had to come and be of African
Unity.

The philosophy, which devises that a human being is a human being through human
beings, strives to reach beyond a purely managerial approach and strengthens an
attitude of open conversations. ‘Coercive powers were generally not employed by
the chief to achieve Unity of purpose through the process of consensus building’. In
reforming the AU, human being reflects a critical discourse because it includes the
voice of all participants in the organisation and the building of consensus.

For that we must take a moment to think of those who started this journey, didn’t
make it, but set in motion the wind of change that will hopefully sweep across the
African continent. Kwame Nkrumah, Thomas Sankara, Ahmed Sekou Toure, Mwalimu
Julius Nyerere, Samora Machel and more recently, Abdoulaye Wade, Thabo Mbeki
and Olusegun Obasanjo. Yet, this has not only been an agency of heads of states, it
was too, a struggle of civil servants, scholars, artists and activists, all Pan-Africanists
who share enthusiasm and passion for our continent and our people.

In Things Fall Apart (1958), Chinua Achebe ironises: ‘The sun will shine on those who
stand before it shines, on those who kneel under them.’ While the journey must be
inclusive and consultative, we must accept that those ready to move will board on
the plane while others follow at their pace.

To the African media, while it’s hard to write stories about complex international
agreements and make them interesting to readers, we ought to try. If African
media does not run the show, all we’ll hear of western media are rumors of political
disagreements within our union, which will erode citizen’s ownership – a key pillar
to our agenda 2063.
Adapted from www.newtimes.co.rw.,http retrieved on March 15th, 2018 2.1.6. Application Activities

2.1.6. Application Activities
I. Basing on the definition of skimming and scanning, scan the above text to
find out:
a. African leaders who raised the idea of African Unity
b. The role of African media
c. Ideas on how the African reforms should be approached.
II. Scan the above text. In a paragraph or two, explain the meaning and
relevance of each of the sayings below:
• “The sun will shine on those who stand before it shines on those who kneel
under them”. (paragraph5)
• “A human being is a human being through human beings.” (paragraph3)
III. In around 250 words, write a news article expressing your view on what
African Leaders should do for a better Africa.
2.1.7. Reading Comprehension
Text 2: How to Start a Newspaper
A smartly dressed young woman stood at the front of the school hall and addressed
the senior students of the school. “Good morning, everyone,” she started. My name
is Faida Muhoza. As you know, I am the Chief Editor of your newspaper, the Ladies
Daybreak. But my career as journalist began a long time ago. I was one of the reporters
of our school newspaper which we called Our little daughter. Later I trained as a
journalist at college. But there is only one place to acquire experience, and that’s on
the job; and it is never too early to start learning about being a reporter.
I have come here today to tell you how you can run your own newspaper. Let us start
by talking about the four steps towards starting a newspaper. First, you must consider
the purpose of your newspaper. Second, you must form an editorial committee to
produce the newspaper. Third, you must decide on the types of articles you want to
include. Finally, you must decide on the size, shape and make up of your newspaper.
The first duty of the editorial committee is to agree on the main purpose of the
newspaper and therefore, the contents. The editorial committee is made of five
members who perform different duties. The Chief Editor is to make sure that the
committee works well as a team, to check the whole newspaper for quality and
content, to write the editorial column in the newspaper, to chair most of the editorial
meetings and report. The editor reviews the articles from the reporters to give any
comment on articles presented. The Chief Editor and the committee proofread
the articles, work with the designer(s) on the arrangement of the articles. The Chief
Editor also chairs editorial committee meetings. The Secretary has the duty of
handling all correspondences, takes notes at the editorial meetings, receives articles
from reporters and passes them on to the editors. He or she works with and helps
the Chief Editor. The Designer organises articles and advertisements by deciding
space between them, etc. He or she organizes the illustrations and photographs;
works with the editors to: (a) make sure that the articles have the right structure
(b) make sure the articles are ready on time. He or she works with the printer to
ensure the printing goes smoothly. The treasurer is to look after money, find ways
of getting funds to pay for printing, contact advertisers, inform the designer about
all the advertisements on various issues, organize the sales and distribution of
the newspapers and pay printers. He or she also receives money from sales and
advertisements.
It is better to have more than one person to carry out each task. One or two people
could share the duties of Chief Editor, two to three people sharing the Editor’s job,
one to two people sharing the secretary’s job, etc.
Before reporters can begin to work, the editorial committee must decide the kind of
articles they should contribute to the newspaper, and what it should look like.
Adapted from JJB Bugembe (1993). Oxford Primary English: ninth impression 2002. Oxford ox26DP,
England
2.1.8. Application Activities
Read the above passage and answer the questions that follow.
1. Explain the process of publishing a newspaper or magazine
2. Explain why publishing a newspaper or a magazine article goes through
long process.
3. By using skimming and scanning techniques of reading, clearly state the
people involved in running a newspaper.
4. In two paragraphs, explain the two main ideas presented in the article.
5. Draw the table in the example below into your exercise book and match
the following people who work for a newspaper in column A to their
duties in column B.
Example
The editor checks and scrutinises the articles submitted by reporters to ensure
their accuracy and relevancy. He or she may suggest changes or even insert the
appropriate corrections before forwarding it to the Chief Editor.

7. In the text above “How to start a newspaper,” you encountered new
vocabulary items. Look at the words or phrases and their corresponding
meanings in the table below. Make complete sentences by matching
them in your exercise book. You can use a dictionary or thesaurus.
Example:
A daily is a newspaper that is published every day except Sunday.

1. Compose your own article for a newspaper or magazine taking account
of its type and audience.
2. Conduct a research on the role of media firms especially newspapers and
magazines and write a 300 word proposal explaining why you would
wish to start such a project.
3. Project work: Introduce a weekly newspaper or magazine for your class
and schoolmates. Select its type according to the purpose and audience
you would wish to serve.
Text 3: Refined Carbs and Sugar
Read the following text and answer questions below:
What are refined, simple, or “bad” carbs?
Bad or simple carbohydrates include sugars and refined grains that have been
stripped of all bran, fiber, and nutrients, such as white bread, pizza dough, pasta,
pastries, white flour, white rice, sweet desserts, and many breakfast cereals. They
digest quickly and their high glycemic index causes unhealthy spikes in blood sugar
levels. They can also cause fluctuations in mood and energy and a build-up of fat,
especially around your waistline.

When you eat refined or simple carbs, your bloodstream is flooded with sugar which
triggers a surge of insulin to clear the sugar from your blood. All this insulin can
leave you feeling hungry soon after a meal, often craving more sugary carbs. This
can cause you to overeat, put on weight, and over time lead to insulin resistance
and type-2 diabetes. Diets high in refined carbs and sugar have also been linked
to high blood pressure, heart disease, obesity, hyperactivity, mood disorders, and
even suicide in teenagers.

For many of us, cutting back on sugary treats and overcoming our carb cravings
can seem like a daunting task. As well as being present in obvious foods such as
sugary snacks, desserts, and candies, sugar is also hidden in much of the processed
food we eat—from soda, coffee and fruit drinks to bread, pasta sauce, and frozen
dinners. But cutting back on these diet saboteurs doesn’t mean feeling unsatisfied
or never enjoying comfort food again. The key is to choose the right carbs. Complex,
unrefined, or “good” carbs such as vegetables, whole grains, and naturally sweet
fruit digest slower, resulting in stable blood sugar and less fat accumulation.

By focusing on whole foods and complex, unrefined carbs, you can reduce your intake
of sugar and simple carbs, keep your blood sugar stable, maintain a healthy weight,
and still find ways to satisfy your sweet tooth. You’ll not only feel healthier and more
energetic, you could also shed that stubborn belly fat so many of us struggle with.

Good carbs vs. bad carbs
Unlike simple carbs, complex carbohydrates are digested slowly, causing a gradual
rise in blood sugar. They’re usually high in nutrients and fiber, which can help prevent
serious disease, aid with weight-loss, and improve your energy levels. In general,
“good” carbohydrates have a lower glycemic load and can even help guard against
type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular problems in the future.
Good carbs include:
Unrefined whole grains – whole wheat or multigrain bread, brown rice, barley, quinoa,
bran cereal, oatmeal.
Non-starchy vegetables – spinach, green beans, Brussels sprouts, celery, tomatoes.
Legumes – kidney beans, baked beans, peas, lentils.
Nuts – peanuts, cashews, walnuts.
Fruit – apples, berries, citrus fruit, bananas, pears.
Switching to good carbs
While there are many health benefits to switching from simple to complex carbs,
you don’t have to consign yourself to never again eating French fries or a slice of
white bread. After all, when you ban certain foods, it’s natural to crave those foods
even more.

Instead, make refined carbs and sugary foods an occasional indulgence rather than
a regular part of your diet. As you reduce your intake of these unhealthy foods, you’ll
likely find yourself craving them less and less.

Added sugar is just empty calories
Your body gets all the sugar it needs from the sugar that naturally occurs in food—
fructose in fruit or lactose in milk, for example. All the sugar added to processed
food offers no nutritional value—but just means a lot of empty calories that can
sabotage any healthy diet, contribute to weight gain, and increase your risk for
serious health problems.

Again, it’s unrealistic to try to eliminate all sugar and empty calories from your diet.
The American Heart Association recommends limiting the amount of added sugars
you consume to no more than 100 calories per day (about 6 teaspoons or 24 grams
of sugar) for women and 150 calories per day (9 teaspoons or 36 grams) for men. If
that still sounds like a lot, it’s worth remembering that a 12-ounce soda contains up
to 10 teaspoons of added sugar—some shakes and sweetened coffee drinks even
more.
How to cut down on sugar
Slowly reduce the sugar in your diet a little at a time to give your taste buds time to adjust
and wean yourself off the craving.
Adapted from https://www.helpguide.org/articles/healthy-eating/healthy-eating.
htm retrieved on 8th September 2021.
Comprehension questions
Read the following text and answer questions below:
1. Compare good and bad carbs in a diet.
2. Why is cutting down on sugar and refined carbs so difficult?
3. Explain how eating unrefined carbs help in weight loss.
4. Which health problems are likely to result from taking a lot of refined carbs?
Vocabulary
Use the following words and expressions in sentences
a) stripped of
b) spikes
c) cutting back
d) daunting
e) whole grains
f) indulgence
g) sabotage
h) buds
i) wean
Application activity
Debate on the following motion
Should we stop consuming refined carbs?

2.2. Describing a Scene
2.2.1. Picture Observation and Interpretation
Carefully observe the pictures below and write a description of what happened at the scene.

2.2.2. Reporting situations and events
Generally a scene is a unit of a story that takes place at a specific location and time.
In case of an accident, it is a place where an unpleasant event has happened.
2.2.3. Reading and writing
“I want all of you to see this, firsthand. Look at it,” Christine Barakat was yelling. Her
eyes were wide open and her hands were shaking as she forced her 13-year-old son
and 16-year-old nephew to look down the block at their dead friend.

The 13-year-old made a weak attempt to break away and go back inside. But his aunt
standing nearby grabbed him by the arm forcing him to look at the dead friend.

“I want all of you to see this firsthand, look at it,” Christine Barakat said.
“This is what you all want? The hell with this. . .because they are going to scrape me
on the floor if that’s you, do you hear me? Do you hear me?”

Christina Brown and her twin sister had dragged their sons out of the bed after they
saw the boy’s body lying in a front yard.

Barakat’s 13-year-old son wore a white T-shirt and Brown’s son, 16, was
shirtless. According to their mothers, the boys never belonged to a gang, they also
affirmed that they are both good students and they are not allowed excessive time
to play outside the classroom.

After the boys went back into the apartment building, their mothers learned that
one of them had been close friends with Kevin.

Back outside, Brown cried alone. Kevin’s family had left the scene more than an hour
earlier, the boy’s body had been removed and only four police officers remained
behind: Two forensic investigators and a beat car assigned to the crime scene.

“We didn’t hear gunshots, said the parents. The boy was out here fighting with
somebody,” Brown said. “That’s crazy.”Said one of the policemen
While one of the beat cops used a hose to wash blood from the grass into the gutter,
and the forensic investigators finished their scene work, Brown tucked her hood
over her head and walked back home.

Adapted from: http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2014-05-23/news/chi-i-want-yall-to-see-firsthandlook-20140523_1_crime-scene-dead-friend-apartment-building.retrieved on March 17th, 2018.
2.2.4. Application Activity
I. Read the following passage on pages 39-40 and answer questions below:
1. Who are the prime suspects in the crime that led to Kevin’s death?
2. Why is Christine Barak troubled and yelling at the two boys?
II. Make sentences with the following words
beat car d. to gutter
beat cop e. forensic
to scrape f. firsthand
III. In not less than four paragraphs, write a newspaper article describing a
scene of a quarrel or road accident.

2.2.5. Listening and Speaking: Role play
Re-read the above text and role - play it.
2.3. Direct and Reported Speech
• In newspapers, reporters need to repeat what other people have said. In this
case, the mastery of reported speech is needed. If a reporter writes about a
past event, he/she has two options; they can either use the exact words the
people used or report it in their own words.

2.3.1. Direct Speech
It is using the exact words the people used
Example
Speaking to Igihe.com, the minister of infrastructure said, “New machines arrived
yesterday.”
• In the example, the sentence is in direct speech and the verb “arrived” is in past
simple. In the second example, the sentence is in indirect speech and the verb
has been changed into past perfect tense.
2.3.2. Indirect Speech
Using own words, a reporter can also report the above sentence.
Example
Speaking to Igihe.com, the minister of infrastructure said that new machines had
arrived the previous day.
• Mostly, in newspapers the simple past is used to report events. This tense
changes into past perfect if the event is reported indirectly. However, to report
a progressive past event, the past perfect continuous tense is used.
2.3.3. Past Simple in Indirect Speech
The past simple tense changes into past perfect tense.
Example
The senior editor said, “you wrote a good article” (Direct speech)
• The senior editor said that I had written a good article. (Reported speech)
2.3.4. Application Activity
Put the following sentences into Reported speech.
4. The newspaper reported, “The manager intended to take a big amount
of money.”
5. The policeman said, “The robbers broke into the house and stole money.”
6. “Police officers rescued a seven-year-old boy,” the witnesses told Imvaho
Nshya.
7. The driver reported, “There were many passengers at the scene.”
8. Brown said, “We didn’t hear gunshots and the boy was out here fighting
with tsomebody.”
9. “The plane crashed en-route to Dubai,” BBC reported.
10. “Seventy per cent of the farmers used fertilisers last year,” minister of
agriculture told the Newtimes.
11. “Thirty news journalists graduated yesterday,” the dean of faculty
announced.
12. “This girl wrote a good article for Nyampinga,” said the headmistress.
13. “Her article inspired young entrepreneurs,” said the Chief Editor.
2.3.5. Past Continuous Tense in Indirect Speech
The past continuous tense changes into past perfect continuous tense.
Example
“The editor was skimming a newspaper,” said Kalisa. (Direct speech)
• Kalisa said that the editor had been skimming a newspaper. (Reported
speech)
2.3.6. Application Activity
1. Put the following sentences into Reported speech.
2. I was reading a magazine when my mother told me about the accident,’
John said.The policeman said, “The robbers broke into the house and
stole money.”
3. ‘Yesterday, I was writing an article for our newspaper,’ Lilian said.
4. ‘The Police was still investigating a case,’ said the magistrate.
5. ‘I was editing my work for submission,’ said the reporter.
6. ‘The tourists were coming to watch TV,’ the waitress said.
7. ‘Janet was revising the article before reporting for duty,’ said her
workmates.
8. ‘The boys were fine-tuning their report for presentation,’ they revealed.
9. ‘The secretary was harmonising resolutions from the editorial
committee,’ confirmed the Chief Editor.
10.‘The magazines were featuring various articles about women rights,’
the project manager told us.
11.‘James was writing a report about the scene,’ the police announced.
12.Using Past Perfect Continuous Tense, write a summary of three
paragraphs on any past event that you have experienced.
2.4. Reporting a Past Event
2.4.1. Picture Observation, Interpretation and Reporting
Looking at the scene in the pictures below, as a journalist, describe what you
witnessed in form of a report.

2.4.2. Techniques of Reporting Events
If we want to tell somebody what happened in the past, we should include the place
and the time, the sequence of events, feelings and interruptions. Expressions such
as: It happened, ago, last…, yesterday, on, in, while, when, one day, etc. can be used.

In sequencing the events on a past event we use: at first, later, next, at the same
time, as soon as, before that, finally, at the same time, in the meantime, in the end,
the next thing I did was, It looked like ...

When we report, we also use the Past Perfect tense to describe the action which
happened before another past action in the Past Simple.

Example: We had left the party before Jenny called for the newspaper report.

In order to write a news report on a past event, it is often vital to conduct an interview
with either an eye witness or someone who heard about the event.

2.4.3. Techniques of Conducting an Interview for a News Item

For a journalist to compose a newspaper article, there is need to conduct research
or gather information to have a dependable content. Conducting an interview
with some people is one of the sources for the required information. This exercise
requires some skills and techniques on the part of the journalist which include the
following:
1. Tools needed
• Pens and pencils
• a tape recorder or digital voice recorder (optional)
• a video camera for interviews you plan to webcast
2. Preparing for the interview
• Research – This should be done as much as possible. For example, before
interviewing a cardiologist about heart attacks, it is necessary to read a lot
and make sure terms like “cardiac arrest” are well understood. A well-prepared
reporter should consult a competent and reliable source of information (the
interviewee).

• Develop Questions – this is done after the topic has been researched

• thoroughly, a list of questions should be prepared. These help to remember
all the points to be covered.

• Establish a Rapport(relationship) – When starting out, don’t abruptly launch
into your questions. Chitchat(teasing) a little bit at first. Compliment your
source on his/her office, or comment on the weather. This puts your source
at ease.

• Keep it Natural – An interview can be uncomfortable, so keep things natural.
Instead of mechanically reading out your list of questions, put in your queries
in a natural manner. Put in your questions by waving them in the flow of a
conversation. Also, maintain eye contact as much as possible. Nothing is more
comforting to a source than a reporter who never search for information from
a notebook.

• Be Open – Don’t be so focused on getting through your list of questions
that you miss something interesting. For instance, if you’re interviewing the
cardiologist and he/she mentions a new heart-health study that’s coming out,
ask about it. This may take your interview in an unexpected - but newsworthy
- direction.

• Maintain Control – Be open, but don’t waste your time. If your source starts to
ramble on about things that are of no use to you, politely – but firmly – steer
the conversation back to the topic at hand.

• Wrapping Up – At the end of the interview, ask your source if there’s anything
important that you hadn’t asked about. Double-check the meanings of any
terms he/she used that you’re unsure about. And always ask if there are other
people he/she may recommend that you speak with.

• Note-taking – Beginners in reporting often freak out when they realize they
are possibly unable to write down everything the source is saying, word-byword.
Don’t sweat for that. Experienced reporters learn to take down just the
stuff they know they’ll use, and ignore the rest. This takes practice, but the
more interviews they do, the easier it gets.

• Taping – Recording an interview is fine in certain circumstances, but always
get permission to do so. The rules regarding taping a source can be tricky.

According to Poynter.org, recording phone conversations is legal in all
50 states. Federal law allows you to record a phone conversation with the
consent of only one person involved in the conversation - meaning that only
the reporter is required to know that the conversation is being taped.
• However, at least 12 states require varying degrees of consent from those
being recorded in phone interviews, so it’s best to check the laws in your own
state. Also, your newspaper or website may have its own rules about taping.

• Transcribing interviews involves listening to the taped interview and typing
out virtually everything that’s said. This is fine if you’re doing an article with
an extended deadline, such as a feature story. But it’s too time-consuming for
breaking news. So if you’re on a tight deadline, stick to note-taking.

• Finally, always take notes, even if you’re using a recorder. Every reporter has a
story about the time they thought they were recording an interview, only to
get back to the newsroom to discover that the machine’s batteries were dead.
Adapted from notes by Tony Rogers from: https://www.thoughtco.com/conducting-interviews-fornews-stories-2073868 (Updated May 31, 2017) retrieved on 26th April, 2018
2.4.4. Reading and Writing
Unconstitutional attacks on president Mugabe must stop!
March 2018 – Harare: The PNF calls on ZanuPF- junta and its associated propaganda
mouthpieces to stop their rabid divisive and unconstitutional attacks on President
Mugabe such as those that have gone out of control and are now threatening
peace and stability in the country.

The past week has seen outrageous and desperate attacks on President Robert
Mugabe. By Emmerson Mnangagwa, youths of ZanuPF- junta and its propaganda
mouthpieces in the print and electronic media. Some of the attacks, such as those
regarding President Mugabe’s legally protected personal banking, are indirect
violation banking laws and of his constitutional right to privacy.

While NPF does not speak for President Mugabe, we take exception of self evidence and unavoidable fact that unconstitutional attacks on President Mugabe
by Zanu PF-junta are linked to the audience he gave at his Blue Roof Residence to
PNF’s president and presidential candidate for 2018 general elections Rtd Brig
general Ambroise Mutinhiri.

Everyone can see that the intimidation, blackmail and demonization of President
Mugabe is designed to:
Prevent him from exposing the fact that 15 November 2017 military coup was
unconstitutional;
Force him to legitimatize and endorse the evaluation of the very same people who criminally and unconstitutionally removed him from office.

Claims of new democratic and new constitutional and dispensation are absurd
when made by the same people who caused hell President Mugabe by his
unconstitutional remove from the office in a humiliated manner that brutalized
his supporters, while others were tortured, killed or internally or externally
displaced; these people want to get away with their brutality while having
humiliated the President, they also want him to humiliate himself by endorsing
his coup tormentor at the expense of his constitutional rights under the pretext
of a fraudulent transition.
Adapted from:https://minbane.wordpress.com/2018/03/13/https-wp-me-p1xtjg-6w

Read the above text and carry out the following tasks:
1. Examine the meanings of the words listed in the table below and construct
sentences by matching them with their definitions in the next column.
Example:
Junta is a military or political group that rules a country after taking
power by force.

2. Sentence construction
Construct 10 complete sentences using bolded words from the text above.
Example:
The PNF accused the Zanu PF junta of overthrowing Mugabe, Zimbabwe’s
president.
3. Carefully read the article and write an informative report on what happened
in Zimbabwe.
2.4.5. Techniques of Writing a Summary for a Newspaper or Magazine
Article
• Once assigned a summary activity, the initial step should be critically
reading and reviewing the text to be summarised.

• Re-read it thoroughly and outline the article while taking notes of major
points you want to include in the summary.

• When writing the summary ensure the use of own words. Write a first draft
of the summary without consulting the article.

• Then, revise the draft to ensure its correctness, clarity and accuracy. Make
sure to use grammar, punctuation, and spelling correctly. Paraphrase
whenever writing a summary.

• Read the article to be summarised to ensure it’s clearly understandable.
• Whenever a phrase is extracted from the original text, ensure that it is put
in quotation marks.

• Your first draft should be approximately 1/4 the length of the original, and
keep downsizing it depending on the volume of the content.
2.4.6. Listening and Speaking
Listen to a news item and share your views about it with peers, answer questions
from the teacher and peers. Remember to also ask questions to the teacher and
peers as well.
2.5. Expressing Probability on a Past Event
2.5.1. Tense used when expressing probability on a past event
• When we want to express probability on a past event, we use must have or
might have + past participle of a verb.

• We use must have + past participle to express that we think that something
happened.

• We use might have + past participle to express the possibility for something to
have happened, but with some degree of doubt.
Examples
1. The Chief Editor must have thought no one knew what he was doing.
2. He must have scanned the advertisement.
3. According to some newspapers, the road might have been broken.

2.5.2. Application Activities
I. Rewrite the following sentences in your exercise book and underline the
expressions of probability on a past event:
1. The Chief Editor must have thought before writing an article.
2. He might have taken much more money from the company even though
he had not been caught.
3. Clear instructions must have been given to the writers.
4. The school magazine, that we have introduced , might have been
sponsored.
5. He might have seen people approaching that public library.
6. The Secretary might have been well instructed.
7. The designer must have been busy today.
8. The reporters might have got information from the field.
9. Editors must have read through the articles.
II. For each sentence of column A look for the corresponding sentence from
column B. Combine them to form correct sentences.
Example:
I am not good at Journalism, I may have joined media firms.

III. Scrutinize the following sentences and discuss what probability happened
or didn’t happen in each of these situations. Use the expressions of
probability in past, then write two sentences for each one.
Examples
1. The government has banned a magazine and declared its publication
outlawed:
2. The government might have banned it because its articles are poorly
researched.
3. The magazine may have been containing biased analytical views.
Application Exercises
1. Your editorial committee is not functioning today. It worked perfectly
since it started three years ago.
2. A journalist was murdered on the road near by the battle. The driver
disappeared and no one knows what happened.
3. I did not see this newspaper for a long time.
4. She saw a notice about the closure of their business without informing
their customers.
5. Comic magazines are not easily found in our library.
6. They questioned the newspaper editor in Boston by phone. She did
not manage to reach their working place.
7. The man took the decision of resigning after having read the article
from a newspaper
2.6. Restrictive and Non-Restrictive Clauses
2.6.1. Restrictive Clauses
Sometimes the information a relative clause provides is essential for the identification
of the noun. Without the relative clause, the reader or listener will have difficulties
identifying the noun or pronoun.

Look at the following example

The reporter who went to the field interviewed the minister.

In this sentence, the relative clause is essential. Without it, some information will be
missing and one will not be able to tell ‘which reporter interviewed the minister’.
Thus, this type of relative clause defines the noun or pronoun referred to. It is a
defining relative clause.

Defining relative clauses are also called restrictive relative clauses. They tell us which
person or thing is being referred to. They define the noun or pronoun by restricting
the members of the larger group included. The clause who went to the field, for
example, restricts the group of reporters referred to; it is not all the reporters, but
only the one who went to the field.
Examples
1. The woman who published this news article was one of my relatives.
2. I saw the author who was outside our publishing house.
3. 3. They wanted the picture that cost two pounds.
2.6.2. Non-restrictive clauses
Study the following sentences:
1. Mr Mugisha works for The New Times. He is related to my wife.

We can say:

• Mr Mugisha, who works for The New Times, is related to my wife.

2. Four editors are hired for our newspaper. They were my classmates.

We can say:

• Four editors, who were my classmates, are hired for our newspaper.

The clauses in italics in the sentences above give extra information about the nouns
that precede them. This information can be left out without affecting their meaning.
These clauses are non-defining relative clauses. The identity of the nouns in the
sentence is already clear; they do not need to be defined further.

Look at the following example:

John Murenzi, who works as a reporter in your magazine, is my brother. The essential
information in this example is the fact that “John Murenzi is my brother.” The relative
clause “ who works as a reporter in your magazine”, can be left out. Non-defining
relative clauses are also called non- restrictive relative clauses.
Examples
1. The secretary, who delayed our publications, had been fired.
2. The reporter, who had worked for the newspaper for five years, was
accused of theft.
3. Treasurer, who was aged 23, was sent to jail because of fake bills.
4. The writer, who was familiar with the career, was transferred to another
company.

2.6.3. Application Activity
Analyse the following sentences and identify the restrictive and non-restrictive
relative clauses.
1. London, which is the capital city of England, is one of the largest cities in
the world and with a lot of publishing houses.
2. The book that she read was important for her literature review.
3. Walden university, which is entirely online, has main administrative
offices in Baltimore.
4. The participants who were interviewed volunteered to be a part of the
study.
5. The office I have just rented for my publishing house is near my home.
This is the newspaper that they have banned recently.
6. The musician, who is a well-known pop star, used to read brochure.
7. Our speaker who explored many electronic sites, gave an interesting talk.
8. The message that my aunt sent yesterday has arrived.
9. The journalist whose story I read yesterday, has won prizes for her work.
2.7. UNIT SELF- ASSESSMENT
2.7.1. Reading Comprehension
Read the article below and answer questions that follow:
Uhuru-Raila truce a window to carry out radical surgery
Hats off to whoever designed the mediation efforts that led to the sudden
rapprochement between President Uhuru Kenyatta and the opposition leader,
Mr Raila Odinga.

From what I gather and what I have observed, the template followed by the
mediators was as follows.

First, isolating the hardliners from both sides of the divide and limit engagement
to as few people as possible.

Second, remembering that breakthroughs in sensitive mediation efforts tend
to happen when

proceedings are through informal processes where negotiations are conducted
behind the scenes.

Third, not involving too many major political players; dealing mainly with nonpartisan types such as family friends, business partners, church leaders and top
public officers sworn to secrecy.

The more private sessions and one-on-one meetings secured for the
protagonists during mediation, the better chances of success.

They followed the template to the letter and pulled what is clearly the most
momentous political event of our time.

Going forward, eyes will focus on the two key men who have been given the
responsibility of putting flesh around the deal — Mr Martin Kimani and Mr Paul
Mwangi.

Who are they, and how did they come into the picture?

Mr Mwangi is a radical-leaning lawyer who has, over the years, become a
confidant of Mr Odinga.

He is, perhaps, one of the few remnants of the technocrats who worked in the
Prime Minister’s office during the Grand Coalition Government.

He was one of the background advisers to Mr Odinga during the Eurobond
investigations and played a key role in the successful election petition against
President Kenyatta last year.

Mr Kimani has emerged as a highly regarded diplomat with deep domain
knowledge and

experience in the conduct of negotiations between political adversaries. He
was one of the main backroom players at the time Kenya was negotiating
peace between South Sudan’s President Salva Kiir and his erstwhile deputy Dr
Riek Machar in 2015.

Having worked with the high-profile US security think-tank the Atlantic Council,
in Washington, and the Institute of Security Studies, in Ethiopia, he also had a
short stint at IGAD before his appointment as Kenya’s Ambassador to UNDP in
2014.

Details of the institutional framework which the duo are expected to craft to
steer the reform agenda agreed by President Kenyatta and Mr Odinga are still
scanty.

Adapted from https://www.google.com/url?q=https%3A%2F%2Fmobile.nation.
co.ke%2Fblogs%2FUhuru-Raila-truce-window-for-radical-surgery% retrieved on 16th March 2018

I. Comprehension Questions
a. Briefly explain what the text is about.
b. In whose hands was the full implementation and realisation of the
truce placed?
c. Briefly point out the profiles of the two personalities.
II. Vocabulary activity
Read the following passage and fill blank spaces within using the words or phrases
in the box below.

1. Whether you are writing for a small ……………………………. or a big
newspaper, you must write like a professional if you want to produce a
good article. So what does it take to write like a real reporter?
2. First you must decide what to write about. Sometimes a ………….. will
give you specific assignments, but other times you’ll have to find your
own stories to write about.
3. If you do have a choice about the topic, you might be able to write an
article that is related to your own ……………………or family history.
You could also pick a topic that revolves around a strong interest, like
your................
4. Even if you are able to start out with ………………………..close to your
heart, you should conduct research right away, read books and articles
that will give you a full understanding of your story. Go to the library and
find …………………………about people, organizations, and events
you intend to cover.
5. Next, ………………………………….to collect quotes that reflect the
public’s perception of an event or story. Don’t be intimidated by the idea
of interviewing important or newsworthy people.
6. However, you must try to avoid bias. You may have strong opinions that
affect your conclusions. Beware of fallacies in your logic...
Adapted from https://www.thoughtco.com/how-to-write-a-news-article-1857250, retrieved on
March 16th ,2018

2.7.2. Grammar and Phonology
I. Fill the blank spaces in the sentences below using the most correct
structure between either must have or might have
1. I am sure the Chief Editor was here. I saw his car in the front of the
building.
2. He …………………………………… been here.
3. I am not sure if I passed the interview. I don’t feel so sure that I passed.
4. I ………………… passed the interview.
5. Last summer I took four writing competitions and failed them all! I
………… been disappointed.
6. She speaks excellent Kinyarwanda. I am sure she’s lived in Kigali for a long
time.
7. She ………………… lived in Kigali for a long time.
8. We agreed to meet yesterday, but when the secretary got there I didn’t
see him. It’s possible he was waiting elsewhere.
9. We agreed to meet yesterday, but when I got there I didn’t see him. He
……………. been waiting for elsewhere.
II. Join the pair of sentences in one using relative pronouns beginning
with the given phrases, omit the pronoun if possible and add commas if
necessary.
1. a. Our publishing house is very big. It is in Musanze.
b. Our publishing house…………
2. a. I had to fix my printer. I bought it less than a year ago.
b. The printer ……………………
3. a. Researchers were Rwandan authors. They played a big role in
producing this perfect work.
b. The researchers …………………………………………………….
4. a. I bought this magazine yesterday.
b. It has a crucial information. The magazine ………
5. a. Michael is a policeman. His father is a writer.
b. Michael ………………………………..
6. a. I bought a computer last month. It doesn’t work properly.
b. The computer …………….
7. a. I requested an article for coming writing competition. It did not arrive
on time.
b. The article……………………………………………………………….
8. a. I was given a note on how I can write a good article. It is of great
importance.
b. The note …………………………………………….
III. Give the phonological transcription of each of the following words:
a. Slogan
b. Coercive power
c. Record
d. Tenure
2.7.3. Summary Writing
I. Write a summary on each of the following topics:
Explain at least five impacts of newspapers and reporting on individual
professional development.
II. Analyse the impact of print media on the economic growth of your
community.
a. Write a short essay pointing out the role of newspapers and magazines
on academic achievements.
b. Briefly explaining the role of each, write a letter guiding someone on
the required people in the running of a magazine.
2.7.4. Essay Writing/ Reporting
With information from the article “Uhuru-Raila truce a window to carry out radical
surgery” on page 49 above, carry out the following tasks:
1. Write a summary of around fifty words, detailing the template used and
parties involved in the negotiations.
2. Imagine that you went to the market where fire has damaged everything.
Write an article
3. of four paragraphs to report what happened. Remember the uses of
past perfect continuous tense.
2.8. Glossary
Skim: read rapidly in order to get a general overview of the material

Scan: read rapidly in order to find specific facts or some particular information.

Headline: A heading at the top of an article or page in a newspaper or magazine

Newspaper: Newspaper is a printed publication (usually issued daily or weekly)
consisting of folded unstapled sheets and containing news, articles opinion,
advertisements and correspondence.

Article: a writing included with others in newspaper, magazine or other publication.
Magazine: is a periodical publication containing articles and illustrations, often on a
particular subject or aimed at a particular readership.
UNIT 3: CULTURAL DIVERSITY
Key Unit Competence:
Language use in the context of Cultural Diversity
Introductory activity:
Observing and interpreting pictures
Carefully study the pictures above and then discuss the cultural aspects that
each of them reflects.
3.1. Describing Being in a Foreign Country
3.1.1. Reading and Writing:
Living in a Foreign Country: How to Adapt?

Living in a foreign country is hard enough as it is, with all the cultural and
administrative issues you have to deal with. But if you don’t want to get stuck in the
expatriate bubble, you’ll need to learn to adjust to life in a foreign country.

While living in a foreign country sounds exciting and romantic, it does have a catch.
When foreigners tread on unfamiliar ground, they tend to stick to what is familiar
to them. Thus, many expatriates never make the transition from expatriates to
compatriots. After all, becoming a part of the local culture is probably the hardest
part of life abroad.

It is tempting to share your experiences of living in a foreign country exclusively
with other expatriates. Nobody else will understand your hesitation to try the local
food, your problems with adjusting to the pace of life and your ambivalence towards
social customs as well as those who are in the same boat. However, in order to get the
most out of your expatriate experience, you need to break out of your comfortable
little cocoon after a while and try to immerse yourself in the local culture. If you let
go of false impressions and stereotypes, then you have already taken the first major
step. Living in a foreign country can then become a truly life-altering experience.

It is not as easy as it seems to adjust to life abroad. The process of making the
transition from living like an expatriate to a more local life-style takes time. Culture
shock is part and parcel of living abroad and hits all of us eventually. The trick is
not to let it get the better of you. After all, it takes some time for all international
travelers and expatriates to get used to their new environment.

For most people who live in a foreign country, many aspects of the local culture
seem strange at best. This might appear exciting at first. The initial reason for moving
abroad is after all often the wish to explore foreign cultures. However, after living in
a foreign country for a while, little things that you initially considered charming may
begin to annoy you. You will remember how everything ran on schedule back home,
how clean your former hometown was, or how much more relaxed and friendly
everyone seemed.

Everybody who decides on living in a foreign country needs some time to adjust
to their new environment. Lina (32) felt that way when she moved from Sweden to
Ecuador. Everything seemed different from her home town Gothenburg, and after
the burst of initial excitement, those differences started to get to her.

However, after a while, she began to accept that things were simply not the same in
Quito. Until you get to this point, try to be respectful, patient, and humble.

After all, you are a guest living in a foreign country, at least until you have made the
transition from expatriate to compatriot.
Adapted from https://www.internations.org/guide/global/living-in-a-foreign-country-how-to adapt 15281
retrieved on March 19th, 2018
Read the above text and using complete sentences, answer the questions below:
1. Which obstacles is an immigrant likely to face in the host country?
2. Explain the right attitude that an immigrant should adopt and say why.
3. Based on the above passage, discuss at least five reasons why you would
adapt yourself to new cultures if you found yourself in a new country (city).
3.1.2. Writing and Speaking
3.1.2.1 Application Activities
I. Make notes during your group discussion and present the outcome to the
whole class.
II. With close reference to the passage on page 62-64, explain the following
words and phrases:
a. … adjust … (paragraph one)
b. … unfamiliar ground … (paragraph two)
c. ... ambivalence … (paragraph three)
d. … life altering … (paragraph four)
e. ...transition … (paragraph nine)
III. Refer to what you studied in unit one about composition writing and carry
out the tasks below:
1. Write a 250 word composition discussing the importance of adapting to
new cultures.
2. Imagine yourself in a foreign country where everybody behaves in a way
you are not familiar with. They cannot speak your language, their beliefs
are different from yours. Tell your classmates how you would react in
such a situation.
3.1.3. Sounds and Spelling
In phonology, stress is a relatively extra emphasis or prominence given to a certain
syllable in a word. The stress is represented with this symbol (‘) placed at the upper
left corner of the stressed syllable.

Practise reading the words and phrases in the vocabulary exercise above. You can
use a dictionary to check their pronunciation. Pay attention to stress.
Examples:
1. Adjust /əˈdʒʌst /
2. Unfamiliar ground /ˌʌnfəˈmɪljɚˈɡraʊnd/
3. Ambivalence /æmˈbɪvələns/
4. Life altering / ˈlaɪf ˈɔltɚrɪŋ/
5. Transition / trænˈzɪʃən/
3.2. Comparing Culture
3.2.1. Reading and Writing:
Cultural Diversity
Why is cultural diversity a good thing? Culture is the lens with which we evaluate
everything around us; we evaluate what is proper or improper, normal or abnormal.
If we are immersed in a culture that is different from ours, we can experience culture
shock and become disoriented when we come into contact with a fundamentally
different culture. People naturally use their own culture as a yard stick to judge other
cultures. Such judgment could reach to a level whereby people tend to discriminate
against others whose ways of living are different from theirs.

People fear essentially what they don’t understand. Cultural diversity is inevitable
since in our country, at our workplaces, and schools there exist increasingly various
cultural, racial, and ethnic groups. We can learn from one another, but first we should
have a level of understanding about each other in order to facilitate collaboration
and cooperation.

Learning about other cultures helps us understand different perspectives within the
world in which we live, and helps dispel negative stereotypes and personal biases
about different groups.

In addition, cultural diversity can help us recognize and respect “ways of being” that
are not necessarily our own, so that as we interact with others we can build bridges
to trust, respect, and have more understanding across cultures. Furthermore, this
diversity makes our country a more interesting place to live in. Indeed, people from
diverse cultures contribute to the development of language skills, new ways of
thinking, new knowledge, and different experiences.

How can you support cultural diversity? You ought to increase your level of
understanding about other cultures by interacting with people outside your
own culture. Meaningful relationships may never develop simply due to a lack
of appreciation of others’ cultural values. You should avoid imposing your own
values on others as that may conflict or be inconsistent with their beliefs. You
ought to recognize and understand that concepts such as family ties, gender roles,
spirituality, and emotional well-being, vary significantly among cultures and impact
on behavior.

Within the workplace, educational setting, and clinical setting, advocate for the
use of materials that are representative of the various cultural groups in the local
community and the society in general. You should intervene in an appropriate
manner when you observe others engaging in behaviors that show cultural
insensitivity, bias, or prejudice. You ought to be proactive in listening, accepting,
and welcoming people and ideas that are different from your own.

Cultural diversity supports the idea that every person can make a unique and positive
contribution to the larger society in spite of their differences. Imagine a place where
diversity is recognized and respected; various cultural ideas are acknowledged and
valued; contributions from all groups are encouraged; people are empowered to
achieve their full potential; and differences are celebrated!
By Dr. Lisa Belfield (Adjunct professor at Kaplan University)
https://www.purdueglobal.edu/news-resources/what-is-cultural-diversity/, retrieved on March 19th, 2018
Read the above text and using complete sentences, carry out the following tasks:
1. Discuss the dangers of judging other people on the basis of your own
culture.
2. Basing on the above text, tell how cultural diversity can improve someone’s
life perspectives?
3.2.2. Summary Writing Techniques
• Writing a summary exercise is always based on a given text which must be
read and re-written in a shorter form depending on the nature of the idea to
be developed. Emphasis should be put on the specific and key points given.
Remember, these points have to be presented without details, examples and
illustrations.
• Whereas we must use the points drawn from the text, the rules of summary
emphasize that you should construct it in your own words. You should never
copy down the same sentences as used in the main text but the central
message of the text has to be kept.

• It is important to remember that the purpose of writing a summary is giving
the reader a brief but complete message.

3.2.3. Steps in Summary Writing
Below are four steps to follow as you write your summary:
• Find the main and relevant points: Review all the ideas and choose one point
that best expresses the main idea in relation to the summary question.

• Organize your summary: In the first sentence state the thesis which gives
a summary in your own words. After the first sentence, proceed in a logical
manner, presenting the material in the same order as in the original passage.

• When you finish drafting your summary, compare what you have written with
the question. Make sure your sentences flow smoothly.

• Check the correctness or accuracy of grammar (tense, punctuation, spellings,
vocabulary, etc.)
3.2.4. Application Activities
Give the meaning of the following words as used in the above passage
a. .... immersed ... (paragraph one)
b. ... culture shock ... (paragraph one)
a. ... to facilitate collaboration ... (paragraph two)
b. ... different perspectives ... (paragraph two)
c. ... prejudice ... (paragraph four)
III. Match the words or phrases in Column A with their corresponding
meanings in Column B of the table below. In your exercise notebook,
present your answers in complete sentences.
Example:
The word ‘Prejudice’ refers to the practice or tendency of judging or making
conclusions without a fair reason.
IV. Summarize the aspects of multiculturalism as analyzed in the above passage.
3.2.5. Language Structure : Modal Verbs
1. Definition
A Modal Verb is a type of auxiliary (helping) verb that is used to convey ideas like
talking about ability, asking permission, making requests, talking about things
which are desired and so on.
2. Uses of Modal Verbs
How to use the Modal Verb “Can”.

Can is used when talking about someone’s skill or general abilities. It is also used to
make offers, ask and give permission.
Example
1. Muhire is patient and humble, he can adapt to any culture. (Ability)
2. If multiculturalism is recognized, people can live wherever they like.
(Permission)
3. I can play for you a nice piece of music about wedding ceremonies in
Kenya if you like. (Offer)
How to use Modal Verb “Should”
Should is used when giving a piece of advice, a recommendation or a suggestion.
Very often, should is used instead of Must to make rules, orders or instructions sound
more polite.
Example
a. If we are to live peacefully with others, we should avoid prejudices.
(Advice, recommendation, suggestion).
b. We should experience a united community since people now respect
each other’s beliefs. (Likely situation).
c. As tolerance is encouraged in our communities, we should have a
more peaceful generation in the future. (Prediction).
d. If you wish to fully recover from culture shock, you should never judge
other people’s culture. (Obligation-not as strong as Must).
How to use Modal Verb “Ought to …”

This modal verb is used to express the view that something is the right thing to do,
because it’s morally correct, polite, or someone’s duty. It is also used to predict that
something is fairly, likely or expected, based on normal circumstances or logic.
Example
a. We ought to keep our identity and respect other people’s customs.
(Duty, the right thing to do)
b. The world ought to experience a high rate of migration as cultures
mix. (Prediction)
c. You ought to interact with people outside your own culture. (advice or
recommendations)
3.2.6. Application Activities
I. Construct nine meaningful sentences using each of the following model
verbs can, ought to … and should. Then read your sentences to the class.
II. Choose the correct Modal Verb between can, ought to …, and should to
complete the sentences below.
1. We …………..celebrate rather than fight over cultural differences.
2. Community groups ………... have different traditions.
3. Different people ………..share the same beliefs.
4. People ………..fight over cultural differences.
5. We …………..encourage tolerance.
6. Immigrants ………... adapt to new customs.
7. Prejudices ……………. be a hindrance to peace building.
8. Political conflicts ………. be push factors for migration.
9. Multiculturalism ………..not make one lose his identity.
10. In a multicultural community, people ……... respect each other’s beliefs.
3.3. Describing Cultures and Customs
3.3.1. Listening and Speaking: Question and Answer; Debate
3.3.1.1. Application Activities
Listening and speaking:
1. Question and Answer
Carefully listen as your teacher reads a text for you. Be prepared to answer
the questions about the text.
2. Debating:
a. Debate on this motion “Cultural Diversity is a blessing, not a loss of
one’s identity”.
b. You should remember what you studied earlier on in unit one about
debating.
c. Choose any local culture that you know very well.
d. Discuss some positive aspects of that culture.
e. Describe any contrast between that culture and your own, if any.
f. Copy those aspects on a sheet of paper.
g. Remember to use Modal Verbs like can, should and ought to in your
debate.
3.4. Describing Traditional Rwandan culture
3.4.1. Reading and Writing:
Rwandan Traditions and Culture
In the Rwandan culture, it is considered extremely rude to eat in public. People are
not supposed to eat on the street, in public transportation, and sometimes even
during big parties in the presence of strangers. In addition, traditionally adults don’t
eat in front of their in-laws. In the past, adults could not even eat in front of their own
children and would often take their food into their bedroom. Some men would only
eat food cooked by their wives and refuse to eat any food cooked by a housekeeper.
It was said in the past that women were not supposed to eat goat meat, for two
reasons: it would make them grow beard, and become stubborn. However, it is now
believed such assumptions were invented by greedy men who wanted all the good
meat for themselves.

Going out to eat at restaurants is actually a fairly new concept that has only taken
hold with the influence of foreigners. In the recent past, if a man or a couple went
out to eat, it meant that the wife was a bad cook or that the man did not have a wife
at all. Even today, there are many Rwandans who generally do not dine out. In the
past, it was considered a taboo for in-laws to eat at a married couple’s house. It was
also taboo for them to stay the night and they would have to find another place in
the neighborhood to stay. Rwandans say that drinking milk makes women beautiful.
When there is a beautiful woman, Rwandans might say that she must have drunk a
lot of milk. If you invite someone or even multiple people out to dinner or drinks, it
is expected that you will pay for them. When Rwandans are served a bottle of beer
with a glass, they will sometimes pour a few drops into the glass, swish the liquid
around, and then pour it on the ground behind them. This serves two functions:
it symbolizes sharing the drink with ancestors and also helps clean out the glass.
When a guest stops by for a visit to a friend or family member, it is expected that the
host will offer him or her something to drink. The most common drink is Fanta or
beer. It is considered very rude to offer water, at least not until the guest has finished
the first drink.

When a married couple has children, their names essentially change to reflect the
identity of their first-born child. For example, if parents are named Joshua and Gloria.
As soon as they get their first baby-girl and call her Simbi, everyone who knows
them (friends, family members, community members, neighbours, perhaps even
colleagues) would start to call them Papa Simbi and Mama Simbi. People hence start
considering them as having enriched their identity and recognition with a family
and address. However this practice was borrowed from other African Countries such
as the Democratic Repuplic of Congo (DRC)
When a couple is planning a wedding, the man and the woman separately hold
numerous “planning meetings” at which they meet with their friends and family to
organize and finalize the details for the marriage.

One of the ways that the family of a bride prepares for a wedding is to plant a few
banana trees along the road leading to their house. In the past this was done to
show that the family was relatively wealthy, because it was implied that they could
also supply their guests with banana beer from their banana trees.

When a man and a woman share the bed, the man always sleeps on the side of door
so that he may protect his wife in the case of an intruder or a problem. It is considered
a serious taboo for an unmarried man to spend the night at an unmarried woman’s
home. This is part of a larger discussion about gender and double standards/disparate
access and opportunities: it is not acceptable for women to go out dancing without
men. If they do so, they will be taken for prostitutes.
It is forbidden for a married person to pronounce the name of his or her mother-inlaw
or father-in-law. When greeting them or even describing them to others, people
cannot say their name and have to describe them instead. They cannot even share
meals.
If a woman sews at night or in the dark, people will discourage her by saying that she
is sewing her parents’ eyes shut. This is most likely to prevent women from straining
their eyes by sewing under faint light. Whistling at night is considered a taboo as
it is believed to be a way of summoning snakes. It is also a taboo for a woman to
whistle at any time of the day for she would be considered as a malish. If you have
the hiccups, people say that someone is talking about you. When you have a twitch
on your eye or face, people believe it is a good omen.
Adapted from https://helainainrwanda.wordpress.com/2010/11/23/cultural-norms-traditions taboos-andsuperstitions/ retrieved on March 18th, 2018
Read the above text and using complete sentences, answer the questions below:
1. Explain five aspects of the Rwandan culture as discussed in the above
passage.
2. Describe the wedding process in the Rwandan culture as portrayed in the
above passage.
3. Refer to the notes on paragraph writing in Unit 1 page 4 of this book for
guidance and write an eighty-word paragraph about any other aspect of
the Rwandan culture that you know.
4. Give the meaning of the following words as used in the above passage
a. … extremely rude … (paragraph one)
b. … was invented by greedy men ... (paragraph one)
c. … considered taboo … (paragraph two)
d. … pour … (paragraph three)
e. … symbolizes … (paragraph four)
f. … to reflect … (paragraph five)
g. … a bride … (paragraph six)
h. … double standards … (paragraph seven)
i. … faint light … (paragraph nine)
j. … a twitch … (paragraph ten)
3.4.2. Letter Writing
An informal letter is always written in a personal style. Informal letters can be written
to people we relate with on personal grounds like relatives or friends. The content and
context of informal letters revolve on non-professional and unofficial relationships.
They are mainly on private issues or topics although this doesn’t exclude business
partners or workers with whom you’re friends.
Aspects of an Informal Letter
A letter should always present the following:
1. The Sender’s Address
The writer’s address should be located at the top right corner of the page.
2. The Receiver’s Address
This is also called the addressee’s address. It is usually located on the back side of
the envelope. However, it can also be placed at the top left corner of the letter, just
below the sender’s address.
3. The Date
The date is usually located below your own address. Simply leave one line below,
open, and insert the date, that is the month, day and year. Sometime, only the
month and day will be sufficient. (Remember that in English, the months and the
days are spelt starting with capital letters.)
4. The Opening or introduction
The opening is fairly straightforward, and it is usually not as important as it would be
with a business or formal letter.
5. The Body
The body comprises the content of the letter which should be written in a personal
and friendly tone. However, it’s important to adjust the language based on the
person you are writing to. Words and expressions are determined by the nature of
the relationship between the writer and the receiver of the letter.
The Ending: The ending is the closing sentence of your letter.
6. The Signature
The signature ends the letter. In case of an informal letter, the name of the sender
can serve as the signature.
3.4.3. Application Activity
Imagine you met a person, or you went to another community where you are
obliged to adopt other people’s culture.
• Write a detailed letter to your family members expressing some of the
shocking experiences.
3.5. Describing the causes of migration
3.5. 1. Listening and Speaking
Look at the above pictures and share with your classmates about questions like:
What is happening to the people and why?
What would cause someone to leave his or her country or city for a foreign one?
3.5.2. Reading and Writing
Factors of Migration
People migrate for a number of reasons. These reasons may fall under four areas
that are environmental, economic, cultural and socio-political reasons. Within all
these, there are some that may be seen as ‘Push’ or ‘Pull’ factors. Push factors force
individuals to move out voluntarily, and in many cases, they are forced because they
are risking something if they stay.

Push factors may include conflict, drought, famine, or religious based discrimination.
Poor economic activity and lack of job opportunities.

Other strong push factors include race and discriminating cultures, political
intolerance and persecution. Pull factors are those factors in the destination country
that attract the individuals or groups to leave their home. Those factors are known
as place utility, which is the desirability of a place that attracts people.

Better economic opportunities, more jobs, and the promise of a better life often
pull people into new locations. Sometimes, individuals have ideas and perceptions
about places that are not necessarily correct, but are strong pull factors for them.
As people grow older and retire, many look for places with warm weather, peaceful
and comfortable locations in order to spend their retirement after a lifetime of hard
work and savings.

Such ideal places are pull factors too. Very often, People consider and prefer
opportunities closer to their locations than similar opportunities farther away. In
the same spirit, people often like to move to places with better cultural, political,
climatic and general terrain in closer locations than locations farther away. It is rare
to find people move over very long distances in order to settle in places that they
have little knowledge of.
Adapted from http://eschooltoday.com/migration/the-pull-and-push-factors-of-migration.html retrieved
on March 18th, 2018
Read the above text and answer the questions below:
1. State and explain the reasons why people migrate.
2. Assume there are migrants who come to your home area. Explain how you
would treat them.
3. In your own words, write a paragraph summarizing the pull factors of
migration.
4. Construct one meaningful sentence with each of the following words and
phrases:
a. … migrate …(paragraph one)
b. … push factor … (paragraph two)
c. … political intolerance … (paragraph three)
d. … vein …(paragraph five)
e. … peaceful and comfortable … (paragraph five)
3.5.3. Application Activity
Discuss the consequences of cultural intolerance.
3.5.4. Language Structure: Sentence Connectors
Definition
A sentence connector is a word or phrase used to join or combine two sentences
in order to convey a specific meaning. Some sentence connectors show cause and
effect. These include among others: because, so that, in order to.
Example
1. People migrate because they risk something if they stay in their home
area.
2. Older people migrate to comfortable locations in order to spend their
retirement after a lifetime of hard work and savings.
3. Weaver had to work full-time in order to earn a living for her family of five
children in her new town.
4. I moved to France so that I could improve my French.
3.5.2. Application Activities
I. Construct two meaningful sentences containing cause and effect language
(Make use of so that, because, in order to,...)
II. Combine the two sentences below using the transition word or phrase
expressing cause and effect in brackets:
a. We stayed in Musanze. Their culture had a lot of similarities with ours.
(because)
b. Kayumba had to adapt to the aborigines’ culture. He wanted to
successfully carry out his research on multiculturalism. (in order to)
c. Tolerance was to be encouraged. People could live peacefully. (so that)
d. Munyana failed her business first test abroad. She didn’t adapt to the
new beliefs that she faced. (because)
e. We ought to respect other people’s traditions. We wish they respected
our traditions. (so that).
f. We mustn’t be rude with people who don’t share our customs.
Rudeness may be a threat to peace in our community. (because)
g. Many people migrate to Rwanda. They wish to find jobs. (in order to).
h. They decided to stay abroad. Their cultural identity was not threatened.
(because)
i. Kayihura and his wife decided to be humble and patient. They wished
to build peace with their neighbors. (in order to).
j. They moved to Rwanda. There were culture-based conflicts in their
home country (because)
3.6. UNIT SELF- ASSESSMENT
3.6.1. Comprehension and Vocabulary
“Tolerance as Cultures Mix”
In Maine, a refugee from Afghanistan was seen kissing the penis of his baby boy,
a traditional traditional expression of love by this father. To his neighbors and the
police, it was child abuse, and his son was taken away.

In Seattle, a hospital tried to invent a harmless female circumcision procedure to
satisfy conservative Somali parents wanting to keep an African practice alive in
their community.

The idea got buried in criticism from an outraged public.
How do democratic, pluralistic societies like the United States, based on religious
and cultural a tolerance, respond to customs and rituals that may be repellent to
the majority?

As new groups of immigrants from Asia and Africa are added to the demographic
mix in the United States, Canada and Europe, balancing cultural variety with
mainstream values is becoming more and more tricky.

Many Americans confront the issue of whether any branch of government should
have the power to intervene in the most intimate details of family life. ‘’I think we
are torn,’’ said Richard A.

Shweder, an anthropologist at the University of Chicago and a leading advocate
of the broadest tolerance for cultural differences. ‘’It’s a great dilemma right now
that’s coming up again about how we’re going to deal with diversity in the United
States and what it means to be an American.’’

Anthropologists have waded deeply into this debate, which is increasingly
engaging scholars across academia, as well as social workers, lawyers and judges
who deal with new cultural dimensions in immigration and asylum.
By Barbara Crossette (New York Times Magazine) http://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/06/arts/testinglimits-tolerance-cultures-mix-does-freedom-mean-accepting-rituals-that.html, retrieved on March 18th, 2018

Carefully read the above passage, then answer the questions below
1. Suppose you were one of the people mentioned in paragraph one.
Talk about the attitude that you would adopt.
2. Basing on the above text, explain how men and women should
behave towards each other to encourage tolerance in their mutual
relationship.
3. Construct one meaningful sentence with each of these words and
phrases as used in the above passage:
a. … conservative … (paragraph one)
b. … criticism … (paragraph one)
c. … outraged … (paragraph one)
d. … cultural variety … (paragraph two)
e. … pluralistic societies … (paragraph two)
f. … repellent … (paragraph two)
g. … broadest tolerance … (paragraph three)
h. … advocate … (paragraph three)
3.6.2. Grammar and Phonology
I. Use cause-effect language with the sentence connectors: because, in order
to, to complete these sentences:
1. They moved to Rwanda .......…... they could escape from war and save
their lives.
2. I can’t visit you today ………………. I am busy reading my notes on
multiculturalism.
3. Fulani visited Liverpool ……………… to learn about his new British
friend’s culture.
4. A Rwandan doesn’t call his father-in-law by his name …… it would be
considered impolite.
5. Michael has many friends abroad ………….. of his capacity to adapt to
new traditions.
6. In Rwandan culture, women are forbidden to sew at night …………. to
prevent them from straining their eyes.
7. At a wedding ceremony, banana trees are planted ……….. they can
show the family’s wealth and generosity.
8. We should be tolerant towards others ………….. to avoid culture
shock.
9. People finally had to understand each other ………….. they could
learn from each other’s cultures.
10. Cultural diversity makes people contribute positively to the larger
society ……….. of their differences.

II. Read the following words and phrases aloud and correctly. Put the stress at
the right place.
a. Outraged d. Advocate
b. Mainstream values e. Pluralistic
c. Intimate f. Conservative

3.6.3. Summary
Carefully read the passage that follows, and then write 80 word paragraph
summarizing the importance of cultural identity for children’s wellbeing.

Cultural identity matters to children’s wellbeing

A strong cultural identity is important to a child’s mental health and
wellbeing. Having a strong sense of their own cultural history and traditions
helps children build a positive cultural identity for themselves, gives them a sense
of belonging and self-esteem and supports their overall wellbeing.

When children have a strong cultural identity, they are well-placed to make social
connections with others and develop a sense of belonging to their community,
even if the community’s cultures are different from their family culture. Having
a positive sense of belonging in both settings helps children move between
cultures with greater ease and confidence, and can increase their engagement.

In turn, the sense of belonging builds children’s self-esteem and resilience, and
reduces the likelihood they will experience depression and anxiety. To be able
to get on well in a culture that is different from their family culture, children
often need to understand and respond to different expectations. For example,
the expectations around body language can be very different across various
cultures. In many Asian cultures, making direct eye contact with an adult is
viewed as a sign of disrespect or a challenge to that adult’s authority.
It can be complex, and sometimes confusing, for a child from a different cultural
background to their school culture to make sense of the different expectations.
In some cases children may experience ‘cultural conflict’ and feel that they have
to choose one culture or the other, even though they have to live in both. This
can be stressful for children and have negative impacts on their mental health
and wellbeing.

However, when children have a positive sense of belonging to both cultures,
their mental health and wellbeing is supported and so is their learning. The
experiences of children and families in a health and community setting can also
have a positive effect on their sense of belonging and engagement with the wider
community. A child’s sense of their own cultural identity is also strengthened
when this diversity is recognised, respected and valued in their interactions with
health and community professionals.

Adapted from https://www.kidsmatter.edu.au/health-and-community/enewsletter/cultural-identitymatters-children%E2%80%99s-wellbeing, Retrieved on May 9th, 2018.

3.6.4. Essay Writing
Suppose you experienced a situation involving ‘culture shock’. Write an essay of
about 350 words showing the right way of behaving in such a situation.
UNIT 4: MYSELF AND MY AMBITIONSMYSELF AND MY AMBITIONS
UNIT 4: MYSELF AND MY AMBITIONS
Key Unit Competence:
Language use in the context of myself and my ambitions
Introductory activity:
Observing and interpreting pictures

Observe the above picture and do the following
1. Explain how academic life may determine our ambitions.
2. Using suitable examples, show how role models can help in shaping our
future.
3. Discuss the benefits of Internet when visited during leisure time.
4.1. Describing Hobbies and Leisure Time

4.1.1. Reading and Writing: Hobbies and Enjoyment

A hobby is an activity that a person does during free time. People have hobbies for
pleasure. A person’s hobby is usually connected to what they enjoy. A person who
likes to create things with their hands, for example, may want to knit or do hand
work. Collecting, making things and sports are all hobbies.

Hobbies often lead to skill, knowledge and experience. Leisure time is not spent on
things that you have to do, like a job, studying, errands, housework, etc. A leisure
activity can be a hobby: gardening, sewing, painting, knitting, exercising, fishing,
etc. Leisure time can also be used to relax. Sleeping, watching TV, lounging, etc.
Leisure activities may change according to what is going on in your life. Listening to
stories about what other people did or do as hobby can help you to choose the right
one for yourself. Now read about Darlene’s hobby.

Darlene McCormick has a lot of beagles, 2786 of them to be exact. Luckily, for
Darlene, these are not the face-licking, tail-chasing kind. Instead of fur, these dogs
are made of porcelain, ceramic, stone, and just about any materials you can think of.
What started out as a gift when she was ten years old, has quickly become Darlene’s
life –long passion. I started with just one”. Says Darlene holding up her very first
beagle, a cute little figurine made out of probably carved wood.

“My mother gave this to me when I was just a little girl and I loved it right away. Our
family has always been great lovers of dogs and so I am. Before I knew it, I had 50 of
these little guys. Then I had a 100, and then 1000. Last time I checked, I was closing
in on 3000. It was wonderful hobby. Everywhere I go I look for the little guys. I even
have beagles from Mexico and Italy!”

What advice does Darlene have for other avid collectors?

“Make sure you have an understanding spouse,” she laughs. “But seriously, do what
you love. That’s the best piece of advice anyone can give you. Anything can be a
hobby as long as it’s something that matters to you. For me, it’s beagles, but it can
be about anything you can imagine. Some people like to collect stamps, other like
antiques. It’s all about what appeals to you. If you love it, that’s all matters.”

But can a hobby become too much” therapist, Doctor Brenda Hogan explains that “it
can go too far, but that rarely happens. For the most part, hobbies, such as collecting,
are wonderful pastimes that not only make people happy, but more active as well.”
Each of Darlene’s beagles has its own story. Darlene appears happy and proud as she
shares the history of her collection. Judging by Darlene’s smile, one has and start a
hobby that reflects who we are and what we love.

Adapted from:http://www.learnquebec.ca/documents/20181/135109/unit18.pdf/d066bf4c-c145-43cba16c-bcddae5ba894 retrieved on March 24, 2018

Read the above text and answer the questions below

1. How does the writer define the term hobby?

2. What are the examples of hobbies listed in the passage?
3. Explain the uniqueness of Darlene’s McCormick’s hobby.
4. Referring to Dr Brenda Hogan can a hobby be too much?
5. In your exercise book, match the words in Column A with their meanings in
Column B

4.1.2. Application Activities

I. Composition writing

In not less than 250 words, discuss at least two of your hobbies by fully
pointing out how they are your source of enjoyment.
• Refer to the notes in Unit One on the techniques of composition writing.

II. Summary writing
In fifty words, summarise the nature of Darlene’s hobby.
• Refer to the notes in Unit three on the techniques of summary writing

4.2. Recounting Activities
4.2.1. Reading and Writing
In one interview, they asked a candidate to describe herself and her experience. Her
unfocused response was not what they were looking for.

“I’ve had a few experiences when it comes to like communications in a little different
field I would say between film and politics. I’m from Los Angeles and I moved to
Washington D.C.,” she said. “I was looking for a ‘normal job,’ nothing to do with
government, nothing to do with entertainment industry or anything,” she added.
The candidate missed a key opportunity to highlight relevant skills and experiences
she gained from her different prior positions. And from the hiring managers’ body
language such as shifting in their chairs and looking around, it became clear that her
response couldn’t give chance for the job.

According to Joan Kuhl, author and founder and CEO of career consulting firm “Why
Millennials Matter”, the most important thing is to tailor your response to the specific
hiring manager. Instead of rambling or restating what’s on your resume, highlight a
few key experiences you’ve had and describe how they make you a great fit for the
role you’re applying for. It will help you make a great impression.

List the job’s required skills and match your skills to the list, “Whether they were
professionally learned skills or those you developed through extracurricular
activities, volunteer work, class, everything counts.
“Then choose a few of your experiences that touch on these skills to discuss in your
job interview. Some examples of leading a project, learning more about a technical
skill or even finding a solution to a difficult problem are great anecdotes. You could
even do a practice interview with a friend or family member”, Kuhl says.

And don’t worry if these experiences came from working in a different sector or
industry. As long as you present them in a succinct and clear way, you’ll be making
a strong case for yourself. “Do not feel like your experiences are not ‘good enough,’’
says Kuhl. “Every experience can teach you valuable lessons and transferable skills. It
is all about how you sell yourself.

In other words, figure out how you will show that your previous experience has
prepared you for the opportunity in front of you. Use body language tricks, such as
having a straight posture and smiling to exude confidence.

Adapted form:https://www.cnbc.com/2017/11/30/how-to-describe-your

-past-work-experience-in-a-jobinterview.html retrieved on March 23rd, 2018.
Read the above text and answer the questions below.
1. How did the Hiring Manager express his disapproval of the interviewee’s
response to the first question?
2. In two sentences, paraphrase the interviewee’s response to the first question
by the Interview panel.
3. Referring to the author, what should have the interviewee included in the
answer about her experience?
4. Briefly explain the following words as used in the above passage
a. … entertainment industry … (paragraph 1)

b. … hiring manager … (paragraph 2)
c. … rambling … (paragraph 4)
d. … extra-curricular activities … (paragraph 5)
e. … counts … (paragraph 5)
f. … anecdotes … (paragraph 6)
g. … succinct … (paragraph 7)
h. … transferable … (paragraph 7)
i. … posture … (paragraph 8)
j. … exude … (paragraph 8)
4.2.2. Sounds and Spelling
Practice the pronunciation of the following words and make the phonological form
of words such as turn, come, success, hobby, choice, etc.
Examples
surgery: /ˈsɜːʤəri/
company: /kʌmpəni/ˈ
interviewee: /ɪntəvju(‘iː)/
experience:/ɪksˈpɪərɪəns/
anecdotes:/ˈænɪkdəʊts/
succinct:/səkˈsɪŋkt/
posture:/ˈpɒsʧə/

4.3. Describing Internet
4.3.1. Picture Observation and Interpretation

Observe the picture above and list the internet applications shown.
4.3.2. Reading and Writing
Read the following passage and carry out the following tasks:
Productive ways of using the Internet
Surprisingly, for us Internet savvy generation, it is pretty easy to get myopic with
the medium. Given the sheer scale of the Internet, there is so much to see, do and
learn and yet most of us find ourselves going back to the same humdrum over
and over again. In this post, I will talk about how you can work on re-directing that
passive, Facebook consumed energy into something more productive. So turn off
that Facebook window and consider these following recommendations to make the
best use of Internet and feel productive. Trust me, there is a lot more to the Internet
than narcissistic indulgences.

One is never too old to learn a new skill. And no skill ever goes wasted. Websites like
Coursera and MIT Open Course Ware are excellent sources of knowledge, providing
free courses on a multitude of topics and skill areas.

If not for a course, check out websites like Quora (a fun discussions community), Life
Hacker (a well of tips on how to get things done), Stumble Upon (provides good
recommendations on websites tallying your interests), How Stuff Works (just to
become a little bit wiser about the things around you), Duolingo (a fun web app
to learn the basics of a new language) or even Wikipedia, for that matter, to boost
(perhaps) up your IQ or for the sake of knowing something more than you did
yesterday. I have, through personal experience, found that learning something new
keeps the mind excited and energized. And all this, for free!
The only thing that is worse than being a person without opinions is being someone
with pointless opinions. Rise your social quotient by juicing up on worldviews and
perspectives by subscribing to interesting YouTube channels or catching some
interesting talks on TED Talks (a personal favourite I must say). If you prefer reading
something instead, my top picks would be Fast Company (I regularly read their
articles, case studies and blogs), Entrepreneur (for some inspiring stories) and Goo
dreads (to find recommendations on the next great book to read).

Instead of just whiling away your time on the Internet, make an effort to organise
your life. For starters, try organizing your computer files (you know that pile of
pictures you have been trying to sort out. Start there). You may even want to empty
your inboxes once in a while. Answer all those emails you have been putting on
hold and get those out of the way. It’s a good feeling to wake up to an empty inbox
(or a relatively empty one, too). Another productive thing to do is to use some free
Internet time to get your finances in order, pay your bills, and to look into your
investments. And if this last bit got you particularly interested, look up Investopedia
for some good tips and lessons on personal financing and investments.

Use your free time to get back in touch with your family and friends. Make a Skype
call instead of dropping a text message. Sometimes, a hearty chat with a dear friend
is all it takes to get you feeling productive.

And even if you happen to completely love your job it doesn’t hurt to update your
résumé (or a professional profile on sites like LinkedIn once in a while. It’s a good
personal development check at times. Let this exercise be a reminder to you to get
updated on skills and remain productive.

I am an avid online shopper and find shopping online (especially for high involvement
products) as particularly enabling, given I have a dearth of helpful advisors in my
physical space. A recent discovery, for me, has been the concept of online coupons.
Some of them are actually helpful in getting you some good deals and price-offs on
products across certain websites. I have looked up deals on CupoNation (available
across multiple geographies) and Cupondunia (an Indian couponing portal). Look
for a couponing company working around your community and try to shop smart
online.

And if you are not comfortable turning in your credit card details just yet, online
shopping helps narrow down your choices, at the very least. That’s my idea of
window shopping these days.

In this world of android and iOS, one can always reach out to an app to make their lives
a little bit easier. On most lazy Sundays when I am too bored of browsing someone’s
social status, I like exploring Google Play for latest productivity apps and games. I
have found plenty of apps and chrome extensions that have made my profession as
well as personal life a little bit more organized and informed in so many ways.
Whether you need to remind yourself to answer emails, pick up milk or pay your
bills, having a virtual assistant may not be all that bad an option. To-do lists and
time management apps are a boon, so to say. It’s always good to have someone
remember these small details for you if you are not all that good at micromanaging
your daily calendar.

I found this suggestion on a website recently. Google Street View is a super fun app
to take a quick tour of any place in the world, from literally, the comforts of your
couch. I find that it’s a great tool for looking up vacation destinations or just for
catching a break from the monotony of it all.

I have been an ardent hobbyist all my life and Pinterest has made it all the more
pursuable. On a free day, I am most likely to be found browsing Pinterest looking for
DIY tips and tricks or browsing through recipe pin boards. It’s a great place to look
up information on things you like from food to fashion to fonts, on how you can
improve on them, and even find some new things to like.

I hate to admit it but of all the things I do find time for, I hardly ever find time to
process my own thoughts. That’s one of the main reasons why I took up blogging,
because somehow I found that I think well when I write (and I write better than I
speak). Writing really does help get clarity on thought and at times, that’s the only
introspection you need.
Adapted from:https://www.brightpod.com/boost/10-productive-ways-
to-spend-timeon-the-Interneta retrieved on March 23th, 2018
Read the text on page 90-91 and carry out the following tasks:
I. Vocabulary
a. … humdrum … (paragraph 1)
b. … websites … (paragraph 2)
c. … social quotient … (paragraph 3)
d. …. Professional profile … (paragraph 7)
e. … online shopper … (paragraph 8)
f. … browsing … (paragraph 13)
II. Puzzle
Carefully study the crossword puzzle below and map out words related to
Internet as used in the above passage.

III. Sentence construction
Use the obtained words from crossword puzzle to make your own sentences
like in the example below:
Quora is a fun discussion community website.
4.3.3. Reading comprehension
Text: Essential equipment for nurses

Read the following text and answer questions below:

Nurses provide care to patients, assess their needs and maintain their health
records. They might also counsel patients on how to manage a health condition
or supervise a staff of licensed practical nurses, nursing assistants/associate
nurses and clerks. Registered nurses work in a variety of settings, and different
settings or specialties can require different tools. However, certain nursing tools
are commonly used.

One of a registered nurse’s job duties is to measure and record a patient’s vital
signs. To accomplish this, nurses use stethoscopes, blood pressure cuffs and a
variety of thermometers, ranging from rectal thermometers to digital versions
that are inserted in the ear. A watch with a clearly visible dial and second hand
is a valuable tool used primarily when taking a patient’s pulse.
Nurses must sometimes administer injections or secure blood samples from their
patients. Syringes are used for both purposes. At times, only a small sample is
needed for testing. Lancets can be used to make heel sticks or fingertip pricks to
secure a few drops of blood for a laboratory slide.
Nurses working in a hospital setting might need to place catheters in bed-ridden
or unconscious patients. If the patient cannot take or tolerate food, a nurse might
need to insert a feeding tube so the patient can receive nourishment.

Nurses might start an intravenous drip, commonly called an IV, to supply fluids
to the patient and expedite the administration of injectable medications, which
can be introduced via the IV line. Regardless of setting, nurses sometimes need to
use suctioning tools to clear a patient’s trachea, ears or nasal passages. Manual
resuscitators can be used to force air into a patient’s lungs if the patient stops
breathing on his own.

Depending on the setting and duties, nurses might control a variety of technology
tools to monitor patients. In the labor room, many nurses attach a fetal monitor
to track the unborn baby’s heart rate. Defibrillators are used in emergencies to
restore normal cardiac function in patients by introducing an electrical shock.
Nurses must also possess computer skills to update patient records, prepare
schedules or perform timekeeping duties for the staff they supervise.
Some protective gear is for the patient’s benefit, some is for the nurse’s and
some serves both purposes. Disposable gloves help prevent the transmission of
communicable diseases between patients and between a patient and his nurse.
Disposable protective masks serve the same purpose. In some settings, a nurse
might need a protective mask, typically made of transparent plastic, that covers
the entire face and shields the wearer from potentially contaminated fluids.
Depending on duties, nurses sometimes wear disposable shoe covers, gowns
and hair covers.
Every nurse must have a pen light. This handy item lets you easily assess a patient’s
pupils. And at night, they can help you see in a patient’s darkened room, so you
don’t have to turn on the light and disturb them.

Nursing scissors are a vital part of the nursing equipment. Nursing scissors cut
through virtually anything-dressings, tape, gauze, tubing, gown strings that are
knotted too tight and just cannot be untied. You name it. They are so versatile and
useful that most nurses have multiple pairs to use at home as well as at work.

Whether you’re working in home care or doing facility-based nursing, you need
footwear that will give you reliable support. Studies show that wearing the right
shoes can reduce the incidence of painful problems such as back pain and foot
problems such as bunions and ingrown toenails.

Stethoscope: There are so many elements to consider when choosing the right
stethoscope. Some are personal preference, while others can affect performance
and durability.
Comprehension
a. List all the essentials tools and equipment mentioned in the text above.
b. Give different levels of nurses as mentioned in the text.
c. Explain the use of the following tools in nursing:
i. stethoscopes
ii. blood pressure cuffs
iii. thermometer
iv. resuscitators
v. pen light
vi. nursing scissors
Vocabulary
Use the following words and expressions in sentences
a. clerks
b. catheters
c. feeding tube
d. nourishment
e. fetal monitor
f. handy
g. pupils
h. you name it
i. bunions
j. ingrown toenails

Application activity

Match the functions in column A with their roles/duties in column B

4.3.4. Application Activities
I. Summary Writing
In not more than fifty words, write a summary explaining the best techniques
of using the internet.
II. Letter Writing Activity
Supposing you are a Human Resource Manager of any company, write a
letter sensitizing all the employees on the importance of taking a short
course on internet use.
• Refer to the notes in Unit one on the Techniques of writing an official letter.
4.4. Professional life and achievements
4.4.1. Reading and Speaking

If you can keep your head when all about you
Are losing theirs and blaming it on you;
If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you,
But make allowance for their doubting too:
If you can wait and not be tired by waiting,
Or, being lied about, don’t deal in lies,
Or being hated don’t give way to hating,
And yet don’t look too good, nor talk too wise;

If you can dream - and not make dreams your master;
If you can think - and not make thoughts your aim,
If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster
And treat those two impostors just the same:.
If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken
Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools,
Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken,
And stoop and build’em up with worn-out tools;
If you can make one heap of all your winnings
And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss,
And lose, and start again at your beginnings,
And never breathe a word about your loss:
If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew
To serve your turn long after they are gone,
And so hold on when there is nothing in you
Except the Will which says to them: “Hold on!”
If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue,
Or walk with Kings - nor lose the common touch,
If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you,
, but none too much:

If you can fill the unforgiving minute
With sixty seconds’ worth of distance run,
Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it,
And - which is more - you’ll be a Man, my son!

By Rudyard Kipling
Source: https://www.familyfriendpoems.com/poem/if-by-rudyard-kipling ,
Retrieved on March 23rd, 2018

Read the poem on page 93 and answer the questions that follow
1. To whom is this poem addressed and why?
2. Give at least three things that someone can aspire to in order to reach
higher in life.
3. After reading the poem, what do you understand by the following verses
a. “… If you can dream, do not make dreams your master …” (stanza 2)
b. “ … If you can meet with triumph and disaster, treat those two impostors
just the same...” (stanza 2)
c. “or Being hated, don’t give way to hating …” ( stanza 1)
4.4.2. Language Structure: Use of First Conditional
The first conditional is a form of the verb we use when we want to talk about
possibilities in the present or in the future. We use comma when (if clause) is at the
beginning of the sentence.
Examples:
1. If I want to get a well - paid job, I will have to get qualifications.
2. She will need to pass her examinations if she wants to go to university.
3. If I want to get a qualification in IT, I will need to study it at university.
4.4.3. Application Activity
Construct at least 10 sentences with the First Conditional in relationship with
professional life and ambitions that talk about possibility in the future.
Example:
If your CV is properly organised, you have more chances of being short-listed.
4.5. Job Adverts, CV Writing and Qualities of a Good Employee
4.5.1. Reading and writing
Job advertisement
The office of Coordination in Kigali in charge of Partnership between Rhineland-Palatinate
and Rwanda is expanding the team with a post of a Civil Engineer as a Junior Project
Manager.
Attributions and responsibilities:
Under the supervision of the Coordinator of the Construction Department the tasks are:
a. Evaluation of building projects: Leading discussions and interviews, measuring
quantities at site and examination of existing infrastructure, compilation of
reports
b. Compilation and examination of bill of quantities;
c. Carrying out inspections at site
d. Carrying out acceptance of construction work;
e. Follow up of critical building sites
Qualifications and Requirements:
BSc / MSc Civil Engineering
a. Strong analytical skills
b. Ability to calculate/ examine bill of quantities
c. High Flexibility / Fitness especially for field work
d. High motivation / personal responsibility for field work
e. Creativity for development of construction / rehabilitation projects
f. French and English language skills (fluency in one of the languages at least)
g. Comprehension for goals and philosophy of this Partnership based on grassroot level
h. Negotiating skills desirable
The interested candidates should deliver a complete application file to the Director of the
office of Coordination, Partnership Rhineland-Palatinate / Rwanda (“Jumelage”), Kigali, 39
Bld de la Révolution (between Serena Hotel and SONARWA Insurance).
The application file should include:
a. An application letter addressed to the Director of the Office of Coordination
b. One detailed curriculum vitae with photo
c. Photocopies of diploma and work certificate
Application deadline
Until February 25th, 2018
Adapted from: http://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/16595/, Retrieved on March 24th, 2018.
Read the above Job advert and answer the questions that follow.
1. According to the advert above, what are the main skills required for the job
of A Civil Engineer?
2. What are the core qualities required of a Civil Engineer?
3. State the main attachments should an ideal application letter have.
4. Visit your school library or other public library, borrow newspapers and
scan some job advertisements or visit internet café. Compare them with
the above advert on page 95.
4.5.2. Language structure: The uses of ‘Need to’ and ‘Have to’
The verbial phrases ‘have to’ and ‘need to’ both describe situations where a certain
thing must be done. While they can be used interchangeably in some cases, they do
have distinct meanings and may not be appropriate for all occasions.

‘Need to’ is a verbal phrase that is used to indicate that an action is necessary and
must be performed urgently. It reflects a requirement that has to be met shortly.

Example:
You need to write and attach a CV on every application letter in order to be
shortlisted.
Have to is a phrase that is also used when there is something necessary to be done
or completed. However, it is something that is compulsory by law and, therefore,
indicates a kind of obligation on your part.
Example:
I have to fill up the forms to be able to take the exam.
4.5.3. Application Activity
Referring to the above example, write 10 sentences using have to and need to
in a context of job applications and advertisements.
How to write a CV for job application
A CV is an abbreviation of curriculum vitae. It is a document used to present personal
life details to prospective employers. In the case of a job application, it should tell
about professional history and skills, abilities and achievements. Ultimately, it should
highlight why you’re the best person for the job.
When applying, in addition to the CV, a cover letter and a completed application
form are also required.

What to include in a CV

While the structure of a CV is flexible, there are particular sections that employers
expect to see on a CV. Here below are the sections that must be included in a CV:

Name, professional title and contact details

The first part of a CV, positioned at the top of the page, should contain the name,
professional title and contact details. The title of your CV should be ‘curriculum vitae’.
When it comes to contact details, email address and phone number(s) are essential.
In the past, it was common to include full address on the CV. Today, town and country
are needed.

Experience and employment history

Employment history section provides opportunity to outline previous occupations,
internships and work experience. Experience starts with the most recent. When
writing about experience, for each position held, it is important to state the job title,
employer, the period of that employment and a one-line summary of the duties
assigned, including key responsibilities, skills and achievements. Bolster each
point with active verbs and figures to support each claim to show impact on the
organisations served.

Education and qualifications

Like experience section, the education background should start with the highest
qualification towards the lowest. The name of the institutions and the period of
study are required also.

Hobbies and interests

Depending on the type of job applied for, one can boost his or her CV by inserting
hobbies and interests section at the end, focusing on interests that make them stand
out or are relevant to the job.

References
Referees are needed to confirm the information given in the CV.

Adapted from https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/writing/curriculum-vitae ;
retrieved on March 27,2018
4.5.4. Application Activity
On the basis of the notes above, construct your CV as one of the steps before
applying for any job post of your dream.
4.6. UNIT SELF- ASSESSMENT
4.6.1. Reading and Vocabulary
My professional achievements
I could put together a laundry list of projects and implementations and the like.
But I consider my most important professional achievement being the hiring of
a single employee - it’s a story I’ve recalled over the years during conversations
and interviews for different human resources’ roles.

Eric had served in the military before joining my then organization as a warehouse
employee. He was smart, willing to learn, and up to new challenges. Eric had
applied internally for a call center role no less than six times in the two years
preceding my taking on the process - at no point had he ever received a face to-
face interview. He submitted his seventh application a few months into my
tenure and I remember looking at his resume and wondering what the issue was.
I decided to call him.

Eric was friendly and engaging, he had a kind of gee golly charm about him as we
spoke, he had a certain timidity, he also had a stutter.

I suspect as we neared the end of our conversation he anticipated that would
be the end of his latest application. So, when I invited him in for a face-to-face
interview I think it came as a bit of a shock. I put Eric through the same rigors as
every other applicant I brought in - behavioral questions, skills testing, and so on.
I think when he left my office that day he again presumed this latest attempt at
moving up in the organization was over.
But I liked Eric, he was everything we could have wanted out of customer service
reps, and when I called him to make the offer it was clear that he was a bit
overwhelmed.

After accepting the offer, almost immediately, he told me how he’d been
informed both directly and indirectly that he should stop applying to the call
center. He was told that he’d never get an interview because of his stutter. He was
told that customers wouldn’t want to work with him to resolve issues because
it would be distracting. He had been told a lot of things that were discouraging,
unnecessary, and unfortunate.

I told him that I was excited for him to join the call center team.

When I passed that month’s hiring list onto the management team the response
was almost immediate - “What were you thinking? Have you talked to the guy?
He won’t make it through the 6-week training!” I pushed back, I defended my
decision, I fought for what I thought was the right hire. When Eric showed up
on his first day he shook my hand, thanked me profusely as he was smiling from
ear-to-ear. I told him, “Prove them wrong.”

And Eric did. He was one of the top employees to come out of his hiring class. He
found himself promoted more than once. He moved onto new organizations, he
took on new challenges, he served as a team leader. Eric found a career path...
over the years, Eric and I would exchange the occasional email as one of us
moved onto a new role or organization. I have an email or two where years after
he took on exciting opportunities, he would write to thank me for giving him
that first opportunity.

Eric Kientzy recently passed away after a tragic motorcycle accident and as I read
the articles, obituary, and posts from friends and family on Facebook and other
such venues, it was clear that he had been happy and loved. I’d like to hope that
I was able to play a small role in helping Eric find success and become the person
that was so clearly admired and now so sorely missed - doing the right thing
by him. Giving a chance to someone who deserved it and watching him take
that opportunity and run with it, is and will probably remain my single greatest
professional achievement no matter how many strategies I devise, systems I
implement, process I redesign, teams I lead. Eric taught me that achievement
(ambition, innovation and being awesome) can’t always be measured in the
what or how or why, sometimes it’s a matter of “why not?”

Adapted from: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140612064351-985085-what
-is-your-most important-professional-achievement retrieved on March 26, 2018
Read the text on pages 96-97 and answer the questions below:
1. Eric Kientzy has attempted to apply for a job many times. Explain why
his applications were not received after his resignation from military
services?
2. Explain how Eric Kientzy’s attitude toward the work has served him.
3. In one paragraph, explain how the passage inspires both sides either
Managers or applicants in recruitment.
4. Why do you think the manager asked Eric Kientzy to ‘Prove them wrong?’
5. Many Managers tend to have bad impression on newly recruited
employees accusing them of lacking experience. According to the
passage, write four complete sentences on how you can redirect them
for better performance.
6. Match the following words in column A with their corresponding
meanings in column B.
4.6.2. Grammar and Phonology
Grammar
Complete the following sentences with the following options:
You will need to do practice before, I will have to complete all modules, you
will have to fill in well your CV, if Mary gets that job, if they want to be short
listed.
1. 1. If I want to be qualified in journalism,………………………………….
2. 2. If you don’t want to fail in the interview, ………………………………..
3. ………………., she will need to find a lodge nearby the working place.
4. They have to fulfill all requirements ……………………………………...
5. If you want to apply for that job, …………………………………………
Phonology

Practice the pronunciation of the following words:

• spare • unusual
• athletic • artistic
• fascinating • sociable

4.6.3. Summary Writing
In not more than 70 words, summarise the above passage focusing on the bias
which influence managers in recruiting of new employees.
4.6.4. Essay Writing/Reporting
In not more than 70 words, summarise the above passage focusing on the bias
which influence managers in recruiting of new employees.
4.8. Glossary

Internet savvy generation: A generation of persons who know a lot about the
internet, how it works and how to use the internet according to their need other
than just surfing, downloading and sharing.

Myopic: lacking foresight or intellectual insight
Medium: an agency or means of doing something.
Humdrum: lacking excitement or variety; boringly monotonous.
Narcissistic: having or showing an excessive interest in or admiration of one’s
physical appearance
Website: a set of related web pages located under a single domain name
Social quotient: An index of social maturity, based on the ratio definition of the
intelligence quotient or IQ, the social quotient being defined as social age divided
by chronological age, the ratio then being multiplied by 100.
Couponing: the practice of distributing discount coupons to consumers as a form
of product
Ardent: very enthusiastic or passionate.
DIY: is the activity of making or repairing things yourself, especially in your home.
DIY is an abbreviation for do-it-yourself.
Browsing: survey goods for sale in a leisurely and casual way
Blogging: add new material to or regularly update a blog
Introspection: the examination or observation of one’s own mental and emotional
processes.
Industry entertainment: is part of the tertiary sector of the economy and includes
a large number of sub-industries devoted to entertain
Hiring manager: is the person who asks for an employee to fill an open job.
Rambling: lengthy and confused or inconsequential
Extra-curricular activities: are activities for students that are not part of their course
Counts: take into account; include.
Anecdotes: is a brief, revealing account of an individual person or an incident
Succinct: briefly and clearly expressed
Transferable: able to be transferred or made over to the possession of another
person.
Posture: the position in which someone holds their body when standing or sitting
Exude: display (an emotion or quality) strongly and openly.
UNIT 5: SPACE TRAVEL
UNIT 5: SPACE TRAVEL
Key Unit Competence:
Language use in the context of space and travel
Introductory activity:
Observing and interpreting pictures
Carefully study the pictures below and then discuss the cultural aspects that each
of them reflects.
Answer the following questions
1. Using past simple tense, mention the first three countries to travel into
space. Respect the chronological order.
2. Why is it that the closer a planet is to the sun, the faster it orbits around
the sun?
3. Using modal verbs, discuss possible advancements in the domain of
space travel in the next 100 years. For example:
Humans may live on Mars in the next 100 years.
5.1. Describing the History of Space Travel
5.1.1. Reading and Writing : Yuri Gagarin: First Man in Space
The United States and the Soviet Union vigorously competed to push the boundaries
of mankind’s exploration of space. The Russians scored a victory when they launched
a small craft carrying cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin to new heights. His 108-minute flight
gave him a permanent place in the history books as the first man in space.
The American plan to send a man into space by 1961 created a deadline that the
Russian team worked hard to beat. The development of the Vostok spacecraft
became paramount. Prior to Gagarin’s historic flight, the Soviets sent a prototype of
his spaceship, along with a life-size dummy called Ivan Ivanovich and a dog called
Zvezdochka. With these successes, the vessel was considered ready to take a living,
breathing human into space.

On April 12, 1961, at 9:07 a.m. Moscow time, the Vostok 1 spacecraft blasted off from
the Soviets’ launch site. Because no one was certain how weightlessness would affect
a pilot, the spherical capsule had little in the way of on-board controls; the work was
done either automatically or from the ground. If an emergency arose, Gagarin was
supposed to receive an override code that would allow him to take manual control,
but Sergei Korolov, chief designer of the Soviet space program, disregarded protocol
and gave it to the pilot prior to the flight.

Over the course of 108 minutes, Vostok 1 travelled around the Earth once, reaching
a maximum height of 203 miles (327 kilometres). Over Africa, the engines fired to
bring Gagarin back to Earth. The craft carried ten day worth of provisions in case the
engines failed and Gagarin was required to wait for the orbit to naturally decay, but
they were unnecessary.

Vostok 1 had no engines to slow its re-entry or a way to land safely. About four
miles up (seven kilometres), Gagarin ejected and parachuted to Earth. In order for
the mission to be counted as an official spaceflight, the Fédération Aéronautique
Internationale (FAI), the governing body for aerospace records, had determined that
the pilot must land with the spacecraft. Soviet leaders indicated that Gagarin had
touched down with the Vostok 1, and did not reveal that he had ejected until 1971.
Regardless, Gagarin still set the record as the first man to leave Earth’s orbit and
travel into space.

Upon his return to Earth, Gagarin was an international hero. He was cheered in Red
Square by a crowd of hundreds of thousands. A national treasure, he travelled around
the world to celebrate the historical Soviet achievement.

On March 27, 1968, Gagarin was killed while test-piloting a MiG-15. He was survived
by his wife, Valentina Ivanovna Goryacheva, and two daughters.

When Apollo 11 touched down on the moon in July 1969, the crew left behind
a commemorative medallion bearing Gagarin’s name, as well as medallions for
another cosmonaut and three Apollo astronauts who lost their lives in accidents.
Alan Shepard was the first American in space and the second person in space,
launching on a suborbital flight in a Mercury capsule called Freedom 7 on May 5, 1961,
just three weeks after Gagarin’s flight. Shepard is said to have been frustrated that
the United States did not win the race. The Soviet victory could have been prevented,
Shepard reportedly felt, had NASA not delayed his mission multiple times for tests.

The first woman in space was Valentina Tereshkova, a Soviet cosmonaut who flew
the Vostok 6 mission on June 16, 1963.The first American woman in space was Sally
Ride, who was a mission specialist aboard the Space Shuttle Challenger on flight
STS-7 on June 18, 1983.
By Nola Taylor Redd, Space.com Contributor | July 24, 2012 02:00pm ET
As retrieved from https://www.space.com/g00/16159-first-man-in-space.html?i10c.
encReferrer=aHR0cHM6Ly93d3cuZ29vZ2xlLnJ3Lw%3D%3D&i10c.ua=1 on 16th March 2018
Read the above text and answer the following questions. Your answers should be
presented in complete sentences.
1. Explain how Americans inspired the Russians to venture and advance more
in terms of Space Travel.
2. In two paragraphs, discuss whether Gagarin deserves to be considered as
the first human being to travel in space.
3. Was it wise on the part of NASA to delay Alan Shepard’s mission multiple
times for tests? Justify your answer.
4. Match the words in column A with their meanings in column B.

5.1.2. Language structure: Past Simple Tense
The Simple Past Tense is used to talk about a state or an action completed in a
time before before the moment of speaking. The Simple Past is the basic form of past
tense in English. The time of the action can be in the recent past or the distant past
and action duration is not important. The Past Simple is usually used in storytelling
and in reporting events.
Examples of sentences with verbs in the Past Simple.
1. The United States and the Soviet Union vigorously competed to push the
boundaries of mankind’s exploration of space.
2. The Russians scored a victory when they launched a small craft carrying
cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin to new heights.
3. The American’s plan to send a man into space by 1961 created a deadline
that the Russian team worked hard to beat.
4. The development of the Vostok spacecraft was very important for
Russians.
5. The past simple is used whenever we mention the time something
happened, so it is associated with certain expressions of past time such
as:
• Frequency: often, sometimes, always, seldom, and many others.
eg: The NASA tested Alan Shepard’s spaceship often before allowing
him to go on mission.
• A definite point in time: last week, when, yesterday, six weeks ago, etc.
eg: When Apollo 11 touched down on the moon in July 1969, the crew
left behind a commemorative medallion bearing Gagarin’s name.
• An indefinite point in time: the other day, ages ago, a long time ago,
etc.
a. Americans landed on the Moon many years ago.
b. The word “ago” is a useful way of expressing the distance into the
past. It is placed after the period of time: a week ago, three years
ago, and a minute ago.
How to form the Past Simple
Many verbs in English form the Past Simple by adding –ed or d to the root (basic)
form of the verb called infinitive. Verbs that form their Past Simple in this way are
referred to as regular verbs.
• infinitive + ed
Look at the examples below:

• Some verbs form their Past Simple in a different way, they add neither “ - ed” nor
“d” . Such verbs are called irregular verbs.

Look at the examples in the table below.

5.1.3. Application Activities
1. Conduct a research and state at least 50 irregular verbs in their root and
Past Simple forms. Follow the examples given in the table above.
2. Fill in the gaps in the sentences below with the appropriate Past Simple
form of the verbs given in brackets
a. The 108-minute flight ……… Gagarin a permanent place in the
history books as the first man in space. (give)
b. Soviet leaders ……………. that Gagarin had touched down with the
Vostok 1, and did not reveal that he had ejected until 1971. (indicate)
c. Men first …………… on the moon in 1969. (land)
d. China ……..the third nation to succeed in space flight in 2003. (be)
e. John Glenn ………. the first US orbital flight in 1962. (make)
f. Astronomers ………..the physical exploration of space and
succeeded. (conduct)
g. An expert review panel ………a Bush Administration program for
a return to the Moon by 2020 inadequate and unrealistic. (judge)
h. The first scientific exploration from space …. the cosmic radiation
experiment launched by the U.S. on a V-2 rocket on 10 May 1946.
(be)
i. The satellite that was sent on 4 October 1957 … about 83 kg {183 lb}.
(weigh)
j. They …………..Sputnik 1and it burned up upon re-entry on 3
January 1958. (launch).
5.2. Describing the Solar System
5.2.1. Reading and Writing:
The Solar System
Our solar system consists of an average star we call the Sun and the planets:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto. It also
includes the satellites of the planets; numerous comets, asteroids, meteoroids and
the interplanetary space. The Sun is the richest source of electromagnetic energy
(mostly in the form of heat and light) in the solar system. The Sun’s nearest known
stellar neighbour is a red dwarf star called Proxima Centauri, at a distance of 4.3 light
years away. The whole solar system, together with the local stars visible on a clear
night, orbit the centre of our home galaxy, a spiral disk of 200 billion stars we call
the Milky Way. The Milky Way has two small galaxies orbiting it nearby, which are
visible from the southern hemisphere. They are called the Large Magellanic Cloud
and the Small Magellanic Cloud. The nearest large galaxy is the Andromeda Galaxy.
It is a spiral galaxy like the Milky Way but 4 times its mass and is 2 million light years
away. Our galaxy, one of billions of galaxies known, is travelling through intergalactic
space.

Most of the satellites of the planets and the asteroids revolve around the Sun in the
same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down from above the Sun’s
North Pole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The planets orbit the
Sun in or near the same plane, called the ecliptic.

Pluto is a special case in that its orbit is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and
the most highly elliptical of all the planets. Because of this, for part of its orbit, Pluto
is closer to the Sun than is Neptune. The axis of rotation for most of the planets is
nearly perpendicular to the ecliptic. The exceptions are Uranus and Pluto, which are
tipped on their sides.

As far as the composition of solar system is concerned, the Sun contains 99.85% of all
the matter in the Solar System. The planets, which condensed out of the same disk
of material that formed the Sun, contain only 0.135% of the mass of the solar system.
Jupiter contains more than twice the matter of all the other planets combined.

Satellites of the planets, comets, asteroids, meteoroids, and the interplanetary space
constitute the remaining 0.015%. The following are the details on mass distribution
within our Solar System: the Sun occupies 99.85%, Planets 0.135%, Comets 0.01%,
Satellites 0.00005%, minor planets 0.0000002%, meteoroids 0.0000001% and
interplanetary space occupies 0.0000001%.

As for Interplanetary Space, nearly all the solar system by volume appears to be
an empty void. Far from being nothingness, this vacuum of “space” comprises the
interplanetary medium. It includes various forms of energy and at least two material
components: interplanetary dust and interplanetary gas. Interplanetary dust
consists of microscopic solid particles. Interplanetary gas is a tenuous flow of gas
and charged particles, mostly protons and electrons -- plasma -- which stream from
the Sun, called the solar wind. The solar wind can be measured by spacecraft, and
it has a large effect on comet tails. It also has a measurable effect on the motion
of spacecraft. The speed of the solar wind is about 400 kilometers (250 miles) per
second in the vicinity of Earth’s orbit.

Adapted from http://solarviews.com/eng/solarsys.htm on 19th March 2018
Read the above text and answer the following questions. Your answers should be
presented in complete sentences.
1. Referring to the passage above, explain the term “Solar System”.
2. In one paragraph explain the composition of Solar System.
3. What makes the Interplanetary space?
4. Match the words in column A with their meanings in column B.

5.2.2. Narrative Composition Techniques
• Writing a narrative composition requires special techniques. Rather than
summing summing things up for the readers, narrative writing should present
the writer’s experiences or observations for them to express their own views.
• The narrative essay is closely related to public speaking because it allows the
readers to draw own conclusions.
• The aim is guiding the reader to the desired direction.

Special attention must be given to the following basics of a narrative essay:
a. Ensure clarity
Complex words and syntax are a hindrance to clarity and should be avoided. In
whatever piece of writing, words should be plainly and clearly used in sentences
and paragraphs.
Example
I’d never been to a horse race. I was excited to go, but also a little nervous, since
I wasn’t sure about the people at the track. Instead of: (Although I have never
been to the races before, I was very excited to behold them, yet also somewhat
nervous, because of the type of people who go there).
b. Avoid the second-person narrative
An important part of the narrative essay is the fact that the writer experienced the
events described.
Example
As you go in the door, you will turn and see a TV. You look around and see posters
on the wall.
As you go further in, you notice everyone is watching.
It’s better to say:
As I go through the door, I turn and see a TV. I look around and see posters on the
wall.
As I go further in, I notice everyone is watching.
• To use active instead of passive words to express messages vividly
• To interest the reader, choosing a variety of words is necessary and more
helpful
c. Use the same slang, idiom, and turns of phrase you would use in
speech. Avoid passive constructions.
Example
They showed me a book stuffed with gruesome pictures of people who’d been
in car wrecks.
instead of:
“I am presented an array of unpleasant photos in which many casualties are
shown after automobile accidents”.

d. Limit references

If a work was helpful, cite it in a ‘Works Consulted’ list after the essay. Explain yourself
as you go along, rather than trying to refer your reader back to a previous statement.
Example
The fans jump up and down. When I first saw this, I wondered what they were
doing and my mind conjured a quote from Shakespeare that Neil Gaiman
used in his “Sandman”: “Lord, what fools these mortals be.” However, I watched
a bit longer and realized the company spokes models were throwing free
merchandise. The fans wanted to get the most from their day at the convention.
e. Avoid sentences of this nature:
When I first saw the comic book fans jumping up and down, I thought as they would,
“Lord, what fools these mortals be” (Gaiman 1989.) I later learned why they do this.
5.2.3. Application Activities
I. Based on the information in the passage above, write a narrative
composition of around 250 words explaining how the other planets relate
with the Sun.
II. Re-read the above passage, and in 60 words, write a summary stating what
Solar System is made of. (Refer to the notes in Unit 3 on the techniques of
summary writing.)
5.2.4. Language structure: Present Perfect Continuous Tense with since
and for
Some Rules on how to use the Present Perfect Continuous Tense with since and for.
• The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is used to express actions or state that
started in the past and are still continuing at the present time.
• The Present Perfect Continuous is formed using the construction has/have
been + the present participle (basic form + ing).

• The Present Perfect Continuous Tense is also referred to as Present Perfect
progressive tense and is usually used with since or for.
Now examine the sentences below and draw some tips to construct your own
sentences with the same tense.
1. Human beings have been travelling in space since 1961.
2. People have been living on the ISS for several years
3. Since when have human beings been travelling in space?
4. Americans have been going to the moon since 1969.
5. Since Valentina Tereshkova’s mission in 1963, other women have been
going on missions in space.
5.2.5. Application Activity
I. Using the Present Perfect Continuous tense of the verbs given in brackets, fill
in the gaps in the sentences below.
a. Soviet leaders ………… spacecraft in space since the Gagarin’s mission
in 1961 (send)
b. Astronomers………….. the space since many years ago. (explore)
c. They …………..spacecraft to measure the solar wind in the interplanetary
space. (Use)
d. He ……………………… the eclipse for 30 minutes. (Observe)
e. China………………… to send a new satellite in the space since last
year. (Try)
f. The United States and the Soviet Union ………….. to push the boundaries
of mankind’s exploration of space for many years. (compete)
g. The American government …………… a new spacecraft since last year.
(Develop)
h. The moon…………….. between the Sun and the Earth for 30 minutes.
(Move)
i. Individuals …………….. the space station since 2000. (Visit)
j. The sun ……………..the Earth with light and the heat since its existence.
(Provide)

5.3. Describing the Development of the International Space
Station
5.3.1. Reading and Writing: International Space Station
The International Space Station (ISS) is a multi-nation construction project that
is the largest single structure humans ever put into space. The dimensions of the
completed ISS research facility will be approximately 356 feet (109 meters) by 240
feet (73 meters), or slightly larger than a football field. When completed, the ISS
will weigh around 450 tons (408,000 kg), or 450 times the weight of an average
car. Its main construction was completed between 1998 and 2011. However the
station continually evolves to include new missions and experiments. It has been
continuously occupied since Nov. 2, 2000.

As of January 2018, the International Space Station had been visited by 230
individuals from 18 countries. Top participating countries include the United States
(145 people) and Russia (46 people). Astronautic time and research time on the space
station is allocated to space agencies according to how much money or resources
(such as modules or robotics) that they contribute. The ISS includes contributions
from 15 nations. NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia) and the European Space
Agency are the major partners of the space station who contribute most of the
funding. The other partners are the Japanese Aerospace Exploration Agency and
the Canadian Space Agency.

Crews aboard the ISS have been assisted by mission control centres in Houston and
Moscow and a payload control centre in Huntsville, Ala, since the very beginning.
Other international mission control centres support the space station from Japan,
Canada and Europe. The ISS can also be controlled from mission control centres in
Houston or Moscow.
The space station flies at an average altitude of 248 miles (400 kilometres) above the
Earth. It circles the globe every 90 minutes at a speed of about 17,500 mph (28,000
km/h). In one day, the station travels about the distance it would take to go from
Earth to the moon and back.

The space station can rival the brilliant planet Venus in brightness and appears as a
bright moving light across the night sky. It can be seen from Earth without the use of
a telescope by night sky observers who know when and where to look.

Astronauts spend most of their time on the ISS performing experiments and
maintenance, and at least two hours of every day are allocated to exercise and
personal care. They also occasionally perform spacewalks, conduct media/school
events for outreach, and post updates to social media, as Canadian astronaut Chris
Hadfield, an ISS commander, did in 2013. (However, the first astronaut to tweet from
space was Mike Massimino, who did it from a space shuttle in May 2009.)
Adapted from https://www.space.com/16748-international-space-station.html retrieved on 21st March
2018

Read the above text and answer the questions below: In a paragraph, briefly
explain what the title of the passage ‘International Space Station refers to.
1. In around sixty (60) words, explain the aspects of a completed International
Space Station.
2. Why is most astronautic and research time devoted to NASA, Roscosmos
and European Space Agency only while there are many ISS partners?
3. What do the following words/phrases mean as used in the above passage?
• ...weigh... (paragraph 1)
• …Astronaut… (paragraph 2)
• …robotics… (paragraph 2)
• … Crews… (paragraph 3)
• … rival… (paragraph 5)
• …telescope… (paragraph 5)
5.3.2. Techniques of a good argumentative composition:
1. Have you ever seen two people arguing? How do they do it? They just stand
in front of each other, with red faces, shouting and trying to prove that one
of them is right.
2. Probably, this method works for somebody, but you have a chance to
learn arguing in a polite and much effective way. If you learn how to write
argument papers, you will not have to shout at someone.
3. This time, we offer you to check our step-by-step guide on how to write
argument papers.
4. First of all, you need to come up with the right topic, because not all issues
are good to cover in papers of this kind. It should be a controversial or
debatable issue, something that people can argue for and against
5. Investigate the chosen topic. Particularly, you need to know at least two
opposing opinions about it. Yet, it is better to view the topic from several
different angles and define your own view about the topic.
6. After you decide on your own option or view, start collecting evidences
to support your point of view. You can use real-life examples, opinions of
reputable scholars, relevant printed sources, etc.
7. Finally, get down to writing. There are two significant aspects of the writing
process you should keep in mind: a thesis statement and the overall
organization of your paper.
by Diane Clark . Adapted from: https//owl.english.purdue.edu/resources/585/05 (retrieved on
26th June, 2018)
5.3.3. Application Activity
On the basis of the above text and any additional researched information, write
a 250 word argumentative composition making a case for the view that Space
travel is a worthwhile issue on which nations should devote resource.
5.3.4. Language structure: Present Perfect Tense with passive+ since or
for
• Before talking about Present Perfect with passive let’s first have a glance at the
present perfect.

5.3.5. The Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is used to indicate a link between the present and the past. The
time of the action is before now but not specified, and we are often more interested in
the result than in the action itself. The Present Perfect is also used to express an action
that was completed in the very recent past; in that case words like “just”, “recently”
or “lately” are used. The Present Perfect is formed using the construction Have/has +
past participle.

• The sentences below will guide you on the rules of using Present Perfect with
the Passive voice:

1. Astronauts have occupied the International Space Station since
November 2, 2000.
In the above sentence, the action of occupying the International Space Station
started in the past and still continues in the present.

2. Two hundred and thirty individuals from eighteen countries have visited
the International Space Station.

In this sentence, the time they visited the International Space Station is not important,
what matters is the result.

3. Chinese have just sent a spacecraft in the space.

In this sentence, the action of sending the spacecraft was completed in the very
recent past, the recent past is expressed by “just”

When we use specific time expressions in the past such as yesterday, we use
the Simple Past. Therefore, we can’t say:

“The NASA has sent a new spacecraft in space yesterday.”

But we can say:
“NASA has sent a new spacecraft in space.”
5.3.6. Application Activity
Fill in the gaps in the sentences below with the appropriate Present Perfect
form of the verbs given in brackets.
1. France…………..a young astronaut in space. (send)
2. Russians……….. a lot of astronauts since 1961. (hire)
3. The astronomers…………………their spacecraft that was lost. (find)
4. Gagarin……….. the Soviet Union win USA in pushing the boundaries of
mankind’s exploration of space. (make)
5. A lot of people ……………..the space station since 2000. (Visit)
6. This old man ………..many orbits since 1988. (do)
7. Engineers ………………the space launching site. (prepare)
8. Space exploration …………….an interest of many countries. (become)
9. Humans ………… about spaceflight since antiquity. (dream)
10. Humanity’s interest in the heavens …………..universal and enduring.
(be)
5.3.7. The present perfect with passive + since or for
The passive voice of Present Perfect is formed using the construction have/has + been +
past participle form of the verb.

In the sentences below, the verbs in bold are in Present Perfect Passive:
1. The International Space Station has been continuously occupied since Nov.
2, 2000.
2. The space station has been continuously inhabited for fifteen years.
3. Since 2000, the International Space Station has been visited by a lot of
people.
4. Since the year 2000, fifty-seven thousand, three hundred sixty-one orbits
around the Earth have been made.
Now change the following sentences into Passive Voice:
1. Astronauts have occupied the International Space Station since November
2nd, 2000.
2. China has sent another satellite in the space.
3. The new spacecraft has carried ten people in the space.
4. Americans have done many orbits since 2000.
5. Space travel agencies have sent a lot of women on mission in the space
since the Valentina Tereshkova’s mission in 1963
6. Astronauts have conducted the physical exploration of space and succeeded
since 1961.
7. Mission control centres have assisted Crews aboard the ISS for more than
15 years.
8. Satellites have helped human beings to achieve their goals.
9. The American government has developed a new spaceship.
10. My sister has watched the eclipse for 20 minutes.
5.3.8. Listening and Speaking: Debate
“Space travel should be banned for rockets used in launching spacecraft damage
ozone layer”

• Please apply the rules of debate learnt in unit one, page... and carry out the
debate on the above motion.
5.4. Predicting the future of space travel
5.4.1. Reading and Writing
Humans “could be living on Mars by 2030” as astronauts train for mission to the red
planet.

It is 20 years since Pathfinder touched down on Mars and there are now eight
robots collecting information from the red planet ahead of a crew being sent out.
The intriguing question of whether there’s life on Mars has obsessed mankind
for generations. Within two decades the answer might be a definite ‘yes’ because
scientists hope to send people to the red planet.

There may be no little green men but there could be humans wearing special suits
and living in capsules.

Scientists believe humans could have been living on Mars in between 15 and 20
years time.

It is 20 years since NASA’s Pathfinder spacecraft touched down on Mars and, using
a robot, sent a huge amount of data back to Earth. Since then NASA has sent more
Landers and orbiters. There are currently eight robots from various countries
examining the planet. They have found water, raising hope microorganisms once
existed there and could sustain human life.

And it might not be a moment too soon. Last month physics genius Prof Stephen
Hawking, 75, warned our days on Earth are numbered and we need to colonise
another planet within 100 years or face the threat of extinction. He said “the Earth
is becoming too small for us and our physical resources are being drained at an
alarming rate”.

“We know that extinction is a possibility after what happened to the dinosaurs and
we are vulnerable if, for example, a pandemic sweeps across the earth. So it makes
sense for us to have colonies where we can live in the solar system and Mars is an
ideal candidate.” Said Dr Aderin Pocock. So, if our life on Earth is vulnerable, human
beings will have to colonise another planet in the solar system.

The hopes for a future on Mars have grown in tandem with the technological
advances that have expanded our knowledge about the fourth planet from the
Sun. NASA’s Mars Pathfinder released its 23lb six-wheel robotic rover Sojourner. It
only travelled 100m but sent back 550 images and about 8.5 million temperature,
pressure and wind measurements back to Earth.

Sojourner was followed by the far more mobile Exploration Spirit and Opportunity
rovers in 2004 and the Phoenix in 2008. But it was NASA’s Curiosity rover, which is
still sending information back to Earth, that marks the biggest shift in the space
age advances. It was launched in 2011 to determine whether Mars was ever able to
support microbial life.

By Antonia Paget 19:56, 3 JUL 2017
Adapted from https://www.mirror.co.uk/science/humans-could-living-mars-2030-10720755 retrieved on
23rd March 2018.
Read the news report from the Mirror on pages 120-121 and answer the questions
below. All your work should be presented in complete sentences.

1. Who is Prof Stephen Hawking? Fully explain his warnings about the planet
earth
2. Why does the writer say that “our hopes for a future on the Mars have gone
to tandem”?
3. How does the writer explain human beings’ obsession with colonialising
other planets?

4. Give the meanings of the following words/phrases in the context of the above
passage.

a. …Mars…(paragraph 1)
b. …capsules…(paragraph 2)
c. …robot… (paragraph 2)
d. …planet…(paragraph 2)
e. …extinction…(paragraph 3)
f. …tandem…(paragraph 4)
g. …launched… (paragraph 5)

5.4.2. Application Activities
I. Write two paragraphs explaining why astronauts choose to send
pathfinders and Landers to Mars instead of human beings.
II. Write a short composition of around 200 words explaining why there could
be life on the Mars.
5.4.3. Language structure: Modal verbs may, might, could and will have to
1. Might and may
• Might is used to talk about possibilities in the present, past and future. It has the
same meaning as may but may is used when one is a bit more sure, while might
expresses some doubts. Therefore, may” and “might” can be used:
a. To show possibility
Example
1. There might be life on Mars, we never know. (In this sentence, the degree
of certainty is low)
2. There may be life on Mars since they found there water and micro
organisms. (In this sentence, the degree of certainty is a bit higher for
water and micro organisms are signs of life)

b. To ask for or give permission:
Example
1. I wonder if I might use your telescope to see the International Space
Station.
2. “You may launch the spaceship now”, the chief of Aerospace Exploration
Agency said.
c. To express polite offers, request or suggestions.
Example
1. May you come to assist the launch of the new spacecraft?
2. I had hoped I might have access to the Aerospace control room.
2. Could
• Could is used to:
a. Talk about ability, make a request or ask for permission
Example
1. Could human beings live on Mars one day? (Ability)
2. Could I visit the Aerospace control room? (Permission)
3. Could you send other Landers? (Request)
b. To express present, past and future possibility:
Example
1. The lecturer thinks that you could be a good astronaut.
2. Had I known that the eclipse had occurred, I could have brought my
glasses.
3. When human beings went to Mars, they could grow crops there.
3. Will have to
• Will have to is used to express a future obligation
Example
1. If our Earth is vulnerable, human beings will have to colonise another
planet in the solar system.
2. We will have to spend billions of dollars to go to Mars.
3. Once on Mars, people will have to grow food in greenhouses.
4. What will people have to do to survive on Mars?
5.4.4. Application Activities
I. Study the sentences below and indicate the meaning expressed by the
underlined modal verbs, the first one has been done for you.
a. May I assist the launch of the new spacecraft? (Permission)
b. May you come to assist the launch of the new spacecraft?
c. Astronauts might find drinking water on Mars.
d. NASA will have to send more spaceships in the space.
e. The crews could send messages from the International Space Station.
f. Could you visit the Aerospace control room?
g. Could I visit the Aerospace control room?
h. What will people have to do to survive on Mars?
i. Pathfinder could send a lot of information in one minute.
j. We might assist the launch of the new spaceship.
II. Choose the most appropriate modal verb between might and may to
complete each of the following sentences:
a. The chief of Aerospace Exploration Agency …… be around since his
office is open.
b. The chief of Aerospace Exploration Agency …… be around, we never
know.
c. ............ I use your telescope to see the International Space Station?
d. She …… be sent on mission in the space, she has got all the necessary
trainings.
e. His son …… come back soon since his mission on the International
Space Station was cancelled.
5.4.5. Sounds and Spelling
1. Rewrite the following paragraph by correcting misspelled words
Most of the satelites of the plenets and the asteroids revolve around the Sun in the
same direction, in nearly circular orbits. When looking down from above the Sun’s
North Pole, the planets orbit in a counter-clockwise direction. The planets oribit the
Sun in or near the same plane, called the eclaptic. Pruto is a special case in that its
orbit is the most highly inclined (18 degrees) and the most highly elliptical of all
the plajnets. Because of this, for part of its oribit, Pluto is closer to the Sun than is
Neptune. The axis of rotation for most of the planets is nearly perpendikular to the
eclaptic. The exceptions are Uranas and Pluto, which are tipped on their sides.
2. Practise reading the words in activity 1 above. You can use the
dictionary to check their pronunciation.
The words in activity 1 above are read as follows:
• Mars / mɑːz /
• Capsules /’kæpsjuːlz/
• Robot /ˈrəʊbɒt/
• Planet /ˈplænɪt/
• Extinction / ɪksˈtɪŋkʃən/
• Tandem /ˈtændəm /
• Launched / lɔːnʧt/
3. Read and give phonological transcription of the following words
a. Ecliptic d. Comet
b. Intergalactic e. Meteoroid
c. Asteroid
5.5. UNIT SELF- ASSESSMENT
5.5.1. Comprehension and Vocabulary
Women’s Role in Space Travel
NASA’s Kennedy Space Center celebrated Women’s History Month by inviting
employees to hear a panel of leaders and directors from NASA’s past and present.
All successful women discussed the stories of their lives and careers with the
agency.

George Jacobs, deputy director of Center Operations, was Master of Ceremonies
for the event held March 26 in the Kennedy Learning Institute. NASA is “no longer
a ‘good all boys’ network,” he observed as he introduced the distinguished panel.
Providing their insights were Kennedy directors Josie Burnett of the International
Space Station Ground Processing and Research Project Office, Nancy Bray of
Center Operations, and Digna Carballosa of Human Resources. Also participating
was Rita Willcoxon, former director of Launch Vehicle Processing, now retired from
NASA and employed by General Electric Transportation in Melbourne, Florida.
Gordy Degear, program analyst in the Office of the Center Director and facilitator
for the program, opened the discussion by asking the panellists what brings them
happiness. All agreed that family fulfilled them and made their time away from
home worthwhile.

Burnett recalled a time when her three-year-old grandson recognized her in a
photo posted online, in which she was shaking hands with NASA’s Robonaut
before it was flown to the International Space Station. He was delighted. It made
me proud that he’s proud of the work I do,” she said.

Degear next asked the panelists to describe the changes they had witnessed
during their careers.

Willcoxon recalled that Joann Morgan and Ann Montgomery were the only
women in technical management positions when she started working at the
center. Morgan, an engineer, was the only woman during the Apollo launches
who supported the countdowns from the firing room; Montgomery was the first
woman assigned as a flow director for a space shuttle, the orbiter Columbia.

At the moment, Kennedy’s Executive Team is made of ten men and nine women,
including Kennedy’s Deputy Director Janet Petro and Chief Financial Officer Susan
Kroskey. After commenting that three of Kennedy’s four primary programs and
projects are led by women, Bray got a positive response from the largely female
audience when she observed “women are taking us into outer space.”
How can we keep this trend growing? By encouraging girls to study the STEM
disciplines in school that is science, technology, engineering and mathematics
which are the components of NASA’s education initiative, all agreed. Students
generally decide “by the fifth grade whether to go into STEM fields,” Carballosa
commented.
“The percentage of girls going into engineering hasn’t changed in 15 years,”
Willcoxon said. We should “look for ways to inspire girls to go into engineering,”
she suggested. Burnett concurred and raised the question educators ponder of
whether engineers are “born or derived.”

Degear asked the panelists if, in looking back over their careers, there was anything
they would do differently.

Bray said that she learned it is important to give employees ample career
development opportunities and found IDPs helpful, bringing a playful groan

from the audience. The IDP, or individual development plan, is a tool NASA uses to
clarify an individual’s long-term career goals. While requiring upfront thoughtful
introspection, the plan is valuable in identifying an employee’s future steps on her
career path.

Carballosa got a chuckle from the audience when she suggested that she would
“learn to delegate earlier.” Women have a tendency to do everything themselves,
she explained, and in doing so may deprive their employees of valuable learning
experiences. She encouraged everyone to strive to remain relevant to the
organization.

“Staying relevant is a personal commitment one makes in whatever role we
happen to be in,” Carballosa said. “If you need help linking your job to the mission,
challenge your supervisor to help you make this connection.”

The event was planned and implemented by members of Kennedy’s Federal
Women’s Program (FWP).

By Kay Grinter
NASA’s John F. Kennedy Space Center Last Updated: Aug. 7, 2017
Editor: Anna Heiney
https://www.nasa.gov/content/role-in-space-travel-highlights
-womens-history-month retrieved on 25th March 2018

Read the text on pages 126-127 and answer the questions below:

1. Which event is being celebrated in this passage?
2. Discuss the meaning of this statement; “NASA is no longer a ‘good ole
boys’ network.” As in paragraph two.
3. Basing on Burnett’s experience, explain how a little child can encourage
his/her parents to pursue their career.
4. In one paragraph, explain what should be done to increase the number
of women who participate in space exploration.
5. Why do you think Carballosa got a chuckle from the audience?
6. Give the meaning of the following words in the context of the above
passage.
a. …career…(paragraph one)
b. …flown…(paragraph four)
c. …engineer…(paragraph five)
d. …space shuttle…(paragraph five)
e. …ample…(paragraph nine)

5.5.2. Grammar and Phonology
I. Use the appropriate form of the verbs given in the brackets
to fill in the gaps
a. The Aerospace Agency………two spacecraft in the space yesterday.
(send)
b. The Aerospace Agency ………two spacecraft in the space since 2016.
(send)
c. Many orbits………………..since last year. (make)
d. The new satellite…….just……... (launch)
e. A lot of women…………….. on mission in the space since the Valentina
Tereshkova’s mission in 1963. (go)
f. A lot of women…………….. on mission in the space last year. (go)
II. Choose the most appropriate modal verb among might, may, could or will
be have to complete each of the following sentences.
a. The NASA……………..launch another spacecraft in the space, we
never know.
b. The NASA……………..launch another spacecraft in the space since
the space shuttle is ready.
c. The crews……… post updates to social media from the International
Space Station.
d. Space Agencies ……………invest more money in space exploration if
they want to colonise another planet one day.
e. Sojourner …………….. send 550 images and about 8.5 million
temperature, pressure and wind measurements after travelling 100m
only.
III. Give the phonological transcription of the following words:
a. Spacecraft
b. Astronauts
c. Telescope
d. Satellite
e. Galaxy
5.5. 3. Summary
In 80 words, summarise the passage on pages 126-127 focusing on role of women
in space exploration.
5.5. 4. Essay Writing
Carry out research and write a 250 word essay on this topic: “Future perspectives
of space travel”.
UNIT 6: Money
UNIT 6: MONEY
Key Unit Competence:
Language use in the context of money
Introductory activity:

Answer the following questions:
1. Assume that you won one million Rwandan francs in a lottery. Discuss
three ways you could use this money.
2. Of what importance are taxes and budget for national development?
3. State three income generating activities.
4. Suppose that you earned any income from a given activity. Explain what
percentage of it you would save and for what purpose.
5. What do you understand by:
a. Government Debt
b. Annual Deficit
6.1. Describing Types of Income
6.1.1. Reading and Writing: Types of Income
There are three main types of income: earned, portfolio and passive. There is also a
small subset of passive income called non-passive income.

Earned income is a direct result of your labour. This income is usually in the form
of wages or as small business income. Portfolio income is income generated from
selling an asset, and if you sell that asset for a higher price than what you paid for it
originally, you will have a gain. Depending on the holding period of the asset, and
other factors, that gain might be taxed at ordinary income tax rates or capital gains
tax rates. Interest and dividends are other examples of portfolio income. Portfolio
income is not subjected to self-employment taxes, but it might be subjected to net
investment income surtax.

Passive income bluntly is income that could continue to generate if you died. This
type of income would continue to generate even if you decided to do nothing and
sunbathe on some beach. Passive income includes rental income, royalties and
income from businesses or investment partnerships where you do not materially
participate. Passive income is also not subjected to self-employment taxes. But
similar to portfolio income, it might be subjected to net investment income tax. So, if
you own a rental house, the income generated from it is considered passive income.
Additionally, if you wrote a book and receive royalty checks, that income is also
passive and not subjected to self-employment taxes. But, if you write several books
and consider yourself a writer, then you are materially participating in your activity
and your income is earned income. Then you would pay self-employment taxes on
that income.

But there is another funny thing. There is another type of income generated from an
activity in which you materially participate. This is considered non-passive income.
It is not necessarily earned income and it is not passive income. It is something in
between, but definitely without the social security and medical tax element.
Adapted from https://www.watsoncpagroup.com/kb/three-types-of-income_263.html Retrieved on March 20th, 2018
Read the text on pages 130-131 and answer the following questions
1. State and explain the types of income.
2. Based on the above text, state income generating activities that the youth
(boys and girls) can participate in.
3. Explain the cases in which writing books can be:
a. Earned income
b. Passive income
4. Match the words or phrases in Column A with their corresponding meanings
in Column B of the table below. In your exercise notebook, write your
answers in complete sentences.
Example:
The word ‘tax’ means a compulsory contribution to state revenue, levied by
the government on workers’ income and business profits.
6.1.2. Application Activities
I. Summarize the types of income as detailed in the above passage. Apply the
rules for summary writing.
II. Write a 350 word composition focusing on how men and women relate in a
complementary manner, on the following Topic:
III. “Both wives and husbands should participate in income generating
activities.
6.1.3 Sounds and Spelling
Having in mind the importance and use of stress in the English language, practice the
pronunciation of the words below found in the above text. You can use a dictionary
if you find it necessary
6.2. Describing Tax and Incomes
6.2.1. Reading and Writing: The Use of Taxes
In order to provide the citizens with all their needs, the government must generate
enough finance. As we all know the government is responsible for providing the
people with several services that they need. These include hospitals, sanitation,
roads, schools, etc.

The government should build hospitals and provide different health services to
the public. It is still tits responsibility to establish linkages of communication and
transportation to different places throughout the country. The government should
ensure security to the people by providing the armed forces the armaments as well
as establishing national defense programs. In food security; still the government
should contribute to the production of sustainable food for the people.

The government should establish proper sanitation for a clean environment. In
the maintenance of natural resources; it is the responsibility of the government to
protect and utilize natural environment. The government is also responsible for the
sustenance of energy supply for the country’s use. These are just some of the many
functions of the government.

In order to deal with all of these, the government needs a huge amount of money
to cater for all the finances. All the above mentioned services need fund to run.
The funds for paying the workforce such as doctors, teachers, soldiers and other
professionals that are hired by the government for their services, are very much
needed.

How does the government produce funds for this? The answer is through the
method of taxation. Taxes are collected by the government from different people,
establishments, organizations, companies and institutions all over the country. Taxes
are collected from products or services on the market and with these the government
is able to produce fund for all its expenses. Because of further needs of fund and to
be able to provide better services, government officials realize that there is a need
to collect more taxes. With this the VAT or value added tax was implemented in the
taxation programme.

As they say, VAT assures us that better services will be implemented by the
government as they collect additional funds from taxes taken from taxpayers. The
VAT calculation has been made and we can see this as we purchase items or services
from different establishments, or in malls or stores. With this, the public expected
that there would be better services that are way ahead. The VAT calculation that we
can see from the products or services that we purchase allows us to see how much
we provide to bring our contribution to the government.
Adapted from https://businessandfinance.expertscolumn.com/uses-taxes-economy Retrieved on March
20th, 2018
Read the above text and answer the following questions
1. According to the text on pages 133-134, what is the importance of taxes?
2. State and explain five uses of taxes.
3. As a good citizen of Rwanda, explain the right attitude towards paying
taxes.
4. Based on what you have read in this text, advise people who still try to avoid
paying taxes.
5. Considering the importance of taxes for the country, explain why fraud is a
crime.
6. Referring to the text above, construct one sentence with each of the words
and phrases below.
a. … financing … (paragraph one)
b. … sanitation … (paragraph two)
c. … linkages of communication..... (paragraph two)
d. … sustainable … (paragraph two)
e. … sustenance … (paragraph three)
f. … to deal with … (paragraph four)
g. … cater for … (paragraph four)
h. … implemented … (paragraph five)
i. … additional fund … (paragraph five)
j. … purchased … (paragraph five)
Find the synonyms of the words in the first column and fill in the table below.

6.2.2. Sound and Spelling
Practise the pronunciation of the words and phrases below. Pay attention to where
you put stress. You can use a dictionary where necessary.
6.2.3. Application Activities
I. Write a summary point out the uses of tax.
II. Debate on the following motion: “Some governments don’t need taxes to
function.”
6.3. Talking About Debts
6.3.1. Reading and Writing: How to Manage Your Debt
It’s nearly impossible to live debt-free these days. Most of us don’t have ready cash
to pay for our cars, homes or college costs. However, holding some amount of debt
isn’t necessarily a bad thing. A mortgage, for example, can provide you with certain
tax advantages and may replace the rent you could otherwise have to pay. A student
loan could help you earn a college degree that may lead to a rewarding career.
But what about taking on debts for things you don’t need and couldn’t afford-like an
expensive handbag, a lake cruise or a new sports car? That kind of debt could put a
real drain on your wallet, damage relationships and limit your ability to reach more
important goals like saving for retirement. However, there are suggestions to help
you think through what’s best for you and your money.

Debt can pile up for all kinds of reasons. Paying it down can be pretty straightforward
but for that to happen you have to be honest about your spending. Gather all your
credit card, car and student loans, and other debt information. Then, you should
make a note of the balance, interest rate, due date, the minimum payment and how
long it will take to pay off the balance for each. This could help you put your spending
into perspective so you can start developing a plan to get yourself in better financial
shape. If you are married or have a partner, you should ask your loved one to do the
same so you could work together at reducing your debt.

Rather than lamenting that you have too much debt, you should imagine how much
better your life could be if you had less. Then you should set specific financial goals
with a focus on debt reduction. For example, you would decide not to take on any
new credit until your current bills are totally paid off. You should put as many of
your credit card and/or loan payments on auto-pay from your checking or savings
account as you can. That way, you will be sure to avoid any sky-high late fees.

If you can’t pay all your debts each month, you should prioritize what you can pay.

Give high priority to debts secured by a house or car, necessities like utilities and
debts you couldn’t discharge, including student loans. Then you should tackle
unsecured debt like credit cards. Generally speaking, you will want to identify the
credit card with the highest interest rate and pay that one off first. That way, you
would save yourself money by avoiding unnecessary and excessive interest rate
charges over the life of your debt.

Also see if you can obtain a lower interest rate by calling your credit card company.
Often, they will reduce your interest rate to keep you from transferring your credit
card balance to a competitor. If that didn’t work earlier, you should transfer your
balance to a credit card with a substantially lower interest rate. But first make sure
you understand if a balance-transfer fee applies and what the interest rate will be
when the introductory rate ends, typically a year to eighteen months after the first
billing cycle closes.
In case you paid off the first card, you should use the “snowball effect” to keep going.
You could take every penny you were putting toward the first card’s payment and
add it to what you were paying on the card with the next highest interest rate. When
that card is paid off, do the same thing with the next card, and so on. Going forward,
commit to paying every balance in full each month and living within or below your
means.
It may seem old fashioned, but you should avoid paying with plastic and start using
cash, check or debit card instead. Sure, it will take a little extra planning to make sure
you have sufficient cash in your wallet, but if you did so, it could help you clearly
connect to where your money goes each day. It would also help you avoid impulse
purchases and other unhealthy spending.

Many people believe they don’t have enough money to put toward debt reduction.
A spending calculator or a simple budget could help you find the “fat” in your
spending and redirect those funds to reducing your debt more quickly. Ask yourself:
Do I really need a latte every morning, special cell phone services, premium cable
or that new designer shirt? Sticking to a budget isn’t easy, but if you found ways to
save small amounts and add them together, you could be able to pay off your debt
that much faster.

Paying off debt isn’t a free pass to put your retirement savings on hold. Even if you
regularly paid a high interest rate on your credit card debt, the fifty percent match
on your retirement savings would make your retirement plan contribution the
better deal. Most important, if you find you owe more than you can manage, don’t
be reluctant to get help. You should have an experienced financial professional to
guide you through the process of eliminating your debt. That could also make a
difference.
Adapted from https://www.northwesternmutual.com/life-and-money/how-to-manage-your-debt-7-stepsto-take/ Retrieved on March 21st, 2018
Read the above text and answer the following questions
1. Distinguish between reasonable and unreasonable debts as highlighted in
the first two paragraphs.
2. What should a married couple (husband and wife) do to support each other
in reducing debts that would be a threat to their family budget and saving
planning?
3. According to the above passage, state at least five strategies that can help
avoid or reduce debts.
4. What is the importance of paying off one’s debts?
5. After reading this text, explain why it is difficult to live debt-free these days.
6. Find the meanings of these words as they are used in the text that you have
just read.
a. … mortgage …(paragraph one)
b. … drain … (paragraph two)
c. … sky-high late … (paragraph four)
d. … lamenting … (paragraph four)
e. … substantially … (paragraph six)
f. … penny … (paragraph seven)
g. … snowball effect … (paragraph seven)
h. … latte … (paragraph nine)
i. … high interest rate … (paragraph ten)
j. … reluctant … (paragraph ten)
7. Look carefully at the words and phrases below. They are taken from the
above text. Search for their meaning from the dictionary and construct one
meaningful sentence with each of them focusing on the context of money.
a. … rewarding career … (paragraph one)
b. … straightforward … (paragraph three)
c. … discharge … (paragraph five)
d. … utilities … (paragraph five)
e. … impulse purchase … (paragraph eight)
6.3.2. Listening and Speaking : Debate
The motion: “It is impossible to live debt-free nowadays.”
6.3.3. Language structure: The Second Conditional with Modal Verbs
Conditional sentences in English are used to talk about events and
their results. The second conditional is the present hypothetical
conditional. Hypothetical means imaginary or not real.

We use the second conditional when we want to imagine that the present, right
now, is different than it really is. We wish that our present situation, or someone else’s
present situation was different. It is possible but very unlikely, that the condition will
be fulfilled for things are to or will change.
We use the simple past in this case even though we are talking about a present
situation.
The second conditional sentence structure:
If + simple past, would + verb
• In the second conditional, when the verb in the if-clause is a form of the verb
to be, we use for example were instead of was. Note that this use of were, is
recommended with all subjects.
• The sentence can begin with an if-clause or a main clause. If the sentence
begins with an ‘if-clause’, put a comma between the if-clause and the main
clause.
Example
1. What would you do if you won one billion Rwandan francs in a lottery?
2. If I won the lottery, I could take my family on a trip around the world.
3. I would buy a new car if I had more money.
4. If I were a president, I shouldn’t cut taxes.
6.3.4. Application Activity
Construct ten meaningful sentences using would, could, should, and might
interchangeably to express possibility with the second conditional. Make sure
your sentences are built in accordance with the context of money

6.4. Talking About Budget and Savings

6.4.1. Picture Observation and Interpretation
Observe the pictures above and discuss what the people in the pictures are doing.
6.4.2. Reading and Writing: How to Budget and Save Money?
Budgeting and saving money doesn’t come naturally to many people, for obvious
reasons: it’s easy and tempting to spend money on non-essentials, even if your
budget is tight. It’s all about awareness. Many people discovered that if they had
had enough information, they would have been successful in their budgeting and
saving plan. So how can you get on track with a realistic budget and save money?
There are steps you should have taken to reorganize your finances, prioritize
your spending, deal with any debt you may have, and reduce your taxes if you
had discovered the easy way. These strategies, taken together, have the very real
potential to improve your financial situation. You may never prosper financially until
you develop a realistic budget and stick to it. Such a budget should take care of
indulgences and emergencies.

Budgeting for your money is the cornerstone of a sound financial plan. If you had
scoffed at the idea of creating a budget, after all, you should have known what
you spend every month, especially on big-ticket items like rent/mortgage or car
payment. But try this anyway: Creating a budget and then following it can help you
spot areas where you are spending more than you earn. Here you will find tips on
how to create a budget and track expenses along with other money management
techniques.

Developing your budget will help you spot areas where you are spending more
than you realized. But the next step is more difficult: cutting down your spending
on unnecessary items. This will require some soul-searching on items both large and
small. For example, do you really need a five dollar coffee every morning? Some will
say yes, while for others the answer is no. You could have done with a smaller, older
car if you had realized the outcome. Instead of an expensive vacation this summer,
could you try a staycation, where you stay home (much cheaper) and relax there?
All these choices are very personal and many factors come into play, so there’s no
right answer for most of them. But if you had laid them out, they would have helped
you prioritize your spending, and spot places where you can save money.

Few people get far in adulthood without accumulating some form of debt: credit
cards, student loans, car loans, and mortgage payments are common. In fact, debt
could have been a good thing, if we had used them wisely (who has the money to
buy a house outright?). Credit cards and other forms of debt can be an essential
part of your financial toolbox, but you must exercise care when using these tools.
Understanding the difference between good debt and bad debt will go a long way
in making sure you create and maintain a good credit history.

To build wealth, you have to start somewhere. Therefore, the ability to save money is
the cornerstone of building wealth. In order to save money, you need to spend less
than you earn. This may seem obvious, but so often, it’s easier said than done. Things
could have changed for the better if people had done it this way. Fortunately, there
are several devices you can use when beginning to save money, even when your
budget is tight.

The most important of these is automatic savings. If you had opened a savings
account, and set up your checking account, you should have automatically
transferred a set amount each month into your savings account. You don’t have to
transfer much money, start with whatever your budget can afford. But making this
automatic and then resisting the urge to spend the money impulsively will get you
on the road to long-term savings.

Nobody likes paying taxes, but they are an important aspect of any financial plan.
Even if you don’t make much money, you might be surprised to learn how certain
tax strategies and decisions can impact your finances. Learning how to minimize the
impact that taxes have on your finances can ensure that more money is going into
your pocket and being put to use towards your financial goals.

Adapted from https://www.thebalance.com/how-to-budget-and-save-money-in-5-easy-steps-4056838
Retrieved on March 21st, 2018

Read the text above and answer the questions below:
1. State two ways explained in paragraph one that can help avoid spending
money on non-essentials.
2. Explain how reasonable budget improves one’s financial situation.Of what
importance is a reasonable debt?
3. Discuss three strategies that one should take to save money.
4. Study the meanings of the words and phrases below used in this text. Then
build one correct sentence with each of them:
a. … financial plan … (paragraph three)
b. … cornerstone … (paragraph three)
c. … mortgage … (paragraph three)
d. … soul-searching … (paragraph four)
e. … made do with … (paragraph four)
f. … staycation … (paragraph four)
g. … financial toolbox … (paragraph six)
h. … devices … (paragraph seven)
i. … urge … (paragraph eight)
j. … afford … (paragraph eight)
5. Find antonyms for each of the following words from the above passage:
a. … tight … (paragraph one)
b. … indulgence … (paragraph two)
c. … scoff at … (paragraph three)
d. … spot … (paragraph three)
e. … impulsively … (paragraph eight)
6.4.3. Application Activity
Write a 350 word composition focusing on the importance of budgeting and
saving.
6.4.4. Listening and Speaking: Oral Discussion
Discuss the importance of budget and saving at the family level.
6.4.5. Language Structure: The Third Conditional with Modal Verbs
1. The Third Conditional refers to situations in the past.
2. An action could have happened in the past if a certain condition had been
fulfilled.
3. Things were different then, however.
4. We just imagine, what would have happened if the situation had been
fulfilled.
The Structure of the Third Conditional:
If+ past perfect, would have+ past participle
Example
1. If she had saved more money, she couldn’t have been in debt.
2. He could have had more money in reserve if he had spent less.
3. If she hadn’t spent so much on rent, she should have saved more.
4. He couldn’t have owed so much if he had been more careful with his
money.
5. If Kamana had had an idea about budgeting, she could have used her
money wisely.
6.4.6. Application Activity
Construct five correct sentences with the Third Conditional. Your sentences should
be related to the context of money.
6.5. Describing Government Debt and Annual Deficit
6.5.1. Reading and Writing: Debts and Budget Deficit
A budget deficit is when spending exceeds income. The term usually applies to
governments, although individuals, companies, and other organizations can run
deficits as well. There are immediate penalties for most organizations that run
persistent deficits. If an individual or family does so, their creditors come in.
As the bills go unpaid, their credit score plummets. That makes new credit more
expensive. Eventually, they may declare bankruptcy. The same applies to companies
who have ongoing budget deficits. Their bond rating falls. When that happens, they
have to pay higher interest rates if they are to get any loans.

Governments are different. They receive income from taxes. Their expenses benefit
the people who pay the taxes. Government leaders retain popular support by
providing services. If they want to continue being elected, they will spend as much
as possible. That’s because most voters don’t care about the impact of the debt.
Government bonds finance the deficit. Most creditors think that the government is
highly likely to repay its creditors. That makes government bonds more attractive
than riskier corporate bonds.
As a result, government interest rates remain relatively low. That allows governments
to keep running deficits for years.
Each year the deficit adds to a country’s sovereign debt. As the debt grows, it increases
the deficit in two ways. First, the interest on the debt must be paid each year. This
increases spending while not providing any benefits. If the interest payments get
high enough, it creates a drag on economic growth, as those funds could have been
used to stimulate the economy.

Second, higher debt levels can make it more difficult for the government to raise
funds. Creditors become concerned about a country’s ability to repay its debt. When
this happens, they demand higher interest rates rise to provide a greater return on
this higher risk. That increases the deficit each year.

It becomes a self-defeating loop, as countries take on new debt to repay their old
debt. Interest rates on the new debt skyrockets. It becomes ever more expensive for
countries to roll over debt.

If it continues long enough, a country may default on its debt.

Adapted fromhttps://www.thebalance.com/budget-deficit-definition-and-how-it-affects-the-economy3305820Retrieved on March 22nd, 2018

Read the text on pages 143-144 and answer the questions below:
1. Explain how a budget deficit occurs and the effect that it has on the debtor’s
credit score.
2. Discuss two impacts that cumulative deficit has on the sovereign debt.
3. How does increasing deficit affect the interest rates of the debt?
4. According to what you have read in the above passage, what is the right
attitude that you would adopt about taxes if you were a taxpayer?
5. You came across the words in Column A of the chart below while reading
the above passage. Carefully study them and math them with their
corresponding meanings in Column B. Then write one correct sentence
with each of them in your exercise notebook.

6.5.2. Summary Writing
In an 80 words paragraph, summarize the above passage explaining Government
debt and Annual deficit.
6.5.3. Listening and Speaking
Discuss about the impact of persisting deficit on national economy growth.
6.6. UNIT SELF-ASSESSMENT
6.6.1. Comprehension and Vocabulary
The importance of saving
As parents, it is your obligation to teach your children about some life lessons,
including saving money at an early age of life. You have to show them the true
value of money and ensure that you are setting a good example to them as well.
Being frugal is one thing you need to inculcate to your children. However, be
careful on how you approach this lifelong experience. You must be cautious on
not going overboard with frugality, for it might send your children the wrong
impression. Simply show them real-life situations to make them understand
more what frugality means.

Apparently, being frugal is not just a lesson, rather a lifestyle. It needs to be part
of each family’s daily life. Hence, here are some reasons why it is important to
save money for your family:

As a family, there will always be some unforeseen expenses that will come your
way. Your car might need some repair, an appliance needs to be replaced, or
your children have some school expenses to be paid. Worse, if you encounter
a legal matter, like domestic violence, and this will certainly cost you a lot. It is
better that you have money at hand. At the same time, learn to seek help from
the experts, like lawyers regarding this matter as money will not be enough if
you don’t have knowledge on this issue. Whatever the reason might be, you
have to ensure that you’re able to save money for these unpredictable scenarios.
No matter how much we want to get rid of emergencies, they still do happen.
In case an emergency happens to your family, you have to be prepared for it
financially. When a family member gets sick or gets involved in an accident,
then you have to get ready for the expenses. Most of the time emergencies can
be costly, so it is really important that you have savings. This way, you can be
sure that you are able to pay for the cost right away.

Always remember that whatever your children see from you has an impact to
them. If you want them to do good at all times, then you have to be a good role
model to them. They will actually learn more from your actions than your words,
so always watch your actions. Teaching them about controlling spending should
start with you and you can pass it on to them.
By saving money today, you will be able to improve your life in the future. There
is nothing more important than having a peace of mind and not worrying about
your life in later years because you don’t have savings. Thus, you can start saving
now for your family and reap the fruit of your sacrifices at the right time.

All in all, saving money for you and your loved ones should be one of your top
priorities in life. With the useful tips mentioned above, you are sure enough that
you can overcome any problems or emergencies that will come along the way
as well as be able to secure the future of your entire family.
Adapted from http://missfrugalmommy.com/the-importance-of-saving-money-for-the-family/
Retrieved on March 25th, 2018
Read the text on pages 146-147 and answer the questions below:
I. After reading the above text, explain how parents can inculcate the culture
of saving into their children.
II. State three reasons why it is very important to save money.
III. According to the above text, what is the right time to start saving and why?
IV. Build a correct sentence with each of the words and phrases below. They
have been taken from the above text.
a. … frugal … (paragraph two)
b. … overboard … (paragraph two)
c. … unforeseen … (paragraph four)
d. … appliance … (paragraph four)
e. … get rid of … (paragraph five)
f. … reap … (paragraph seven)
6.6.2. Grammar and Phonology
I. Choose the correct tense and form of the verbs in brackets paying attention
to the appropriate type of conditional sentence that applies in order to
complete the sentences below:
1. She …………… (owe) so much if she had been more careful with her
money.
2. If Munyana ………. (know) the importance of taxes, she would pay them
on time.
3. My uncle should have saved money for his retirement if he ……….
(have) income generating activities.
4. Families ………….. (solve) many of their financial problems if they
applied strategies about budgeting and saving.
5. If they had paid their debts on time, they …………. (declare) bankrupt
6. Maina ……….. (fail) in her business if she avoided fraud.
7. If Musoni had listened to his wife, he …………. (have) all these
problems with his creditors.
8. I would collaborate closely with Rwanda Revenue Authority if I ……..
(be) a taxpayer.
9. If Nyarwaya had spent less, he …………. (save) more money for
emergencies.
10. My father ………… (be) in debt if he didn’t borrow so much.
II. Read the following words and phrase aloud and correctly. Put the stress at
the right place where necessary.
1. Frugal
2. Overboard
3. Unforeseen
4. Appliance
5. Reap
6.6.3. Summary
Carefully read the passage that follows, then write a 70 words paragraph
summarizing the objectives and importance of taxes.
Objectives and importance of taxes.

There are many responsibilities of the state to its countrymen. The State is
represented by the government. Hence, the government of any country performs
a number of activities in order to maintain law and order, peace and security,
satisfying the requirement of basic needs and public utilities etc.

It also initiates various development programmes and maintains diplomatic and
friendly relations with other nations in the world. In order to carry out all these
activities and discharge its overall responsibilities towards the people, it needs
sufficient revenue. Such a revenue is known as government or public revenue.

Government revenue is collected through various sources according to the provisions of the financial acts, rules and regulations. Among them, tax is the main
source of collecting the government revenue.

The concept of tax was initiated with a view to generate government revenue
in its very beginning stage. In course of time, it has been utilized for various
purposes. The first objective was to raise government revenue for development
and welfare programmes in the country. The second was to maintain economic
equalities by imposing tax to the income earners and improving the economic
condition of the general people. The third was to encourage the production
and distribution of the products of basic needs and discourage the production
of harmful ones. The last was to discourage import trade and protect the
national industries.

Tax is a major source of government revenue and it contributes for the overall
development and prosperity of a country. Taxes are important since they enable
the government to raise revenue in terms of income tax, custom duty, excise
duty, entertainment tax, VAT, land revenue tax and so on from various sectors
in order to initiate development and welfare programmes. Secondly, through
taxes, the government maintains economic stability by reducing economic
inequalities. The government ensures that there is equitable distribution
of wealth by way of imposing tax to the income earners and improving the
economic condition of the general people.

Thirdly, the government regulates the economic sectors into the right direction by
encouraging the production and distribution of useful goods and discouraging
the harmful products by imposing high tax rate on them. In addition, through
a good taxation system, the government builds and strengthens the national
economy by encouraging and protecting national industries and promoting
export trade. Finally, the government reduces regional economic disparity by
encouraging the entrepreneurs to establish industries in remote and backward
regions by giving tax exemptions, rebates and concessions etc.

Adapted from http://www.wisenepali.com/2014/12/importance-of-tax-types-and-objectives.
html Retrieved on March 25th, 2018
6.6.4. Essay Writing
Write an essay of not less than 300 words on the following topic: “Saving saves
Life”.
UNIT 7: DEVELOPMENT TRENDS IN RWANDA
UNIT 7: DEVELOPMENT TRENDS IN RWANDA
Key Unit Competence:
Language use in the context of development trends in Rwanda
Introductory activity:
Answer the following questions:
1. Discuss about the contribution of the mining sector to Rwanda’s
economic growth?

2. What is the importance of tourism in the economic development of
Rwanda?

3. Do you think government agencies like Rwanda Revenue Authority are
of any value to national development?

7.1. Describing Economic Development in Rwanda

7.1.1. Reading and Speaking

Rwanda is a landlocked country situated within East African region, but
geographically located in the central area of the continent. It is one of the world’s
most densely populated countries. According to the World Bank, the country’s gross
domestic product (GDP) in 2012 was estimated at US $ 7.1 billion, with a sustained
annual economic growth rate of more than 8% since 2005. The GDP per capita has
increased from US $ 200 in 1994 to US $ 595 in 2012.

The service sector has been steadily growing to become the current major contributor
to the country’s GDP at 46%, followed by agriculture at 32% and industry at 16%.
More than 85% of the country’s workforce is in the agricultural sector, which has
for long been the engine of the economy. Tea and coffee are the major country’s
exports. However, tourism is the principal generator of foreign currency, with US
$ 282 million in 2012 and US $ 251 million in 2011. During that year, investment
registered in the country totaled US $ 626 million, compared to the set annual target
of US $ 550 million and overall exports increased from US $ 454 million to US $ 639
million the same year.

By the end of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, the country’s economy was utterly
destroyed. The proportion of population below the poverty line rose from 53% to
70 % between 1993 and 1997. Humanitarian aid together with the efforts of the
Rwandan Government to rebuild the country’s economy produced positive results
after implementing an extensive program of privatising state-owned enterprises as
advised by the World Bank.

This was intended to minimise the syphoning of government resources into the
accounts of corrupt individuals. These reforms resulted in a GDP growth of 9% and
13% in 1995 and 1996 respectively.

Consequently, the government of Rwanda embarked on an ambitious development
agenda known as Vision 2020. Among the aims of Vision 2020 was to transform
Rwanda into a knowledge-based, middle-income country by the year 2020. To
match with global trends, in the year 2000 Rwanda also adopted the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). It has since been appreciated as one of the highest
achieving states in the world in terms of complying to the international development
standards.

Similarly, in the year 1997, beginning with institutional reforms, Rwanda took on
the journey towards economic transformation. The main objective was to increase
efficiency and accountable use of public resources. The first aspect of these reforms
consisted of restructuring the existing institutions. For example, the Ministry of
Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN) was created from the merger of two
other ministries. In the same year, Rwanda Revenue Authority (RRA) was created-an
independent body in charge of revenue collection to finance national expenditure.
In 1998, the Office of the Auditor General (OAG) was created to monitor and ensure
effective budgetary disciplines and accountability for public funds by all public
institutions.

The Private Sector Federation (PSF) was created in December 1999 to promote and
represent the interests of the business community in Rwanda. The Federation was
charged with the responsibility of organising annual international trade fairs in Kigali
and abroad. The main focus was strengthening the private and business sector.

In collaboration with the Ministry of Trade and Economic Planning, in 2008, the
Private Sector Federation (PSF) drummed for the establishment of The Rwanda
Cooperative Agency (RCA). This led to the birth of thousands of cooperative societies
through which the PSF hoped to raise the standards of living of the ordinary people.

In the recent years, Savings and Credit Cooperatives (SACCOs) under the umbrella
of the national microfinance sector have become a significant component of the
country’s economy. This has significantly contributed to economic development.
In 2011, the balance sheet of these institutions recorded a 12.1% growth and
constituted 37.6% of the financial sector’s total assets.
Likewise, in 2008 Rwanda Development Board (RDB) was established as another
major institutional reform intervention. RDB is a government agency created with a
mission to fast-track economic development in Rwanda. RDB was to achieve greater
coherence, accountability and efficiency within the public sector through the
merger of nine agencies which were formally in charge of investment and export
promotion, information technology, tourism and national parks, support to small
and medium enterprises, commercial registration services and privatization.
As part of a broad effort to embrace information and communication technology
as a tool for socio-economic development, Rwanda has digitalised the payment
systems in the country to meet the requirements of the public and international
standards. The National Bank of Rwanda put in place the Rwanda Integrated Payment
Processing System (RIPPS), an integration of all pre-existing payment systems.
RIPPS allows real-time processing of all electronic payments such as payment for
utilities, communications, checks, as well as interbank direct debits. The system
was implemented to reduce the time lag in payment processing through diverse
platforms that existed before, and to mitigate systemic risk in the financial sector.

The Rwanda Social Security Board (RSSB) was established in 2011 following the
merger of the Social Security Fund of Rwanda and the Rwanda Medical Insurance
Agency. RSSB has the mandate to administer social security in the country through
pension schemes, occupational hazard insurance and medical benefit insurance.
RSSB is financed through the contributions of employees and employers. As a
financial institution, RSSB is supervised by the National Bank of Rwanda and its
activities are overseen by the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning.

The second element that significantly contributed to the economic transformation
of Rwanda is national poverty reduction strategies initiated since 2002 to drive Vision
2020. These policies have continued to evolve depending on the changing needs of
the economy. The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) was the first systematic
economic assessment and lead to establishment of the actions needed to reduce
poverty. Between 2002 and 2006, poverty was reduced by two percentage points to
56.7% and extreme poverty fell by 4.2 percentage points from 40% to 35.8%.

During the decade from 2000 to 2010, Rwanda was the 10th fastest growing
economy in the world, with an average annual GDP growth of 8.2%. The first
Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy with its strong policy
reforms reduced extreme poverty by 12% between 2006 and 2011. Over the same
period, the poverty headcount ratio declined from 56.7% to 44.9%. Foreign direct
investments have been steadily increasing as well as exports. The World Bank ranked
Rwanda as the second most reformed economy in the world over the last five years
and the third easiest for doing business in Sub-Saharan Africa, as well the first in the
East African Community in its 2012 Doing Business Report.

The new Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy II (EDPRS
II) intended to address economic challenges by capitalizing on economic
transformation, led by a strong private sector, alleviating constraints to growth of
investments, rural development and poverty reduction (2018 target of 30% poverty
rate), and by productivity and youth employment targeting creation of 200,000 new
jobs annually. There are on-going efforts to develop the country’s services sector
and to strategically position Rwanda as a future destination for foreign investors.
Five sectors have been identified as priority areas.

These include information and communication technology and business
outsourcing, tourism and conservation, logistics, the financial sector, the buoyant
construction sector and the health care sector which are the major contributors to
revenue collection.
Adapted from http://www.rwandapedia.rw/explore/economic-development, Retrieved on April 25th, 2018

Read the text on pages 152-155and answer the following questions
1. To which extent have the following sectors contributed to Rwanda’s
economic development?
a. Service sector
b. Agriculture
c. Industry
d. Tourism
2. In a paragraph, explain the purpose of creating each of these institutions in
Rwanda:
a. The Office of the Auditor General (OAG)
b. The Private Sector Federation (PSF)
c. The Rwanda Development Board (RDB)
d. Rwanda Revenue Authority (RRA)
3. In not more than 100 words, summarise the above passage pointing out
Rwanda’s economic transformation in terms of institutional reforms and its
impact.
4. Discuss the meaning of the words and phrases below as used in the above
passage. Thereafter, use each of the words to construct a meaningful
sentence.
a. … densely populated … (paragraph one)
b. … embarked on … (paragraph three)
c. … quasi-autonomous … (paragraph four)
d. … trade fairs … (paragraph six)
e. … time lag … (paragraph eight)
f. … mitigate … (paragraph eight)
g. … evolve … (paragraph ten)
h. … headcount ratio … (paragraph eleven)
i. … alleviating … (paragraph twelve)
j. … buoyant … (paragraph twelve)
7.1.2. Application Activity
Conduct a research on the progress made in the agricultural sector in Rwanda
since the year 2008. Then write a 300 word composition explaining the strategies
laid down to develop that sector and the impact realised.
7.1.3. Language Structure: The Use of the Simple Past
The Simple Past is used for both recent and distant past actions. It is used to talk
about actions or activities that have been completed, and are not still going on. It is
used with past time expressions, such as ‘yesterday, last year, at 2 o’clock, in 2003, a
year ago,…’
Example
1. In 2000, Rwanda embarked on an ambitious development agenda known
as Vision 2020
2. The Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper was the first systematic economic
assessment in Rwanda.
3. Between 2006 and 2011, the poverty headcount ratio declined from
56.7% to 44.9%.
7.1.4. Sounds and Spelling
Reminder:
• Stress in English is the way that a particular syllable is pronounced with greater
force than other syllables in the same word. A stressed syllable combines two
features:

• It is longer than unstressed syllables: This means that its production or
pronunciation lasts or takes a great amount of time.
Example
1. In the word “Economics”, the third syllable is the stressed one as indicated
here:
/ iːkəˈnɒmɪks /
It is louder than other syllables: This implies that the stressed syllable is
pronounced with a large amount of sound.
2. In the word “Development”, the second syllable is the stressed one as
indicated here:
/dɪˈveləpmənt/
More examples
Privatization / praɪvətəiˈzeɪʃən /
Socio-economic /səʊsiəʊ ekəˈnɒmɪk /
Export (noun) / ˈekspɔːt /
Export (verb) / ɪkˈspɔːt/
Industry / ˈɪndəstrɪ /
7.1.5. Application Activity
Study the words below as used in the above text, practice their standard
pronunciation and transcribe them into your exercise books. Pay attention to
stressed and unstressed syllables. You can use a dictionary.
1. Agriculture
2. Tourism
3. Autonomy
4. Financial
5. Budgetary
7.1.6. Listening and Speaking: Strategies of Giving Oral
Presentations
Oral presentation refers to addressing or briefing a group of people about a given
topic. Effectiveness at oral presentation requires a mastery of some skills and
techniques. Here below are 13 tips and techniques with which to improve on this
competence:
1. Preparation of the event: To participate in a serious oral presentation
requires enough knowledge on the topic to be presented. Therefore it is
necessary to conduct sufficient research in preparation for the event.
2. Structuring the presentation in subtopics: Very often, good presentations
are structured in appropriate sub-topics depending on the nature of the
content. It is advisable to briefly inform the audience about the main parts
of the presentation before divulging deep into it.
3. Doing a rehearsal: It’s always a good idea to go through the presentation
all alone before presenting it to a big audience. A rehearsal can be done
by assuming an audience before you or by asking a few friends to actually
pose as an audience for you. They can help you build up confidence and
why not ask you a question or two? This step can help you gain confidence,
iron out weaknesses related to the topic, master the timing and techniques
of presentation.
4. Looking presentable: It’s not a must to wear a suit, but it’s hard for people
to take a presentation seriously when the presenter is not formally dressed.
5. Talking instead of reading: A good oral presentation is done without much
reading. Whereas an oral presentation should be based on a written script,
it is advisable to highlight or bold the main points which the presenter can
always develop into a detailed presentation.
6. Talking slowly but audibly: inexperienced speakers tend to speak too fast.
They forget that the audience might be hearing the material for the first
time and not as familiar with the topic as they are.
7. Using aids: For certain types of presentations, visual aids-such as Power
Points, handouts, even written materials on the board, can help the
audience locate and grasp the main points. The presenter must ensure that
these materials are fully explained during the presentation.
8. Avoiding too much details: Including massive numbers of quotations or
huge amounts of data in the presentation can overwhelm even the most
attentive audience.
9. Being natural: to succeed a presentation, it is important to present an
authentic content in as much as possible natural ways. The presenter must
be him or herself.
10. Keeping eye contact with the audience: A very important part of public
speaking is to make eye contact with people seated in all parts of the room,
even those nodding off in the back. By doing that, the presenter shows
people that he/she is interested in communicating with them, not just
getting through this experience as quickly as possible. And it wouldn’t hurt
to leave the podium or desk time to time, and walk around the room a little.
Sharing space with the audience can also show the presenter’s interest in
communicating and sharing with them.
11. Appearing relaxed: it’s not a must to be relaxed and indeed few speakers
are. However efforts should be made in this regards as much as possible.
Drink some water and pose from time to time, and think positive. No one
enjoys listening to speakers who are trembling or sweating.
12. Accepting interruptions: Some speakers are terrified that someone will
interrupt them with a question or comment. Actually, this is one of the best
things that can happen, because it shows that someone in the audience
has engaged with what has been said. A brief response can actually lead
to genuine progress on the point being in motion. A two-way conversation
may reduce tension.
13. Finishing with a good conclusion: A satisfying conclusion to the presentation
can help the listeners to assess what they have learnt. This can create a
kind of feeling in their minds about having learned something from the
presentation to the point that they wish to learn more.
7.1.7. Application Activities
1. Carry out research about the impact of development programs
implemented in Rwanda with regard to community life improvement.
Then prepare a twenty-five minutes class (oral) presentation.
2. Referring to the guidelines on composition writing (Unit 1) on pages 5-6,
write a 300 word composition: “discussing advantages Rwanda would
enjoy if it increased the volume of exports.”
3. Refer to guidelines on how to conduct a debate in unit 1 debate on:
“For a quick development, physical infrastructure deserves more
funding than the agricultural sector.”

7.2. Describing Economic Goals

7.2.1. Reading and Writing: Digital Service Delivery
A long-term development strategy “Rwanda vision 2020” was launched by the
government of Rwanda since the year in 2000. The goal of this program was to
transform the country from a low- income agrarian economy to a medium income
export-oriented and knowledge-based economy. One of the pillars and guiding
principles of this program was to harness the resourcefulness of Information and
communication technology. The architects viewed Information and Communication
technology as a major driving force to Rwanda’s transformation into a knowledge
based economy.

Indeed, Rwanda is among the fastest growing African countries in several fields of
ICT: e-commerce and e-services, mobile technologies, applications development
and automation. “Positivo”, the first factory unit of hardware, was installed in Rwanda
since November 9th, 2015 and has been operating for almost three years now. So, it
should not be surprising to see laptops, tablets and other electronic devices with a
label ‘made in Rwanda’. In addition, Rwanda is considered a regional center for the
training of professionals and researchers on communication technologies.

The Government of Rwanda supports various projects in ICT. Kigali Technopole,
a center dedicated to ICT development and research in Africa with a focus on
applications relevant to the African markets, is one of them. Rwanda has been driven
into a modern knowledge-based economy for more than a decade. It has provided
ICT solutions beyond borders in Africa and the rest of the world. Technopole was
expected to attract skilled ICT professionals and worldwide companies.

In May 2016, the government of Rwanda launched Kigali Innovation City (KIC), a
flagship initiative to catapult the country into a knowledge-based economy. The
aim of KIC (which has replaced the name Technopole) was also to drive digital
transformation through its dynamic ecosystem of technology clusters in which
domestic and international companies have innovated and delivered products and
services for global markets for more than two years.

Secondly, KLab (knowledge Lab) is another ICT project based in Rwanda. The project
is an open technology hub in Kigali where students, fresh graduates, entrepreneurs
and innovators come to work on their ideas and projects to turn them into viable
business models. The aim of the project is to encourage young entrepreneurs to
develop their technology-oriented ideas into products and future companies.

Last but not least is the 4G (LTE) project. The Government of Rwanda, in partnership
with the South Korean telecommunications provider (KT Corporation), is rolling out
a high-speed 4G (LTE) broadband network across the country since November 2014.
The network was expected to cover 95% of the population within three years.

In a nutshell, ICT has been a real driving force for the country’s economy since the
late 1990s. The government relies on the development of ICT sector, not only to
bring investment and create jobs but also to enable the advancement of Rwandan
public services including education, health care, and finance. The result has been
remarkable.

Rwanda has taken a step ahead to improve its education system and now stands as
a model in Africa. The One Laptop per Child (OLPC) program has been implemented
by the government since 2008 and it has played a key role for a number of years
to introduce technology in primary schools and this is still going on. Since 2008,
primary school students have been allowed early access to computer skills and
computer science while expanding their knowledge on specific subjects like science,
mathematics, languages and social sciences through online research or serverhosted content.

Over 500 health facilities have been covered by Rwanda Health Management
Information System (R-HMIS) for about a decade since 2012. Many modules have
been added to the system since then such as death audit reporting for all maternal,
neonatal, and child deaths, and the Community Health Information System-a
patient level system for tracking MDR (multi-drug resistant) to patients as well as the
HIV reporting and disease surveillance system which is currently being transitioned.
According to the Ministry of Health, the percentage of health centers connected
to internet has reached 93.8% since 2012. The number of clinical emergencies
supported through Rapid SMS is 25%; while the number of patients at community
level tracked using Rapid SMS has reached 173,131.

Mobile money subscribers across all networks have reached 6,480,449, which was
more than twice the number of subscribers in the previous year (2013). The number
of mobile money transactions reached US $ 824.6 million compared to US $ 394
million transacted in the year before.
Adapted from https://infomineo.com/rwandas-knowledge-economy/, retrieved on April 25th, 2018

1. Read the text on pages 160-161 and answer the following questions.
a. What development strategy did the government of Rwanda launch in
2000 and what was its aim?
b. What are the indicators of Rwanda’s advancement in the field of ICT? Of
what economic value is this trend?
2. State the objectives of:
a. Kigali Innovation City
b. Knowledge Lab
3. Discuss the progress attained by Rwanda through ICT in the following
sectors:
a. Education
b. Health
c. Finance
4. Write an eighty-word summary showing how the government of Rwanda
has improved service delivery through ICT initiatives.
5. Carefully study the words and phrases in column A and match them with
their corresponding meanings in column B

7.2.2. Sound and Spelling
I. Referring to the notes given in Unit seven, sub-heading 7.1 read the following
words as used in the passage on pages 160-161. Strictly follow the phonetic
transcription given and remember the use and importance of the stress.
Remember that monosyllabic words are not stressed in English.
a. Progress /ˈprəʊɡres /
b. Entrepreneurs /ɒntrəprəˈnɜːz /
c. Surveillance /səˈveɪləns /
d. Reached / riːtʃt /
e. Transacted /trænˈzæktɪd/
II. The words listed below are used in the above passage. Read them and practice
their correct pronunciation. Use a dictionary where necessary.
a. Percentage
b. Management
c. Implemented
d. Advancement
e. Knowledge
7.2.3. Language Structure: The Present Perfect with For and Since
1. Since
We use the present perfect with since to define a period of time before now by
considering its starting point.
Example

1. Positivo factory unit of hardware has been installed in Rwanda since 2015.
2. The One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) program has been implemented since
2008.
3. Since its launch, Kigali innovation city has delivered products for global
markets.
4. Rwandans have used ICT to develop the private sector since 2010
2. For
We use the present perfect with for to define a period of time before now by
considering its duration (For six years, for a week, for a month, for hours, for two
hours.)

Example

1. Agriculture has been the backbone of Rwanda’s economy for more than
two decades.
2. Muhire and his wife have worked in the mining sector for five years.
3. ICT has driven Rwanda’s development for years now.
4. Rwanda has been driven into a modern knowledge-based economy for
more than a decade.
7.2.4. Application Activities

I. Construct five meaningful sentences using the present perfect with since
and for. Your sentences should be related to development trends in Rwanda.
II. Conduct a research on Rwanda’s economy and then write a composition on
the following topic: ‘Rwanda’s economic achievements since the year 2010.
7.2.5. Listening and Speaking: Recitation:
How to recite a poem
1. Reciting a poem, just like any other language competences, requires a
number of techniques. Here are some of the practices or techniques that
will help you learn to recite poetry:
2. Choose a Poem that “Speaks to You”: When choosing a poem to recite,
ensure picking a poem that interests you. The more you like the poem, the
more fun you will have learning and reciting it. Whether it’s a funny poem,
a serious poem, a sad poem, a sports poem, a spooky poem, a jump-rope
rhyme, or even a love poem, if it’s a poem that “speaks to you”-a poem
that makes you feel something-you are going to enjoy sharing it with your
audience.
3. Memorize the Poem You Plan to Recite: To recite a poem well, it’s important
to have it firmly committed to memory. If you don’t have the poem
memorized, you are more likely to make mistakes when reciting it, even if
you have it written on a piece of paper in front of you. Memorizing it will
help make your recitation as good as possible.
4. Memorizing a poem requires to read a printed copy out loud as many times
as possible. Depending on the length of the poem, you may have to read
it out loud 10 or 20 times, or possibly even more, but each time you read a
poem out loud, you will remember a little more of it.
Practical steps to follow in order to memorize a poem
1. Get a printed copy of the poem.
2. Look at the poem and read it out loud.
3. Turn it over so you can’t see it.
4. Recite as much of it as you can remember, from the beginning.
5. Repeat steps 2 through 5 until you can recite the entire poem from memory.
6. Study the voice of the poem, and speak in that voice: In other words, if it’s a
poem about a cowboy, see if you can put on a cowboy accent. If it’s a poem
about a monster, try using the scariest monster voice you can. If it’s a poem
about a baby, an old person, or just some crazy character, think of what that
person might sound like and try to speak in their voice.

7. Rap the poem: Some poems have a rhythm built into the words. When you
read a jump-rope rhyme, or any other rhythmical poem, you may find that it
is suitable for rapping. If you want to have even more fun with it, try reciting
it to a drum beat or to music.

8. Recite it with a friend: Many poems have more than one voice. That is, a
poem might have different speaking parts-such as the narrator, a mother or
father, a teacher, a child, etc. making it easy to split up and be read by two
or more people. Even if it’s not, perhaps you and a friend could take turns
reading every other line.

9. Put on a play: If a poem tells a small story, you can perform it in the same
way that you can perform a play. You can create sets and props, and even
wear costumes. Make it a drama or a comedy.
10. Run around, wave your hands, say it like you mean it: Don’t just limit yourself
to the ideas given above. Recite the poem in any way that seems best to
you. If that means sitting in a chair, or jumping up and down, or stomping
back and forth, or even dancing, that’s okay. Just put some feeling into it
and “read it like you mean it” to give the best performance you can.

11. Have Fun: However you decide to recite a poem, the most important thing
is that you have fun doing it. So pick a poem, memorize it, practice reciting
it a few different ways to see what works best, and then have fun sharing it
with your audience!
7.2.6. Application Activities: Exploring a poem

Another World

Del “Abe” Jones
It’s another world, one that few have seen,
At times wild and brutal, at times so serene.
A place where life abounds in every shape and size,
Where miracles seem to happen right before our eyes.

A garden paradise with “flowers” that can walk
There’s even some creatures that know how to talk,
Also some animals not seen by the eye
And fabulous fishes that know how to fly.
It has its own mountains and rivers down below
Still hiding some secrets that we may never know.
For millions of years it’s cared for its own
And would for millions more if it were left alone.

But man pollutes its waters and dumps his garbage there,
Spills oil on its surface and doesn’t seem to care
That oceanic fisheries have collapsed in many places,
Because of overfishing and the lack of protected spaces.

So man destroys marine life all because of greed,
And treats the sea as if it were something we don’t need.
If this persists, those fish stories told from shore to shore
May someday be nothing more than part of our folklore.
Read the above poem and answer the questions below.
1. Identify the two opposite sights from which the poet describes the world
in the first stanza.
2. Explain the following sentences used in the above poem
3. The “flowers that can walk” (line 5)
4. The “creatures that know how to talk” (line 6)
5. Comment on the poet’s concern about environment conservation and
protection.
6. Discuss the economic loss that man is likely to face if he continues to destroy
wildlife.
7. Practice reciting the above poem.

7.3. Describing Economic Achievements

7.3.1. Reading and Writing
Passage 1: Economic Achievements in Rwanda
As one of the effects of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi,
Rwanda’s infrastructure was ravaged and its economy left
without future prospects. Many people had severe problems
find themselves food for the day, and more than two million
people were displaced. From these conditions,
a remarkable change has taken place.

The country has achieved strong economic and social development in recent years
and the eagerness to build a new country pervades today’s Rwanda. In recent years,
economic growth has been 7-8 per cent and the number of people living in poverty
was reduced from 57 per cent to 45 per cent of the population, between 2006 and
2011.

Extreme poverty has decreased over the same period, down to 24 per cent. This
means that the number of poor in Rwanda has fallen by an average of 2.4 per cent
per year over the past five years, which is exceptional for Africa and can only be
compared with China, Thailand and Vietnam.

Maternal and child mortality has been reduced by half in five years. These very
positive results can be linked to successful health care initiatives, which have also
contributed to basic health insurance for 90 per cent of the population. More and
more children-about 80 per cent-have completed their primary education. With
the 2008 election, Rwanda was the first country in the world to have a majority of
women in parliament.

The private sector has seen constant growth, and the modernization of farming will
revitalize the core of the Rwandan economy. Special efforts were made in the ICT
sector in order to reduce dependence on agriculture which employed about 90 per
cent of the population. The proportion of the population owning a mobile phone
has literally exploded and amounts to 45 per cent.

Rwanda has produced the development programme ‘Vision 2020’, which illustrates
the country’s ambitious targets for the future. The aim was for Rwanda to become
a middle-income country by 2020. One tool to achieve this is the country’s current
strategy to combat poverty, which underlines the development of the private sector,
the construction of a knowledge-based society and good governance for greater
public participation and accountability.

Adapted from https://www.sida.se/English/where-we-work/Africa/Rwanda/Developments-in-Rwanda/, Retrieved on April 25th, 2018

Read the text on page 167and answer questions that follow
1. How did the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi affect Rwanda’s economy?
2. Discuss Rwanda’s economic achievement indicators between 2006 and
2011.
3. Explain the purpose of ‘Vision 2020’ program in terms of economic
development.
4. Study the words in the following table as used in the above passage and
then provide their synonyms.

7.3.2. Application Activities
I. In at least sixty words, write a paragraph to summarize the above passage
showing how Rwanda has developed economically over the past two
decades in terms of poverty reduction.
II. Research on the importance of ICT for Rwanda’s economy and then write
a composition of about 350 words discussing the contribution of ICT on
Rwanda’s economic development.

Passage 2: Gender Equality and Economic Growth

The first premise of this equation is to define gender equality.
Is its connotation in socio-economic terms very encompassing?
Or is gender equality just labour market parity?

Studies suggest countries around the globe could raise
their respective Growth
Domestic Product (GDP) levels if more women were given
the chance to enter the labor market. This, however,
will necessitate gender equality policy actions of one kind or another.
Although the tools to be used may vary based on countries,
there are certain common aspects that will
be subject of discussion in the coming years.

Gender equality is a multidimensional term assuming economic,
cultural and social dimensions. The discussion would always
be considered under three primary topics.
The right to education is on top of these.
The second topic is the equal right and opportunity to work. There are major
inconsistencies in the levels of labor force involvement between women and men.
This is to a great extent due to perceptions about the role of women in the interface
between housework and work. Conventionally, women have been anticipated to
perform most of the work in the home as a matter of course, irrespective of which
partner is most suited to the task. This old-fashioned attitude still remains an
important explanation of the differences in women’s labor participation.

The third aspect covers the nature of women’s work and pay.
It is a commonly known fact that women have lower pay levels than men,
which directly reflects the differing conditions and environments under
which women and men live. This applies to everything from the
unequal sharing of household work, to pay discrimination against
in the labor market.

In perspective, if we confine our observations to only employment-related factors,
such a vital condition for labour market parity is not adequate by itself. If women
or men are discriminated against in terms of access to education, then the human
capital of our society will not be nurtured. Gender equality is then the absence
of gender-based discrimination. The relationship between gender equality and
economic growth which is the pace of GDP change, ought to rationally be affirmative.
When gender equality is present in the labor market, work in society is distributed
rationally between all the genders based on aptitude and skill. This means that a
given occupation is allotted to the person most appropriate and not due to biases
or discriminating rules or practices. This leads to a better economic outcome than
in alternative cases because skill and ability determine the outcome rather than
historic socio-economic boundaries and stereotypes.

Globally, a number of strategies are required to achieve committed and vital political
action in this regard. This means that we should consider how gender imbalances in
political institutions can affect matters in this connection. Data collected suggests
that countries with higher GDP levels have higher female employment rates andmore
women in the parliament than countries with lower levels of female economic
engagement. The skewed dissemination of power between women and men,
evident in the world today, is not encouraging long-term gender equality, without
which sustainable economic development is definitely not achievable.

By Meera Kaul, Writer and Founder of The Meera Kaul Foundation
Adopted from https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/273825, Retrieved on May 3th, 2018

Read the text on pages 168-169 and answer questions that follow
1. Explain how gender equality can contribute to the increase of a nation’s GDP.
2. Explain how gender imbalances can affect job distribution.
3. Write a 85word paragraph, summarising the above passage focusing on
the impact of gender equality on Rwanda’s economic growth.
4. Explain the meaning of the words and phrases below used in the above
text. Thereafter, use each one of them to construct a meaningful sentence.
1. … gender equality … (paragraph one)
2. … human capital … (paragraph four)
3. … labour force … (paragraph five)
4. … opportunity to work … (paragraph five)
5. … employment-related factors … (paragraph seven)
6. … gender-based discrimination … (paragraph seven)
7. … economic outcome … (paragraph eight)
8. … socio-economic boundaries … (paragraph eight)
9. … gender imbalances … (paragraph nine)
10. … female employment rates … (paragraph eight)

7.3.3. Application Activities
I. Carry out a research on the extent to which gender equality policy has been
implemented in Rwanda from the year 2008 up to-date and then write a
300 word composition on the relationship between gender equality and
economic growth.
II. Debate on the following motion: “Everything a man can do, a woman can do
much better.”
7.3.4. Sounds and spelling
I. With reference to what you learnt from this unit sub-heading 7.2 page 160,
read the following words with the correct accent.
a. Development/ dɪˈveləpmənt /
b. Poverty/ ˈpɒvəti /
c. Average/ˈævərɪdʒ/
d. Accountability/əˈkaʊn.tə’bil.ət.i/
e. Construction /kənˈstrʌkʃən/
II. Now, practice the pronunciation of the words below. Use a dictionary where
necessary.
1. Infrastructure
2. Modernization
3. Middle-income
4. Growth
5. Economy
7.4 UNIT SELF ASSESSMENT
7.4.1. Comprehension and Vocabulary
The importance of physical infrastructure for a nation’s economic
development
Why is physical infrastructure so important to a nation’s development? The answer
is that once goods are produced, they need to be transported to the ports and
airports for transportation to other states and countries. This means that excellent
roads are needed to transport the goods or otherwise, they would be delayed
leading to economic and reputational losses.
Indeed, if a manufacturer produces goods quickly but is unable to transport them
to the destination as fast as they can, then there is no point in making the goods
in an efficient manner in the first place.
Roads, Ports, and Airports: good roads are also needed for manufacturers to obtain
raw materials and other components. In addition, ports that are well functioning
and where ships do not need to wait for longer periods of time or in other words,
are not congested, are very crucial for economic growth as otherwise, the loading,
and unloading of goods from the ships would cause losses to the exporters and
importers. Similarly, there is a need to develop airports that are modern and
efficient for freer and easier movement of people in and out of the countries. For
all these reasons, it is vital that the physical infrastructure needs to be as efficient
and as productive as possible.
Power and water: these utilities are also important for the development of a city’s
infrastructure. Indeed, if there is power outages and blackouts or what are known
as “power holidays” or “industry holidays”, the manufacturers’ production goes
down as a consequence of these timeouts.
Rural-urban migration: if a city is unable to cope with the influx of migrants and
to accommodate the growing number of people, then the people working in
the plants and factories would be unable to function effectively and to work
productively. Therefore it would be the responsibility of plants and industries to
provide housing for their workers and hence contribute to the development of
infrastructure in the city.

Physical Infrastructure and Economic growth: no nation develops without
investing in infrastructure. Indeed, in the aftermath of the Second World War, the
Western countries massively invested in infrastructure. Japan and South Korea
and later China undertook a drastic improvement in their infrastructure so as to
ensure faster economic growth and development. There is evidence that such
investments in infrastructure facilitate and spur economic growth by providing
connectivity as well as enhancing productivity and efficiency.

Moreover, investments in infrastructure work as a force multiplier whereby the
money invested in building highways, ports and airports, not only creates the
“hardware or cornerstone” for a nation’s development, but also results into more
growth. Indeed the huge amounts of money are spent on construction materials,
wages, and production of other raw materials which help those industries to grow
faster. Thus, the people needed to staff the plants and factories should be able to
work productively.

Finally, there are no shortcuts to success. There are no substitutes for infrastructure
development and there are no shortcuts for faster economic growth. It is only
when these aspects are taken care of that a nation develops. Therefore, unless
a developing country invests in all elements of the infrastructure component,
its development would be slow and retarded, and it would lose out in the race
for economic competitiveness. This is the hard truth and the bitter reality which
should hopefully spur the country to invest in its infrastructure.

Adapted from https://www.managementstudyguide.com/importance-of-infrastructure-in-a-nationsdevelopment.htm, Retrieved on April 25th, 2018
Read the above text and in complete sentences, answer the following questions
1. What is the importance of infrastructure for a country’s development?
2. Explain how power and water, as elements of infrastructure, affect the
manufacturers’ production.
3. Taking example on the case of Japan, South Korea and China, identify the
purpose of infrastructure.
4. What is likely to happen if a country does not invest in its infrastructure?
5. What do the following words mean as used in the above text?
a. … congested … (paragraph two)
b. … timeouts … (paragraph three)
c. … blackouts … (paragraph three)
d. … drastic … (paragraph four)
e. … aftermath … (paragraph four)
f. … plants … (paragraph five)
g. ... hardware....(paragraph five)

7.4.2. Grammar and Phonology
I. Carefully study the sentences below and then use the Past Simple Tense of
the verbs given in brackets to fill in the gaps.
a. The World Bank........Rwanda as the second most reformed economy in
the world over the last five years (rank)
b. Rwanda’s economy …….. by 1.7 percent in the first Quarter 2017
(grow)
c. Rwanda’s GDP…………. Frw 1,817 billion, up from Frw 1,593 billion in
2017. (reach)
d. Rwanda’s economic growth ……….. the previously projected 5.2 per
cent and grew by 6.1 per cent last year. (exceed)
e. The Minister for Finance and Economic Planning ……….. Rwandans on
the economic growth attained throughout the country(congratulate)
f. A good harvest of food crops in season B and C ……… Rwanda’s
economy last year.( boost)
g. Rwanda ………… most of the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) by the end of 2015. (meet)
h. The poverty rate ………… from 44% in 2011 to 39% in 2014. (drop)
i. Rwanda’s industrialization ……………… a big change in 2018
(undergo)
j. In 2012, the industrial sector in Rwanda ………….. for 16% of Gross
Domestic Product. (account)
II. Choose the correct answer: since or for?
a. 4G (LTE) has been used in Rwanda ……. three years now.
b. Rwanda has drastically developed its economy ….… 1994.
c. Agriculture has been the backbone of Rwanda’s economy ….… more
than two decades.
d. The country has shifted to a knowledge-based economy ……. the
introduction of ICT.
e. The use of modern methods in farming has improved the agricultural
sector ….… the late 1990s
f. Poverty has been alleviated ….… the last twenty years.
g. Women have been empowered ….… the year 2008.
h. The one laptop per child has eased the learning process …..… ten
years now in Rwanda.
i. Rwanda’s infrastructure has been further developed ….… 2000
j. Kigali has been Africa’s ICT hub … ten years.

III. Give the phonetic transcription of the words below:
a. Outages
b. Aftermath
c. Spur
d. Influx
e. Component
f. Cease
7.4.3. Summary
In not more than 80 words, summarize the passage below pointing out the
economic importance of wetlands (Marshlands).

Economic benefits of Wetlands

Wetlands come in many different forms. They can be tidal zones, marshes, bogs
or swamps among many other types. However, they all share characteristics that
make them wetlands. They are areas where water is present above or near the
surface of the soil for at least a portion of the year, and the soil and vegetation
present are determined by the presence of water. Some wetlands need to be
dry for part of the year to maintain their hydrologic cycle. Wetlands provide
several ecosystem services such as reducing erosion, recharging aquifers and
providing habitat for several wildlife species.

Wetlands act as a natural sponge. When high rainfall events occur, surface
water must go somewhere. Wetlands retain and slow down the flow of surface
water then slowly release the water, which significantly reduces the amount
of flooding downstream. Since the water is slowed down, there is time for it to
recharge ground water and improve water quality because sediments fall out
of the water column and nutrients are taken up by aquatic plants. Wetlands also
act as bioremediation sites because they have the ability to remove pollutants
from surface water. They are so good at this that they are sometimes used to
treat wastewater.

Wetlands provide excellent habitat for many fish and wildlife species. Several
fish species use wetlands to breed and raise young ones. Wetlands provide
cover, food and water for several wildlife species such as muskrat, red-eared
slider and bullfrog. They also serve for nesting, breeding and feeding several
avian wildlife species such as waterfowl, blackbirds and cranes. Wetlands tend
to have higher plant diversity than the surrounding area, which is good for
most wildlife species. In parts of the Great Plains, wetlands act as an oasis due
to the increased plant and animal life around them.

Wetlands are an important resource, yet often overlooked. Keeping them
healthy is critical to maintain clean water and to support wildlife and fish
populations.

Adapted from https://www.noble.org/news/publications/ag-news-and-views/2015/may/wetlandsprovide-ecological-and-economic-benefits/, Retrieved on April 26th, 2018

7.4.4. Essay writing

Carry out research on the importance of using modern methods in the mining
sector and write a 300 word essay on this topic: “Modernising the mining sector
in Rwanda”.
UNIT 8: WRITING AND EXAMINATIONS
UNIT 8: WRITING AND EXAMINATIONS
Key Unit Competence:
Language use in the context of writing and examinations
Introductory activity:
Observing and interpreting pictures
1. Explain how scanning and skimming, as reading techniques, can be
applied in examination.
2. Discuss the view that instructions are part and parcel of the test in an
examination.
3. State and explain at least four verbs commonly used in examination
questions.
8.1. Finding Information in Books Using the Table of Content  and Index
8.1.1. Table of contents
Definition of a table of contents

A table of contents is a list of titles or headings or topics representing the content
contained in big document or in a book. Items in the table of contents are always
organised chronologically reflecting the order in which the content is presented in
the document.
The table of contents guides us as to where or the pages on which the title or heading
of a given content is located in the document.
Below is an example of a table of contents. To assist you check and learn how a
table of contents is used, we decided to use the one for this very book. As indicated
below, the content for Unit 1 can be located starting from page 5 of this very book.
Unit 1. Rwanda and the Region: Geology....................................................................................................14
1.1 Describing Maps.................................................................................................................................. 15
1.1.1. Reading and Writing:..................................................................................................................15
1.1.2. Listening and Speaking: Debating Techniques.....................................................................17
1.2. Describing Geological Features.........................................................................................................18
1.2.1. Reading and Writing: Exploring images and dialogues........................................................19
1.2. 2. Definition and Characteristics of a Piece of Discourse.........................................................23
1.2. 3. Listening and Speaking: Role-play...........................................................................................25
1.2. 4. Language structure.....................................................................................................................25
1.3. Describing Lakes and Rivers...............................................................................................................29
1.3.1. Listening and Speaking : Question and answer.....................................................................29
1.3.2. Reading and Writing:..................................................................................................................29
1.3.3. Sounds and Spelling : Stress in Words......................................................................................30
1.4. Describing a Geological Event..........................................................................................................31
1.4. 1. Reading for Information.............................................................................................................31
1.5. UNIT ASSESSMENT..............................................................................................................................37
1.5.1. Reading and Writing....................................................................................................................37
1.5.2. Grammar and Phonology...........................................................................................................38
1.5.3. Summary ....................................................................................................................................... 40
8.1.2. Application Activities
Look at the table of contents above and answer the following questions.
1. In which unit and pages of this book can we find the topic about lakes
and rivers?
2. In which unit is Direct and Reported Speech taught?
3. Visit your school library, borrow a grammar book and then locate pages
on which parts of speech are found.
8.1.3. Index
Definition of Index
A book index is a list of important words and names contained in a book. The index
shows us the page on which such a word or name can be found in the book. The
index is normally placed at the end of a book.

By perusing through the index, the reader will easily locate the page on which a
word and related information can be found.

Here is an index of Flesh-Eating Machines: Maggots in the Food Chain by June
Preszler.

8.1.4. Application Activities
I. Look at the index above and answer the following questions
a. Where can you find the information on food chain?
b. Does this book talk about predators? Explain.
c. Do you think this book focuses on animals or people? Justify your
answer.
II. Critically read Unit 1, 3 and 5 of this book and choose ten items from each of
the three units with which to construct an index.
8.1.5. Finding information in texts: Skimming and Scanning

In unit 2, we discussed scanning and skimming as some of the techniques of
extracting information from a text. We saw that skimming refers to act of reading very
fast through a written text in order to get general information about it. On the other
hand, scanning refers to reading through a text quickly in order to find specific facts.
In other words, scanning means looking at a text to find some particular information
such as a date, names of places, a telephone number, names of people, etc.

In most English examinations, there are always some questions on a reading
comprehension. Answering comprehension questions will always require our
knowledge and skills of skimming and scanning. With these skills, we are able to
extract information from comprehension texts with which to answer comprehension
questions.
1. Skimming
Many students try reading the questions first and then looking for answers in the
passage thinking this approach is more efficient. Before answering comprehension
questions, you should first skim for the gist and then look for answers in the passage.
2. Scanning
After skimming the text, you can now read questions and then look for answers in
the passage. We normally scan a text when we are trying to locate where the correct
answer is, but this technique alone does not give us the correct answer, rather it tells
us the correct location of the correct answer. Thus, after locating where the right
answer is, you should then read the text very closely to be able to internalise an
answer in line with the question asked.

Therefore, there should be three steps in answering comprehension questions: first
skimming the text to get the general view or gist about it. Thereafter, you scan the
text in order to ear-mark the probable answers and finally, closely reading to identify
the actual answers.
8.1.6. Application Activity: Exploring a text
The course of World War II 1940-41

On April 9, 1940, Germany simultaneously invaded Norway and occupied Denmark,
and the war began in earnest. On May 10, German forces swept through Belgium
and the Netherlands in what became known as “blitzkrieg,” or lightning war.
Three days later, Hitler’s troops crossed the Meuse River and struck French forces
at Sedan, located at the northern end of the Maginot Line, an elaborate chain
of fortifications constructed after World War I and considered an impenetrable
defensive barrier. In fact, the Germans broke through the line with their tanks and
planes and continued to the rear, rendering it useless.
The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea from Dunkirk in late
May. In the meantime, from the south French forces mounted a doomed resistance.
With France on the verge of collapse, Benito Mussolini of Italy put his Pact of Steel
with Hitler into action, and Italy declared war against France and Britain on June
10
On June 14, German forces entered Paris; a new government formed by Marshal
Philippe Petain (France’s hero of World War I) requested for an armistice two
nights later. France was subsequently divided into two zones, one under German
military occupation and the other under Petain’s government, installed at Vichy.

On this round this time, Hitler turned his attention to Britain, which had the
defensive advantage of being separated from the Continent by the English
Channel. To pave the way for an amphibious invasion (dubbed Operation Sea
Lion), German planes bombed Britain extensively throughout the summer of 1940,
including night raids on London and other industrial centres that caused heavy
civilian casualties and damage. The Royal Air Force (RAF) eventually defeated the
Luftwaffe (German Air Force) in the Battle of Britain, and Hitler postponed his plans
to invade. With Britain’s defensive resources pushed to the limit, Prime Minister
Winston Churchill began receiving crucial aid from the U.S. under the Lend-Lease
Act, passed by Congress in early 1941.

On June 22, 1941, Hitler ordered the invasion of the Soviet Union, codenamed
Operation Barbarossa. Though Soviet tanks and aircraft greatly
outnumbered the Germans, their air technology was largely obsolete, and the
impact of the surprise invasion helped Germans get within 200 miles of Moscow
by mid-July. Arguments between Hitler and his commanders delayed the next
German advance until October, when it was stalled by a Soviet counter-offensive
and the onset of harsh winter weather.

Adapted from https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-ii/world-war-ii-history, retrieved on 24th April
2018
Read the text on page 178 and carry out the following tasks:
1. Skim the above text and identify the main states that were involved in the
Second World War.
2. Scan the text below and state:
a. What happened on May 10, 1940.
b. Names of two dictators mentioned in the text.
c. What the acronym “RAF” stands for.
d. The name of the German Air Force.
3. Scan the above text and choose the right answer
a. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by air
from Dunkirk in late May.
b. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by train
from Dunkirk in late May.
c. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by sea
from Dunkirk in late May.
d. The British Expeditionary Force (BEF) was evacuated by truck
from Dunkirk in late May.
4. In full sentences, explain the following words and phrases as used in the
said passage.
a. …simultaneously… (paragraph 1)
b. …fortifications… (paragraph 1)
c. ...evacuated.. (paragraph 1)
d. …on the verge of…(paragraph 1)
e. ...armistice… (paragraph 2)
f. …defensive advantage… (paragraph 3)
g. …extensively… (paragraph 3)
h. …casualties… (paragraph 3)
i. …code-named.. (paragraph 4)
j. …obsolete… (paragraph 4)
k. …stalled… (paragraph 4)
l. …counter-offensive… (paragraph 4)
m. ... in earnest ... (paragraph 1)
5. Composition Writing: Write a 200 word composition explaining how
skimming and scanning can help a learner in an exam.
6. Class debate:
Motion:” Learners from Urban and rural schools shouldn’t do the same exam”.
8.2. Reading extracts from literature

The extract tells us about Pip, an orphan who is about seven years old. While visiting
the graves of his parents and siblings, the boy encounters an escaped convict in the
village churchyard.

‘Hold your noise!’ cried a terrible voice, as a man started up from among the graves at
the side of the church porch. ‘Keep still, you little devil, or I’ll cut your throat!’ A fearful
man, all in coarse grey, with a great iron on his leg. A man with no hat, and with
broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. A man who had been soaked
in water, and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones, and cut by flints, and stung
by nettles, and torn by briars; who limped, and shivered, and glared, and growled;
and whose teeth chattered in his head as he seized me by the chin.

‘O! Don’t cut my throat, sir,’ I pleaded in terror. ‘Pray don’t do it, sir.’

‘Tell us your name!’ said the man. ‘Quick!’

‘Pip, sir.’

‘Once more,’ said the man, staring at me. ‘Give it mouth!’

‘Pip. Pip, sir.’

‘Show us where you live,’ said the man. ‘Point out the place!’

I pointed to where our village lay, on the flat in-shore among the alder-trees and
pollards, a mile or more from the church.

The man, after looking at me for a moment, turned me upside down, and emptied
my pockets. There was nothing in them but a piece of bread. When the church came
to itself, — for he was so sudden and strong that he made it go head over heels
before me, and I saw the steeple under my feet, — when the church came to itself, I
say, I was seated on a high tombstone, trembling while he ate the bread ravenously.

‘You young dog,’ said the man, licking his lips, ‘what fat cheeks you ha’ got.’
I believe they were fat, though I was at that time undersized for my years, and not
strong.

‘Darn Me if I couldn’t eat em,’ said the man, with a threatening shake of his head, ‘and
if I hadn’t half a mind to ’t!
I earnestly expressed my hope that he wouldn’t, and held tighter to the tombstone
on which he had put me; partly, to keep myself upon it; partly, to keep myself from
crying.
‘Now look here!’ said the man. ‘Where’s your mother?’
‘There, sir!’ said I.
He started, made a short run, and stopped and looked over his shoulder.
‘There, sir!’ I timidly explained. ‘Also Georgiana. That’s my mother.’
‘Oh!’ said he, coming back. ‘And is that your father along your mother?’
‘Yes, sir,’ said I; ‘him too; late of this parish.’
‘Ha!’ he muttered then, considering. ‘Who d’ye live with, - supposin’ you’re kindly let
to live, which I han’t made up my mind about?’
‘My sister, sir, — Mrs Joe Gargery, — wife of Joe Gargery, the blacksmith, sir.’
‘Blacksmith, eh?’ said he. And looked down at his leg.
After darkly looking at his leg and me several times, he came closer to my tombstone,
took me by both arms, and tilted me back as far as he could hold me; so that his eyes
looked most powerfully down into mine, and mine looked most helplessly up into
his.
‘Now lookee here,’ he said, ‘the question being whether you’re to be let to live. You
know what a file is?’
‘Yes, sir.’
‘And you know what wittles is?’
‘Yes, sir.’
After each question he tilted me over a little more, so as to give me a greater sense
of helplessness and danger.
‘You get me a file.’ He tilted me again. ‘And you get me wittles.’ He tilted me again.
‘You bring ‘em both to me.’ He tilted me again. ‘Or I’ll have your heart and liver out.
He tilted me again.
I was dreadfully frightened, and so giddy that I clung to him with both hands, and
said, ‘If you would kindly please to let me keep upright, sir, perhaps I shouldn’t be
sick, and perhaps I could attend more.’
He gave me a most tremendous dip and roll, so that the church jumped over its
own weathercock. Then, he held me by the arms, in an upright position on the top
of the stone, and went on in these fearful terms: —
‘You bring me, to-morrow morning early, that file and them whittles. You bring the
lot to me, at that old Battery over yonder. You do it, and you never dare to say a word
or dare to make a sign concerning your having seen such a person as me,
or any person sumever, and you shall be let to live. You fail, or you go from my words
in any partickler, no matter how small it is, and your heart and your liver shall be tore
out, roasted, and ate. Now, I ain’t alone, as you may think I am. There’s a young man
hid with me, in comparison with which young man I am an Angel.
That young man hears the words I speak. That young man has a secret way peculiar
to himself, of getting at a boy, and at his heart, and at his liver. It is in vain for a boy
to attempt to hide himself from that young man. A boy may lock his door, may be
warm in bed, may tuck himself up, may draw the clothes over his head, may think
himself comfortable and safe, but that young man will softly creep and creep his
way to him and tear him open. I am keeping that young man from harming you at
the present moment, with great difficulty. I find it very hard to hold that young man
off of your inside. Now, what do you say?’
I said that I would get him the file, and I would get him those broken bits of food I
could, and I would come to him at the Battery, early in the morning.
‘Say Lord strike you dead if you don’t!’ said the man.
I said so, and he took me down.
Adapted from Charles Dickens’ (1861). Great Expectations. London: Chapman and Hall.

Carefully read this extract from Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations and answer the
questions that follow:

1. Where does the conversation between Pip and the escapee take place?
2. How does the escapee end up snatching Pip’s loaf of bread?
3. The man told Pip that he was with a young man who was more awesome
than him. Do you think he was telling the truth? Explain.
4. In full sentences, explain the following words as used in the above passage.
a. ... soaked... f. ...tombstone...
b. ...smothered... g. ... tilted...
c. ...rag... h. ...clung...
d. ...briar.../ (brier) i. ...tremendous...
e. ...steeple... j. ...peculiar...
8.3. Application activities
I. Write a 6 paragraph composition, describing the character of the escapee in
this extract.

Please refer to the notes on the techniques of descriptive writing in Unit 1,
page ... of this book.

II. Pip almost got killed as he visited the graveyard where his parents and
relatives are buried. Do you think visiting our ancestor’s graveyard is a
worthwhile practice? Give reasons for your answer.

III. What does Pip’s reaction towards the escapee in the above extract reveal
about his character? Present your answer in detailed paragraphs.

IV. Step by step, explain how you would have reacted if you were in Pip’s
situation.

8.4. Essay Writing
8.4.1. Explanations on Essay Writing
Essay writing is an important section of an English exam.
So, you should know how to write different types of essays.
In English, an essay is a piece of argumentative
writing that contains several paragraphs written about one topic, usually based on
your reading.
The purpose of an essay is to say something for yourself using the
ideas of the subject, in order to present specific ideas.
Effectiveness in the art of writing different types of essays has become critical to
academic success. Essay writing is a common school assignment, a part of standard
test especially for advanced secondary school level, and a requirement for college
applications. Often on tests, choosing the correct type of essay to write in response
to a writing prompt is key to getting the question right.

To succeed at school, you need to be able to write different types of essays. Your
teachers will seldom tell you exactly which type of essay you should be writing, so
you need to be able to figure it out from the question you have been asked. Once
you’ve identified the right type of essay to answer the question, you’re not home
free yet, but at least you’ll know how to structure it and what type of content to
include.
8.4.2. Types of Essays
The simplest interpretation says that there are only four types of essays:
1. Narrative essays
2. Descriptive essays
3. Expository essays
4. Persuasive essays
But, there are over a dozen types of essays, a situation which may confuse a reader.
However, it should be noted that all these are subsets of the four main ones. Here
below, look at a more detailed explanation of the four types of essays:
Exploring Nine Types of Essays
1. Narrative essay

In a narrative essay, the writer tells the story by recounting the course of events as
witnessed or told by another person. Sometimes, narrative stories revolve around
real-life experiences. While telling a story may sound easy to do, the narrative essay
challenges writers who tend to write about themselves. When writing a narrative
essay, writers should try to involve the reader by making the story as vivid as possible.
The fact that narrative essays are usually written in the first person helps engage the
reader. “I” sentences give readers a feeling of being part of the story. A well-crafted
narrative essay will also build towards drawing a conclusion or making a personal
statement.
Five steps in the writing process of a narrative essay
a. Prewriting
When planning how to start a narrative essay, think about your life experiences in the
context of the assignment’s theme, for example ‘write about achieving a goal.’ When
selecting an experience to write about, keep in mind that even a small incident can
make a good essay topic if it has significance for you.

Once you’ve chosen a topic, spend time sorting through your memories and
recalling details, including the year, season, setting, people, and objects involved.
Think about the sequence of events and remember; no detail is too small.

b. Drafting

When creating the initial draft of a narrative essay, follow the outline, but focus on
making the story come alive, using the following techniques:

Personal narrative essays are most naturally written in the first person, and using “I”
gives the story an authenticity that engages the reader.

While telling a story, one should not neglect details. Readers have no prior knowledge
of the story, and many times even one detail accidentally left out will skew their
understanding.

Vivid descriptions are always preferred to illustrate facts. In narrative writing, the
writer’s job is to involve the reader, rather than simply inform.

While narrative essays are non-fiction, elements of fiction can be tolerated.

c. Revising

In this phase, the essay is reviewed, modified, and reorganized with the goal of making
it the best it can be. At this stage, the following must be taken into consideration:

Does the essay unfold in an easy-to-understand progression of events? Do the
transitions make sense or confuse the reader?

Does the essay involve the reader in the experience?

Is the word choice descriptive, or merely informative?

Has the larger message of the essay been conveyed effectively? Has a connection
been made between the experience and its meaning to the writer? Will the reader
be able to identify with the conclusion made?

d. Structuring

In structuring a narrative essay, it’s the writer’s choice when to reveal the significance
of the experience. Some writers make this connection in the opening paragraph.
Others like to focus on the experience and reveal its significance at the end. Writers
should experiment which way works best for the essay.
e. Editing

At this point in the writing process, writers proofread and correct errors in grammar
and mechanics like punctuation and spelling to improve style and clarity.
Transitions and connectives that will help you while writing narrative essays:

A sample narrative essay

Best summer memory of my childhood
When I was 11 years old, I attended a Unitarian church camp for a summer vacation
with my family. It was a pleasant area, with the Puget Sound not far away, grass
fields, many old-style wooden buildings, an expansive forest, and an elongated
pond between the road and the camp.
As an 11-year-old boy, it was a place for me to meet my friends. However, this
summer camp was more spiritual than others—not because of a religious message,
but because I had an awakening at the camp that year.
I had been going to this summer retreat almost every year since I was very young.
But somehow, this year was different. It seemed my mind and soul were ripe for a
transformation. I was less interested in playing and joking around with my friends. I
was searching for answers to deep questions about life and God.
I attended a baptism ceremony in Church, which was more of a ritual than anything
else, in my opinion. The real baptism is an inner transformation. It was like a light was
switched on in my consciousness, and I saw everything as new again.
From that moment, the world around me and within me was never the same. The
only problem was that I was too young to fully grasp what had happened. In fact,
I thought I was some sort of prophet. What I learned from this experience is that
baptism, or spiritual rebirth, is a spontaneous happening, and not done only from
the hand of a priest. Also, I learned about getting a spiritual ego, where you think
you are important based on spiritual experiences. My natural baptism and my
knowledge of spiritual ego has allowed me to gain much in life: more creativity,
inner peace, and how to be humble in the face of achievements.
© 2011 - 2018, Academic Help.
Adapted from https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/narrative/best-summer-memorychildhood.html, retrieved on April 25, 2018
Read the sample narrative essay on page 186 and answer comprehension questions
that follow.
1. State the three benefits the author gained for attending the summer
vacation
2. In two paragraphs, explain how the content of the above essay is related to
its title and the author’s life.
3. In an 80 word paragraph, summarize the above passage focusing on the
author’s life experience
8.4.3. Application Activity

Write a narrative essay of 250 words narrating an exciting event that you have
ever experienced in your life.

2. Descriptive Essay

Writing a descriptive essay is comparable to painting a picture of someone,
something or a situation. A writer might describe a person, place, object, or even
a memory of special significance. However, this type of essay is not description for
description’s sake. The descriptive essay strives to communicate a deeper meaning
through the description. In a descriptive essay, the writer should show, not tell,
through the use of colorful words and sensory details. The best descriptive essays
appeal to the reader’s emotions, with a result that is highly evocative.

Here are descriptive essay writing tips for each phase of the writing process:

a. Prewriting

In the prewriting phase of descriptive essay writing, the writer should take time to
think about who or what she/he wants to describe and why. Memory and emotion
play an important role in conveying the subject’s significance.

b. Drafting

When creating the initial draft of a descriptive essay, a writer should follow the
outline, but remember that, the goal is to give the reader a rich experience of the
subject, keep in mind that the most important watchword of writing a descriptive
essay is show, not telling.

c. Revising

In revising a descriptive essay, writers should re-read their work with these
considerations in mind:
1. Does the essay unfold in a way that helps the reader to have a full view of
the subject being developed?
2. Do the word choice and figures of speech clearly invoke the five senses
(sight, feeling, smell, etc) to convey emotion and meaning?
3. Are there enough details to give the reader a complete view of subject
under discussion?
4. Will the reader be able to identify with the conclusion made?
5. There is also need to proofread and correct errors in grammar and mechanics
like punctuation and spellings. It’s also the time to improve style and clarity.

A sample descriptive essay: Description of a desert

A desert is a vast plain of sand and stones, interspersed with mountains of various

sizes and heights, usually without roads or shelters. They sometimes have springs of
water, which burst forth, and create verdant spots.
The most remarkable of all the deserts is the Sahara. This is a vast plain, but a little
elevated above the level of the ocean, and covered with sand and gravel, with a
mixture of sea shells, and appears like the basin of an evaporated sea.
Amidst the desert, there are springs of water which burst forth and create verdant
spots, called oases. There are thirty-two of these that contain fountains and palm
trees; twenty of them are inhabited. They serve as stopping places for the caravans,
and often contain villages.

To be thirsty in a desert, without water, exposed to the burning sun, without shelter,
is the most terrible situation that a human being can be placed in, and one of the
greatest sufferings that a human being can sustain; the tongue and lips swell; a
hollow sound is heard in the ears, which brings on deafness, and the brain appears
to grow thick and inflamed.

If, unfortunately, any one falls sick on the road, he or she must either endure the
fatigue of traveling on a camel, (which is troublesome even to healthy people,) or he
or she must be left behind on the sand, without any assistance, and remain so until
a slow death comes to relieve him or her.

By Academic Help 2018.
Adapted from: https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/descriptive/description-of-a-desert.
html, retrieved on April 25, 2018

Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions that
follow.
1. What are the main features of a desert as described in the above text?
2. Why does the author say that it is possible to live in desert?
3. What do you think would happen if someone dies in desert?
8.4.4. Application Activity
Write a 200 word essay describing ‘Mountain gorillas’
3. Expository essay

An expository essay should be an informative piece of writing that presents a
balanced analysis of a topic. In an expository essay, the writer explains or defines a
topic using facts statistics and examples. An expository essay can take a wide range
of essay forms which include comparison and contrast, cause and effect, explanatory
or process essays.
Expository writing is a life skill. More than any other type of writing, expository
writing is a daily requirement of most careers. Understanding and following the
proven steps of the writing process helps all writers, including students, master this
type of essay writing.
Normally, the expository essay is composed of five paragraphs. The introductory
paragraph contains the thesis or main idea. The next three paragraphs, or body of
the essay, provide details in support of the thesis. The concluding paragraph restates
the main idea and ties together the major points of the essay.
Here are tips for each part of the expository essay structure and writing process:

1. In the prewriting phase, writers should take time to brainstorm about the
topic and main idea. Next, do research and take notes.
Create an outline showing the information to be presented in each
paragraph, organized in a logical sequence.
• When creating the initial draft, consider the following suggestions:
• The most important sentence in the introductory paragraph is the
topic sentence, which states the thesis or main idea of the essay. The
thesis should be clearly stated without giving an opinion or taking a
position.
• Each of the three body paragraphs should cover a separate point that
develops the essay’s thesis. The sentences of each paragraph should
offer facts and examples in support of the paragraph’s topic.
• The concluding paragraph should reinforce the thesis and the main
supporting ideas. Do not introduce new material in the conclusion.
2. Since an expository composition discusses an event, situation, or the views
of others, and not a personal experience, writers should use the third person
(“he,” “she,” “it” and “they”), and avoid “I” or “you” sentences.
3. In the revision phase, writers review, modify, and reorganize their work with
the goal of making it the best it can be. These considerations should be
kept in mind:
• Does the essay give an unbiased analysis that unfolds logically, using
relevant facts and examples?
• Has the information been clearly and effectively communicated to the
reader?
4. Watch out for “paragraph sprawl,” which occurs when the writer loses focus
and veers from the topic by introducing unnecessary details.
5. Is the sentence structure varied? Is the word choice precise?
6. Do the transitions between sentences and paragraphs help the reader’s
understanding?
7. Does the concluding paragraph communicate the value and meaning of
the thesis and key supporting ideas?
8. At this level, proofreading, correction of errors in grammar and mechanics
like spellings and punctuation marks and editing to improve on style and
clarity are very important.
8.4.5. Application Activity: Exploring an expository essay
The impact of rising of Teenage Gangs and its negative consequences
Teenagers constantly look for the place they belong to. Unfortunately, a vast
majority of teenagers take a wrong turn and get lost on their path to acceptance.
The rise of teenage gangs is a major problem nowadays.
Teenage gang is defined as an organized group of adolescents and/or young
adults who rely on group intimidation and violence to commit criminal acts with
the purpose to gain power, recognition and control.
The rise of teenage gangs is perfectly explained in a study published in the
Journal of Adolescent Health where researchers discovered there were 1,059,000
youth gang members in the United States in 2010. The primary reason why this
staggering number of gang members goes unnoticed is due to the fact that they
may not conform to popular perceptions of teen gang demographics.
Another potential reason why the total number of gangs and gang members
keeps increasing is because a great majority of crimes they commit usually goes
unreported. As a result, government officials find it difficult to gather exact data
about this growing issue.
Risk factors that enhance a teenager’s odds of joining a gang include drug or
alcohol abuse, negative influences, peer pressure, a strong desire for recognition
and belonging, lack of parental supervision and limited attachment to the
community.
Although the current data shows the staggering number of gang members, it is
assumed the problem could be even more severe as most of them do not fit into
the gang demographics and many crimes are not reported.
Finally, there is a growing need for the entire society to take necessary measures
and work on this issue. If not, the consequences could be far more severe.
Adapted from: https://au.edusson.com/bundles/asterfreelance/_layout/files/AuEdussonCom/
ExpositoryEssay.pdf retrieved on May 5, 2018
Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions
that follow.
1. What should society do in order to curb down the cropping up of
teenager gang groups? Use the following transitions and connectors for
expository essays .

2. Write an expository essay of 300 words about “the measures taken by the
government of Rwanda to curb the emergence of teenager gangs.”
4. Persuasive Essay
• Like an expository essay, a persuasive essay should always be based on facts.
This is the mere reason that persuasive essays are supposed to convince
the reader about a given issue or situation. But since the main purpose of a
persuasive writer is convincing, some little exaggeration could be allowed in
persuasive essays.
• A persuasive writer must build a case using facts, logic and building a sense of
clarity. The writer should present all sides of the argument.
Here are persuasive essay tips for each phase of the writing process:
1. The prewriting phase of writing a persuasive essay is extremely important.
During this phase, the writer should plan every aspect of the essay by:
• Choosing a position. Students should think about the issue and pick
the side they wish to advocate for.
• Understanding the audience. In order to write an effective persuasive
essay, the writer must understand the reader’s perspective. Is the reader
undecided or inclined to favor one side or the other?
• Doing research. A persuasive essay depends on solid and convincing
evidence.
• Don’t rely on a single source. Pull information from multiple websites
and reference materials. Speak with community experts and teachers.
Read and take notes. There is no substitute for knowledge of both sides
of the issue.
• Identifying the most convincing evidence, as well as the key points for
the opposing view.
• Creating an outline. Organize the evidence to build the strongest
possible argument.
2. Typically, the persuasive essay comprises five or six paragraphs: Introductory
paragraph, body paragraphs, opposing view paragraph and concluding
paragraph.
3. When writing the initial draft of a persuasive essay, consider the following
suggestions:
• The introductory paragraph should have a strong “argument” that grabs
the reader’s attention.
• Open with an unusual fact or statistic, a question or quotation, or an
emphatic statement.
• The thesis statement should leave no doubts about the writer’s position.
• Each body paragraph should cover a separate point, and the sentences
of each paragraph should offer strong evidence in the form of facts,
statistics, quotes from experts and real-life examples.
4. In the revision phase, the writer reviews, modifies, and reorganizes his/her
work with the goal of making it the best it can be. The following must be
taken into consideration:
• Does the essay present a firm position on the issue, supported by
relevant facts, statistics, quotes, and examples?
• Does the essay open with an effective “argument” that intrigues readers
and keeps them reading?
• Does each paragraph offer compelling evidence focused on a single
supporting point?
Is the opposing point of view presented and convincingly refuted?
• Do the transitions between sentences and paragraphs help the reader’s
understanding?
• Does the concluding paragraph convey the value of the writer’s position
and urge the reader to think and act?
5. Next, proofread and correct errors in grammar and mechanics like spellings
and punctuation marks, and edit to improve style and clarity.
Transitions and connectives that are used while writing persuasive essays:

8.4.6. Application Activity: Analysing a sample persuasive essay
Why Freelance work is better than Full-time work
Since the time freelancing became an option, wide discussions about what is better
between full-time jobs or freelancing have continued. An employee working in an
office has a guaranteed monthly salary, all kinds of bonuses, paid vacations and
sick days, and a number of other social benefits. On the other hand, a freelancer
is a self-employed person, so it is always his or her problem and responsibility
whether he or she wants to take a break, get sick, or lack income.
The first benefit of freelancing is a flexible working schedule and conditions. A
regular office worker gets up close to 7 a.m. and rushes through half the city
through bad weather, traffic jams and crowds of people to spend eight hours in
a cubicle, and then go back home. On the other hand, a freelancer does not have
to go to work every day: his or her home is the workplace in the majority of cases.
Besides, a freelancer often does not have a specific work schedule.
There is a tendency for workers to overstay in their offices, trying to deal with
the ever-increasing flow of daily tasks. Even when an office worker is at home
or on vacation, he or she continues being bombarded with work emails, phone
calls, and notifications and, in fact, office workers are expected to be available. A
freelancer, on the other hand, is his or her own manager, having to accomplish
only the work he or she has applied for. Freelancing may be an even better option
if you are a woman willing to dedicate your time to raising your children, but
without abandoning your career; men will find this option useful as well.
  Being a corporate employee has its own advantages, and it would be wrong to say
that full-time work is somehow inferior to freelancing. Office workers get a stable
income, enjoy social benefits such as paid vacations and sick days, and are, in
general, more protected than freelancers. However, freelancing can offer a number
of benefits that could make office work seem dull. Freelancing might not be for
everyone but perhaps everyone should try freelancing at least once in their life.
By Academic Help 2018.
Adapted from https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/persuasive/freelance-is-betterthan-full-time-work.html, retrieved on May 4, 2018
Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions
that follow.
1. State advantages and disadvantages of full-time work.
2. According to you, which style of work would you like to choose and why?
3. In 200 words, write a persuasive essay on “why and when to start learning
a foreign language.”
5. Definition Essay

In this kind of essay, the writer develops a long discourse in a style and by words
or phrases that seem to define a given subject. A definition essay discusses an
idea or concept or some personality in a manner that seeks to explain the nature
or its characteristics in greater details. Definition essays usually revolve around
philosophical and abstract topics.

There are some steps to follow for writing a definition essays:
• Choose a term you want to define, and introduce it to your readers. This can
be done in several ways, but your main goal at the outset is to indicate the
contents of your paper clearly.
• Use several sources (dictionaries or encyclopedias) to see how the term you
have chosen is usually defined. Then, think of a way to combine or merge them
to give your own, unique definition.
• Present the term you’ve chosen to your readers in the introductory part of your
paper.
• In the main body paragraphs, provide your readers with information about the
term.
• Think of a couple of sound examples that will fully illustrate and explain your
definition.
8.4.7. Application Activity: Analysing a sample definition essay:
Defining an educated person
We understand that if you go to school, you will learn a subject well, but we also
understand that many of us will see career paths that are not traditional, or linear
in nature. If all we learned was basic skills and knowledge, we would cease to
be educated the minute we stepped away from our chosen field of study. An
educated person is one who has undergone a process of learning that results in
enhanced mental capability to function effectively in familiar and new situations
in personal and intellectual life.

Being an educated person means being able to continuously learn. To have
knowledge and to know how to use it are both components of being educated. It
implies that the process of becoming an educated person is something that will
deliver a lifetime value, rather than simply a skill that can be used to get a job.

This lifetime value is one of the reasons education usually pays for itself down
the road. As students who become educated people are more adaptable, more
successful and better able to succeed when placed in difficult situations.

By ©2016 Bartleby.com, 2018.
Adapted from https://www.bartleby.com/essay/The-Definition-of-an-Educated-Person-P3QBWFMYRFA,
retrieved on May 4, 2018.
Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions
that follow.
1. According to the passage, what are characteristics of an educated person?
2. What do you understand by being an Educated person?
3. Write a definition essay of 250 words on this topic: Defining ethical
behaviour.

6. Compare and Contrast Essays

Compare and contrast essays are always constructed about two concepts or items
bringing out their similarities and differences. Point by point, the writer is supposed
to construct paragraphs which elaborate on the similarities of the two concepts,
ideas, or items. After exhausting the points of similarity, then point by point,
elaborate where the two concepts, items or personalities are similar.

There are six steps for writing a compare and contrast essay:
• Carefully considering two (or more) texts or items from which to develop the
compare and contrast essay. This is a kind of pre-writing work which can give
the basis to start the actual essay head-on.

• Making a list of identified key similarities and differences from the texts, that is
writing down everything regardless its size or importance.

• Selecting the most important points to become the central argument. At this
level, the most important points that mark similarities and differences are
noted.

• Writing an outline that will form the skeleton of the compare and contrast
essay. This is a breakdown or the flow of the essay, only the main points to
develop are noted. The introduction that lays out the general idea behind the
argument is set, followed by the body of the essay. This should be around four
paragraphs long.

• Adding textual details to the set outline to make the whole essay. This involves
supporting the major points with evidence from read texts.

• Editing after the essay has been fully developed to ensure that all errors have
been checked and corrected. This should be done for both content (faulty
arguments) and form ( grammar, spelling, etc.).

Transitions and connectives that will help you while writing compare and contrast
essays

8.4.8. Application Activity: Analysing a sample compare and contrast
essay:
Differences between good and bad bosses
Everyone knows how important it is to have favorable conditions at the workplace.
One of the most important factors, is the manager or the boss who directs the
working process. Let us try to figure out the differences between good and bad
managers, or bosses.There are bosses who are typical “emotional vampires or bad bosses.” These
people are extremely difficult to work with, and even though they may possess
traits necessary for performing their duties excellently, their subordinates usually

suffer severe stress because of their bosses’ psychological peculiarities.
According to the clinical psychologist Albert Bernstein, vampires or bad bosses
fall under four categories: anti socials, obsessive and compulsives, histrionics and
narcissists.

Bad bosses may be highly competent in regarding their field of work, but it is
the skill to manage personnel, to inspire rather than to enforce, which makes yet
another difference between the good and the bad boss.

A “good boss,” on the contrary, does not try to regulate everything, or put himself
or herself on a pedestal. Such a person is supportive, knows the weak and the
strong professional traits of each of his or her subordinates, listens to what staff
has to say, encourages personnel, and cares not just about the work done but also
about the team in general and about each of the team’s members.

And even though it is important for a manager to care about the tasks his or her
team must accomplish, a good manager will always consider the capabilities and
skills of his or her team, instead of blatantly demanding results without regarding
how people in the team feel. In fact, a “good” boss can possess all the traits of a
“bad” one: he or she can criticize, yell, or force people to do a lot of work within a
short period of time, for example.

In other words, many of the “nasty” things “bad” bosses do can be done by “good”
bosses as well, but a “good” boss uses such tactics only when it is necessary and
knows when to stop being pushy, unlike “bad” bosses, who know no other manner
of management.

The relationships between bosses and their employees greatly affect the
productivity and the quality of work within any company—this is why it is
important that these relationships are, if not friendly, then at least constructive
and respectful.

On the contrary, good bosses treat their subordinates with respect, consider
their emotions and professional capabilities, care about teamwork, try to inspire
employees instead of forcing them to do something, and even when they need to
be pushy and harsh, such bosses always know when to stop.
Academic Help 2018. Adapted from https://academichelp.net/
samples/academics/essays/comparecontrast/
differences-between-good-and-bad-bosses.html, retrieved on May 3, 2018
Read the text on pages 197-198 and carry out the following tasks:
1. Explain how some managers may impede the progression of a company.
2. Write a short summary of fifty words that justifies how to work with a bad
boss could affect harmony in family.
3. Write a compare and contrast essay of 150 words on this topic: Differences
between creation and evolution.

7. Cause and Effect Essay

Cause and effect essays are about reasons why things happen (causes) and what
happens as a result (effects). Cause and effect is a way of organizing and discussing
ideas in which situation one comes as a result of the other.

When writing a cause and effect essay, the chronology or order of events is of great
importance. For clarity one has to show how some events or situations lead to others.
In this case, the order of importance in which the events occur should be adhered
to. This order of events should be presented from the most or to the least important.
Steps to follow when writing a cause and effect essay:
• Distinguish between cause and effect:
To determine causes, ask, to identify effects, ask, “What happened because of
this?” Develop your thesis statement. State clearly whether you are discussing
causes, effects, or both. Introduce your main idea, using the terms “cause”
and/or “effect.
• Find and organize supporting details:
Back up your thesis with relevant and sufficient details that are organized. You can
organize details in the following ways:

• Chronological order: Details are arranged in the order in which the events
occurred.
• Order of importance: Details are arranged from least to most important or
vice versa.

• Categorical order: Details are arranged by dividing the topic into parts or
categories.
It is important to use appropriate transitions in order to blend details smoothly in
cause and effect essays. For this, the following transitional words and phrases are
needed:
• For causes:
Because, due to, one cause is, another is, since, for, first, second etc.
• For effects:
Consequently, as a result, thus, resulted in, one result is, another is, therefore
etc.
8.4.9. Application Activity: Analysing a sample cause and effect essay:
Causes and effects of global warming

There are many causes of global warming which affects human lives and health
in many aspects. Increase in environmental temperature and climate change
has become very clear over the last 50 years because of the increasing level of
greenhouse gases concentration (like water vapour, CO2, methane, ozone, sulphur
and nitrogen gases, etc.) in the atmosphere. Such greenhouse gases contribute to
increasing greenhouse effects.

The major cause of increasing greenhouse gas in the environment is burning of
fossil fuels which emit carbon dioxide and heat the atmosphere. Such greenhouse
gases have the capacity to absorb more heat from the sun and electricity used
by human beings in many ways, which in turn warm the whole atmosphere of
this planet. The effects caused by the greenhouse gases (water vapour, CO2,
methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, hydro fluorocarbons, Sulphur hexafluoride, per
fluorocarbons, chlorofluorocarbons, etc) are called greenhouse effects.

Heating of the environment increases atmospheric temperature (by 3° to 5° C by
the year 2100), increases sea level (by 25 meter by year 2100) and heat, melts
glaciers, increases health disorders, changes climate, changes weather, increases
annual power of hurricanes, calls natural disasters (floods, heat waves, droughts,
tornadoes), lowers down the amount and quality of agricultural yields, enhances
glacial retreat, reduces summer stream flows, extinctions of various important
plants and animal species and so many. There are some other dangerous effects
of the global warming which continuously affect the lives of human beings, plants
and animals.

Global warming needs to be solved urgently by the active effort of each and every
human being living on this planet.

Read the text on pages 199-200 and answer the following questions:

1. List causes and effects of global warming mentioned in the passage.
2. What are the negative effects of global warming on human beings and
other living creatures?
3. Write a causes and effects essay of 200 words on “Environment pollution”
8. Process Essays
Process Essays are always written about topics which seek to explain how something
is done or works. In this kind of essay, the writer is supposed to lay down instructions
or directions one follows in the process of doing something. This may include how,
for example, to repair your computer or to bake bread (how to do something). On
the other hand, process essays which seek to elaborate on how something works
craft/develop their discourse in a style and phrases that inform the reader. Such
topics could revolve on, for example, how a computer works or a baking machine
works or how an X-ray works.

This type of essay involves a step by step explanation of how something happens or
is done. Getting steps in the correct order, helps to avoid confusion in the process
described. Thus keeping chronological order is important in this type of essays.

Writing a process essay is very simple, but only when the step-by-step approach that
allows for crafting a brilliant paper is respected:

Determine the target audience

Before starting writing, it’s important to think about the targeted audience and what
their expectations are.

Create a list of materials or tools

A process essay discusses how something is done, and we all know that in order
to do something, some materials or tools are needed. Therefore, before starting to
write, the writer should create a complete list of the tools or materials the reader will
need to understand the task being explained.

Make an outline or a plan

If research has been completed for this essay, the notes about what is planned for
the content should be available. It is always required for a process essay that the
writer goes through the task him or herself.

Start writing

It is always important to uphold the main structure of an essay. Every essay must
include an introduction, body and conclusion. In addition to this, the following tips
must be implemented:

• Draw the reader’s attention in the introduction
• Give the reader some clues
• Use transition words or phrases between sections
• Use the outline for guidance
• Group the steps in paragraphs
• Get into details
• Mention and describe the end product
• Reiterate and restate everything in the conclusion
• Proofread the essay several times
Conclusion
The conclusion of an essay is a short summary of what has been discussed in the
body.
8.4.10. Application Activity: Analysing a sample process essay: Seven
easy steps to quit smoking

Smoking is a scourge to countless individuals. Despite the numerous anti-smoking
campaigns held all over the world, the number of smokers has been declining
slowly. In addition, thousands of ex-smokers succumb to temptation and return
to this bad habit. They feel depressed due to the fact that their will was not strong
enough. All you need in order to quit is your intent to do it and your personal will.
This is the process that you can follow:
• The first step is to make a final decision to quit. Do not just fall for others’
exhortations; do not persuade yourself that you have to quit smoking as
soon as possible. Give your decision some time to ripen and make it when
you understand that you actually want to quit.
• Second, help yourself develop motivation. Start reading stories of people
who managed to quit for good; count how much money smoking costs you
per month, or per year; study statistics of deaths caused by smoking; find
some information about its impact on the human body.
• When you are done with steps 1 and 2, the third step is not to rush throwing
away your cigarettes. Instead, observe situations when you usually smoke.
You think about cigarettes in a number of typical situations: in the morning,
after taking food, when stressed or bored, while waiting, before going to
bed, and so on.
• The forth step is to assign a day when you are going to smoke your last
cigarette. Do not wait for this date with despair or fear of terrible trials
coming; do not delay. Instead, think of this day as the date of your release.
Then smoke your last cigarette.
• Fifth step is to understand that smoking is much more about psychological
addiction than physical addiction, so make a list of activities that would help
distract you from thoughts about cigarettes when they appear. For instance,
you can delve deeper into your job or hobbies, go jogging, ride a bike, go to
a concert, or perform any other healthy activity.
• Next step is to start a physical exercise routine. This will help you feel you
have moved on to a new life.
• Finally, you will experience a temptation to check if you have quit, to test
your willpower. Usually, a person decides to see if everything worked out,
smokes a cigarette, thinking that the habit is broken and that there is
nothing to worry about and returns to it again.

It is easier to say than to do. Still, quitting is an act worth doing. It will have a
significant, positive impact not only on your health, but also on your self-respect,
faith in yourself, and your ability to succeed in many more facets of life.

© Academic Help, 2018.
Adapted from: https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/process-papers/ retrieved on May 4, 2018
Read the essay on pages 202-2003 and answer the following questions:
1. How do you think people are engaging in smoking?
2. Write a short paragraph of 50 words that summarizes the process of
abandoning smoking.
3. Write a process essay of 200 words on the following topic: Process of self realization.
9. Recounting essays
Writing a type of recounting essay involves narrating about something that
happened in the past. Here, one must take care to explain what happened, where it
took place, when it happened, who was involved, and why it occurred.

Recounting essays should usually detail the order in which the events took place.

This means chronology or order of events is an essential aspect of recounting essays.
Normally, recounts should be based on facts, indicate procedures and revolve
around personal experience topics.

The purpose of a recount essay can be to inform, entertain or reflect and evaluate. It
can focus on a specific section of event or retell the entire story.

Pick an appropriate title: Most recounts have a title, and that title should summarize
the text in a few words.

Set the orientation: The orientation includes all of the background details the reader
will need to understand your story. You could also label the orientation as the
“setting” of your story.

Recall and relay the correct sequence of events. Your recount should describe one
significant incident, but each event or step that happened during that incident
happened in a specific order.

Pick out important details. A lot may have happened during the activity you describe
in your recount, but if you provide too many details, you can overwhelm or bore the
reader. Stick with important details that push the story along instead of slowing it
214 English Language For Associate Nurses, Student’s Book 6
down. As a general rule, only describe events that the reader would not be able to
predict.

Separate major parts into different paragraphs. Each major event in your recount
should have its own paragraph.

Include descriptive details as needed. Descriptive details may not seem necessary at
first, but they can help strengthen the image you’re describing in the mind of your
readers. Re-orient the reader. Near the end of the recount, you should note the setting again
to tie things up and remind the reader of what you were describing.

Transitions describe the order of events. A few examples include: first, next, later,
meanwhile, then, finally.
8.4.11. Application Activity: A nalysing sample recounting essay: A trip
to the national park

Last Saturday, my friends and I went for a trip to the National Park. The trip was
organized by Abu Bakar. We went there by bus. The journey took about 2 hours.
We chose the National Park because we wanted to get away for a few days
after a stressful week of final examination. The purpose of this trip was to let us
appreciate the beauty of nature and at the same time learn more about flora and
fauna species found there.

Our first activity was boat riding. We crossed a river to visit the Orang Asli
settlement. It was a unique experience as we got a chance to learn their culture
and how they lived. At that time, we knew the Orang Asli have equally varied
occupations and ways of life.

The next activity was cave exploring. The cave was very dark but luckily we
brought torchlight to explore what was in there. While we were walking, we saw
a population of bat hanging upside down. The supervisor in charge told us that
the bats were sleeping. They slept during the day and find food at night. We all
spellbound on how they slept without falling. After a while, we found a waterfall.

We made hay while the sun was shining and we took a dip in the waterfall. It was
breathtaking with beautiful scenery, chipping birds and cool crystal clear water.
We all shrieked and splashed each other as the icy water stung our bare skin. It
was definitely a relief from stress from the intense weather and exhausted day.
How could we resist such a great temptation? We saw a lot of fish swam around
full of life. We caught the fishes for barbecue at night. We decided to wrap our day
as the sun started to disappear.

On the next morning, we went for jungle trekking. This activity not only gave
us the rush of adrenaline but also built our stamina. All of us were fascinated at
seeing the wild animals, plants and rich biodiversity found in Malaysia. The flora
and fauna were very beautiful and colourful. My friend, Shasnaa, screamed as she
saw a huge millipede. We all burst into tears. We took photographs to parcel these
unique experiences. It was cool and refreshing in the vegetation. The fresh air that
surrounds the area was good for us to recover from the hustle and bustle of city
life. It is a pity this vegetation is facing greater danger of being lost to development.
Many people do not realize that it is a real gem. We returned to the chalet as the
clouds started to roll in. Thank God we had the chance to explore the jungle.

On the last day, we woke up early and packed our things to go home. All of us
craved to go for another trip as soon as possible.

© Copyright 2011 Diary/Notebook Theme by Site5.com
Adapted from http://teachernuha.blogspot.com/2012/10/writing-recount-trip-to-national-park.html,
retrieved on May 5th, 2018

Read the essay on pages 204-2005 and answer the following questions:
1. What was the purpose of the trip?
2. Mention some amazing places visited in the passage.
3. Write a recounting essay of 150 words on the trip that you have ever
attended or read from the newspapers or books.

8.4.12. Listening and speaking
Class Debate
Motion: “Failing an exam means that one is not intelligent”

8.5. Understanding and Responding to Instructions in
Examinations
8.5.1. Listening and Speaking: Role-Play a Dialogue
A Dialogue between two students after exams
Kalisa: Hello, Isimbi. How are you doing?
Isimbi:I am not actually fine today.
Kalisa: Why? Are you sick?
Isimbi: No, I am not sick but I think I failed.
Kalisa: But the questions were very clear.
Isimbi: How do you dare saying that questions were very clear while I could not even
understand what the teacher wanted us to do?
Kalisa: I am not getting you. Do you mean you didn’t understand examination
instructions?
Isimbi: Yes, the teacher was using fancy terms like “discuss”, “outline” etc.
Kalisa: Ooh! You should learn examination instructions. For example when the
teacher uses the term “discuss” they want you to investigate and examine, and
thereby explore the implications, advantages and disadvantages before drawing
your own conclusion.
Isimbi: What about “outline”?
Kalisa: If the examiner uses the term “outline” they want you to state your points in
a sketch form. While answering such questions, you do not have to present your
points in full sentences, but in the shortest and clearest possible form. You should do
this showing how points connect, develop or relate to other points.
Isimbi: Then why don’t they just tell us what to do instead of using those fancy terms?
Kalisa: Normally, teachers don’t use these terms to make our life a hell. On the
contrary, they want to make our task clear using very few words.
Isimbi: But I still think that we could understand better if they give instructions in the
straightforward way.
Kalisa: Yes, I am getting you. But it takes quite a lot more words to give instructions
in the straightforward way. Now, remember the terms I have just explained to you,
do you think the examiner should use all of those words while they could just use
one word?
Isimbi: I think you are right. We should learn the meaning of examination instructions.
See you.
Kalisa: See you, Isimbi.

Read the above sample narrative essay and answer comprehension questions that
follow.
Notes:
1. Identify the problem Isimbi faced during the examination.
2. Does Isimbi appreciate the way teachers construct questions? Explain.
3. Do you think it is worth using terms that Isimbi refer to as “fancy terms” in
examination instructions? Justify your answer.
4. Account for Isimbi’s conviction as far as the importance of words used in
examination instructions that she called “fancy terms” are concerned.

When looking at an instruction or exam question, study the verbs your teacher or
examiner has used. You may be wondering why teachers or examiners use fancy
terms like ‘discuss’ or ‘evaluate’ in questions.

The person who sets the questions isn’t using ‘fancy terms’ to try to catch you out.
On the contrary, their purpose is to clarify your task. That way, there’s no ambiguity
and no room for misunderstanding. For instance, ‘illustrate’ asks you to explain using
examples, diagrams or drawings, not just to explain generally. But if you’re asked to
‘summarise’, should you give an example? No. So it’s to help you, not to hinder you,
that these terms are used in assignments and exams. (Tracy, 2008)

The above words may look ambiguous, but they can be translated into very
straightforward language. So why not just use the straightforward language in the
first place? Simply because it takes quite a lot more words to say it the straightforward
way. For instance words such as:

Compare would mean find similarities and differences, then weigh up whether the
items have more or less in common.

Discuss would mean examine important aspects of; argue all sides before drawing
a conclusion one way; outline the arguments, backing them up with evidence;
consider the implications.

Therefore, it’s worth spending some time and effort now learning the meaning of
question instructions that come up most frequently in different subjects. Not only
will you improve your grades, you’ll also do so while spending considerably less time
and effort than before. For instance, “contrast” usually means, “Show differences”. It
tells that you don’t need to focus on similarities. “Outline” asks for a brief description
only. “Comment” invites you to give your own opinion, not anyone else’s. Can you
see how much time and hassle you could be saving yourself?

Learn the translations that are useful for your exams. Remember that the examiner
isn’t trying to catch you out. He or she has a marking scheme (a score sheet, basically)
and for every point that you make that’s also on that scheme, you effectively get a
mark. The better you understand the tasks that the examiner has in mind, the more
marks you’ll get.

How do you learn this huge list? You don’t. Instead, look over a few past papers in
your subject to find out what kind of question instructions you’re likely to get in each
topic. For instance, in English, you’ll often see question instructions like “discuss” or
“compare and contrast”. In Geography and History you may be asked to “outline” or
“evaluate”. Economics questions often ask you to “calculate”.

Once you’ve familiarised yourself with the question instructions that relate to your
topic, you may find it helpful to try a few past exam questions in timed conditions
to get some practice at carrying out the relevant tasks. You don’t necessarily need to
write out your answer in full; it’s usually enough to do timed plans.

Past paper practice of this kind will help you to get proficient at handling these terms
so that they stop antagonizing you and give you confidence in the exam.

Adapted from Understanding Question instructions in Assignments and Exams by Eileen Tracy (2008)

There are two categories of questions:

Objective and subjective questions. With this background, it’s recommended to take
time to carefully read the question.

a. Objective Questions
They require plain and definite answers which can be easily traceable in the text. As
far as other types of questions are concerned, Task Oriented Objective Prose Passage
here, is used to refer to either a comprehension passage, an extract from a text/
novel and speech. Questions require factual answers that are not influenced by your
personal emotions, feelings or beliefs.

Below are the common instruction terms for the Task-Oriented Questions:

1. State: In questions on prose passage, this instruction requires you to
briefly present your points as laid down in the text. There is no need for
any explanation. However, in the Anglo-phone system, the conventional
approach is having your answer in full sentences. In other general questions
2. Outline: This is stating your points in a sketch form. You do not have to
present your points in full sentences, but in the shortest and clearest
possible form. Do this showing how points connect, develop or relate to
other points.
3. Define:(something, concept, or anything as the examiner may wish). This
is to identify and briefly state the traits or characteristics or appearances or
attributes of something, someone or a specified concept as required by the
examiner.
4. Describe: (something, place, someone or a process of…). Describing
involves talking about the how and what of an event, person, or process in
ample detail. Such questions where you are asked to describe demand your
effort in creating a clear and vivid image of something.
5. Compare and Contrast: Comparing and contrasting involves laying down
the similarities and differences between two or more items, events, persons,
processes, situations, activities and so on. Normally, such questions demand
factual ideas not subjective ones. It is, therefore, unnecessary to patch up
the aspects of your personal views whenever dealing with such questions.
This is especially so while attempting passage prose questions. In most
cases, these points are clearly laid out in the passage.
6. Summarize: (the process of doing… or making,…the attributes of…, the
reasons of what or whatever…). Summarizing requires stating the major
points on something with utmost precision and conciseness. Your response
to a question of summary does not demand illustrations or examples to
support the points raised. Simply state your point.
7. Enumerate: The instruction term “Enumerate” whenever used by the
examiner, shows that he or she is not interested in a detailed response or
answers. Such a question requires that you recount your points one by one,
in a concise form. The term is equivalent to and demands as much as list or
outline questions.
8. Identify: The Instruction term “Identify” as used in Examination questions,
if used in isolation, invites a candidate to pick out the key features of
something. For instance, identify the figures of speech in the passage above.
The answer to such a question constitutes a simple outline of the figures
of speech like metaphors, symbolism, personification, allusions, similes,
metonymy, and the like as may be traceable in a given passage prose.

Although this instruction term is possible in the Prose and Poetry
examinations, it is very unlikely in the examination questions of other
literary genres. More often than not, examination questions on the novel
and Drama demand very comprehensive discussions.
(that are not on prose passage) this instruction simply requires you to
present ideas clearly but briefly.

b. Subjective Questions
Content - Oriented or Subjective Questions do also require the candidate’s knowledge
of the text or a passage prose. The textual knowledge has to be backed up by one’s
personal views and analysis. Sometimes, a candidate may have to borrow some
illustrations and examples outside the particular passage being examined. For that
matter, the marking scheme (guide) of such questions is always open and flexible.
The major reason being that the answers and illustrations may vary from one
candidate to another. No matter the variation in illustrations, the core points must
owe their bearing to the content of the text, that is, the passage under examination.
(Amooti, 2016)

Below is a check list of the common instruction terms used in subjective Essay
questions:
1. Account for: Explain the reasons for, one must give an indication of all
relevant circumstances leading to a given situation. In other words, this
Instruction phrase “account for” requires the candidate to give reasons why
something or someone is the way he or she is or what happened, and how
it happened. The phrase should not be confused with “Give an account of…”
which asks only for a detailed description.
2. Analyze: The process of analyzing involves studying something in depth,
identifying and describing in detail the main characteristics or elements or
nature of that object in detail. On the other hand, analyzing entails breaking
down an issue or idea into its component terms, discussing each of the
components, and then showing how they interrelate.
3. Assess: A question which uses “assess” as the key instruction term requires a
candidate to make clear judgment about an issue or concept. The process of
assessment consists of examining the idea closely with a view weighing up
all the elements of the idea or situation. One has to consider, in a balanced
way the strengths and weaknesses or points for and against a proposition in
a given situation. Some other times, assessing may involve considering the
value or importance of something, paying attention to its positive, negative
and disputable aspects.
Finally, a candidate is expected to point out some resolution by giving a
neutral position
4. Comment: The Instruction term “Comment” is common in essay questions
of subjective orientation. It has more or less the same connotation with
“analyze” or “assess” as already explained above.
The act of commenting as some essay questions may demand requires
analyzing an issue or idea with a focus on giving your opinion on the
strengths and loopholes of the subject. Of course, it would be more
convincing to support your views with reference to appropriate sources.
5. Criticize or “write a critical analysis”: A question that asks a candidate to
criticize seeks for one’s skill of judgment. The onus is on giving your judgment
about a statement or a body of work or emerging trends as advanced in
a given text: passage prose, film, novel or poem. This demands that you
spell out a judgment on the value or truth or sustainability of something
or a tendency. In all cases of criticism, we are expected to express ourselves
on the correctness or merit of the factor under consideration. Depending
on the nature and content of what you are asked to criticize, you can also
discuss both the limitations and good points of the matter.
Whatever the case, your discussion should keep in the confines of the text
under consideration. And needless to say, you have to base your judgment
on convincing evidence and concrete examples.
6. Discuss: “Discuss” is probably the most common Instruction term ever used
by examiners in all disciplines across all combination options. The instruction
term invites a candidate to give his or her views on the topic in question.
Discursive question topics require that we investigate and examine, and
thereby explore the implications, advantages and disadvantages. Your
personal view is of paramount importance in questions of such nature. This
type of question calls for a complete and detailed analysis of both sides
of the coin. The best way of crowning a discursive answer is to stress your
personal standpoint about the matter in the conclusive paragraph.
7. Evaluate: In an evaluation question, a candidate is expected to present a
careful appraisal of the issue or notion at hand. The appraisal should stress
both the advantages and limitations; that is, the pros and cons of, let us say,
a situation like crisis, an invention, or one’s apparent statement of victory.
The act of evaluating an issue or notion calls for a critical examination first.
Subsequently, you should give a judgmental observation regarding the
utility, validity, and authenticity of the matter under consideration. Besides
your personal opinion, an evaluation will be more convincing if supported
by relevant illustrations.
8. Explain: The “explain” question expects a candidate to clarify, elucidate,
and interpret the point or notion he or she is presented with. In the
answer to such a question, it is imperative that one fully states the “how”
and “why” to reconcile any differences in opinion or experimental results.
This is possible by stating causes, progression and effect of trends or
tendencies. The purpose should be making the conditions or ideas that
give raise to whatever you are examining very crystal clear. In most cases,
this is achievable by spelling out the reasons accounting for the important
features or developments related to a debatable issue.
9. How far…?: The “How far…?” question is similar to questions running thus
“To what extent…?”. Questions of this nature expect you to make a case
or present your argument. Your argument should reflect an awareness of
alternate or even contradictory views about the concept or idea under
discussion.
The opening or introductory paragraph should clearly state your verdict
as to whether there is a big extent or insignificant level of what you are
requested to discuss. If the question is on prose passage, your stand should
always be based on the evidence portrayed in the text.
10. Illustrate: A question which seeks illustrations usually requires that you
explain or clarify your point or argument. The best aspects of illustration
are presenting a figure, pointing out a case or event in the text (for prose
passages), and giving a concrete example to justify your view. Illustrations
are meant to make your point clear and explicit by use of valid examples.
11. Justify: “Justify” is another common instruction term in essay examinations
across the Humanities. When you are instructed to justify your answer or
idea, you must present evidence to prove or show grounds for a decision
or an event. In this kind of a question, the evidence or illustration should
be presented in a convincing manner to make the examiner or any other
reader believe what you say.
The examination instruction terms above are adopted from An Integrated Approach to Prose Appreciation
by Mugumya Amooti
8.5.2. Application Activity
Copy the crossword puzzle below into your exercise book and complete it with
words in relation to writing and examinations.
Across
1. Act of reading very fast through a written text in order to get general
information about it.
2. Advice and information about how to answer a question.
3. An examination instruction that requires you to explain using examples,
diagrams or drawings.
4. An examination instruction that requires you to investigate and examine,
and thereby explore the implications, advantages and disadvantages
before drawing a conclusion.
5. An alphabetical list, such as one printed at the back of a book showing
page on which a subject, name, etc. is found.
Down
1. A short piece of writing on a particular subject, especially one done by
students as part of the work for a course.
2. A way of discovering, by questions or practical activities, what a student
knows or can do.
3. A problem used in an exam to test a person’s knowledge or ability.
4. A reaction to a question.
5. A person who sets and marks exams to test people’s knowledge or
proficiency.
8.5.3. Sounds and spelling
Spellings
Rewrite the paragraph below by correcting misspelled words.

All examinations are anonymous. Therefore, do not write your name on the answer
booklet. You should write only your matriculation/ registration number, correctly
and legibly, in the space provided on the cover of each answer booklet. Providing
incorrect/illegible matriculation number could risk your answer book being
considered void.
Pronunciation

Practise reading the words below. You can use the dictionary to check their
pronunciation. The words are read as follows:
1. Index / ‘ɪndɛks/
2. Essay / ˈɛseɪ/
3. Contents / ˈkɒntɛnts/
4. Instructions / ɪnˈstrʌkʃənz /
5. Evidence / ˈɛvɪdəns/
6. Question / ˈkwɛsʧən/
8.5.4 Listening and speaking
Recite the following poem:
Exam Stress
What’s this convulsion all around my neck?
I’ve bitten all my nails like a nervous wreck!
Hormones are flying from all of glands
Thinking my entire future lay right here in my hands.

My heartbeat is towering, I’m breathing so fast,
I’m still wondering how long these feelings will last!
All these negative thoughts are rising to my head
How I really wish I was dead instead!

Relaxing is the key many people told me,
But I never realised how hard it would be.
So all I can do now is hope and pray
That when I enter my exam these feelings will go away!

If those thoughts remain fixed in my head,
I would certainly fail my mother always said!
So I’m trying to think of things which are more cheerful,
But I’m unable to forget the thoughts that are truly fearful!

By Sujan Siva
Read the above poem and answer the questions:
1. Explain the speaker’s feelings as depicted in the first and second stanza.
2. Does the speaker accept the solution suggested by people around her?
Explain.
3. What does the speaker’s mother advise her or him to do?
4. Identify and comment on the speaker’s resolution.

8.6. UNIT SELF ASSESSMENT
8.6.1: Comprehension and vocabulary
Effects of Social Media on Communication Skills

With the emergence of Facebook, the way people communicate with each other
changed forever. A social network allowing users to share the events of their
lives through posting photos and status updates, to monitor the lives of their
friends, and to communicate directly via a built-in messenger has revolutionized
Internet communication, causing millions of people all over the world to share
all kinds of information about themselves. There were, of course, other social
networks before Facebook, but none of them garnered such a significant user
base, remained as persistent, and continued to act as an effective form of
communication as much as Facebook did.

Along with Facebook, currently there are many other social networks, each with
their own features and purposes; what unites them all, though, is the idea of
sharing. Seemingly, this should positively impact the communication skills of
users, since it allows communication even for people far away from each other,
or who are unable to communicate live. However, there have been numerous
research studies proving the opposite: social media platforms not only impair a
user’s ability to share thoughts, but distort communication processes, creating
more problems than they solve.

Speaking of the positive effects of social networks, they lie on the surface.
According to surveys, 39% of respondents reported feeling closer to their friends
because of social media, while 26% of the sample felt that they had more friends
because of social media (NR Media). Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, and other similar
services make daily communications between family members, friends, and
business partners easier, more accessible, and independent of circumstances,
such as distance. Communities existing on such platforms unite people sharing
similar interests or concerns, and allow the representatives of various cultural
backgrounds to reach each other with no constraints. Helping strangers meet and
enabling initial communication between them. This is what social networks are
definitely good for.

At the same time, numerous research studies prove that social media platforms
negatively affect people’s social skills. Probably the most alarming phenomenon
connected to the extensive use of social media services is the decrease in
quality of interpersonal communication. One of the big problems in modern
interpersonal communication is the lack of interest people have for face-to-face
communication; even today, there are many people (especially millennials, or
younger) who prefer to solve work or personal problems via social messaging
systems. Approximately 93 percent of communication today is already nonverbal,
and thus requires an additional means of helping people understand each
other (such as smileys or emojis ), since text does not convey the total palette of
intonations or facial expressions. This brings up several problems; for example,
without these means, it is often more difficult to understand another person in
a messenger system (the classical “he/she did not insert smileys, so I thought
he/she is mad at me”); or, in real life, it may become harder to differentiate and
understand real emotions. According to some experts, even families prefer
texting over face-to-face chat. All this leads to difficulties in professional and
personal relationships (Rampages.us).

Substituting real life experiences and events with Facebook-format online
updates is another problem. Studies show that about 11 percent of adults
prefer to stay at home on weekends and make posts on Facebook about
how much fun they are having, instead of going out and acquiring real-life
experiences. According to Hussein Chahine, the founder of the service Yazino,
“Communication is constantly evolving. Some people are as used to seeing their
friends’ online avatar as they are their face […] People increasingly prefer quick
and frequent engagement with instant updates on news than a prolonged chat
and are also finding new ways to catch up with friends from the comfort of
their sofa.” Mark Clennon, a graduate of the University of South Florida, says
that “People tend to want to show others that they are having fun than actually
having fun themselves […] There’s a greater desire to share with other people
you barely know, than actually hanging out with friends and making memories”
(USA Today College).
This is directly connected to another problem: “Facebook depression.” Generally
speaking, it is the sense of inferiority occurring when people (teenagers, mostly)
compare their real lives to the lives of their Facebook friends based on the posts
these friends make online and completely missing out on the fact that what
they see is not necessarily true (NYBH). As a result, an interesting and alarming
phenomenon emerges: many people sit at home, busy creating visibility of
living fulfilled, happy lives, and suffer when they see how fulfilled the lives of
other people are—who, in their turn, sit at home, busy creating visibility of
living fulfilled, happy lives. This is a poignant example of a vicious circle.

Yet another impairment of communication skills caused by the extensive use of
social media platforms is the impoverishment of language. Using messengers,
people often use shorthand and shortened versions of words in order to
type and deliver their messages as quickly as possible. However, such means
of communication are much less effective than conventional ones (or rather,
traditional, since contractions, slang, and abbreviations such as “brb,” “u r,” “m8,”
“dunno,” and so on have already become almost conventional), and people
getting used to them can experience difficulties in real-life interpersonal
communication (Rampages.us). This is not to mention illiteracy, which is already
becoming a scourge of this generation communicating through messengers.

Although social media may help people establish initial contact and aid people
in uniting into groups under certain interests, they also cause a number of
problems. In particular, nonverbal communication is gradually becoming one of
the dominant forms of interpersonal interaction, negatively affecting people’s
ability to deal with personal contact and meet the reactions and emotions of
other people in real life. A significant percent of adults (up to 11 percent) prefer
staying at home and communicating via their devices rather than going out
and acquiring real-life experiences. This, along with “Facebook depression” and
the overall impoverishment of language and communication skills, is alarming,
and requires adequate and timely measures.
Adapted from https://academichelp.net/samples/academics/essays/cause-effect/the-effects-of-socialmedia.html retrieved on April 26, 2018

Read the text on pages 215-217 and answer the following questions:
1. Explain how anyone can avoid Facebook depression.
2. Identify at least three effects of social media on interpersonal
communication skills.
3. Write a paragraph of 60 words to justify how people are positively
benefiting from social media in different ways.
4. How do Hussein Chahine and Mark Clennon consider people who are
using social media on communication nowadays?
5. Match the following words in column A to their meanings in column B

8.6.2: Grammar and phonology

I. Fill in gaps with the transition words in the box below:
As soon as, in order to, since, until, whenever, although, moreover,
nevertheless, otherwise & therefore.
a. Mukamana did not revise her notes; ………………….she passed the
exam. (nevertheless)
b. You must reach the examination room on time, …………….you will
be dismissed. (otherwise)
c. Students need to understand examination instructions…………
answer correctly. (in order to)
d. ………he can, the teacher will give you past papers to revise. (as soon
as)
e. Please be on time; ………………try to be early. (moreover)
f. …………..you are given an exam, read instructions carefully before
answering. (whenever)
g. Kalisa is sitting for the national examination this year, …………….he
is studying seriously. (therefore)
h. ……………….she was sick, she did all the exams. (although)
i. ……………….last week, we have done ten tests. (since)
j. Don’t open your exam booklet…………. the bell rings. (until)
II. Circle the letter of the word that correctly identifies the appropriate
transition word or phrase. Then underline the kind of transition word you
have used.
a. . …………. REB introduced online registration programme, candidates
had difficulties registering.
a. Nevertheless b. Because c. Before d. Thus
The transition word indicates: addition, cause and effect or time
b. If you want to pass an exam, there is a number of things you need to
care about. …………… , reading instructions.
a. for instance b. in contrast c. similarly d. whereas
The transition word indicates: illustration/example, comparison or
contrast
c. ... ……….most of students don’t like fancy terms in exams, those terms
help to avoid ambiguity .
a. Until b. Because c. Even though d. Consequently
The transition word indicates: time, contrast or addition
d. The exam of English was as difficult……………the one of Kinyarwanda.
a. after b. as c. as a result d. like
The transition word indicates: cause and effect, time or comparison
e. The exam questions were badly designed, …………………they were
not readable.
a. Moreover b. Because c. Just as d. Since
III. The transition word indicates: comparison, addition or cause and effect6)
Give phonological transcription of the following words.

8.6.3. Summary Writing
Causes of lung cancer
Among the terminal diseases humanity has not yet learned to treat, cancer is
probably one of the most feared illnesses. Unlike AIDS or other diseases widely
spread in countries with low standards of living, cancer affect many countries
including both rich and poor equally. Among the variety of different types of
cancer, one of the most common is lung cancer; the environment in which people
live in the 21st century greatly contributes to the development of this type of
cancer.

8.6.4. Essay writing
Write an essay of around 350 words on one of the following topics:
1. Should student’s textbooks be replaced by notebook computers?
2. Should money be spent on space exploration?

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