Topic outline
UNIT 1COMMUNICATION, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND COOPERATION
LEARNING AREA: ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Key Unit Competence:
To use language learnt in the context of Communication, Internationalrelations and Cooperation
Text : Types of Communication
Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between
individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behaviour. We
communicate continually throughout each and every day. We sometimes do
it without thinking -we operate on communication autopilot. However, we
should actually think about how we communicate. There are different ways to
communicate and each of these play an important role in sharing information.
The four main categories or types of communication are verbal, nonverbal,
written and visual communication.
Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking with others. It
can be face-to-face, over the telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc. Some verbal
engagements are informal, such as chatting with a friend over coffee or in the
office kitchen, while others are more formal, such as a scheduled meeting.
Regardless of the type, it is not just about the words, it is about the calibre and
complexity of those words ; how we string those words together to create an
overarching message, as well as the intonation (pitch, tone, cadence, etc.) used
while speaking. When talking face-to-face, the words are important but cannot
be separated from gestures known as non-verbal communication.
Non-verbal communication is the use of facial expressions, posture, eye contact,
hand movements, and touch to convey information to others. It can be used
both intentionally and unintentionally. What we do while we speak often says
more than the actual words. For example, if you’re engaged in a conversation
with your boss about your cost-saving idea, it is important to pay attention to
both their words and their non-verbal communication. Your boss might be in
agreement with your idea verbally, but his/her non-verbal cues: avoiding eye
contact, sighing, scrunched up face, etc., indicate something different.
In addition to non-verbal and verbal communication, there is written
communication. Written communication is the act of writing, typing or printing
symbols like letters and numbers to convey information. Whether it is an E-mail,
a memo, a report, a facebook post, a tweet, a contract, etc., all forms of written
communication have the same goal : to disseminate information in a clear and
concise manner - though that objective is often not achieved. In fact, poor writing
skills often lead to confusion and embarrassment, and even potential legal ee.
One important thing to remember about written communication, especially in
the digital age. Is the message lives on, perhaps in perpetuity ? Thus, there
are two things to remember: first, writing well-poorly constructed sentences
and careless errors make you look bad; and second, ensure the content of the
message is something you want to promote or be associated with for the long
haul.
On top of the above three mentioned types of communication, there is another
type of communication which is referred to as visual communication. Visual
communication is the act of using photographs, art, drawings, sketches, charts
and graphs to convey information. We are a visual society. Think about it,
televisions are running 24/7, Facebook is visual with mimes, videos, images,
etc., Instagram is an image-only platform, and advertisers use imagery to sell
products and ideas. Visuals are often used as an aid during presentations to
provide helpful context alongside written and/or verbal communication.
To conclude, you should know that understanding how you communicate is
the first step to communicating more effectively. That is why you are advised
to think about how you communicate. Words, sentences, pitch, tone, cadence
and nonverbal cues you use can be a hindrance or furtherance to how you
communicate effectively.
Adapted from Communications for Professionals : Five Types of Communication, by Anne
Converse Willkomm.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. What do you understand by “we operate on communication autopilot”?
2. Does the author think that operating on communication autopilot is a
good idea? Explain.
3. State the four main types of communication.
4. As Kalisa stood up to ask for permission, the teacher looked at him
deniably and he went back to his seat. Which type of communication
was this?
5. Suppose you have watched a video on YouTube showing step by step
how to insert a picture in Microsoft Word document. In which category
of communication can you classify this communication?
6. Using a clear example, explain how one can use non-verbal communication
unintentionally.
7. Explain how visual communication can help a primary teacher to teachscience subjects.
2. Read the words highlighted in the picture and correct any misspelt word
among them.
Text: The components of communication
In order to better understand the communication process, we can break it down
into a series of eight essential components: source, message, channel, receiver,
feedback, environment, context and interference.
Each of these eight components serves an integral function in the overall
process.
The source imagines, creates, and sends the message. In a public speaking
situation, the source is the person giving the speech. He or she conveys the
message by sharing new information with the audience. The speaker also
conveys a message through his or her tone of voice, body language, and choice
of clothing. The speaker begins by first determining the message : what to say
and how to say it. The second step involves encoding the message by choosing
just the right order or the perfect words to convey the intended meaning. The
third step is to present or send the information to the receiver or audience.
Finally, by watching the audience’s reaction, the source perceives how well they
received the message and responds with clarification or supporting information.
“The message is the stimulus or meaning produced by the source for the
receiver or audience.” When you plan to give a speech or write a report, your
message may seem to be only the words you choose that will convey your
meaning. But that is just the beginning. The words are brought together with
grammar and organization. You may choose to save your most important point
for last. The message also consists of the way you say it-in a speech, with your
tone of voice, your body language, and your appearance-and in a report, with
your writing style, punctuation, and the headings and formatting you choose. In
addition, part of the message may be the environment or context you present it
in and the noise that might make your message hard to hear or see.
“The channel is the way in which a message or messages travel between
source and receiver.” When you speak or write, you are using a channel to
convey your message. Spoken channels include face-to-face conversations,
speeches, telephone conversations and voice mail messages, radio, public
address systems, and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP). Written channels
include letters, memorandums, purchase orders, invoices, newspaper and
magazine articles, blogs, e-mail, text messages, tweets, and so forth.
“The receiver receives the message from the source, analyzing and interpreting
the message in ways both intended and unintended by the source.” As a receiver
you listen, see, touch, smell, and/or taste to receive a message.
When you respond to the source, intentionally or unintentionally, you are giving
feedback. Feedback is composed of messages the receiver sends back to the
source. Verbal or non-verbal, all these feedback signals allow the source to
see how well, how accurately or how poorly and inaccurately the message was
received. Feedback also provides an opportunity for the receiver or audience
to ask for clarification, to agree or disagree, or to indicate that the source could
make the message more interesting. As the amount of feedback increases, the
accuracy of communication also increases.
“The environment is the atmosphere, physical and psychological, where you send
and receive messages”. The environment can include the tables, chairs, lighting,
and sound equipment that are in the room. The room itself is an example of the
environment. The environment can also include factors like formal dress, which
may indicate whether a discussion is open and caring or more professional
and formal. As a speaker, your environment will impact and play a role in your
speech. It’s always a good idea to go check out where you’ll be speaking before
the day of the actual presentation.
“The context of the communication interaction involves the setting, scene, and
expectations of the individuals involved.” A professional communication context
may involve business suits (environmental cues) that directly or indirectly
influence expectations of language and behaviour among the participants.
Interference, also called noise, can come from any source. “Interference is
anything that blocks or changes the source’s intended meaning of the message.”
Psychological noise is what happens when your thoughts occupy your attention
while you are hearing, or reading, a message. Interference can come from
other sources, too. Perhaps you are hungry, and your attention to your current
situation interferes with your ability to listen. Maybe the office is hot and stuffy. If
you were a member of an audience listening to an executive speech, how could
this impact your ability to listen and participate? Noise interferes with normal
encoding and decoding of the message carried by the channel between source
and receiver. Not all noise is bad, but noise interferes with the communication
process. For example, your cell phone ringtone may be a welcome noise to
you, but it may interrupt the communication process in class and bother your
classmates
Adapted from: An introduction to human communication: Understanding and sharing by Judy
Pearson.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. With related examples, briefly explain the four steps that the source uses
to convey messages in public speaking.
2. Using clear explanation, analyse the second component of communication.
3. Define the term ‘channel’ as a component of communication.
4. Explain the sentence “the receiver analyses and interpretes the message
in ways both intended and unintended by the source. ”
5. Basing on the above passage, explain the term ‘feedback.’6. Identify and describe the three last components of communication.
Use the terms in the above table to construct grammatically correct and
meaningful sentences.
III. Summary writing
In not more than 100 words, summarize the components of communication
as described in the above passage.
IV. Composition
Write a 300 word composition on the importance of good communication
skills in the teaching and learning process.
V. Debate
Debate on the following motion: “In the communication process, the senderis more important than the receiver.”
Text : Economic and Commercial Diplomacy
Economic diplomacy, narrowly defined, is concerned with international
economic policy questions, such as how to preserve global financial stability
without indefensible levels of youth unemployment and unmanageable levels of
wholly defensible levels of civil unrest; and how to stimulate economic growth,
particularly in the poorest countries, while arresting or at least slowing down
climate change. Commercial diplomacy, on the other hand, consists mainly of
assistance to the promotion of exports and foreign direct investment (FDI), and
access to raw materials. Modern diplomacy was influenced by commerce from
its earliest days. The priority given to economic as well as commercial diplomacy
has risen more in recent years. The role of foreign ministries and especially
embassies is undeniably great in both economic and commercial diplomacy.
The invention and spread of resident diplomatic missions in the late fifteenth
century had probably been encouraged by the example of the consulates earlier
established by trading peoples in and around the Mediterranean world, and, from
the first, they sometimes had a decidedly commercial flavour. In a few exceptional
cases, major trading companies, with the blessing of their sovereigns at home,
themselves established full-blown embassies, not only financing them but also
appointing and sharing in the instruction of ambassadors. Thereafter, although
high politics came to dominate the work of most embassies until World War
I, the ‘trade’-averse aristocrats who usually headed them were rarely able to
ignore commercial work altogether.
This was because they had field responsibility for the consular posts that, in time,
fell under state control; because international trade began to grow enormously
in the first half of the eighteenth century; and because embassies themselves
came to be given direct responsibility for the negotiation of commercial treaties
–that is, the general framework in which trade was conducted in bilateral
relationships.
In the late nineteenth century, as international rivalry intensified for markets –
as also for foreign concessions to sink mine shafts, drill for oil, build railways,
and cut canals – so commercial diplomacy was given a strong fillip. Diplomats
were required to interest themselves in projects such as these, especially when
they were thought to have the additional advantage of serving political and
strategic interests. The Suez Canal and the Berlin-Baghdad Railway are well
known examples. Diplomatic missions intervened with local ministries both to
support the placement of capital by their nationals on advantageous terms and
subsequently to provide protection to their investments against violence, breach
of contract, and hostile legislation. The latter role gave rise to the legal doctrine
of ‘diplomatic protection’ and, inevitably, to a counter-doctrine
(Adapted from Economic and Commercial Diplomacy, in : Diplomacy (P.210-211) by Berridge
G.R.).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Differentiate economic diplomacy from commercial diplomacy.
2. Do you really think that commerce can influence diplomacy? Justify your
answer.
3. What do you understand by “with the blessing of their sovereigns at
home”?
4. Evaluate the role of major trading companies in foreign politics.
5. What caused commercial diplomacy to be given a strong fillip in the late
nineteenth century?6. What do you understand by “diplomatic protection”?
II. Sentence construction:
Use each of the words/phrases in the above passage to constructmeaningful sentences.
III. Summary writing
In not less than 90 words, summarize the above passage about diplomacy.
IV. Paragraph writing
In two paragraphs, explain why international relations and cooperation are
needed in today’s community. You can again have a look at techniques of
writing a good paragraph in year one, unit 5.
V. Research and presentation.
Conduct a research on the benefits that Rwanda has gained in the last two
decades thanks to good diplomatic relations. Make notes focusing on the
importance of international relations and cooperation. Then present yourfindings to the class.
Text: Regional integration to foster prosperity
President Paul Kagame has said that regional integration and close partnership
between members of regional economic communities can fast-track development
and prosperity for individual nations.
Kagame was, on 1st November 2017, speaking at the Global Business Forum
on Africa held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The session was moderated by
John Defterios, the emerging Markets anchor at CNN UAE. The Head of State
noted that regional integration in Africa would enable countries to get rid of past
divisions that have long prevented the continent from being as prosperous at it
should.
Citing the example of the East Africa Community integration, Kagame said the
initiative has yielded positive impacts such as free movement of people, customs
union and joint infrastructure projects. “If you look at the East African region,
even more progress has been realised, for example, in the area of customs
union, integration in the area of infrastructure that bring the countries of the
East African Community together, whether it is telecommunication in the area of
realising one area network, where there are no roaming charges,” Kagame said.
Other impacts, he noted, include working together to implement reforms that
cover aspects such as the economy and security. EAC integration has, among
others, seen the liberalisation of free movement of people, goods and services,
consequently increasing opportunities for the over 160 million citizens of the
bloc.
Four countries in the bloc (Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and South Sudan) in 2014
rolled out the One Area Network, scrapping calls roaming rates which brought
down the cost of communication. The region is also in the process of rolling
out the Standard Gauge Railway, a 2000km project which will further ease
movement of goods. On the side-lines of the Global Business Forum on Africa,
Rwanda signed two bilateral agreements with UAE, which are expected to
enhance investor relations. The pacts will facilitate promotion and reciprocation
of protection of investments as well as double taxation avoidance.
This, experts say, will serve to increase investor confidence in Rwanda’s business
regulatory environment.
Speaking to The New Times, from Dubai, Emmanuel Hategeka the Chief
Operating Officer of the Rwanda Development Board, said that the forum
presents an ideal platform to mobilise investments. “The forum presents an
excellent platform to attract private investors to Rwanda. We are able to access
a global network of investors brought together by the Dubai Chamber and
showcase Rwanda’s investment opportunities and engage in forward-looking
discussions,” he said.
The United Arab Emirates, he said, is one of Rwanda’s main sources of investors.
“UAE has been a major source of investors to Rwanda registering over $100
million in planned investments in logistics, hospitality and financial services,”
Hategeka said. The two-day forum, which opened yesterday, is the fourth on
Africa. Kagame was attending at the invitation of Sheikh Mohamed Al Maktoum,
the vice-president of UAE and the ruler of Dubai.
The forum was organised by the Dubai Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
Convening over 1,000 top-level government and corporate decision-makers as
well as industry experts the forum was running under the theme “Next Generation
Africa.” Participants examined the current economic outlook for the African
continent, and explored prospects for its development, investment opportunities
and the potential for forging partnerships between African businesses and their
UAE counterparts
(Adapted from The New Times, https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/222853).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Assess the importance of regional integration for countries.
2. What do you understand by “joint infrastructure projects”?
3. Explain the role EAC played as far as telecommunication is concerned.
4. What should we expect from rolling out the Standard Gauge Railway?5. Appreciate the role of The United Arab Emirates in Rwanda’s investment.
1.5 Language structure: Uses of gerunds
I. Uses of gerunds
Note: A gerund is a noun formed from a verb which refers to an action, process,
or state. Gerund will always contain the ending-ing and used as a noun. In
short, any verb ending in -ing and used as a noun is a gerund.
Verb in ing form/Gerund
Study the following sentences:
1. She is running very fast. (verb)
2. She likes running very fast. (gerund)
In the first sentence, run is used as a verb. She is doing the action of running.
In the second sentence, running is used as a gerund (noun) and like is the verb.
Therefore, a gerund will always be used as a noun and does not replace the
progressive form of the verb.
II. Functions of Gerunds
•• Because a gerund is a noun, it can be the subject of a sentence.
Examples:
-- Singing makes Sarah happy.
-- Smoking is prohibited in public places.
•• A gerund can also be the direct object.
Examples:
-- Kayitesi enjoys singing.
-- When her mother died, she started misbehaving.
•• A gerund can be a subject-complement
Example: It was singing that made Kayitesi happy.
•• Because a gerund is a noun, it can be the object of a preposition in a
prepositional phrase.Example: Besides singing, Kayitesi likes dancing.
When to use gerunds :
1. There are verbs that are commonly followed by gerunds. Those verbsinclude:
•• like
•• love
•• enjoy
•• dislike
•• hate
•• start
•• admit
•• avoid
•• keep etc
Example: I like playing soccer but I hate boxing.
Note that some verbs such as like/love/hate… can be also followed by aninfinitive.
Gerunds are also used after:
2. Prepositions or prepositional phrases such as:
•• instead of
•• good at
•• before ...
•• after ...
•• aim at
•• keep on
•• interested in
Examples:
I am interested in collecting stamps.
After playing football I drank an orange juice.
3. A gerunds are equally used after expressions, such as:
•• It’s no use ...
•• It’s no good ...
•• There’s no point in ...
•• I can’t help...
•• I don’t mind...
•• I can’t stand/bear...
Example: It’s no use convincing him to meet her.
II. Verb followed by either a gerund or verb in infinitive formStudy the following sentences:
-- The bus stopped picking up children.
-- The bus stopped to pick up the children.
Do the above sentences have the same meaning?
Notes: Some verbs have a different meaning depending on whether they are
followed by a gerund or verb in infinitive form.
(a) Stop
>> Stop + gerund means the action is not happening any more.Examples:
•• I’ve stopped buying newspapers because nowadays I read news online.
•• Janet stopped reading her morning newsletters.
Stop + verb in infinitive form means that someone or something stops an
activity in order to do something else.
Examples:
•• Muhire stopped to greet the Ambassador.
•• He stopped the video to ask the students some questions.
(b) Try
Try + gerund means that you are trying something as an experiment, especially
as a possible solution to a problem, to see if it works or not.
Examples:
•• Have you tried turning the computer off and on again?
•• I want to try studying with a friend to see if it helps us stay more
motivated.
Try + verb in infinitive form means that something is difficult but you are
making an effort to do it.
Examples:
•• I’m trying to learn Japanese but it’s very difficult.
•• Our country tried to satisfy your needs but you look indifferent.
•• I’m trying to study but it’s impossible with all this noise.
(C) Remember and forget
Remember + gerund and forget + gerund refer to having (or not having) amemory of something in the past.
Examples:
•• I remember watching this film before.
•• I’ll never forget meeting you for the first time in this café.
Remember + verb in infinitive form and forget + verb in infinitive form refer
to recalling (or not recalling) that there is something we need to do beforewe do it.
Examples:
•• Please remember to buy some milk on the way home.
•• He forgot to lock the door when he went out.
III. Language practice
Choose the correct form of the verb from the brackets to complete the sentences.
1. I’d forgotten …………… to Canada when I was small, but then my
parents showed me the photos. (to go/ going)
2. I always forget …………… my alarm for Monday morning. (to set/ setting)
3. She tried …………… the whole book but it was very long and complicated.
(to read/ reading)
4. You’ll be OK. I remember …………… really nervous on my first day too!
(to be/ being)
5. Try …………… the video with subtitles. This might help you understand
better. (to watch/ watching)
6. She had to stop halfway through the race …………… the wheel on her
bike.(to repair/ repairing)
7. Remember …………… your swimming costume in case we go to the
pool. (to pack/ packing)
8. He’s stopped …………… French classes and changed to Spanish. (to
take/ taking)
9. Kamali is good at …………… (to dance/ dancing)
10. Rutebuka couldn’t give up …………… (to smoke/ smoking)
1.6. Spelling and pronunciationA. Spelling and dictation
Listen carefully to your teacher as he reads for you a paragraph about theimportance of international relations. Write it down as correctly as possible.
B. Phonetic transcription
Complete the table below by giving the missing phonetic transcriptions of the
words studied across this unit. Pay attention to the placement of the stress
where necessary. Then practice their pronunciation. You can use a dictionarywhere you find it necessary.
Word Phonetic
UNIT 2 PEOPLE AND TECHNOLOGY
LEARNING AREA: ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Key Unit Competence:To use language learnt in the context of people and technology.
The Internet of things, or IoT, is a system of interrelated computing devices,
mechanical and digital machines, objects, animals or people that are provided
with unique identifiers (UIDs) and the ability to transfer data over a network
without requiring human-to-human or human-to-computer interaction. A thing in
the internet of things can be a person with a heart monitor implant, a farm animal
with a biochip transponder, an automobile that has built-in sensors to alert the
driver when tire pressure is low or any other natural or man-made object that
can be assigned an IP address and is able to transfer data over a network.
The term “the internet of things” was first mentioned in 1999 by Kevin Ashton,
co-founder of the Auto-ID Center at Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) in a presentation he made to Procter & Gamble (P&G). Wanting to bring
radio frequency ID (RFID) to the attention of P&G’s senior management, Ashton
called his presentation “Internet of Things” to incorporate the cool new trend of
1999: the Internet. MIT professor Neil Gershenfeld’s book, When Things Start
to Think, also appearing in 1999, didn’t use the exact term but provided a clear
vision of where IoT was headed.
IoT has evolved from the convergence of wireless technologies, micro-electromechanical
systems (MEMS), micro services and the internet. The convergence
has helped tear down the silos between operational technology (OT) and
information technology (IT), enabling unstructured machine-generated data to
be analysed for insights to drive improvements.
The internet of things is also a natural extension of SCADA (supervisory control
and data acquisition), a category of software application program for process
control and gathering of data in real time from remote locations to control
equipment and conditions. SCADA systems include hardware and software
components. The hardware gathers and feeds data into a computer that has
SCADA software installed, where it is then processed and presented in a timely
manner. The evolution of SCADA is such that late-generation SCADA systems
developed into first-generation IoT systems.
The concept of the IoT ecosystem, however, didn’t really come into its own
until the middle of 2010 when, in part, the government of China said it would
make IoT a strategic priority in its five-year plan. An IoT ecosystem consists
of web-enabled smart devices that use embedded processors, sensors and
communication hardware to collect, send and act on data they acquire from their
environments. IoT devices share the sensor data they collect by connecting to
an IoT gateway or other edge device where data is either sent to the cloud to
be analysed or analysed locally.
Sometimes, these devices communicate with other related devices and act on
the information they get from one another. The devices do most of the work
without human intervention, although people can interact with the devices -- for
instance, to set them up, give them instructions or access the data.
The internet of things connects billions of devices to the internet and involves
the use of billions of data points, all of which need to be secured. Due to its
expanded attack surface, IoT security and privacy are cited as major concerns.
Because IoT devices are closely connected, all a hacker has to do is to exploit
one vulnerability to manipulate all the data, rendering it unusable. Additionally,
connected devices often ask users to input their personal information, including
names, ages, addresses, phone numbers and even social media accounts --
information that’s invaluable to hackers. Manufacturers that don’t update their
devices regularly -- or at all -- leave them vulnerable to cybercriminals.
However, hackers aren’t the only threat to the internet of things; privacy is
another major concern for IoT users. For instance, companies that make and
distribute IoT devices could use those devices to obtain and sell users’ personal
data. Beyond leaking personal data, IoT poses a risk to critical infrastructure,
including electricity, transportation and financial services.
Adapted from Internet of things (IoT) by Margaret Rouse.
•• Comprehension questions
1. What do you understand by “the Internet of things”?
2. In the phrase “the Internet of things” what can a thing be referred to?
3. Appreciate the contribution of Neil Gershenfeld’s book to the creation of
the term “the Internet of things”?
4. Evaluate the relationship between SCADA and Internet of things.
5. What do you understand by “IoT ecosystem”?
6. Using an example, explain when people can interact with the IoT devices.
7. Account for the need to secure Internet of things devices.
Text 2: Genetically modified organism (GMO)
Genetically modified organism (GMO) is an organism whose genome has
been engineered in the laboratory in order to favour the expression of desired
physiological traits or the generation of desired biological products. In
conventional livestock production, crop farming, and even pet breeding, it has
long been the practice to breed selected individuals of a species in order to
produce offspring that have desirable traits. In genetic modification, however,
recombinant genetic technologies are employed to produce organisms whose
genomes have been precisely altered at the molecular level, usually by the
inclusion of genes from unrelated species of organisms that code for traits that
would not be obtained easily through conventional selective breeding.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are produced using scientific
methods that include recombinant DNA technology and reproductive cloning.
In reproductive cloning, a nucleus is extracted from a cell of the individual to
be cloned and is inserted into the enucleated cytoplasm of a host egg (an
enucleated egg is an egg cell that has had its own nucleus removed). The
process results in the generation of an offspring that is genetically identical
to the donor individual. The first animal produced by means of this cloning
technique with a nucleus from an adult donor cell (as opposed to a donor
embryo) was a sheep named Dolly, born in 1996. Since then a number of
other animals, including pigs, horses, and dogs, have been generated by
reproductive cloning technology. Recombinant DNA technology, on the other
hand, involves the insertion of one or more individual genes from an organism of
one species into the DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) of another. Whole-genome
replacement, involving the transplantation of one bacterial genome into the cell
body, or cytoplasm, of another microorganism, has been reported, although this
technology is still limited to basic scientific applications.
Genetically modified (GM) foods were first approved for human consumption in
the United States in 1994, and by 2014–15 about 90 percent of the corn, cotton,
and soybeans planted in the United States were genetically modified. By the
end of 2014, GM crops covered nearly 1.8 million square kilometres (695,000
square miles) of land in more than two dozen countries worldwide. The majority
of GM crops were grown in the Americas.
In agriculture, plants are genetically modified for a number of reasons. One of
the reasons is to reduce the use of chemical insecticides. For example, the
application of wide-spectrum insecticides declined in many areas growing
plants, such as potatoes, cotton, and corn, that were endowed with a gene from
the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis, which produces a natural insecticide
called Bt toxin. Farmers who had planted Bt cotton reduced their pesticide use
by 50–80 percent and increased their earnings by as much as 36 percent.
Other GM plants were engineered for a different reason: resistance to a specific
chemical herbicide, rather than resistance to a natural predator or pest. Herbicide
Resistant Crops (HRC) enable effective chemical control of weeds, since only
the HRC plants can survive in fields treated with the corresponding herbicide.
Many HRCs are resistant to glyphosate (Roundup), enabling liberal application
of the chemical, which is highly effective against weeds. Such crops have been
especially valuable for no-till farming, which helps prevent soil erosion. However,
because HRCs encourage increased application of chemicals to the soil, they
remain controversial with regard to their environmental impact.
Some other plants can be genetically modified to increase their nutrients. The
example of a crop that is genetically modified for that reason is “golden rice”.
Golden rice was genetically modified to produce almost 20 times the betacarotene
of previous varieties. A variety of other crops, modified to endure the
weather extremes common to other parts of the globe, are also in production.
To sum up, GMOs produced through genetic technologies have become a part
of everyday life, entering into society through agriculture, medicine, research,
and environmental management. However, while GMOs have benefited human
society in many ways, some disadvantages exist; therefore, the production of
GMOs remains a highly controversial topic in many parts of the world.
Adapted from Genetically modified organism (GMO), by Judith L. Fridovich-Keil and Julia M.
Diaz.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. In your own words, define the term “Genetically Modified Organism”.
2. State two of scientific methods used to produce Genetically Modified
Organisms.
3. Differentiate recombinant DNA technology from reproductive cloning.
4. What do you think caused 90 % of the corn, cotton
and soybeans planted in the United States to be genetically modified,
only 10 years after the approval of GM food?
5. Give three reasons why plants are genetically modified.
6. Explain the disadvantage of genetically modifying plants in favour of
resistance to a specific chemical herbicide.
Text 3: AI (Artificial Intelligence)
Artificial intelligence (AI) is the simulation of human intelligence processes by
machines, especially computer systems. These processes include learning
(the acquisition of information and rules for using the information), reasoning
(using rules to reach approximate or definite conclusions) and self-correction.
Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary defines AI as the study of how to
produce machines that have some of the qualities that the human mind has,
such as the ability to understand language, recognize pictures, solve problems
and learn. Particular applications of AI include expert systems, speech
recognition and machine vision.
AI can be categorized as either weak or strong. Weak AI, also known as narrow
AI, is an AI system that is designed and trained for a particular task. Virtual
personal assistants, such as Apple’s Siri, are a form of weak AI. Strong AI, also
known as artificial general intelligence, is an AI system with generalized human
cognitive abilities. When presented with an unfamiliar task, a strong AI system
is able to find a solution without human intervention.
Arend Hintze, an assistant professor of integrative biology, computer science
and engineering at Michigan State University, categorizes AI into four types,
from the kind of AI systems that exist today to sentient systems, which do not
yet exist. His categories are: Reactive machines, limited memory, theory of mind
and Self-awareness.
A reactive machine is the most basic type that is unable to form memories
and use past experiences to inform decisions. They can’t function outside the
specific tasks that they were designed for. They simply perceive the world and
react to it. An example is Deep Blue, the IBM chess program that beat Garry
Kasparov in the 1990s. Deep Blue can identify pieces on the chess board and
make predictions, but it has no memory and cannot use past experiences to
inform future ones. It analyses possible moves -- its own and its opponent --
and chooses the most strategic move.
Limited memory refers to AI systems that can use past experiences to inform
future decisions. Some of the decision-making functions in self-driving cars
are designed this way. Observations inform actions happening in the not-sodistant
future, such as a car changing lanes. These observations are not storedpermanently.
The third type of Artificial intelligence is Theory of mind. This psychology
term refers to the understanding that others have their own beliefs, desires
and intentions that impact the decisions they make. The AI of this type should
be able to interact socially with human beings. Even though there are a lot ofimprovements in this field, this kind of AI does not yet exist.
Self-awareness is an AI that has its own conscious, super intelligent, selfawareness
and sentient. In brief, it is a complete human being. Machines with
self-awareness understand their current state and can use the information to
infer what others are feeling. This type of AI does not yet exist and if achieved, itwill be the milestones in the field of AI.
Some people fear that machines may turn evil and destroy human beings if they
are equipped with feelings and emotions. The real worry isn’t malevolence, but
competence. A super intelligent AI is by definition very good at attaining its
goals, whatever they may be, so we need to ensure that its goals are aligned with
ours. The answer to the question of whether AI can be dangerous to mankind
is that there’s reason to be cautious, but that the good can outweigh the bad ifmanaged properly as believes Bill Gates the co-founder of Microsoft.
Adapted from AI in IT tools promises better, faster, stronger op, by Margaret Rouse.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. In your own words, define the term “Artificial Intelligence”.
2. Differentiate Weak AI from Strong AI.
3. Outline the four types of AI as mentioned in the passage.
4. Compare and contrast limited memory and theory of mind.
5. Should human being worry about the self-awareness AI? Explain.
Text 1: The advantages of new technology for businesses
Cutting-edge technology can create high benefits for businesses that are willing
to be early adopters. This strategy, however, requires businesses to abandon
technologies that never fully mature or that are themselves dropped by their
parent companies. A nimble implementation strategy allows entrepreneurs
to realize the benefits of new technologies while avoiding business workflow
issues when a technology cannot survive in the marketplace. The advantages
include: being a key to penetrating a market, revolutionising operations and
reducing costs.
For a small business, a technology should not be evaluated on its own merits
but rather for the ways its implementation will allow your business to accomplish
things that are impossible for your competitors. It does not matter if a technology
speeds up your manufacturing process by 20 percent unless that speed is a key
to penetrating a market that you cannot otherwise reach.
A new technology that is disruptive to the overall marketplace, but that will give
you the first-to-market advantage, is the best new process to consider.
New technology should help us to revolutionise old operations. Most businesses,
like most organizations, tend at first to use new technologies in very similar ways
to the older ones that they replaced. For example, a cell phone is not simply
a wireless landline phone -- it is also a device for rescheduling meetings on
the fly, arranging for impromptu visits, surfing on internet, avoiding congested
traffic etc. Companies that saw mobile communications for these abilities had
an immediate jump on companies that are still organized around older telephone
paradigms when cell phones gained widespread use. When considering a new
technology, make an explicit list of underlying assumptions in your business
model -- then see if the technology makes any of them obsolete.
Paradoxically, new technologies can be both a major source of expenses for
your business, as well as a method of eradicating your biggest costs. Regular
implementation of technology on the cutting edge means that sometimes you
will need to abandon your investment: if the technology fails to work, if it is
defeated by its competition or if its parent company folds. On the other hand,
some technologies completely change the cost structure for the service they
provide: Skype, for example, provides an inexpensive service that replaces both
international phone calls and videoconferencing, which previously could cost
thousands of dollars annually. Focus on the areas where you will see the biggest
bang for your technology buck if a new technology succeeds -- but be ready to
abandon the cutting edge if it cannot deliver on these promises
Adapted from The Advantages of New Technology for Businesses, by Ellis Davidson.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Which businesses are likely to benefit from cutting-edge technology?
2. What do you understand by “technologies that are themselves dropped
by their parent companies”?
3. Outline at least three advantages of using new technologies in business.
4. Explain thoroughly how one should evaluate the success of new
technology in a small business.
5. Using an example, explain how new technology should help us to
revolutionise old operations.
6. Can technology be a major source of expenses for your business?
Explain.
7. Under which circumstances are businessmen advised to abandon thecutting edge technology?
Technology is a fundamental agent of social change, offering new possibilities
to produce, store and spread knowledge. This is particularly clear in the military
realm. Major shifts in military history have often followed ground-breaking
developments in the history of science and technology. If not initially the result
of military research and development, new technologies often find military
applications, which, in some cases, have disruptive effects on the conduct
of warfare. These can be positive and negative effects: progress in military
technology has improved the possibility of precaution in the mobilization and
application of force, but it has also provided more powerful capabilities of harm
and destruction.
Current innovations in artificial intelligence, robotics, autonomous systems,
Internet of things, 3D printing, nanotechnology, biotechnology, material science
and quantum computing are expected to bring social transformations of an
unprecedented scale. For the World Economic Forum, they form no less than
the foundation of a ‘fourth industrial revolution.’ How these technologies may be
used in, and transform, the military and security realms is not yet fully understood
and needs further scrutiny. The capabilities they could provide may directly or
indirectly affect the preconditions for peace, the nature of conflicts and how
insecurity is perceived and managed, by people and states. Monitoring their
development is therefore instrumental to understanding the future of warfare
and global security.
Improving cyber-security and cyber-defence capabilities has recently become
a top priority on the national security agendas of many European states. A wide
range of states are creating dedicated cyber-defence agencies, increasing
cyber-related human and financial resources, and drafting national strategies
that sometimes include developing offensive cyber-capabilities. In this new and
rapidly developing field, the implications of these developments for international
security and disarmament are as yet unclear.
Autonomy in weapon systems was not forgotten in this tech trend. Since 2013,
the governance of Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems (LAWS) has been
discussed under the framework of the 1980 United Nations Convention on
Certain Conventional Weapons (CCW). However, the discussion remains
at an early stage as most states are still in the process of understanding the
concrete aspects and implications of increasing autonomy in weapon systems.
To support states in their reflection, and more generally to contribute to more
concrete and structured discussions on LAWS at the CCW, SIPRI launched a
research project in February 2016 that looks at the development of autonomy in
military systems in general and in weapon systems in particular.
The project ‘mapping the development of autonomy in weapon systems’ was
designed based on the assumption that efforts to develop concepts and practical
measures for monitoring and controlling LAWS will remain premature without a
better understanding of (1) the technological foundations of autonomy, (2) the
current applications and capabilities of autonomy in existing weapon systems
and (3) the technological, socio-economical, operational and political factors
that are currently enabling or limiting its advances.
Its aim, in that regard, is to provide CCW delegates and the interested public
a ‘reality check on autonomy’ with a mapping exercise that will answer a series
of fundamental questions, such as: What types of autonomous applications are
found in existing and forthcoming weapon systems? What are the capabilities
of weapons that include some level of autonomy in the target cycle, how are
they used or intended to be used and what are the principles or rules that
govern their use?
Adapted from Emerging military and security technologies, by Dr Vincent Boulanin, Dr Sibylle
Bauer, Noel Kelly and Moa Peldán Carlsson.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. What do you understand by “ground-breaking developments”?
2. Discuss positive and negative effects of military technologies.
3. What does “fourth industrial revolution” refer to according to World
Economic Forum?
4. Why do you think it is instrumental to monitor the development of military
technologies?
5. What do you understand by “offensive cyber-capabilities”?
6. Do you think autonomy in weapon systems should be supported?
7. Describe the aim of the project of mapping the development of autonomyin weapon systems.
Text 1: The Disadvantages of Using Technology in Business
Modern technology has had an amazing positive impact on business, from
improving productivity, to opening new markets around the world for even the
smallest of businesses, to creating entirely new business models like Airbnb
and Uber. But advanced technology has its negatives as well. While its negative
aspects probably shouldn’t stop you from taking advantage of technology, you
should certainly be aware of the potential downsides so you can take steps
to minimize them. Those negative aspects include: Distraction, security risks,
expensive obsolescence and destruction of social boundaries.
Everyone with a smartphone, laptop, tablet or desktop computer has access to
the incredible world of the internet in most of workplaces. Hopefully, employers
and employees use this access for research and communication in the service
of their business.
But the internet can be a powerful distraction as well, as employees are faced with
the temptation of checking Face book, reading the latest tweet storm on Twitter
or watching cute cat videos on YouTube. In some companies, approximately
half of all office employees spend an hour or more per day on non-work-related
internet sites.
The security risks of high technology are also a big concern. Our online devices
are a two-way street, giving employers and their staff access to the outside
world, but also allowing outsiders into their place of business. Emails routinely
contain malware that can infect computer systems. Personal devices such as
USB drives might get infected with a virus at an employee’s home and then
plugged in to an office machine, transferring the virus to the company’s systems.
Important files can be stolen, as happened to Sony when sensitive internal emails
were revealed to the world, or Equifax, which had the private information of
millions of people stolen through electronic snooping. Bad actors can introduce
ransom ware that freezes up a system, promising to unlock it only after payment
of a substantial fee. Perhaps the eeriest sorts of intrusions are computer viruses
that take remote control of companies’ operations. Malware has been known to
crash electric utilities, interfere with hospitals and police stations and even take
control of computer-operated, self-driving cars.
Expensive obsolescence is another threat to companies that use new
technologies. Technological change advances very rapidly, which means that
the technology you invest in today may seem to be out-of-date almost the
moment it is installed and up and running. Technological churn – new phones,
new laptops, the latest software – keeps the company current with the latest
trends. But it’s also a sizable outlay of cash, not only for the technology itself,
but also for the revamping of related systems. Employees need to be trained
on new systems, IT staff needs to update its certifications and capabilities, and
security protocols have to be revised as well.
On top of the previously mentioned disadvantages there is destruction of
social boundaries. The ability to communicate instantly with just about anyone,
anywhere can sometimes interfere with the ordinary dynamics of face-to-face
communication. Technology may mean fewer employees show up in person to
meetings. It may also mean fewer people in the employer’s office, as employees
take advantage of telecommuting options. Although these capabilities can
actually improve productivity in some cases, many people find they miss the
more social aspects of a traditional company where staff and clients showed up
in person to do business.
Also on the list of potential negatives is rather the opposite of isolation. The fact
that you and your staff are reachable 24 hours a day, seven days a week, 365
days a year can make for an unpleasant loss of boundaries, as managers and
clients come to expect full service no matter the time of day or time of year.
Adapted from The Security Risks of High Technology by David Sarokin.
•• Comprehension questions
1. Should negative aspects of technology stop us from taking advantage of
technology? Explain.
2. Outline the four negative aspects of technology as mentioned in the
passage.
3. Explain how technology can distract employees.
4. To what extent are our online devices vulnerable?
5. Explain how expensive obsolescence is threat to companies that use
new technologies.6. Discuss the social negative impacts of technology at workplace.
2.4. Language Structure : Correlative connectors
Correlative conjunctions are sort of like tag-team conjunctions. They come in
pairs, and you have to use both of them in different places in a sentence to make
them work. They get their name from the fact that they work together (co-) and
relate one sentence element to another. There are many correlative connectors
but the most common are:
•• Either... or
•• Neither... nor
•• Not only ... but also
•• Both ... and
•• the more ... the less
•• the more ... the more
•• no sooner ... than
•• whether ... or
•• rather ... than
•• as ... as
•• such ... that
•• scarcely ... when
•• as many ... as
Examples
1. AI can be categorized as either weak or strong.
2. Both the planning of technology projects and its uses are costly.
3. Computers are not only useful but also stressful.
4. Not only is management of waste technological tools expensive but also
harmful to the environment.
5. No sooner did he enter the room than my tablet disappeared.
6. Do you care whether we use a smart camera or a projector in the
conference?
7. The more you think about it, the less likely you are to take action.
8. The more it rains, the more serious the problems become.
9. Wouldn’t you rather take a chance to owe me than be in debt to Michael?
10. Using a computer isn’t as fun as using a tablet.
11. Such was the nature of their volatile relationship that they never would
have made it even if they’d wanted to.
12. I had scarcely walked in the door when I got an urgent call and had to run
right back out again.
13. There are as many self-driving cars in Europe as there are in USA.
Exercise : Complete each sentence using the correlative connector pair from
the parenthesis:
1. I plan to take my vacation ………… in June ………… in July. (whether /
or, either / or, as / if)
2. ………… I’m feeling happy ………… sad, I try to keep a positive attitude.
(either / or, whether / or, rather / than)
3. ………… had I taken my shoes off ………… I found out we had to leave
again. (no sooner / than, rather / than, whether / or)
4. ………… only is dark chocolate delicious, ………… it can be healthy.
(whether / or, not / but also, just as / so)
5. I will be your friend ………… you stay here………… move away. (either/
or, whether/or, neither/nor)
6. ………… flowers ………… trees grow during warm weather. (neither /
nor, both / and, not / but also)
7. ………… do we enjoy summer vacation, …………we ………… enjoy
winter break. (whether / or, not only / but also, either / or)
8. I knew it was going to be a bad day because I ………… over slept
………… missed the bus.(not only/but also, neither/nor, whether/or)
9. It’s ………… going to rain ………… snow tonight. (The more / the less,
either / or, both / and)
10. Savoury flavours are ………… sweet…… sour. (often / and, neither /
nor, both / and)
2.5 Spelling and pronunciation
A. Spelling
Identify and correct misspelled words in the following paragraph
Everyone with a smartiphone, luptop, tablette or desktop computer has access to
the incredible world of the Internet in most of workplaces. Hopefully, employers
and employees use this access for research and comunication in the service
of their business. But the Internet can be a powerful distruction as well, as
employees are faced with the temptetion of checking facebook, reading the
latest tweet storm on Twitter or watching cute cat videos on YouTube. In some
companies, approximately half of all office employees spend an hour or more
per day on non-work-related internet cites.
B. Phonetic transcription
Give the missing phonetic transcription of the words in the table below andpractise pronouncing them correctly.
UNIT3 NATIONAL SERVICES AND SELF-RELIANCE
Text 1: Rwanda’s self-reliance
Frederick Golooba-Mutebi, the researcher of Effective States and Inclusive
Development (ESID) spends half of his time in Rwanda and believes that one
big idea there is self-reliance. ESID Research centre is a global partnership
investigating the kinds of politics that promote development. “Rwandans want
to free themselves from anything that feels like domination,” he argues.
“We’re not saying we can do without external assistance, but we don’t want to
be imposed upon and dictated to in return for help.” Paul Kagame is reported to
be a proponent of this idea. He has called on Rwandans to have a mind-set of
self-reliance and aim for social and economic independence, instead of relying
on other countries. The idea of self-reliance also seems to be associated with
the idea of dignity. Kagame is reported to have said that Rwandans deserve
dignity and without it they wouldn’t have overcome the challenges facing the
country.
“There is a Kinyarwanda word, ‘agaciro’, that means dignity and it’s a word
that’s used fairly regularly both in and out of government in Rwanda,” says
Golooba-Mutebi. “There is no dignity in being dependent on outsiders and the
poor want to think of themselves as a dignified poor.”
So what has shaped these ideas of self-reliance and dignity? Golooba Mutebi
believes that the refugee experience of some of Rwanda’s ruling elites is key.
Some of the elites, along with their parents, were forced out of Rwanda from
the late 1950s to the 90s. Others were born in exile and grew up there. As
refugees they were treated as second class citizens, being denied opportunities
for things such as education.
There was also the feeling that the world had not treated their plight with the
attention it deserved and that after they had been forced out of the country,
they were ignored. “That is what pushed them to find their own solution to
their predicament” says Golooba-Mutebi. They tried to negotiate their return to
Rwanda and when that failed, they decided to go back by force of arms. They
had been ignored as refugees for a long time and they had nothing to do but
force their way back to the homeland. All together, they were familiar with living
on their own.
Golooba-Mutebi believes that this legacy has created the mentality amongst
Rwandans that at the end of the day they are on their own. They feel the world
owes them nothing, so they must find a way of developing Rwanda that allows
them to live on their own terms. Golooba-Mutebi also believes that these ideas
shape development.
“Rwandans realise that they will never be able to attain the autonomy they crave
if they don’t pull the country out of poverty and develop it to reach a stage where
they can pay their way.
“Dignity derives from doing things for yourself. But how do you get to the position
of doing things for yourself? You get there by having a strong economy, and a
healthy and educated population. So self-reliance is the central idea driving a
great deal of things that Rwandans are aspiring to do. The things that will enable
them to live like dignified people.”
Adapted from “Agaciro”, the Kinyarwanda word for dignity : “Ideas of self-reliance in
Rwanda”, by Anna Webster.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. In your own words define the term “self-reliance”
2. Can Rwanda accept external help? Justify your answer using an evidence
from the passage.
3. What according to Golooba-Mutebi has shaped these ideas of selfreliance
and dignity?
4. In the sixth paragraph the writer uses the word “legacy”. What does it
refer to?
5. Explain how the ideas of self-reliance and dignity have changed Rwandan
mindsets?
6. According to Golooba-Mutebi, how does one get to the position of doing
things for themselves?
Text 2: Youth volunteers contribution valued at Rwf 630 million
One writer said that “youth are powerful. They represent courage with wisdom
and energy which will empower to drive change and take leadership”.
It’s a character that has come to define one youth umbrella group {Rwanda
Youth Volunteers in Community Policing Organisation, RYVCPO}, composed
of over 250, 000 young and energetic people that seek to drive the national
Security and the developmental Agenda.
“Our country has invested in us through education, taught us good values of
patriotism, partnership and set the agenda through which everyone should be
involved towards sustainable security and development; that’s what drives us
since we started in 2013 with not more than 300 members,” says Jean Bosco
Mutangana, one of the pioneers and currently in charge of mobilisation and
training in the youth group.
According to a report, human Security and Community developmental Activities
conducted by the youth volunteers since 2013 are valued at over Rwf630
million. These include construction and rehabilitation of 13308 houses for the
disadvantaged families, construction and rehabilitation of 1440km of roads
linking communities, construction of 1989 toilets, and planted over 67800 trees
as part of the afforestation and environmental conservation programme.
Others include 5321 organic gardens, locally known as akarima k’igikoni, making
115,000 bricks, and 3200 metres of water trenches; paying medical insurance
premium for 284 people and raising awareness against crimes and drug abuse,
in particular, as well as donating heifer under the “One cow per poor household
programme”.
“We want to drive change among the young generation and be the voice and
power of transformation, that’s why we want to increase the membership to
at least one million in the next one year; we believe the higher the number the
more impact in our human Security and developmental activities,” says Justus
Kangwage, the national coordinator of RYVCPO.
In November last year (i.e. 2017), the youth volunteers started a special
communal exercise – Umuganda – which they conduct at least twice every
month to supplement the usual nationwide monthly exercise conducted every
last Saturday of the month.
“We set this special Saturday aside to support the poor, build them houses,
raise awareness in schools and communities against crime, construct and
rehabilitate roads, toilets and get involved in environmental conservation
activities,” Kangwage explains.
The Director General in the Ministry of Local Government in charge of Social
Affairs and Community Development, Sheikh Hassan Bahame, said that the
activities of the youth volunteers supplement the national budget and community
development.
Adapted from The New Times’ article, published on January 24, 2018, and retrieved fromhttps://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/228225.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. What does the journalist mean by “one youth umbrella group”?
2. Using evidence from the passage, prove that Rwanda Government cares
about the youth.
3. Appreciate the contribution of human security and community development
activities conducted by the youth volunteers since 2013.
4. Indicate the reasons why RYVCPO would like to increase the membership.5. When was the article above published ?
Text 1: Agaciro Development Fund (AGDF)
Agaciro Development Fund is the Rwanda’s sovereign wealth fund that was
initiated by Rwandans on 15-16 December 2011 at the 9th National Dialogue
Council chaired by His Excellency, the President of the Republic of Rwanda
Paul Kagame. The Fund was then launched officially by President Kagame on
23 August, 2012. The name “Agaciro” conveys the idea of “Dignity” which
was embraced as Rwanda’s key moral value in its journey towards sustainable
socio-economic development.
The Fund was set up to build up public savings to achieve self-reliance, maintain
stability in times of shocks to the national economy and accelerate Rwanda’s
socio-economic development goals. The Fund is unique of its kind as it was
created basing on voluntary contributions from Rwandans at home and abroad
as well as friends of Rwanda while other sovereign wealth funds around the
world have traditionally relied on budget surpluses, oil and mineral revenues for
their constant growth.
The Agaciro Development Fund was registered with Rwanda Development
Board (RDB), as a trust on 01 August, 2013 under code 103050268 and runs
its operations in accordance with Law No20/2013 of 25/03/2013 regulating the
creation of trusts and trustees. On 11 September, 2013, the Cabinet meeting
chaired by President Kagame, approved the proposal for the management of
the Fund’s proceeds and appointed its Chief Executive Officer. On 28 March
2014, the Cabinet meeting appointed the Fund’s Board of Trustees.
Therefore, Agaciro Development Fund is managed by the Board of Trustees
that was appointed by the Cabinet on 28 March 2014. The Trustees are
experienced persons with a variety of expertise in different areas of economy
who are appointed from public and private sector. The Board is responsible for
the oversight and management of the Fund’s operations on behalf of Rwandans.
The Board is accountable to the Government of Rwanda, through the Ministry
of Finance and Economic Planning, in ensuring that the Fund complies with
the law and the highest standards of corporate governance. On daily basis,
the operations of the Fund are run by the management headed by the Chief
Executive Officer who is also accountable to the Board.
Since its establishment, the AGDF has relied on contributions from Rwandans
and friends of Rwanda. The AGDF has singled out as its core mission, the
incremental of the AGDF to the levels of the fiscal reserves that may strengthen
Rwanda’s resilience in times of adverse economic conditions. Rwandans have
thus endowed the fund with the mandate of investing the collected funds to
produce sizeable returns, as well as engaging with Rwandans and their friends
to encourage more contributions to the Fund.
The first Board meeting was held on 11 August 2014. One of the major
resolutions taken at the meeting was that the fund be invested immediately.
Presently, the fund is invested in local market, into commercial banks as term
deposits and treasury bonds.
“Looking ahead, we remain optimistic on the future of the Fund. Our staff
continues to demonstrate tremendous enthusiasm, drive and commitment.
We will endeavour to continue building on accountability and transparent
management that we have nurtured since AGDF’s inception. However, whist we
keep momentum to secure high long-term real return of the fund, and are highly
appreciative of the contributions that have been made to AGDF by Rwandans
and friends of Rwanda, it is worth mentioning that the Fund’s sustainability
remains reliant on its ownership by Rwandans.
It is therefore important that a culture of voluntary contributions to the Fund be
fostered.” Says the Chief Executive, Office of AGDF
Adapted from http://agaciro.rw/index.php?id=34.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. What do you understand by Agaciro Development Fund (AGDF)?
2. Explain the reason why Agaciro Development Fund was set up.
3. Account for the uniqueness of Agaciro Development Fund.
4. Appreciate the management of Agaciro Development Fund.
5. Describe responsibilities of the Board of Trustees in Agaciro Development
Fund.
6. How does AGDF use the collected funds?
7. Evaluate the contribution of Agaciro Development Fund to the
improvement of life standards of Rwandans.
Text 2: Performance Contract National Program
The Performance Contract National Program was re-initiated by Rwanda’s
President, Paul Kagame, in March 2006. This was as a result of the concern
about the speed and quality of execution of government programs and priorities.
The government’s decentralization policy required a greater accountability at the
local level. Its main objective was to make public agencies and institutions more
effective and accountable in their implementation of national programs and to
accelerate the socioeconomic development agenda as contained in the Vision
2020 and Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS)
policies, as well as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Today, the Performance Contract National Program is used across the
government to ensure accountability. All levels of government, from the local
district level to ministries and embassies, are required to develop and have their
contracts evaluated. Members of the public service also sign their performance
contracts with their managers or head of institution.
While that national issue is now widely used across the government, it first
began at the district level. When developing its performance contracts, each
local government administrative unit determines its own objectives (with
measurable indicators), taking into account national priorities as highlighted in
the national as well as international strategy and policy documents such as the
MDGs, Vision 2020, EDPRS, District Development Plans (DDPs), and Sector
Development Plans (SDPs).
The performance contracts, at both planning and reporting phases, are
presented to the public for the purpose of accountability and transparency.
The Mayors and province Governors also sign the performance contracts with
Rwanda’s President committing themselves to achieving set objectives. The
performance process ensures the full participation and ownership of citizens
because priorities are developed at the grassroots level.
Between 2006 and 2009, an evaluation process took place whereby the best
ten performing districts from across the nation were selected (two from each
province and the City of Kigali). Each province and the City of Kigali would
rank the performance of their districts and select their top two that they would
communicate to the national evaluation committee. This committee would then
conduct its own review and ranked the selected districts from 1-10 based on
their performance. However this approach suffered from significant limitations
including the fact that it was not possible to objectively compare the performance
of all the districts at the committee level. Due to these shortcomings, a nationwide
district performance contract evaluation exercise was conducted in 2010
for all the thirty districts. A national evaluation committee with technical expertise
and experience conducted this process.
(Adapted from History for Rwanda Schools senior six student’s book, Rwanda Education
Board, Kigali January 2019).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Account for the relevance of re-initiating the Performance Contract by
H.E Paul Kagame, the president of Rwanda.
2. What were the shortcomings in the former Performance Evaluation
process?
3. What are the responsibilities of national evaluation committees?
4. Is this program applied in your district? Assess the extent to which it has
changed the life standards of the citizens.
Text 3: The contribution of community work to the National Service
Development
As part of efforts to reconstruct Rwanda and nurture a shared national identity,
the government of Rwanda drew on aspects of Rwandan culture and traditional
practices to enrich and adapt its developmental programmes to the country’s
needs and context. The result is a set of home grown solutions from culturally
owned practices translated into sustainable development programmes. One of
these home grown solutions is Umuganda.
Modern day Umuganda can be described as community work. On the last
Saturday of each month, communities come together to do a variety of public
works. This often includes infrastructure development and environmental
protection. Rwandans between 18 and 65 years of age are obliged to participate
in community work. Expatriates living in Rwanda are encouraged to take part.
Today close to 80 per cent of Rwandans take part in monthly community work.
As part of Vision 2020 development programme, the government implemented
a community service policy. It was designed to help supplement the national
budget in construction and the repair of basic infrastructure. The work done
is organised by community members and is done without pay. The projects
completed through community work include, the construction of schools, feeder
roads, road repair, terracing, reforestation, home construction for vulnerable
people, erosion control, and water canals.
Planning for community work is done in council meetings at the cell level. It is
the responsibility of local leaders as well as national leaders to mobilise the
population to participate in community work. Community members meet and
agree on the activity to be done. Participation in community work is compulsory
for all able-bodied citizens. This policy is expected to lead to a more cohesive
society as all the members come together to complete a project that benefits
the community. The word Umuganda can be translated as ‘coming together
for common purpose to achieve an outcome’. In traditional Rwandan culture,
members of the community would call upon their family, friends and neighbours
to help them complete a difficult task.
Successful projects include the building of schools, medical centres and
hydroelectric plants as well as rehabilitating wetlands and creating highly
productive agricultural plots. The value of community work to the country’s
development since 2007 has been estimated at more than US $60 million.
Professionals in the public and private sectors also contribute to community
work. They include engineers, medics, IT specialists, and statisticians, among
others. The military personnel also participate in social activities like the building
of schools and hospitals. This inspires the population to be very active as well.
Community work value has increased from Rwf 12 billion in 2012 to Rwf 17
billion in 2015 and Rwf 19 billion in 2016. With the increase in monetary
activities, community work has seen Rwandans build over 400 offices of
micro finance institutions commonly known as Umurenge Sacco, and 11,000
classrooms for the country’s ‘twelve year basic education’ which has increased
school enrolment to over 95 per cent of children in Primary Schools.
(Adapted from History for Rwandan Schools senior five student’s book, Rwanda EducationBoard, Kigali January 2019).
•• Comprehension questions
1. Explain the relationship between home grown solutions and Rwandan
cultural practices.
2. Describe different activities done during community work (Umuganda).
3. Assess the relevance of community works to the country’s economic
development.4. How would you define the term Umuganda according to the passage?
Text 2 : Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings
of the words/phrases in the table below. Copy the table into your book andfill in the blank spaces.
Text : National service in the United Kingdom (UK)
At the beginning in 1939, the national service enforced full conscription of
all males between 18 and 41 who were residents in the UK. It continued in
a modified form in peacetime by the National Service Act 1948. This Act of
Parliament extended the British conscription of the Second World War long
after the wartime needs for it had expired, in form of “National Service”. The
need for national service in the United Kingdom was inspired by the wartime
due to the need of more armed forces. The first phase of voluntary recruitment
was from 1916 to 1920 during the First World War and the second period from
1939 to 1960.
However, persons who were exempted from national service included the
following: medically unfit as well as the blind, disabled persons, and those with
mental disorders, British subjects from outside Britain who had lived in the
country for less than two years, students, persons employed by the government
of any country of the British Empire except the United Kingdom, clergy of any
denomination, married women, women who had one or more children of 14
years old or younger living with them, conscientious objectors, people working
in reserved occupations like baking, farming, medicine and engineering.
The National Service Act 1948 was applied to all healthy young men who were
not registered as conscientious objectors. It did not affect the exemption
from service of registered as conscientious objectors or the procedure for
registration.
The period of serving in national service in the United Kingdom varied due to
national interest. By 1946, the period of national service was 6 months and this
period was increased to 12 months in 1949. From this time, men who completed
the service remained on the reserve list for the number of years in the age-range
(four years) which started being counted from the moment they finished serving.
However, men on the reserve list could only be called for periods of up to 20
days (previous acts allowed the period to be indefinite), and could not be called
more than three times. In 1950, due to the British involvement in the Korean
War, the national service period was extended to two years. To compensate this
long period, the reserve period was reduced by six months.
In the United Kingdom, the national service was ended gradually from 1960. In
November 1960, the last men entered in service and the last national service
men left the armed forces in May 1963
(Adapted from History for Rwandan schools. Senior six student book, by Rwanda Education
Board).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. What would you tell about the National Service conscription in the UK?
2. How would you explain what inspired the need of the National service in
United Kingdom?
3. With example, justify some criteria followed in UK to participate in the
National Service.
4. Why the National Service period in UK was extended to two years in1950?
3.4. Language structure: Coordinate connectors
Coordinate connectors join two independent clauses together. Their purpose
is to show the connection between two words, actions, ideas, items in a series
56
and complete sentences. The most common examples are: and / or/ nor/ so /
but/ for/yet. The following table summarizes how coordinate connectors areused.
Exercise : Choose the best answer from brackets to complete each sentence
1. Would you rather have cheese ………honey on your sandwich? (For,
nor, or, so)
2. His favourite sports are football……….tennis. (or, and, nor, for)
3. I wanted to go to the beach,………Mary refused. (but, or, so, for)
4. I am allergic to cats, …I have three of them. (or, for, yet, so)
5. I am a vegetarian,……. I don’t eat any meat. (so, yet, nor, but)
6. Thomas will be late to work,………he has a dental appointment. (but, or,
for, nor)
7. Jennifer doesn’t like to swim,……….does she enjoy cycling. (and, or, but,
nor)
8. Jackson wanted to eat another piece of cake,…………he was on diet. (
for, but, yet, so)
3.5. Spelling and pronunciation
A. Spelling : Identify and correct misspelled words in the following
paragraph
Agaciro Development Fund is managed by the Board of Trustes that was
appointed by the Cabinette on 28 March 2014. The Trustees are experienced
persons with a variety of expertise in different areas of economy who are
appointed from public and private secter. The Board is responsible for the
oversight and management of the Fund’s operations on behalf of Rwandans.
The Board is acountable to the Government of Rwanda, through the Ministry
of Finance and Economic Planning, in ensuring that the Fund conplies with
the law and the highest standards of coroporate governance. On daily basis,
the operations of the Fund are run by the management headed by the Chief
Executive Officer who is also acountable to the Board.
B. Phonetic transcription
Give the missing phonetic transcription of the words in the table below andpractise pronouncing them correctly.
UNIT 4 GENOCIDE AND PEACE BUILDING
Text 1: Practices leading to genocide
During the process to genocide some special practices reinforce the divisions.
Based on different studies, the practices are as follows:
Social categorisation is the first practice that perpetrators think about in
the planning process of genocide. People are classified into “us and them”
by ethnicity, race, religion, or nationality: Germans and Jews, Hutu and Tutsi.
In Rwanda, during the colonisation, researchers measured for instance the
people’s height and the length of their noses. And then everyone was classified
as Tutsi, Hutu or Twa. Identity cards were issued to each individual mentioning
their ethnicity. It may not be deduced that this policy was meant to incite Hutu
to commit genocide against the Tutsi, but this permanent line put between the
groups and the implications related to that, largely and undeniably contributed
to the antagonism combined with other things, led to the 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi.
Discrimination is another practice leading to genocide. The social categorisation
which gives the basis for defining groups may be followed by the exclusion of
some groups, intensified by the injustice in the allocation of resources as well as
the injustice on how the participation in decision making process is distributed.
Since these practices of discrimination against some targeted groups are either
done by state leaders or supported by them, they grow and lead to other phases
that may lead to genocide.
Dehumanisation is an important phase in the process that leads to genocide
because ideologically, the perpetrators claim to purify the society as a
justification. So, the ideology grows deeper to convincing one group that another
deserves nothing but death and this is a legitimization to kill. The availability of
the dehumanising ideology is important in the process leading to genocide but
may not be enough to cause genocide if it is not followed by other actions. This
genocidal ideology “dehumanises” members of the victim group and justifies
violence against them. Victims are not considered as belonging to the same
human race as the oppressors. The targeted group is often likened to a disease,
microbes, cockroaches, infections or a cancer in the body. That is what explains
why during the genocide, bodies of victims are often mutilated to express this
denial of humanity.
For the dehumanisation to have its effect, it needs propaganda to spread out
the hate ideology done either by leaders themselves or the authorised groups
who are supported by them. This is an important phase in the whole process
because it helps the elite members of the eliminating group to disseminate the
dehumanising ideology and to bring other members of that group to believe in
that hatred. It becomes a motivating factor to take part actively in the killings. A
prominent example of the hate media in Rwanda during the 1990s is the famous
Kangura newspaper as well as the Radio “Television Libre des Mille Collines”
(RTLM).
Next to propaganda is the preparation phase. This is when some acts liable of
making genocide are performed. They include writing lists of victims, creation
and training of militia, purchase and distribution of arms to be used. This is
directly followed by the massacre of the targeted group members. In many cases,
genocide is always preceded by killings targeting a given group or individuals
belonging to that group in different places. Genocide may also be preceded by
killings of moderate people because, of not supporting the extermination of the
targeted group.
The last but one practice is extermination or genocide itself. This is the phase
when the genocide is executed. It is when the intent to destroy the targeted
group can be seen from what is happening on the ground. When killings are
sponsored by the state, the armed forces often work with militias to kill like the
Interahamwe did in Rwanda during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. The
main actors were: the interim government, local administration, security forces,
militia, the media, civil society organizations (churches included), the population
and the international community.
The final phase in this process is denial and impunity. During and after genocide,
the perpetrators always find a way of denying their crime. They try to justify the
killings, and to blame the victims, claiming that their own behaviours brought
about the killings. In Rwanda, killers alleged that Tutsi were helping rebels of
RPF, and they used this to justify the mass killing of innocent Tutsi. The denial of
genocide is not only the destruction of the truth about the genocide by negating
or minimising it, it is also a potential cause of its repetition
(Adapted from History for Rwandan schools, book 6, East African Publishers Ltd).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Explain social categorisation as a practice leading to genocide.
2. Discuss discrimination as a phase that leads to genocide.
3. How do genocide perpetrators use dehumanisation in the process that
results in genocide?
4. Assess the role of propaganda before and during genocide.
5. Analyse the preparation phase in the process leading to genocide.
6. Rephrase what happens during genocide as described in the second
last paragraph.
7. With reference to the final paragraph, criticize the use of denial andimpunity by genocide perpetrators.
Text: Genocides in the world
It is worth noting that the occurrence of genocide is not limited to Rwanda.
There have been other cases of genocide in different parts of the world that
occurred in different times. Some of the cases of genocide that happened in the
20th Century are as follows:
The Nama Herero Genocide was not recognised for unknown reasons by the
United Nations Organisation. However, many authors and specialists in the
study of genocides qualify it as a pure act of genocide committed against the
Nama and the Herero in 1907. When the Germans arrived in South-West Africa
(Namibia) in 1880, they found the area populated by certain groups of people
such as the Nama (Namaqua) who were about 20,000 in number by then.
Another group of people was the Herero who were about 75,000 in number.
Their occupation was cattle herding. These people violently resisted occupation
of their land and establishment of the German rule. The German commander
who led the conquest, vowed to meet any resistance from the natives with
‘uncompromising brutality’. He vowed to wipe out the natives completely in
15 year time. The Germans took the Herero native land forcefully and planned
to build a railway across their territory. Led by their leader, Samuel Maharero
in January 1904, the Herero attacked white-owned farms and murdered 123
German settlers and traders sparing only women, children and missionaries.
Later, the commander of German Forces, General Lothar von Trotha organised
his ground army and they surrounded the living areas and the livestock pastures
of the Herero. They only left a small opening through which the Herero could
escape to the Omaheke desert. The Germans attacked and killed 5,000
people and wounded 20,000 others. They captured water sources and forced
the survivors to flee to the desert. They followed the survivors to the desert
and massacred them. They also poisoned water sources in the desert. On
2nd October of the same year, General Trotha released an extermination order
forcing the Herero people to leave the land. The Herero escaped to the desert
where the Germans had already poisoned the water wells. When the Nama saw
what had happened to the Herero, they also fled. Those who remained behind
were collected into camps where they were tortured and forced to provide
labour. Most of them died of diseases such as small pox and typhoid in the
camps. About 80% of the Herero and 50% of the Nama people were wiped out.
The Holocaust is a genocide that occurred in Germany and its occupied
territories. It targeted Jews of whom approximately 6,000,000 were killed by
Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime. Apart from the Jews, non-Jews were also killed
including millions of Polish Gentiles, Russians, Ukrainians and prisoners of other
nationalities. This has been one of the largest genocides in history. About twothirds
of the Jews who lived in Europe were killed in the Holocaust. Laws were
passed in Germany that excluded Jews from the civil society, more specifically
the Nuremberg Laws of 1935. Concentration camps were established where
Jews were murdered in large numbers. Jews were collected from various parts
of Germany occupied territories in 1939 and were transported in cargo trains
to the famous concentration or extermination camps. Most of them, however,
died along the way. Those who survived the journey by train were killed in gas
chambers.
The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda is another human tragedy.
Events leading to the planning and execution of this genocide date back to 1959.
Its cause was the history of a long process of violence, hatred, injustice and
ethnic divisions in the first and second republics of Rwanda. Massacre against
the Tutsi had happened in 1959 as a result of similar reasons to those ones that
caused the 1994 Genocide-manipulated ethnic rivalries between the Hutu and
the Tutsi.There was an ethnic and political violence which was characterised by
a period of violence from 1959 to 1961 targeting the Tutsi and Hutu members
of UNAR (Union nationale rwandaise). This violence saw the country transition
from a Belgian colony with a Tutsi monopoly to an independent Hutu dominated
republic. A Hutu elite group was formed to counter the Tutsi policy and transfer
power from the Tutsi to the Hutu. From November 1959, a series of riots by the
Hutu took place. The riots entailed arson attacks on Tutsi homes. The violence
forced about 336,000 Tutsi to exile in the neighbouring countries where they
lived as refugees.
The Tutsi exiles organised themselves into an armed group to fight their way back
into their country. Afterwards, there were no active threats posed by the Tutsi
refugees to the Hutu-controlled government in Rwanda. It was until the early
1990s when the Tutsi refugees regrouped again into a strong force and formed
the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a movement which they used to force the
Rwanda government into a political negotiation. However the negotiations failed
as Hutu extremists were not willing to share the power.
Using the death of President Juvenal Habyarimana in an airplane crash on April
6th, 1994 as a pretext, they executed their long term plan of killing the Tutsi
in the 1994 Genocide at the end of which more than one million Tutsi were
massacred. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi did not take a long time to
be recognised by United Nations Organisation. The Security Council created
the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by the Resolution 955 of
November 8th, 1994. Based in Arusha, the ICTR was established to deal with
the prosecution of the Rwandans responsible for the 1994 Genocide against
Tutsi.
(Extract from History for Rwandan schools, Book four, East African Publishers
Rwanda Ltd, p. 20-24)
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Examine the root cause of the Herero genocide.
2. Discuss the extent of cruelty in the execution process of the Herero
genocide.
3. Evaluate the atrocities in the execution of the holocaust.
4. Discuss the cause and events that led to the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsi.
5. Analyse the course of events starting from the early 1990s to the outbreakof the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.
Definition of the concept “ideology”
An ideology is an organised collection of ideas. The word ideology was used in the
late 18th century to define a “science of ideas”. An ideology is a comprehensive
vision, or a set of ideas proposed by the dominant class to all members of a
society. The main purpose behind an ideology is to introduce change in society
through a normative thought process. Ideologies tend to be abstract thoughts
applied to reality and, thus, make this concept unique to politics. Ideologies
are very common in the world of politics and have been used; for example, to
provide guidance and to persuade.
Genocide denial is an attempt to deny or minimise statements of the scale
and severity of an incidence of genocide for instance the denial of the 1994
genocide against Tutsi and the holocaust. Where there is near universal
agreement that genocide occurred, genocide denial is usually considered as a
form of illegitimate historical revisionism. However, in circumstances where the
generally accepted facts do not clearly support the occurrence of genocide,
the use of the term may be an argument by those who argue that genocide
occurred.
There are some ways used to deny the 1994 Genocide Against Tutsi, like the
minimization of genocide in any behavior exhibited publicly and internationally
in order to reduce the weight or consequences of the genocide against Tutsi,
minimizing how the genocide was committed, altering the truth about the
Genocide Against the Tutsi in order to hide the truth from the people, etc.
All these forms of the genocide denial were fought and the international
community finally accepted that in Rwanda genocide had been committed
against the Tutsi in 1994. Testimonies given and confessions made by the
prisoners at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the respect of
international conventions, adoption of the good governance and anti-corruption
principles, establishment of related institutions, and the punishment of the crime
of genocide ideology played a great role in fighting against genocide ideology.
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Define the term ideology referring to the passage.
2. Appreciate the purpose of ideology in the society referring to the first
paragraph of the passage.
3. Explain how 1994 genocide against Tusti was denied.
4. Justify the effort engaged by the government of Rwanda to fight againstgenocide denial.
Text: Prevention of genocide
Genocide is not something that happens overnight or without warning. Genocide
requires organization and constitutes in fact a deliberate strategy and one that
has been mostly carried out by governments or groups controlling the state
apparatus. Understanding the way genocide occurs and learning to recognise
signs that could lead to genocide are important in making sure that such horrors
do not happen again.
Since genocide is a process, prevention of genocide would mean to tackle it
at a very early stage. The prevention at the primary level consists of measures
aiming at creating an environment that reduces the risk of its escalation. At this
phase the aim is to put in place measures that may pre-empt the start of the
harm. This means preventive measures that may avoid the occurrence of the
harm by tackling its root causes. Prevention will therefore include the adoption
of measures that not only prohibit the harm but also put in place mechanisms
that ensure the prevention of that harm.
On international level, the focus in upstream prevention is determining which
countries are at risk. This is mainly done using risk assessments which are quite
accurate predictors. Numerous models have been developed, each looking
at different factors such as differences in identity, difficult conditions due to
economic problems, sharing of available resources, democracy and respect of
human rights. Among other things to consider when assessing and addressing
the risk of genocide is looking at structural and institutional frameworks in the
country including domestic legislation, an independent judiciary and an effective
police force to protect people. The United Nations must take appropriate
measures to stop the situation from evolving into genocide. When the primary
preventive measures are unsuccessful, then the need to take other measures
may arise.
Prevention of genocide at this secondary level is necessary in two situations.
First, in case a state has not adopted measures at the primary level and secondly,
in case the measures adopted before did not prevent the risks of genocide from
developing. The secondary prevention takes place when genocide is already
taking place. At this level, many genocidal actions are observed, such as hatred,
intolerance, racism, ethnic cleansing, torture, sexual violence, disappearances,
dehumanising and public discourse. The main focus is to end the genocide
before it progresses further and claims more lives. Measures tailored to the
situation are taken in order to prevent the risk from materialising or the situation
from becoming worse. This level of prevention may involve military intervention
of some sort.
When the measures at the secondary level fail or have never been taken and
the mass killings start, measures at the tertiary level are needed in order to
respond to this final phase of the genocide. Tertiary prevention focuses on
avoiding Genocide in future by rebuilding, restoring the community and dealing
with all the consequences to repair the damage caused. Important measures
are needed to put an end to the harm.
According to the international humanitarian law, the international community has
the obligation to intervene once all signs are clear enough to prove that genocide
is happening. Rwanda is an example of the failure of international community to
intervene. In 1994, with the presence of UN peace keepers, it was possible to
stop the genocide against the Tutsi, but because of various politico-diplomatic
reasons, these peace keepers were obliged to go back to their countries and let
Tutsi die in the hands of the perpetrators.
Tertiary prevention takes place during and after the genocide has ended. Its
focus is on preventing genocide in the future, thus re-building and restoring
the community. In other words, the tertiary prevention level also deals with all
consequences in order not only to repair the damage but also to avoid the
reoccurrence of the harm.
In a nutshell, it is important to say that prevention is a continuous process
which involves several actions at different levels which involve the individuals,
government, and international community (Adapted from History, senior 6,
2019, REB).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Why is it important to understand the way genocide occurs?
2. Explain the way genocide can be prevented at the primary level.
3. Analyse the measures taken at the primary level to prevent genocide.
4. How can genocide be prevented at the international level?
5. Analyse the role the United Nations should play in preventing genocide.
6. What are the two situations in which prevention of genocide is necessary
at the secondary level?
7. When does the secondary prevention of genocide take place?
8. Appraise the main focus of the secondary prevention of genocide.
9. When are measures of genocide prevention needed at the tertiary level?
10. Assess the objective of genocide prevention at the tertiary level.
11. When should the international community intervene in genocide
prevention?12. Evaluate the need for tertiary prevention after the genocide has ended.
Strengthening community-level peace building in Rwanda
The genocide in Rwanda destroyed the social fabric in the country. Postgenocide
Rwanda has been marked by efforts to rebuild the social fabric which
was destroyed during the terrible events of 1994. To coordinate efforts of
reconciliation, the government established the National Unity and Reconciliation
Commission (NURC) in 1999. The NURC is a permanent body, protected by
the constitution with a mandate to promote national unity and reconciliation
in post-genocide Rwanda. To decentralise its work and avoid a top-down
approach, the NURC established “forums for reconciliation” in all of Rwanda’s
30 districts. A reconciliation forum can be here understood as a gathering of
people from all parts of society with the purpose of promoting reconciliatory
initiatives, especially at the community level. The forums were intended to bring
together many different people in reconciliation and encourage local people to
own the process of reconciliation.
In addition, the establishment of the forums was expected to contribute
to improving coordination and avoid duplication of reconciliation efforts in
Rwanda, strengthening capacities of partners in reconciliation, and establishing
mechanisms of sharing information and resolving conflicts.
The forums are composed of representatives drawn from many different
sectors of community life. These representatives can include NGOs, religious
leaders, young people, and the military, to name but a few. The district forum is
coordinated by a committee of 10 -14 people elected by the members.
Those involved in the district forums have described it as a helpful mechanism to
coordinate reconciliation related activities in the community. They have also found
forum meetings a space for open and critical dialogue, which is a compulsory
element of the process towards genuine reconciliation and sustainable social
cohesion
(Adapted from https://www.peaceinsight.org/blog/2015/06/strengthening-community-levelpeacebuilding-
rwanda/).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Describe the role of national unity and reconciliation commission in
Rwanda.
2. What was the rational of its establishment?
3. Explain the mechanisms of decentralizing its works as described in thepassage.
4.6. Language structure
I. The use of the simple past
•• Notes
The simple past is a verb tense which is used to show that a completed action
took place at a specific time in the past. The simple past is also frequently used
to talk about past habits and generalizations. The simple past is formed using
the verb + ed/d for regular verbs. In addition, there are many verbs with irregular
past forms. Those are called irregular verbs.
•• Examples
1. The Herero attacked white-owned farms.
2. The RPF soldiers saved tens of thousands from annihilation.
3. The genocide against the Tutsi took place between 7th of April and 4th
July 1994.
4. The Cambodian genocide resulted in the deaths of approximately 2
million people.
5. Germans murdered more than six million Jews in the holocaust under
Hitler’s regime.
•• Language practice : Put the verb into the correct form, positive or
negative :
1. It was warm, so I …….. off my coat, (take)
2. The film wasn’t very good. I …….. enjoy it much, (enjoy)
3. I knew Sarah was busy, so I…………..her. (disturb)
4. We were very tired, so we………the party early, (leave)
5. The bed was very uncomfortable. I……………….well. (Sleep)
6. The window was open and a bird………….into the room, (fly)
7. The hotel wasn’t very expensive. It……….much to stay there, (cost)
8. I was in a hurry, so I………….time to phone you. (have)
9. It was hard carrying the bags. They…………….very heavy, (be)
II. Subordinating conjunctions :
Subordinating conjunctions are conjunctions that are used at the beginning of
subordinate clauses. They do the job of showing the relationship between the
two clauses (main clause and subordinate clause). Some examples of these
conjunctions are: although, after, before, because, how, if, once, since, so that,
until, unless, when, etc.
•• Examples
1. Many Jews were kept in gas chambers until they died.
2. Rwanda is a developed country although it suffered from genocide.
3. The Herero were placed in concentration camps before daily executions
took place
4. The RPF soldiers are praised, because they saved tens of thousands
from annihilation.
5. The International Criminal Tribunal for was established by UN, after
understanding the need for justice.
•• Language practice : Combine each pair of ideas with the words in
parentheses:
1. May cell phone doesn’t work. The battery is dead. (because)
2. It is important to wear a hat on cold days. we lose sixty percent of our
body heat through our head. (Since)
3. Bill couldn’t pick us up after the concert. His car wouldn’t start. ( therefore)
4. the other passangers will get on the bus soon. We’ll leave.( as soon as)
5. I left the room. I turned off the lights. (after)
6. I left the room. I turned off the lights. (before)
7. suki feels nervous. She bites her nails. (whenever)
8. the frying pan caught on fire. I was making dinner.(while)
III. Phrasal preposition :
A phrasal preposition is two or more words functioning as a preposition. Below
are some of the most common phrasal prepositions in English : according to,
apart from, because of, in addition to, in reference to, in regard to, instead of, in
spite of, due to, in the event of, thanks to, for the sake of, in reference with, in
terms of, etc.
•• Examples :
1. Many victims die because of trauma after genocide.
2. We should prevent and fight genocide for the sake of our lives.
3. Tens of thousands of lives were saved thanks to the RPF army intervention.
4. Genocide is a crime because thousands of people are savagely murdered
in spite of their innocence.
5. The international community withdrew its troop instead of taking action to
end the 1994 Genocide Against the Tutsi.
•• Language practice : Choose the right phrasal preposition to fill the
following sentences
1. …….his hard work, he failed the test (by means of, in spite of, because
of)
2. ………….doctors, smoking can cause cancer. (In accordance with,
according to, on behalf of)
3. I am standing here……….my colleagues (instead of, by means of, on
behalf of)
78
4. The trains arrived late…….heavy rains. (On behalf of, in spite of, because
of)
5. I stayed in bed all day….going to work. (In addition to, in spite of, instead
of)
6. Thoughts are conveyed…………words. (On account of, by means of, by
virtue of)
7. Ghandi gave up his legal practice…….his country. (By virtue of, for the
sake of, on behalf)
8. I would like to have a lemon juice…………coffee. (Instead, instead of, in
spite of)
9. ………….his own family, he has to support his brothers. (In addition to,
instead of, in spite of)
10. There is a school ………..my house. (front of, in front, in front of)
4. 7. Spelling and pronunciation
I. Writing sentences with homophones : Write a sentence using each word in
the pairs below (Check a dictionary to make sure you are using and spelling
each word correctly):
1. Stationary and stationery 2. plain and plane 3. miner and minor 4. Site and
cite
5. past and passed 6. break and brake 7. Principle and principal 8. Learn and
lean
II. Phonetic transcription: practice writing the phonetic transcription of thefollowing identify where the stress is placed
UNIT 5 STUDY SKILLS AND WRITING
LEARNING AREA: ORAL AND WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
Key Unit Competence:To use language learnt in the context of study skills and writing.
Text: Giving Instructions
The way teachers talk to students, the manner in which they interact is crucial
to both successful learning and teaching. Perhaps the most important point
that determines how successfully students will learn is the way instructions are
formulated, and sometimes it is this point which distinguishes good teachers
from bad ones. It is important, therefore, that teachers’ directions relating to
academic activity and behaviour are clear, precise and effective. It goes without
saying that the best activity in the world will turn into a disappointing failure if
students don’t understand the instructions.
Amazingly, while some students may remain focused on tasks, others may
appear to be distracted or confused. That’s why, if directions or instructions
are not effectively and clearly formulated, there will be a number of students
who will simply not have assimilated what is to be done or have only caught part
of the information. Any failure to hear or understand teachers’ directions will
undoubtedly result in many unwanted behaviour. For example, both students
and teachers will feel frustration, a deadly feeling for any learning and teaching
process when instructions are not well delivered.
The success of any activity relies on instructions. First of all, the formulations
should be short, easy to understand and precise. To attract the attention of a
group, try clapping your hands or knocking on a desk. Make sure that students
understand that by doing this, you want them to put everything down, stop
talking, look at you and listen.
Secondly, instructions should be given before the students start to work,
otherwise they can be absolutely perfect but nobody pays attention to them.
The spoken instructions are not everything. The body language counts as well,
the gestures, miming, etc.
Thirdly, instructions should always be followed by demonstration. The best way
to tell students how to do something is to actually do it yourself. For example
with role-play, take a more confident/gifted student and pair up with them and
do a practice-run in front of the class. Talking and talking for minutes can be
counter-productive and time-wasting when a quick demo can illustrate the
activity not only linguistically but visually.
Fourthly, teachers should establish routines by giving instructions in a consistent
way. By doing this, students will almost always know what they are expected to
do. Again, they should prepare everything carefully beforehand. Task types can
be grouped and therefore a teacher can find out what should be said in order
to deliver one specific type of task, and so on. In the end, he/she will have a
repertoire of instructions for different tasks and everything will be much simpler.
Indeed, teachers should not forget that wordy instructions do not work effectively,
particularly with learners of low English proficiency. Instructions should be cut
up in small pieces according to different phases of the task that learners have
to perform. When an activity is introduced for the first time, words might not
be enough for low-level students. In some cases, visuals can support learners’
understanding even for instructions.
Then, if you are aware of particular pupils who have difficulty in listening to and
following instructions, it is also worthwhile considering where you are standing
when giving the directions to the group. Close proximity to the target pupil and
using his or her name will give more opportunities for engagement in the activity.
Once the instructions have been given, questions have been answered and the
activity practiced, scan the room and circulate, look for the pupil who is complying
and make a positive comment about those who are following the instructions.
All in all, being clear with your instructions and expectations will reduce the
likelihood of ongoing disruption and interruptions. With better ways to direct
students, teachers will help not only attentive students but also those seemingly
low achievers who cannot do a task because they may have trouble understanding
what is asked from them
(Adapted from (the title of the book/article is missing), by Mohammed Rhalmi, published March
19, 2010 · updated may 15, 2017).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. Examine the role of classroom interaction and teacher talk.
2. At what extent a classroom without clear instructions/direction will result
to positive/negative behaviour. Explain
3. How would you describe some classroom instructions mentioned in the
passage?4. After reading this text, how would you conclude?
Text: Great Expectations
The extract tells us about Pip, an orphan who is about seven years old. While
visiting the graves of his parents and siblings, the boy encounters an escaped
convict in the village churchyard.
‘Hold your noise !’ cried a terrible voice, as a man started up from among the
graves at the side of the church porch. ‘Keep still, you little devil, or I’ll cut your
throat!’ A fearful man, all in coarse grey, with a great iron on his leg. A man with
no hat, and with broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. A man
who had been soaked in water, and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones,
and cut by flints, and stung by nettles, and torn by briars; who limped, and
shivered, and glared, and growled; and whose teeth chattered in his head as he
seized me by the chin.
‘O! Don’t cut my throat, sir,’ I pleaded in terror. ‘Pray don’t do it, sir.’
‘Tell us your name!’ said the man. ‘Quick!’
‘Pip, sir.’
‘Once more,’ said the man, staring at me. ‘Give it mouth!’
‘Pip. Pip, sir.’
‘Show us where you live,’ said the man. ‘Point out the place!’
I pointed to where our village lay, on the flat in-shore among the alder-trees and
pollards, a mile or more from the church.
The man, after looking at me for a moment, turned me upside down, and emptied
my pockets. There was nothing in them but a piece of bread. When the church
came to itself, — for he was so sudden and strong that he made it go head
over heels before me, and I saw the steeple under my feet, — when the church
came to itself, I say, I was seated on a high tombstone, trembling while he ate
the bread ravenously.
‘You young dog,’ said the man, licking his lips, ‘what fat cheeks you ha’ got.’
I believe they were fat, though I was at that time undersized for my years, and
not strong.
‘Darn Me if I couldn’t eat em,’ said the man, with a threatening shake of his head,
‘and if I hadn’t half a mind to ’t!’
I earnestly expressed my hope that he wouldn’t, and held tighter to the tombstone
on which he had put me; partly, to keep myself upon it; partly, to keep myself
from crying.
‘Now look here!’ said the man. ‘Where’s your mother?’
‘There, sir!’ said I.
He started, made a short run, and stopped and looked over his shoulder.
‘There, sir!’ I timidly explained. ‘Also Georgiana. That’s my mother.’
‘Oh!’ said he, coming back. ‘And is that your father along your mother?’
‘Yes, sir,’ said I; ‘him too; late of this parish.’
‘Ha!’ he muttered then, considering. ‘Who d’ye live with, - supposing’ you’re
kindly let to live, which I han’t made up my mind about?’
‘My sister, sir, — Mrs Joe Gargery, — wife of Joe Gargery, the blacksmith, sir.’
‘Blacksmith, eh?’ said he. And looked down at his leg.
After darkly looking at his leg and me several times, he came closer to my
tombstone, took me by both arms, and tilted me back as far as he could hold
me; so that his eyes looked most powerfully down into mine, and mine looked
most helplessly up into his.
‘Now looked here,’ he said, ‘the question being whether you’re to be let to live.
You know what a file is?’
‘Yes, sir.’
‘And you know what wittles is?’
‘Yes, sir.’
After each question he tilted me over a little more, so as to give me a greater
sense of helplessness and danger.
‘You get me a file.’ He tilted me again. ‘And you get me wittles.’ He tilted me
again.
‘You bring ‘em both to me.’ He tilted me again. ‘Or I’ll have your heart and liver
out.’
He tilted me again.
I was dreadfully frightened, and so giddy that I clung to him with both hands, and
said, ‘If you would kindly please to let me keep upright, sir, perhaps I shouldn’t
be sick, and perhaps I could attend more.’
He gave me a most tremendous dip and roll, so that the church jumped over its
own weathercock. Then, he held me by the arms, in an upright position on the
top of the stone, and went on in these fearful terms:
‘You bring me, to-morrow morning early, that file and them whittles. You bring
the lot to me, at that old Battery over yonder. You do it, and you never dare to
say a word or dare to make a sign concerning your having seen such a person
as me, or any person sumever, and you shall be left to live. You fail, or you go
from my words in any partickler, no matter how small it is, and your heart and
your liver shall be tore out, roasted, and ate. Now, I ain’t alone, as you may think
I am. There’s a young man hid with me, in comparison with which young man I
am an Angel.
That young man hears the words I speak. That young man has a secret way
peculiar to himself, of getting at a boy, and at his heart, and at his liver. It is in
vain for a boy to attempt to hide himself from that young man. A boy may lock
his door, may be warm in bed, may tuck himself up, may draw the clothes over
his head, may think himself comfortable and safe, but that young man will softly
creep and creep his way to him and tear him open. I am keeping that young man
from harming you at the present moment, with great difficulty. I find it very hard
to hold that young man off of your inside. Now, what do you say?’
I said that I would get him the file, and I would get him those broken bits of food
I could, and I would come to him at the Battery, early in the morning.
‘Say Lord strike you dead if you don’t!’ said the man.
I said so, and he took me down.
(Adapted from Charles Dickens’ (1861), Great Expectations, London : Chapman and Hall).
•• Comprehension questions :
Carefully read this extract from Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations and
answer the questions that follow:
1. Describe the man who is talked about in this extract.
2. Characterize the narrator in this extract.
3. Where does the conversation between Pip and the escapee take place?
4. How does the escapee end up snatching Pip’s loaf of bread?
5. The man told Pip that he was with a young man who was more awesomethan him. Do you think he was telling the truth? Explain.
Identify different study skills from the figure and explain how they can be applied
to the classroom activities.
Text: Effective study skills
Study is the devotion of time and attention to acquiring knowledge on an
academic subject and the skills are the ability and capacity acquired through
deliberate systematic and sustained effort. For some students, the motivation
and ability to study comes easily. However, for those students for whom it does
not, it is necessary to develop effective study skills.
The aims are to provide the sole foundation of a sound education. These are
necessary for the student to realize their full potential and acquire good grades.
Without these skills, the students would not be aware of their ability to learn in
the best way and to maximize this. She/ Cottrell states :
First, it is essential to be rested (sleep affects performance) and to sit comfortably.
A change of scenery stimulates the brain and helps creative thinking.
Second, to be hydrated : drinking water helps the electrical connections of the
brain.
Third, to be unstressed : when stressed, the brain only concentrates on ‘escape’,
and not on tasks in hand.
Fourth, to learn to see something several times and often, works better than
trying to understand something in one sitting.
She points out that effective study skills are needed to facilitate time management
and to meet deadlines. She states spare time must be used effectively to give
relaxation time, to rest and enjoy oneself as well as independent study time.
According to Cottrell, it is essential to learn from one’s own mistakes and
feedback which give a way to improve performance and above all else, not to
give up. Time management is essential, not giving excessive time to favoured
topics rather than those necessary.
It is essential to stay on target, stay motivated and not to let things get on top of
you, to stay in control and maintain the correct direction of the studies.
General tips are: to identify the task in hand and work out exactly what is being
asked for, setting clear goals and staying focused towards them, develop the
meaning of the task or how things work makes taking in material, reading and
retaining the subject matter easier and find links with the wider world such as
the internet and journals. Working with others can also help by sharing ideas
and getting mutual help.
Adapted from: Frank Cottrell-Boyce. (2017, Feb 04), Effective Study Skills. Also found at
https://studymoose.com/effective-study-skills-essay, by Frank Cottrell-Boyce, an English
screenwriter and novelist.
•• Comprehension questions
1. Referring to the passage, how would you define the term, “study?”
2. With examples, give reasons that support the necessity of study skills.
3. According to the author, identify the skills which should improve the
ability of students to learn in the best way.4. Describe the general tips of study skills discussed in the passage.
Text: Note-taking and Note-making
Every student won’t be able to remember everything that the teacher says
in the class; even though the student has a great memory. Note-taking and
note-making is a great way of helping student to identify important concepts or
information delivered by teachers in class. It is a good idea to have a record of
what students have covered so far in the class. Therefore, it is very important
for the student, as there are large amounts of reading and lengthy lesson. Notetaking
and note-making is the best way to cover the whole lesson effectively.
What is note-taking and note-making? Actually, there is significant difference in
quality between these two. Note-taking is when you write down whatever you
hear or read from teacher without thinking about the topics or subject. It could
be described that/as copying from the original source and re-written in a similar
format, covering most or all of the information given in the source materials.
Therefore, it is called a passive study technique.
However, note-making is an active study technique. The student makes notes on
selective facts, finding one or two learning points rather than noting everything
what the teacher says. Therefore note-making technique requires concentration
in order to select, analyse and summarise what you hear or read. Applying SQ3R
method is the best active approach to lessons. The SQ3R strategy is comprised
of Surveying the topic, Questioning the topic, Reading the topic, Reciting the
answers to their questions and Reviewing their questions and answers after
class. Francis Pleasant Robinson mentioned this method in his book, Effective
Study. There are different types of note-taking and note-making methods. The
most popular methods are: the Outlying Method, the Diagrammatic Method,
Spider Diagram Method, the Mapping Method, Sequential or Linear Method.
I always take notes in the class, which provides me a record of summary of
important information on the lesson. It helps my concentration and stimulates
my own ideas and creativity. More importantly, it is a very powerful tool to store
and retrieve information efficiently. After class, it is easy to test my knowledge
of course material by reading the cue words and trying to remember as much
information as possible.
I prefer to use Sequential or linear notes techniques in the class. Good
sequential notes include key words, headings and sub-headings to express
the connections between key concepts, accompanied by extra information in
brief. In addition to that, inclusion of diagrams and flow charts at the place
where necessary, enhances sequential notes and usually reduces the number
of words. Furthermore, underlying and highlighting also enable me to find the
important points quickly. It is very good for understanding, but there is big time
consuming to write and read. After class, this set of notes helps me to review
the whole lesson and enables to scan quickly the main points.
In some cases, a combination of two or more methods is very good for me.
In anatomy class, I used linear methods together with spider diagram or
diagrammatic method. Either Spider Diagram method or Diagrammatic method
is good for showing structure and organizing the ideas and labelling. It is actually
a mind-map and is good for making connection clear and visual. It is a good
method to use for the subject with complex information. There are a number of
advantages to using spider diagram method or Diagrammatic Method: It helps
me not to ramble. It shows the main point straight away. It keeps the main
point grouped together and it clearly shows the ambiguity which needs more
research. In order to make a Spider Diagram or Diagrammatic Method, put the
main topic in the centre of A4 paper then radiating one branch per main point
from the main topic to outwards. Further smaller branches could be radiated
from the branch for details and examples.
There can be problems regarding notes-taking in the class. Note-taking can
distract student from listening to teacher. Note-taking could put additional
stress on student who does not write naturally. However, this problem could
be overcome by taking more effective note-taking practices. Effective notetaking
or note-making is an important practice to master the subjects at school.
Note-taking is also a learning process in itself, helping student to process and
understand the information received. It enables student to avoid unintentional
plagiarism and could avoid using references and bibliographies. Before exam
or assessment, it helps student to focus on what is important in what we are
reading or hearing in the class. Moreover it provides a personal record of what
we have learnt and records of our questions and ideas.
In summary, effective note-taking and note-making is quite important for the
student, as it helps him/her to retrieve all the information delivered by teachers
in the class. Furthermore, it could be records or storing notes which would be
used as an effective tool in reviewing the subjects when the exam comes.
In conclusion, it is very important to make notes in the class rather than taking
notes. Amongst different kinds of note-taking and note-making method, choosing
the right method for right subject is crucial. It is suggested that a combination of
one or two methods of note-making and note-taking is an effective way of study
in the class.
(Adapted from Tutor Nixton Charles’s Notes, Sociology, Access to Radiography
Course, Chelsea and Kensington College, from 12th Sept 2012 to 21st September 2012).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. With examples from the text, differentiate note taking and note making.
2. What do you understand by SQ3R strategy?
3. Justify the importance of using words, headings and sub-headings while
taking notes.
4. Which value can a mind-map technique add to a lesson while studying?
5. Why do we need to avoid plagiarism in academic life?
6. Evaluate the effect of note making to academic performances of thestudents.
Text 1 : Summary writing
A summary is a brief statement, in your own words, of the main ideas in a
passage that you are reading. When you are summarizing your focus usually is
on the main points in which you may not include supporting ideas such as facts,
reasons, etc. The main goal in summarizing a passage is to give your reader an
accurate idea of the content and the emphasis of the original.
Reid, J. M. (1994 : 299) defined the summary as a brief description of the main
ideas or actions. The author went further to say that we summarize for someone
who has not read (or seen or experienced) the book, article, film, or terrible
vacation, that we have read. The general purpose of a summary, then, is to give
a limited amount of information to a specific reader/audience.
To begin with, the main feature of a summary essay is that you have to repeat
the ideas of the source text by paraphrasing them in your own words. You
should never add any extra information from your side, neither provide your own
examples in the summary. Moreover, a summary essay should be an organized
content that is it/which should follow a proper format.
Introduction
The summary essay starts with an introductory paragraph. This paragraph
focuses on the main ideas that are presented by the author in the text. You are
also required to provide a thesis statement which summarizes the main point of
the source.
The introduction begins with the title of the story written as per the referencing
format guidelines such as APA or MLA. The first sentence of the introduction
begins with an author tag in which you tell the name of the author. You may also
include little background details about the author here.
Remember that the introductory paragraph should not provide how you
evaluated the text. You do not need to mention your own opinions anywhere in
the summary essay introduction.
Body Paragraphs
The body paragraphs of a summary essay consist of all the main points that the
author has mentioned in the text. These main points should be backed up by
presenting any incident, illustrations or examples that the author has mentioned.
You may also include any important data that the author mentions. You should
include different points in different paragraphs to provide your summary essay
with a good structure.
When you are done summarizing the article, your summary essay is complete.
Finally, there are no conclusions in the summary essay because it is not about
your interpretations and opinions. It is about the author’s opinions and ideas. In
certain cases, your instructors might ask you to provide a concluding paragraph.
But, unless it is mentioned in your guidelines, do not write any conclusion on
your own.
Adapted from: Reid J.M. (1994). The Process of Paragraph Writing, New Jersey: Prentice Hall
Regent), https://www.goassignmenthelp.com.au/blog/write-summary-essay-example/.
•• Comprehension questions
1. Referring to the passage, what is the meaning of the term summary?
2. Explain how a passage should be summarized according to the text.
3. Give reasons why conclusion is not necessary when summarizing a
passage or anything written.4. How can you describe the main goal of summarizing a passage?
A speech is a spoken statement that presents a position and tries to convince
an audience to accept to take action. An effective speech addresses an issue
of concern or important to the audience, clearly states the speaker’s position
and goal, supports the position with clearly organized facts, examples and
statistics, addresses the knowledge level, experiences, needs, and concerns of
intended audience,. When preparing to write a speech, start with a topic that
truly interests or concerns the audience.
After selecting a hot topic, focus a specific of it that you can fully and completely
support. If, for example you choose a topic such as “health care”, you would
need many hours to identify very important issue. A narrower related topic, such
as “the importance of preventive care” would be a more suitable topic for a
short persuasive speech. To effectively do this, you need to creative an outline.
Creating an outline helps to divide your topic into smaller parts. Begin by writing
your broad topic as the main level of an outline. Divide the topic into lettered
heads such as A, B, C and so on.
As you plan your speech, it is important that you consider both your audience
and your purpose. Your audience might be a crowd such as a school assembly,
the community meeting or any other gathering of people. Putting yourself in
your audience is a good way to make sure that you have gathered enough
information about a topic. Imagine that you are an audience member, and make
a list of the things you would like to find out when listening to a speech on your
topic. As you gather ideas and organise the list of your major points, make sure
that you are tailoring your speech to your audience’s specific concerns and
expectations.
The strength of your speech will depend on the quality of your analysis and
evidence. You won’t convince anyone unless you have facts, details, anecdotes,
and personal experiences to support your statements. Unless you are already
an expert on your topic, explore reliable sources to collect facts, statistics and
examples you can use to support your argument.
Consult books articles, respected magazines and influential periodicals, visit
internet sites that are sponsored by well-known organizations or prominent
individuals.
Once you have finished gathering evidence to include in your speech, write
out a first draft. In preparing your draft, keep in mind that your argument will be
presented orally. Pay attention to the sound of the language, as well as to its
meaning.
Once you have finished your first draft, revise it by focusing on its overall structure,
paragraphs, sentences, and words. Your speech should leave listeners with a
strong lasting impression. To achieve this goal, you need to present a unified
argument- one that focuses on single important or main idea. Each paragraph
in your speech should contribute to its main idea. Likewise, each sentence in
within each paragraph should support the main idea of the paragraph.
Before you present your speech aloud, check your grammar, usage, and spelling
carefully. Deliver your speech to your classmates or to another audience. While
making your presentation, make frequent eye contact with your audience and
use hand gestures to emphasize your key points. Speak slowly and clearly, and
vary the tone and volume of your voice to match the content of your speech. If
possible, record your delivery so that you can evaluate your own presentation
A text from, Joyce A, et al (2003). Writing and grammar, Massachusetts : Pearson education.
•• Comprehension questions
1. What is a speech according to the above passage?
2. Discuss the main things that the speech addresses.
3. Why do you think you should consider the audience when preparing a
speech?
4. Discuss why the strength of your speech will depend on the quality of
your analysis and evidence.5. Discuss the main things you consider when it comes to speech delivery.
Text 1: Curriculum vitae
The terms “curriculum vitae” (CV) is derived from two Latin words: curriculum
and vita. The first means course, history or way, while the second means life.
The form “vitae” means “of life”. When combined therefore they mean “course
or history of life”.
Ngondo, G. (2005:10) defines “curriculum” as a sales document that highlights
your skills, achievements and experience in such a way that the reader will be
interested to meet you. It includes your name, contact information, education
(as well as research and teaching experience, publications), professional
associations and licenses, awards and other information relevant to the position
you are applying for.
KADEGHE, M. (2005: 35) shares views with Ngondo and added that a good
curriculum vitae is just like an advertisement except that it is an advertisement
for you. Therefore, it is the most advertisement you will ever write. If you think
of your CV as your sales document, then you need to search for the attributes
that you have to sell from within yourself and present them in a manner that will
interest the buyer (the reader / potential employer). Areas that can interest
employers are personal profile, your achievements, Education /Qualifications,
Trainings and skills, Personal details, Hobbies and interests and References.
Universally, there are three recognized formats you can choose from:
chronological, functional and hybrid /targeted formats. The chronological CV
format is the most frequently used. It is used when your career progression is
stable and your professional growth is consistent. The functional CV format
mainly highlights your key skills and strengths and does not emphasize who
you worked for and job titles. The hybrid CV or targeted CV format is the
combination of both chronological and functional styles. Use this format when
targeting a specific type of job
It is difficult to say how long a CV should be. Most people agree that a 2 or
3 page CV is enough. However, some people argue that a one page CV is
good enough. From the point of view of NGONDO, G. (2005:45), there is
very little that can go into a single page CV unless you have very little to “sell”
about yourself. Therefore it is what you want to advertise for the reader that will
determine the length of your CV.
(Adapted from Langan, J. (2003), College Writing Skills, Media Edition. Atlantic City: McGraw-
Hill Companies).
•• Comprehension questions:
1. How is Curriculum Vitae defined etymologically?
2. Why do authors state that a CV is someone’s advertisement?
3. Explain the three types of a CV format.4. Discuss some cases in which you may need to write a CV.
Text 2: Formal letters
Communication between human beings, organization and so on, is quite
indispensable. In this regard, letters bridge the gap between them. The purpose
of writing therefore is to communicate a thought, a fact, an idea, a sentiment,
a celebration or a happening. A well-constructed letter can help you to win a
business, improve and develop your relationship with clients.
Letter writing is essential to many tasks, related to business, commerce,
government and other important organizations. Every educated person should
have the art of writing letters for all occasions for practical reasons.
Letter writing is much different from other kind of writing. The context can be casual/
informal or formal. There are other essential elements to be noted as to whom the
letter is addressed, and if there is any tone required in the language you have to use.
In English, letters fall under two main classes’ namely informal and formal
letters. Informal letters are written to relatives, friends, classmates and equals.
They do not have a rigid structure to follow. On the other hand, formal letter
are addressed to people of higher authority. For this reason you have to pay
attention to the layout, formal language use and clarity of ideas.
In English, we distinguish the following formal letters: the Cover letter/ the
application letter, the complaint letter, the letter of interest, the apology letter,
the letter of appeal, the invitation letter, the resignation letter, and letter of
recommendation. The aforementioned letters are some of the most used.
A cover letter should always accompany your curriculum vitae when you contact
a potential employer. A good cover letter opens a window to your personality
and describes specific strengths and skills you are to offer the employer.
With a cover letter, you can further tailor your application to expand on certain
points from your curriculum vitae. A professionally presented cover letter adds
weight to your C.V. And taking time to write a cover letter further highlights your
interest in the position.
As far as its parts are concerned, a cover letter has three essential paragraphs.
The first justifies why you are writing. So, be clear and concise regarding your
request. The middle paragraphs justify and support what you have to offer.
Convince therefore the readers so that they should grant you the interview or
appointment you requested in the first paragraph. Remember you are interpreting
your curriculum vitae. Try to support each statement you make with a piece of
evidence. Use shorter paragraphs rather than one large block of text. The last
or final paragraph may illustrate how you will follow up. Remember it is your
responsibility to follow up and this relates to your job search.
(Adapted from Hills, R. (2006). The Art of Effective Letter Writing, New Delhi: Lotus Press).
•• Comprehension questions :
1. What are the major types of letters?
2. Discuss the major purpose of writing a letter as discussed in the passage?
3. Why is it said that letter writing is different from other kind of writing?
4. How often in your class do you need to write a formal letter? Give
examples.
5. What are the main parts of a cover letter as discussed in the passage?
6. Examine the impact of professional writing on students’ academicperformances.
Note: One example is helpful to illustrate how the Curriculum vitae and formal
letters (cover letter, resignation, apology letter and memo) are written :
5.7. Language structure: Connectors of contrast, listing,
example and explaining
Notes: As their name itself suggests, sentence connectors are used to combine
sentences. They also express the relationship between ideas. We can add variety
and sophistication to our writing by using appropriate sentence connectors.
They can also be used to connect paragraphs to give them coherence.
I. Connectors of contrast
Connectors of contrast are sentence connectors that join two contrasting
ideas. They include: But, although, despite the fact that, however, nevertheless,
despite, in spite of, yet, etc.
Examples:
1. His rope was thin but it was strong.
2. He is fat but he runs fast.
3. Although the boy was injured, he didn’t give up.
4. We went out in spite of the rain.
5. In spite of having a headache, I enjoyed the film.
6. Despite working hard, she failed the exam.
7. She got good marks in spite of her teacher. (= She had a bad teacher.)
8. Her advice seems strange, yet I believe she’s right.
9. He says that he is a socialist. However, he owns three houses and four
luxury cars.
10. There was little chance of success. Nevertheless, we didn’t give up.
Nevertheless is formal. In a less formal style, we can use conjunctions
like but or yet. Nevertheless and however don’t combine two clauses. They
are used to emphasize the fact that the point expressed by the second clause
contrasts with the first. In writing, they are separated from the rest of the
sentence by a comma.
II. Connectors of listing
Connectors of listing include:
•• firstly, secondly ...
•• to begin / start with ..., to conclude with
•• in the first place, in the second place
•• next , then , finally, last(ly)
109
•• to conclude ...
•• last but not least ...
•• to summarise , to sum up
III. Connectors of examples
Connectors of example include:
•• for example (e.g.), for instance
•• that is (i.e.)
•• that is to say
•• ... such as ...•• namely ...
Exercise Complete the following sentences using the appropriate connector:
1. Some people believe in ghosts and supernatural phenomena…….others
are sceptical about all that. (however, in spite of, whereas)
2. GDP in developing countries………. Rwanda will continue growing at a
high rate. (such as, for example, although)
3. She didn’t get the job……….her brilliant qualifications. (despite, though,
yet)
4. They brought lunch, ………..sandwiches and soda.( namely, in spite of,
even though)
5. I’m not going to speak to her…………….she begs me pardon(but,
although, however)
6. …………….the risks thousands of people climb the Everest every year.(
in spite of, even though, nevertheless)
7. ……………….I went to the store, and………..I got gas. (then/first)
8. ……………..I learned so much, I didn’t manage to pass my exam. ( But/
Even though)
9. You’ll be nauseous ……………you stop eating so many sweets.
(whereas/ unless)
10. ………………we’re at the bus station by seven o’clock, we’ll miss our
bus. (Therefore/Unless)
5.8. Spelling and pronunciation
A. Spelling and pronunciation
One of the underlined sounds is pronounced differently from others. Choose
the word which has a sound pronounced differently from others.
1. a. skill b. Still c. fill d. file
2. a. design b. sign c. resign d. train
3. a. sight b. light c. right d. hate
B. Phonetic transcription
Give phonetic transcription of the following words :
a) study
b) plagiarism
c) paraphrasing
d) periodicals
e) reciting
f) resignationg) memorandum
REFERENCE
1. Kioko, A and Jepkirui M (2010). Spot on Grammar for Secondary Schools. Nairobi:
Oxford University Press.
2. Margaret R. (2019). Internet of things (IoT). Massachusetts: TechTarget
(Available at
https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/Internet-of-Things-
IoT)
3. Margaret R. et al. (2019). AI in IT tools promises better, faster, stronger ops.
Massachusetts: TechTarget (Available
athttps://searchenterpriseai.techtarget.com /definition/AI-Artificial-
Intelligence)
4. Ellis D. (2019). The Advantages of New Technology for Businesses. Houston: Chron
( Available at http://smallbusiness.chron.com/advantages-new-technologybusinesses-
4047.html)
5. Sarokin, David. (2019, March 04). The Disadvantages of Using Technology in
Business. Small Business - Chron.com. (Available at
http://smallbusiness.chron.com/disadvantages-using-technology-business-
23450.html
6. Boulanin, V. et Al. (2019). Emerging military and security technologies. Solna:
SIPRI Available at(https://www.sipri.org/research/armament-anddisarmament/
emerging-military-and-security-technologies
7. Kioko, A and Jepkirui M (2010). Spot on Grammar for Secondary Schools. Nairobi:
Oxford University Press.
8. Webster, A. (2015 ). “Agaciro” the Kinyarwanda word for dignity. Ideas of selfreliance
in Rwanda. Birmingham: ESID (Available at http://www.effectivestates.
org/agitura-the-kinyarwanda-word-for-dignity-ideas-of-self-reliance-inrwanda/
9. https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/228225
10. http://agaciro.rw/index.php?id=34
11. Betty S.Azary, Stacy A. Hagen. (1941). Understanding and using English grammar,
fourth edition with answer key. United state of America, library of congress:
cataloging-in- publication data
12. Raymond M,(2012). English Grammar in use, fourth edition: Cambridge .
Cambridge university press
13. REB. (2019). History for Rwanda Schools senior six student’s book second edition.Kigali: Rwanda Education Board