General
- History SSE Y2 SB File Uploaded 2/11/21, 16:05
UNIT:ORIGIN, RISE AND DECLINE OF WEST AFRICAN EMPIRES
1. Identify and locate those empires on a map of Africa
2. Discuss on the main characteristics of those empires3. Map the gradual growth up and break up of Western African empires
Ghana was the first kingdom to emerge as an empire in the Western Sudan. Apart
from metropolitan Ghana, the empire included several important provincial
territories. Chief among these was Awkar, a name by which Ghana was, for some
time, better known in the Islamic world. At its height, the territories governed
or influenced by Old Ghana covered a considerable area in the source-region ofthe Rivers Niger and Senegal
7.1.1 Origin
The earliest known Negro Empire of Western Sudan recorded in history is
Ghana Empire. The Kingdom was founded by the Soninke who were a branch of
the Mande speaking people in about 300 AD. It started as the small independent
kingdom of Wagadu, which later came to be named Ghana with its capital at
Kumbi-Saleh. The first King was named Kaya Magha Cisse.
By the 10th and 11th centuries, the Empire of Ghana had reached its highest peak
of glory and power. By this period it stretched from Timbiktu on the Niger to
central Senegal then to the north into Sahara and to the south up to Balile River.
7.1.2 Factors that led to the rise and growth of Old Ghana
These were the reasons for the rise of Old Ghana:
Control of trade routes. The empire occupied the savannah land between the
rich gold-fields of Wangara and the most important of the trans-Sahara trade
routes. In this middle-man position, the ruler of Ghana could control and tax
both the trading goods taken from North Africa to the Western Sudan (e.g. salt
and horses) and those taken from the Western Sudan to North Africa (e.g. gold,
ivory, kola). From this trade came wealth and with this wealth the rulers of
Ghana were able to establish and maintain a reasonably efficient administration
and army.
The use of iron. The Soninke were apparently the first group of people in
that part of the Western Sudan to discover the use of iron. The ability to make
weapons of iron was important and assisted in Ghana’s military strength and
growth.
Use of horses. Soninke are considered the first people to secure a sufficiently
large number of horses from North Africa to build up a powerful cavalry.
Effective administration. The Soninke built up a fairly effective large-scale
government, which enabled them to rule a large area and to maintain law and
order.
Unity in the empire. The fact that the rulers of Ghana were considered
semidivine must also have helped the rise of the empire by maintaining unityand limiting the incidence of rebellion.
7.1.3 Organization of Ghana Empire
Political organization
At the head of the empire was the king, operating from the headquarters at
Kumbi Saleh. The king was assisted by able administrators. These men served
also as secretaries. In the capital city, there was a governor. He was in charge
of the civic administration of metropolitan Ghana. In the conquered (or vassal
states) two types of provincial government seem to have operated: In some
provinces, the administration was entrusted to governors appointed directly by
the emperor. These were places where either hostile subjects were constantly
plotting to rebel where there was no centralized native provincial ruler. In
other places the local rulers were allowed a great measure of independence. All
that was required of these provincial native rulers was loyalty to metropolitan
Ghana, and regular payment of tax to the emperor.
Vassal kings sent up their sons to the emperor’s palace. This practice was
maintained for two reasons. Firstly, as long as the sons of the vassal kings were
at the emperor’s palace or court, it was not wise for their fathers to rebel against
the imperial authority. Secondly, these pages learnt a great deal of the arts of
government from the imperial court. The experience thus gained stood them in
good stead when later they returned home to assume the reins of government
in their own land, in succession to their fathers.
The supreme judicial power in the empire was vested in the emperor, assisted by
a hierarchy of subordinate officials. The king did not maintain a standing army.
Men were recruited or called up when the king needed them for a campaign orto defend the empire from external attack.
Economic Organisation
The sources of economic prosperity of Ghana came from the gold mines were
a source of revenue. The king held a monopoly of all the gold mines in the
empire. This policy helped to maintain the high value of this precious metal. It
also accounts for the great wealth which the kings enjoyed. Ghana’s middleman
position helped it to benefit immensely from the trans-Saharan trade. Taxation
on trade goods gave the emperor good revenue. The import and export taxes
yielded much revenue for the king’s treasury. The people of Ghana used their
skills in iron-working in good farming and adequate production of food. The
people were successful fishermen from the many rivers.
Social Organization
The king of Ghana made use of Muslims in his government, but his people still
followed the traditional religion. The king of Old Ghana was regarded as semidivine. As the chief priest, the king conducted special ceremonies and rituals,
and was the link between the living and gods. The people believed in life after
death. This was seen in the burial rites that were performed when the king
died. After his death, the king’s body was placed in a special building on a bed
decorated with fine cloths. His clothes, weapons and other personal belongings
were placed near him. When all this had been done, some of the closest servants
entered the tomb, which was then sealed. The people threw earth over the
tomb until a small burial mound had been created. The people of Old Ghana
lived in thatched houses that were built of wood. The king wore special robes
and ornaments during official ceremonies. People approached the king on their
knees as a sign of respect.
7.1.4 Decline of old Ghana
By the end of the 11 century, Old Ghana had begun to decline. A number of
reasons caused this:
Generally speaking, the inherent structural weaknesses common to most
Sudanese states caused the decline. In this case it was particularly due to the
disruptive activities of the Almoravids, who, either because of a genuine desire
to purify and spread Islam, or because of the prospects of booty, descended on
and sacked Ghana in AD 1076.
The Almoravid attacks had opened the way for internal revolts and incursionsfrom hostile neighbours which Ghana could not control.
Ghana’s great wealth, which had been an asset in its heydays, was now a
disadvantage as its envious neighbours began to make increasingly menacing
attempts to seize it;
Towards the end of the 12 century, the Soninke dynasty, established by Kaya
Magan about 770 AD, was overthrown by a soldier called Diara Kante who was
succeeded in turn by Sumanguru Kante (1200-35).
From the small vassal state of Kaniaga, Sumanguru Kante took advantage of his
suzerain’s weakness and conquered Ghana in 1203. The resultant confusion
and insecurity caused the merchants and scholars in the capital of Old Ghana
to move out and settle in Walata. Sundiata, the only surviving son of the ruler
of the state of Kangaba which was sacked by Sumanguru in 1224, captured andkilled Sumanguru at the Battle of Kirina in AD 1235.
From the ruins of the Old Ghana Empire, there rose the Mandingo Empire of Mali.
Two important personalities dominated the history of this empire, Sundiata
(1230-1255) and Mansa Musa (1312-37). Under Sundiata, Mali became the
dominant trading empire of the Western Sudan. It therefore took the place
of Ghana and although there are differences, it imitated the previous empire
very closely. One essential difference is that everything that Mali did was on a
grander scale; there was more trade, a larger army and a larger empire.
7.2.1 Origins
Mali was not given the name by which it is known until after Sundiata started to
build the empire. Its original name was Kangaba. The people of Kangaba were
the Mandinka, or in other words, the southern Mande. Thus, Mali developed
from the coming together of a number of Mandinka chieftaincies to form the
small state of Kangaba. However, the neighbouring Old Ghana ruler Sumanguru
Kante viewed this up-and-coming state with grave concern; and in about
1224 he descended on Kangaba and conquered it, killing, according to some
traditions, all but one of its ruler’s twelve sons, Sundiata, who went into exile.
Kangaba was left in a desperate situation, but eventually Sundiata returned
from exile and became the king. He was sent help by many of Sumanguru’s
enemies, such as the king of Bobo who sent 1,500 archers to help Kangaba.
Thus, Sundiata was able to assemble a large army to face his foe at a place called
Kirina. His greatest obstacle to victory was the fear that Sumanguru inspired in
the Mandinka.
They believed incredible stories about Sumanguru; for example, that he
possessed eight heads. It was very important for Sundiata to lead the way in
battle and to demonstrate that the Susu king was human and indeed mortal,
which he did. The Susu were defeated and Sundiata went on to capture the old
kingdom of Ghana.
Between 1235 and his death in 1255, Sundiata created the empire of Mali. Mali
is a name given to the empire by Arab travellers and its meaning is the ‘place
where the king lives’. The title which the Mali people gave to their king was
mansa; so by 1235 the once crippled Sundiata was Mansa Sundiata of Mali.
By 1337, Mali controlled an area in West Africa that included most of what are
now Gambia, Guinea, Senegal, and Mali and parts of present-day Burkina Faso,Mauritania and Niger
7.2.2 Rise and expansion of Mali Kingdom
A number of factors led to the rise and expansion of Mali:
Strategic geographical position: Mali’s position, away from the southern
movement of the Sahara Desert, and near the centre of the savannah lands, gave
it a good geographical advantage. Thus, with good farming land Mali could be
sure of adequate food, a large population and a powerful army.
Unity in Islam: The empire was not a target of the jihads because Mali, unlike
Ghana, had long been a Muslim state. Not all the people of Mali, including
Sundiata, were strict Muslims, but most kings seem to have been. This fact was
beneficial to smooth running of Mali government.
Expansion of trade: Sundiata extended the empire’s trading activities resulting
in the expansion of the empire. By concentrating trade in positions on the Niger,
he could be sure of keeping in contact with Gao and copper-producing area of
Takedda and Taghaza from where the salt came.
Military conquests and annexations: Sundiata extended Mali kingdom through
a series of conquests and annexations. Following the defeat of Sumanguru,
Sundiata annexed the kingdom of Kaniaga and all her vassal states, including
Ghana which he conquered in 1240.
Good administration: Sundiata organized an effective administrative system.
He united many petty states, including the newly-annexed ones under one
centralised system of administration. He himself took control of the metropolitanadministration.
The contributions of Mansa Musa: He made contributions in the expansion of
Mali by for instance devoting to Islam and expanding trade.
7.2.3 Organisation of Mali Kingdom
Political organisation
The Mali Empire covered a larger area for a longer period of time than any
other West African state before or since. This in part can be explained by its
political organisation:
Decentralisation of administration: The farther the territory was from Niani,
the more decentralized the mansa’s power became. Nevertheless, the mansa
managed to keep tax money and nominal control over the area without agitating
his subjects into revolt. The Empire reached the limit of its expansion in the
reign of Mansa Musa.
Skilful leaders: Sundiata was an able ruler. Mansa Musa even surpassed him.
This great ruler of Mali, who possessed considerable administrative skills, did
much to organize Mali’s machinery of government.
Administration: Mali was divided up into two main administrative units; the
metropolitan area which comprised the state of Mali itself and a collection of
provincial states annexed through conquest. Sundiata divided the empire into
a number of provinces. Mansa Musa re-organised the provinces in the south
into fourteen administrative units. The government of these provinces was
entrusted to able governors.
Motivation of officials: To encourage faithful and effective local administration,
provincial officials were all well paid, not only in gold, but often in kind with
horses and leases of land. In addition, Mansa Musa instituted special honours
to reward outstanding leaders.
Administration of justice: The administration of justice was keenly promoted
by the kings of Mali, notably Mansa Musa. The king made sure that no-one
received preferential treatment in the law courts, whether the case involved a
governor against an ordinary citizen, or a native against an alien.
Loyalty and respect for authority: Loyalty and respect for authority were othercharacteristics of the people of Mali, which resulted from good administration.
Economic organization
Mostly, the Mali Empire flourished because of trade of gold and salt. All gold
was immediately handed over to the imperial treasury in return for an equal
value of gold dust. Gold dust had been weighed and bagged for use at least since
the reign of the Ghana Empire.
Salt was as almost if not equally valuable to gold in Sub-Saharan Africa. It was
cut into pieces and spent on goods with close to equal buying power throughout
the empire. Also Copper, traded in bars, was mined from Takedda in the north
and traded in the south for gold.
Social organization
Social organization of Mali covered a number of areas such as:
Islamisation of state: Mansa Musa’s major achievement was that he made Mali
a much more devoutly Muslim country.
Education: Mansa Musa encouraged the establishment of Islamic schools.
These increased the prestige of both Mali and professors in the schools and
colleges in the empire.
Architecture: Returning from the pilgrimage, Mansa Musa brought with him
a group of renowned Muslim architects and scholars. Chief among these men
was As-Sahili the celebrated architect and poet. Among his great constructional
works were the famous burnt brick mosques in Gao and Timbuktu as well as
the burnt brick palace at Timbuktu. Through the influence of As-Sahili the
knowledge of the use of burnt bricks for houses spread throughout the empire.
Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca: In the years 1324-5, Mansa Musa went
on a pilgrimage to Mecca, passing through Muslim centres like Walata, Tuat and
Cairo.
The important effects of his pilgrimage to Mecca may be summarised as follows:
• Mansa Musa’s own faith and zeal increased remarkably;
• He based about purifying the religion in his empire and, as noted
earlier, insisted on the strictest observance of the faith and practice of
Islam;
• He promoted Islamic learning;
• Mansa Musa’s example and his devout insistence on the faithful
observance of the rules of Islam must have increased his prestigegreatly among the Muslims of Western Sudan.
7.2.4. Decline of Mali Kingdom
Mali’s greatness and renown continued up to the end of Mansa Sulayman’s
reign. It was then that the empire began to decline. By the end of the 15 century
it had lost much of its power to Songhai. The disintegration of the empire of
Mali took place because of internal and external reasons:
Internal causes
Internal causes of Mali’s decline included the following:
Weak and incompetent leaders. The death of Sulayman began a period of forty
years of constant civil war and changes of kingship. There were immediately
two men ready to rule over Mali: Sulayman’s son Kamba and the grandson of
Mansa Musa, Mari Jata II. The army was split in civil war and the royal clan was
divided. Temporary peace was restored when Mari Jata became king (1360-
1374). A greedy despot, he hardly reflected the greatness of his grandfather.
The attempts made by Mansa Musa II (1374-87) to revive the strength of the
army, trade and government failed. Constant internal dissension resulted in the
assassination of Mansa Maghan II (1387-9), after a short reign.
Rebellion by vassal states. At the height of its glory the Mali empire was very
extensive, comprising many provinces which were inhabited by different
ethnic groups. Each of these was waiting for signs that the central authority
was weakening; for them to seize an opportunity to become independent of
imperial control. Some of these attempts were successful. The first to do this
was Gao (Songhai).
On his way from pilgrimage, Mansa Musa had stopped at his vassal city of Gao
and taken with him to Mali two princes of Gao, Ali Kolen and Sulayman Nar,
as hostages to ensure the continued loyalty of the people to his authority. Not
long afterwards, the two princes escaped from Mali and went back home to
Gao. They organized a successful rebellion and drove out the military forces
stationed there by Mansa Musa. The people of Tekrur in the west followed the
example of Gao.
External causes
The empire suffered a number of attacks by her jealous neighbours:
Attack from Mossi: In the reign of the great Mansa Musa, in 1333, the Mossi in
the south had attacked Timbuktu. They were Later repulsed. About 1400 they
made another destructive attack on the empire.
Tuareg attack: Mali’s northern neighbours, the Tuareg, under their able leader
Aki lag Malwal, took Walata and Timbuktu in 1433-4.
Songhai attack: In 1468, Sunni Ali of Songhai started raids on Mali. By the end
of the 15th century, Mali had been completely annexed by Songhai.
French colonization: Mali as an ancient kingdom disappeared from the maps
from about 1670 onwards. About a century and a half later, this former great
West African territory fell into the hands of the French. Great patriots like Samori
Toure made courageous attempts to recover Mali’s lost heritage. But it was not
until 1960 that this French colony regained her independence. The founders
of this new nation renamed their country Mali, to recall the past glory of themedieval Sudanese empire of that name, to which their ancestors belonged
7.3.1 Origin
What became the nucleus of Songhai began with the coming together of
two mutually unfriendly groups of oborigines: the Sorko, who were mostly
fishermen, and made their living on the river Niger; and the Gabibi, who were
agriculturalists, and lived in different parts of the countryside. Depending
mainly on fishing, the lives of the Sorko were dominated by the river.
By the 7th century, they had organized themselves into a fairly strong kingdom,
with Kukia as their capital. With time, the Sorko dominated the Gabibi. The two
people’s merged into one kingdom, which the Arabic records refer to as AlKawkaw. About the beginning of the 8th century, the Berber Lemta tribe from
the north of Gao, under their leader Za Alieamen, conquered the kingdom.
Thus, began a long line of Za rulers in Al-Kawkaw. Al-Kawkaw grew into a
prosperous and powerful kingdom through fishing, cattle-rearing and trade.
The growing prosperity attracted Muslim merchants from the north. In about
1010 the ruler, Za Kossoi, was converted to Islam. We have seen that Sundiata
moved the capital of Kaniaga from Jeriba to Niani (Mali) to be nearer the centre
of trade. The leaders of Al-Kawkaw transferred their capital from Kukia to
Gao for the same reasons. Al-Kawkaw grew in importance alongside both the
Ghana and Mali empires. But as the two empires developed, more and more of
the Sudanese trade shifted westwards, and Al-Kawkaw declined gradually in
importance. Indeed, she lost her independence for a time to Mali.
7.3.2 Factors that led to the growth of Songhai
A number of factors led to the growth of Songhai:
Trade: Songhai’s rich and fertile land and other resources attracted traders.
Three principal trade routes converged at the capital, Gao.
Influences of Islam: Trans-Saharan trade brought into the kingdom Muslim
influences which helped the development of the kingdom. These influences
became more pronounced from the beginning of the 11th century, following
the conversion of the king, Za Kossoi, to Islam. Furthermore, as happened
elsewhere, the Muslims became advisers in the royal court, and influenced not
only the administration, but also the social, economic, and political life of the
kingdom.
Gao’s resistance to Mali domination: In the 14th century, the kingdom of Gao
came under the control of Mali in the reign of Mansa Musa. In due course, Gao
threw off Mali’s domination, in a rebellion initiated by the two Gaoan princes,
Ali Kolen and Sulayman Nar whom Mansa Musa had taken away to Mali as
hostages. These princes escaped and Sulayman Nar drove out the army of Mali
stationed at Gao. However, some time elapsed before Gao, now developing into
an empire, was able to gain its independence of Mali completely.
The work of Sunni Ali (1464-92): Just as Sundiata was the founder of the Mali
Empire, so was Sunni Ali’s role in the history of the Songhai empire.
The work of Askia Muhammad (1493-152): When Sunni Ali died in 1492, he
was succeeded by his son, Abu Bakr (also known as Sunni Baru). He reigned
for only a little over a year. After a long a period of succession disputes Askia
Muhammad took over. Askia Muhammad took measures to improve the social
and economic life of the empire.
7.3.3 Organization of Songhai Empire
Songhai reached its peak in political, economic and social organizations under
Askia Muhammad (1493-1528).
Political organization
Under him the empire reached its greatest extent stretching from Walata in the
west to Kano in the east it included a number of important trading centres in
the Sahara.
Territorial expansion: Askia followed the example of Sunni Ali and made further
territorial gains through conquests and treaties. He renewed Songhai’s attack
on the Mossi but, like his predecessor, Sunni Ali, he failed to subjugate these
strong southern neighbours. After a long campaign he then conquered what
was left of the Mali kingdom. His next move was against the Hausa states of
Gobir, Kano, Katsina, and Zamfara, all of which he annexed. At the height of
Askia’s reign the Songhai empire stretched from the Atlantic to Lake Chad.
Administration: Askia set about consolidating the territorial gains made by his
predecessor, Sunni Ali, by an elaborate administrative system. He extended this
administrative system to the new lands he added to the empire. He redivided
the empire into four regions, and at the head of each he placed a vice-roy or
governor. The regions were Kurmina Masina, Bambara; Dendi Bala, to and
Bangu Each region was headed by a governor, called fari, farma or koy. Local
rulers still had authority but they were responsible to the regional governors.
In metropolitan Songhai itself, the king held direct control of the machinery of
government. He appointed a council of ministers who assisted him in ruling notonly the metropolitan area but the entire empire.
Military organization: Askia Muhammad also organised the army effectively.
The soldiers kept Tuareg bandits out of the empire and maintained a peaceful
atmosphere in which commerce could flourish.
Social organization
Religion: Like Mansa Musa, Askia Muhammad was a devout Muslim. He used
Islam as a unifying force and adopted Islamic principles as guidelines for the
conduct of his people. Askia appointed judges in each important town of the
empire. These judges followed the Koranic law and the Sharia. As a devout
Muslim, Askia Muhammad made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1497. Though not
as fabulous as Mansa Musa’s, Askia’s pilgrimage had important effects on the
development of his empire.
Education: Askia Muhammad encouraged the spread of education. It was
recorded, for example, that during Askia’s reign, there were as many as 150
Koranic schools in Timbuctu alone. The standard of learning at centres like the
Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, in Jenne and in Gao reached a very advanced
level. Scholars from all over the Islamic world came to these centres for further
studies.
Economic organization
Under Askia Muhammad the economy was reformed and put the economy
of Songhai on a firm basis. He encouraged regional specialisation according
to the natural distribution of the Empire’s economic resources. Thus, some
areas specialised in the cultivation of food crops, some in fishing, others in the
production of building materials, in smith work and in the mining of gold, salt
and copper.
He regularised the system of weights and measures and made salt, in addition
to cowries, the imperial currency. His reforms increased the yield of state
revenue from slave-worked in royal estates, regular contributions from the
provinces, tributes from vassal states and proceeds from state-controlled
commerce, particularly the trans-Saharan trade. The prosperity helped, among
other things, in the establishment of a standing professional army vital to the
strength and stability of Songhai.
The economy was principally based on:
Weights and measures: Askia established a unified system of weights and
measures throughout the empire, allowing, where necessary, a degree of local
variation… He legislated against cheating in trade, and appointed inspectors tocontrol weights and measures and prices.
Collection of imperial revenue: The imperial treasury derived its revenue from
farming and industry, court fines and from a variety of taxes. The income from
these sources and the huge sums of money gained from commerce helped the
kings to maintain an effective administration, to build up a strong army and
navy, and to develop flourishing cities like Gao, Timbuctu and Jenne.
Farming: Much wealth was derived from farming and fishing. Throughout the
empire, the government established vast estates which were worked by slaves.
Each estate was under a fanfa, or estate manager. The revenue from these state
farms went into the imperial treasury.
Crafts: Teams of slaves were also organised for the production of boats, spears
and arrows. Some of these products went to equip the imperial army and navy.
Some were sold to replenish the imperial treasury.
Tributes: Other sources of imperial revenue were tributes collected from vassal
states.
Taxes: Taxes were collected from farmers by the regional governors and were
sent regularly to the capital.
Tolls and duties: In addition, much revenue was collected in form of tolls and
customs duties.
Court fines: These were another source of imperial revenue.
• Reign of Sunni Al Ber Kolon (1464 – 1492)
Sunni Ali Ber also known as Ali Kolon was one of the most powerful performing
king of Songhai. He claimed power in 1464 and ruled up to 16491 when he
drowned in Niger River when he was returning from a military expedition
against the Fulani. During his reign, he laid a foundation for the rise and growth
of the empire to the greatest standards in western Sudan. His reign had been
characterized by the following facts:
He was a founder and liberator: He founded the greatest Empire of Songhai when
he liberated his people from the tyranny of the Tuaregs and the Berbers, raids
and transformed the small State of Gao into a large, powerful and a peaceful
Empire of Songhai.
He expanded the Empire: He expanded the empire through his conquests of the
neighbors. In 1468 he conquered Timbuktu, 1472 he captured Jenne, Haussa
state of Kebbi, remaining parts of Mali etc and added them to make a largeEmpire of Songhai.
He built a strong army: He consolidated himself in Gao and improved the army
by establishing cavalry, infantry and naval fleets which he used for a vigorous
conquest policy, defending the empire and maintaining law and order that
brought peace and stability.
He promoted good governance and administration. He also established a good
and efficient system of governance by dividing his conquered into provinces.
He appointed new governors and areas where there was submission he left
them with their rulers. Special governors were appointed to the state, resisted
his rule and commanders in chief who were loyal to him.
He eliminated enemies of the empire: In his duty to build his empire, he used
excessive hostility on his enemies but generous to those who submitted to his
authority. It’ said that he hated and killed the Fulani and the Moslems clerics
and scholars of Timbuktu because they resisted his administration.
He promoted trade: Sunni Ali promoted trade and commerce by capturing the
commercial centers like Timbuktu, controlling the trade routes, encouraging
his people to participate in the T.S.T with foreign countries and by creating the
stability and security in his empire.
He promoted agriculture: He encouraged his people to get engaged in agriculture
and fishing activities in order to meet food and commercial requirements in the
selling of the surplus.
He did not tolerate Islam: Though, he was a Moslem, he was not in practice. In
fact he did not promote Islam as a religion and he remained indifferent and he
could kill his fellow Moslems as long as they did not obey him.
He never employed and integrated his enemies in the government: He excluded
people he considered as enemies in his government and judiciary. He was also
too harsh to Moslems and Fulani who refused his authority and killed them.
He failed to annex Mossi: However, Sunni Ali Ber is said to have failed to defeat
and annex the Mossi of Yatega as a tributary State. He murdered his enemies
whether man or women or innocent or not, brands him a murderous despot
who destroyed his empire other than building it.
However, his efforts are greatly appreciated for founding the empire of Songhai
by laying a foundation on which his successors began from. Within a period of
28 years, Sunni Ali had converted the title State of Gao into a huge empire of
Songhai. It is no wonder that he was clever politician, a brave soldier and anable administrator.
• Reign of Askia Muhammad, the Great (1493 – 1529)
After the death of Sunni Ali, Askia Muhammad originally called Muhammad
Toure Ibn Baker replaced him. He was one of Sunni’s general and Prime minister.
Since he did not belong to the royal family, he had to grab power through a coup
d’état by deposing his former master’s son Abu Bakr Dao (Bari) in April 1493
who was the legitimate claimant of the throne.
After gaining power, Askia Muhammad killed and expelled all members of
the previous ruling family and established his own dynasty known as “Askia
dynasty”. Because of his great achievements in Songhai, he was given a title of
“the Khalifa of Blacks”, and his achievements can be seen as follow:
He eliminated enemies of the Empire: He introduced “Askia Dynasty” in Songhai
by eliminating members of the previous ruling dynasties so as to eliminate
opposition who would cause political revelries. He either killed or expelled
them from the empire i.e. the “Za’ and “Sunni” dynasties.
He promoted Islamic unity: He consolidating himself by promoting as s unifying
factor although he and his master had previously persecuted it. He appointed
Moslems as his advisers, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1497 and built many
mosques.
He expanded Songhai: He consolidated Sunni Ali’s conquest and also expanded
the empire by conquering the remains of Mali, Agadez, Kano, Katsina and
Zamfara etc.
He established efficient administration: He introduced an excellent administration
by dividing the empire into four regions each under a Regional Commissioner.
He further divided each region into provinces each under Provincial Governor.
He also appointed a Council of Ministers like Commander in Chief of the army
known as Balama, Chief Tax Collector called Farimudya, Minister in charge of
Rivers, Lakes and fisheries and Minister of Foreign Affairs.
He formed a strong administration over Vassal States: He forced kings in the
provincial states to marry from the royal family, placed permanent official to
oversee the payment of annual tributes but left them under their rule.
He established good flow of income: Muhammad established good source of
income to maintain his administration and army namely, royal estates which
produced rice, corn, spears arrows etc. by use of slaves, fish, tributes fromprovincial states, taxes from peasants, farmers and custom duties.
He promoted local factory: He established local factories such as smelting from
where he got spears and arrows, cotton and lien weaving, salt mining etc., which
improved the defense and standards of living of people.
He promoted agriculture: He strengthened the agricultural sector as a strong
foundation of the economy by establishing royal estates which produced
specific commodities (food) by use of slaves.
He promoted diplomatic relations: Askia Muhammad had compassion for
foreigners by promoting diplomatic and commercial relationships with outside
countries. His regime saw many foreign traders, scholars etc who contributed
to the development of trade, Islam and education.
He promoted Islamic education: Askia Muhammad is a distinguished ruler of
Songhai for developing education. He introduced higher education, attracted
scholars and professors and made Timbuktu a popular centre of education.
He built many Koranic schools and University education was provided in the
mosque of Sankole.
By 1529 Askia Muhammad became ripe, old and blind and his son Musa seized
the throne on 15th, August 1529 and in 1537 he was deposed from Gao to
Kankaka Island on the Niger. But only returned by his good-Son Askia Ismail to
Gao where he died peacefully in 1538.
7.3.4 Decline and collapse of Songhai Empire
In 1590 the great Empire of Songhai built by Sunni Ali and strengthened by
Askia Muhammad collapsed due to the following reasons:
Internal conflicts: The Empire had been characterized by internal disorders
created by succession disputes. After the death of Askia Muhammad, struggle
for power between his sons Askia Muhammad Bani and Sadiq with official
weakened Songhai Empire.
Weak leaders: The cruelty of Askia Musa and Askia Bankouri who oppressed
the subjects discredited the rule of Askia dynasty among their subjects and the
foreigners. They became too weak to maintain the defense of the large empire
and the captured States took advantage of such weak leadership to break away.
Weakness of the army: This was mainly a result of numerous civil wars that took
place after the reign of Askia Muhammad the great and probably the political
incompetence of the new leaders. So, the army was so weak so that they could
no longer defend and protect the Empire
Decline of Trans-Sahara Trade.: due to political instabilities in Songhai and
insecurity in desert, the T.S.T declined which means that guns, gifts and revenue
were no longer got and the army that was used to defend the Empire became
weak.
Disunity in Songhai: The Songhai Empire declined probably because of disunity
among the people e.g. non-Moslems and Moslems, the Sunni dynasty and Askia
dynasty; that paved way for the weakness and fall of Songhai.
Neglect of agriculture: By political instabilities, agriculture was neglected which
led to famine, the army and population were not supplied with food and the
army was incapable defending Empire.
Rise of nationalism among captured States: Many people in the captured States
wished to regain their independence which they had lost. They rose and
revolted demanding for self-rule and they took advantage of Songhai being
ruled by weak leaders.
Expensive nature of Songhai: At the greatest peak of power, Songhai had widely
expanded and it became difficult to control and to administrate it effectively
especially after the death of able and strong leaders.
Attacks of the Fulani and Tuaregs: These were constant attacks from the war-like
people who eventually attacked Songhai, taking away the salt mine of Taghaza
which weakened the economy of Songhai.
Moroccan invasion of 1590: This was the last blow to the life of Songhai. The
Moroccan invaders wanted to control trade and Songhai resources. Morocco
had a stronger army with superior weapons while the Songhai army was weak.
In 1590, Ali Musa, the Sultan of Morocco sent his force, the Moors, who were
4 000, but only 1 500 were Moroccans the rest were mercenaries from Spain
and Portugal. They attacked and defeated the soldiers of Songhai at the battle
of Tondibi, (nearest of Gao). This led to the final of Songhai and it became a part
of Moroccan Empire.
7.4.1 Origins
The origins of the Kanuri Empire are very unclear. Much of what we know
about it is purely legendary. According to the so-called Kisra legend, Kanem
was founded by a prince called Kisra and his followers who migrated to the east
of Lake Chad from eastern Africa. It is believed that the westward movement of
Kisra and his people took place as a consequence of the destruction of the city
of Meroe (in the present day republic of the Sudan) by the people of Axum (in
Ethiopia) in about AD 350.
Archaeologists have unearthed several historical remains in Kanem, which
seem to point to the influence of Meroe. Some of the early peoples of the Kanem
area were the So, who were the original inhabitants of the area; the Zaghawa – a
nomadic people who were believed to have immigrated from eastern Africa in
early times, and to have settled to the east of the lake in about eighth centuryAD; the Kanuri or Kanembi; and the Bulala.
7.4.2 Factors for the rise and growth of Karem-Bornu
The power and growth of Kanem-Bornu, unlike that of most other Sudanese
states, fluctuated over the years, but the state never really completely broke
down. One reason for this was the remarkable longevity of the Sefawa dynasty
whos
e rulers were able to sustain the state through crises of disintegration.
Their profiles below show how this happened:
a. Mai Dugu
The first known Mai (or ruler) who ruled these early settlers as a united people
was Dugu. He founded the Sefawa dynasty in about AD 774. His capital was
Njimi, situated to the north-east of Lake Chad.
b. Mai Umme Jilmi (1085-97)
It was in the reign of Mai Jilmi that Islam was introduced to Kanem-Bornu. He
is said to have died while on pilgrimage. Between 1085 and 1240 Islam gained
ground in Kanem Bornu, especially among the ruling class. Islam tended tomake a positive contribution to scholarship and administration.
c. Mai Dunama 1 (1097-1150)
Dunama had a long reign. He was powerful and pious. He strengthened the hold
of the Kanembu on their subjects and went on pilgrimages several times.
d. Mai Selma (1194-1221)
Mai Selma is notable as the first Kanembu king of Kanem-Bornu, his predecessors
in office having been the Zagha was who founded the state. He continued to
strengthen the state by maintaining a firm control over his more troublesome
peoples,particularly the nomadic tribes, and by controlling the trans-Saharan
trade as far as Fezzan. Njimi became well-established as the capital of the
growing empire in Selma’s time.
e. Mai Dunama Dabalemi ibn Selma (1221-59)
He was also known as Dunama II. His reign was full of wars, and with an army
30,000-40,000 strong men, he made extensive conquests. Dunama II maintained
good relations with the powerful Hafsid rulers of North Africa. He is said to
have exchanged rich presents with them, including a giraffe which he sent to
Al-Mustansir. The first phase of the empire (ie from its foundation to the time
when it moved westwards to Bornu) reached its height under Mai Dunama II.
f. Mai Ali Ghaji (Ghazi) (1472-15-4
He came to the throne after a period of civil wars which threatened the
continued existence of Kanem-Bornu. On his accession, he began to move the
headquarters from Njimi to Ngazargamu, completing this in 1484. He thus laid
the foundation for the second phase of the Kanem-Bornu Empire. He ended the
disruptive civil wars, ands reformed the administration and the army. But he
is best remembered for his remarkable career of conquest which earned him
the title ‘El Ghazi’ or the Warrior.Ali Ghaji patronized Islam and is said to have
enforced Islamic practices with the help of his Chief Imam.
g. Mai Idris Katakarmabi and Mohammed (1504-45)
This was Ali Ghaji’s son and successor, who completed his father’s conquests.
He checked the Bulala threat, and strengthened the link with North Africa by
sending an embassy to Tripoli about 1512. Idris Katakarmabi was followed
by Mai Mohammed (1526-45). Mohammed more or less ended the continued
Bulala menace by a ruthless military action in which the Bornu ‘rebels’ were
beaten and their king killed.
After Mohammed, succession disputes flared up again and there followed a
brief interregnum when the Magira Aicha ruled, preparing the way for the most
famous Mai of Kanem-Bornu.
h. Mai Idris Aluma (1571-1603)
Kanem-Bornu peaked during the reign of the outstanding statesman Mai Idris
Aluma (1571-1603). Idris Aluma’s reign was well-documented by his chief
Imam, Ahmed Ibn Fartua. Aluma (also spelled Alooma). He is remembered
for his military skills, administrative reforms, and Islamic piety. His main
adversaries were the Hausa to the west, the Tuareg and Toubou to the north,
and the Bulala to the east. Mai Aluma’s reign can be remembered for a number
of innovations and achievements:
Military innovations. His innovations included the employment of fixed military
camps (with walls); permanent sieges and ‘scorched earth’ tactics, where
soldiers burned everything in their path; armoured horses and riders; and
the use of Berber camelry, Kotoko boatmen, and iron-helmeted musketeers
trained by Turkish military advisers. (ii) Good diplomatic relations. His active
diplomacy featured relations with Tripoli, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire,
which sent a 200-member ambassadorial party across the desert to Aluma’s
court at Ngazargamu. Aluma also signed what was probably the first written
treaty or cease-fire in Chadian history.
Legal and administrative reforms. Aluma introduced a number of legal and
administrative reforms based on his religious beliefs and Islamic law (sharia).
Islamisation. Idris Aluma was a great patron of Islam and used his great power
to boost the process of Islamisation within his sphere of influence. Previously
only the clerical families and the ruling class had adopted Islam; but in Idris
Aluma’s time all the notables, and a good many others, according to Ibn Fartua,
became Muslims. He began the process of substituting the Sharia for customary
law in certain spheres. He sponsored the construction of numerous mosques
and made a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he arranged for the establishment of a
hostel to be used by pilgrims from his empire.
Political alliances: As with other dynamic politicians, Aluma’s reformist goals
led him to seek loyal and competent advisers and allies. He frequently relied on
slaves who had been educated in noble homes. Aluma regularly sought advice
from a council composed of heads of the most important clans. He commanded
the loyalty and support of the Kanuri who came to identify themselves with the
Bornu empire, and he went a long way towards the political unification of the
various groups within it. He used a combination of Islam, dynastic marriages
and a careful definition of Bornu’s sphere of influence, to achieve this. He
required major political figures to live at the court. He reinforced political
alliances through marriages.
Economic organization: Kanem-Bornu under Aluma was strong and wealthy.
Government revenue came from tributes, sales of slaves, and duties on
participation in trans-Saharan trade. The Chadian region did not have gold. Still,
it was central to one of the most convenient trans-Saharan routes. Between Lake
Chad and Fezzan lay a sequence of well-spaced wells and oases. From Fezzan
there were easy connections to North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Many
products were sent north, including natron (sodium carbonate), cotton, kola
nuts, ivory, ostrich feathers, perfume, wax, and hides. But the most important of
all were slaves. Imports included salt, horses, silks, glass, muskets, and copper.
Mai Idris Aluma’s achievement for the second Kanem-Bornu empire is
comparable to that of Mansa Musa of Mali and Askia Muhammad Ture for
Songhai. He died in 1603 when returning from an expedition. He died, he had
expanded the empire to its widest extent; he had Islamised all aspects of life in
the empire; he had made his empire widely known and respected throughout
the Muslim world in Africa, Asia and Turkey; he left the empire at the peak of
its power and prosperity. His reign coincided with the decline of the Songhai
empire. His fame did not end with his death but persisted down to the 19th
century.
7.4.3. Organization of the empire - Social and political organization
The empire lasted for over a thousand years. During this long period institutions
of government underwent changes. However, the following may be regarded as
an outline of how the vast empire was organized, when at the peak of its power.
At the head of the central government was the king (Mai). He was regarded
as sacred and was more or less worshipped. For this reason, he did not show
himself in public, except on two annual festivals. Otherwise he remained always
hidden behind a curtain, even when receiving guests. Next in importance was
the queen mother Magira. Some of these Magira became so powerful that they
had great influence over and sometimes vetoed the decisions of the Mai. Another
influential person was the first or ‘eldest’ wife of the king Gumsu. The Mai in
effect ruled indirectly through a hierarchy of officials, including the Supreme
Council of State. Each of the twelve councilors exercised authority over a feudal
like territory, sometimes in addition to other administrative assignments in the
capital.
The most important Councillors were the Yerima First War Lord and Warden of
the South, the Warden of the North, the Warden of the East and keeper of the
Mai’s household and the (Galadima) Warden of the West. In time these titles
became honorific, as circumstances changed, and their holders settled down to
a life of cultured leisure in the capital. They appointed officers called Chimagana
to administer their fiefs.
The change of dynasty, from Seifawa to Shehu, in the 19th century also saw the
shifting of effective political power from these old dignitaries to a new class of
administrators called ‘Kokenawa’.
Other important officials of Kanem-Bornu included the Mainin Kanendi (Chie
Judge), who was the second most important citizen after the Mai. He and twelve
other judges formed the High Court which dispensed justice; a Registrar (Talba)
kept records of its proceedings. There were also courts in the main towns
from which appeals could be put before the High Court. Eventually, as Islamic
practices took root in Kanem-Bornu, Muslim Qadis and local judges (Malamai)
joined the judiciary.
Royal personages like the Queen Mother the Mai’s official elder sister (Magara),
and his consort or official wife (Gumsu), enjoyed certain privileges and took part
in the administration. In particular, the Queen Mother wielded considerable
political influence, if not direct power. For instance, one Mai, Biri Ibn Dunama
(1151-74), was said to have been imprisoned by the Magira of his time. Another
Queen Mother, Aicha, successfully fought and won the throne for her son, Idris
Aluma, who was to become the greatest Mai of Kanem-Bornu.
Economic organization
Kanem-Bornu got its revenue from poll tax (binemram) which was levied
through each fief-holder and the sadaa, a special harvest tithe. The proceeds
went direct to the royal coffers. Tribute was collected from vassal states, and
officials of royal origin were generally entrusted with this.
Trade was the greatest source of income, despite the absence of large and
important commercial centres as in the Western Sudan. Grain from the empire
was exchanged for salt at Bilma, and natron or potash from the Lake Chad region
was sent to Kano from where it was distributed over wide areas of the Sudan.
Kanuri middlemen handled the copper trade between Darfur and Nupe. Kola
from the forest belt came through Kano and was exported, along with slaves
from the southern part of the empire, to Tunis, Tripoli and Cairo. Cowries androlls of cloth were the standard currency.
7.4.4. Decline of Kanem-Bornu Empire
The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Aluma sustained the
empire until the mid-1600s, when its power began to fade. By the late 1700s,
Bornu rule extended only westward, into the land of the Hausa. Around that
time, Fulani people, invading from the west, were able to make major inroads
into Bornu.
By the early 19 century, Kanem-Bornu was clearly an empire in decline. In
1808, Fulani warriors conquered Ngazargamu. Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani
thrust and proclaimed a jihad (holy war) on the irreligious Muslims of the area.
His campaign eventually affected Kanem-Bornu and inspired a trend toward
Islamic doctrines. But Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi contested the Fulani
advance.
Kanem was a Muslim scholar and non-Sefawa warlord who had put together
an alliance of Shuwa Arabs, Kanembu, and other semi-nomadic peoples. He
eventually built a capital at Kukawa (in present-day Nigeria). Sefawa mais
remained titular monarchs until 1846. In that year, the last mai, in league with
Wadai (Ouadai) tribesmen, precipitated a civil war. It was at that point that
Kanem’s son, Umar, became king, thus ending one of the longest dynastic reigns
in regional history. Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem-Bornu
survived. Umar, who eschewed the title mai for the simpler designation shehu,
(from the Arabic“shaykh”) could not match his father’s energy.
He gradually allowed the kingdom to be ruled by advisers (wazirs). Bornu
began to decline, as a result of administrative disorganization and attacks by
the militant Wadai Empire to the east. The decline continued under Umar’s
sons. In 1893 Rabih Fadlallah, leading an invading army from eastern Sudan,conquered Bornu. He was defeated by French soldiers in 1900.
Unit Summary
The unit considers the raise of great and powerful empires West Africa such as
Songhai, Mali, Kanem Bornu etc…. It focuses to their raise, their organization
and their decline. In general, many of them were muslim believers and
geographically vaste. Their dimemnsion is one of the cause of their decline.
Trade seems to be the major income activity, even the use of horses in battleand commerce to travel long distances.