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• UNIT 1: COMPARISON OF THE GENOCIDES

  Key unit competency: The student-teacher should be able to compare 

  different genocides in the 20th Century.

  Introductory activity

  

  

  

  

  

  

  

  It is asserted that the occurrence of Genocide not only happened in Rwanda 

  but also elsewhere in the world. There have been other cases of genocide in 

  different parts of the world that occurred in different times. Some of the cases 

  of genocide that happened in the 20th century are as follows:

  

  

  

  Among other causes of the Herero and Nama tribes’ genocide in the today 
  Namibia are racism, land expropriation and discrimination. These causes 
  are interrelated to colonial causes that pushed European powerful countries 
  like England, Italy, German, Spain, and Portugal to conquer and export white 
  civilization in Asia, Latino-America and Africa. 
  
  German invasion development
  In the 1880s Germans made South West Africa (today Namibia) their 
  own colony, and settlers moved in, followed by a military governor 
  who knew little about running a colony and nothing at all about Africa. 
  Major Theodor Leutwein began by playing off the Nama and Herero 
  tribes against each other. More and more white settlers arrived, pushing 
  tribesmen off their cattle-grazing lands with bribes and unreliable deals. 
  In January 1904, the Herero, desperate to regain their livelihoods, rebelled. 
  Herero and Nama rebellion 
  Under their leader Samuel Maherero they began to attack the numerous German 
  outposts. They killed German men, but spared women, children, missionaries, 
  and the English or Boer farmers whose support they didn’t want to lose. At 
  the same time, the Nama chief, Hendrik Witbooi, wrote a letter to Theodor 
  Leutwein, telling him what the native Africans thought of their invaders, who 
  had taken their land, deprived them of their rights to pasture their animals on it, 
  used up the insufficient water supplies, and imposed unfamiliar laws and taxes. 
  His hope was that Leutwein would recognize the injustice and do something 
  about it. 
  In January 1904, the Herero people and Nama of South West Africa led by 
  supreme Chief Samuel Maherero and Hendrick Witbooi revolted against the 
  Germans colonialists. The white settlers were given a surprise attack by a force 
  of about 7 000 men. Before the Germans could organize to defend themselves, 
  over one hundred settlers and soldiers had been killed. The railway line from 
  Swakopmund to Windhoeklock was cut in several pieces and telegraph lines 
  were broken. German settlements and garrisons were surrounded until 1904 
  

  when the German re-enforcements were sent to rescue them.

  

  The Germans under Lentwein and Commander General Von Trotha began an 
  offensive in June 1904. The Herero, young and old, armed and unarmed, with or 
  without cattle were shot as Trotha waged a war of extermination. 
  The rescues of the Herero were driven into the desert of Omaheke where they 
  starved to death. 
  The Herero fled into the desert and von Trotha ordered his troops to poison 
  water holes, erect guard posts along a 150-mile line and shoot on sight any 
  Herero, be the man, woman or child, who attempted to escape. To make his 
  attitude to the Herero absolutely clear, Von Trotha then issued the extermination 
  order.
  Von Trotha’s methods caused a public disagreement which led the Imperial 
  Chancellor Bernhard von Bülow to ask William II, German Emperor, to relieve 
  von Trotha of his command. This, however, was too late to help the Herero, as 
  the few survivors had been herded into camps and used as labor for German 
  businesses, where many died of overwork, malnutrition, beaten to death or 
  disease. Prior to the uprisings, there were estimated to be 80,000 Herero. About 
  54 000 of Herero died while 10 000 of Nama were died.
  By December 1905, the Herero rebellion had been brought down but it was 
  about the same time that the Nama under Witbooi rose up against the Germans. 
  The Nama were more skilled at guerrilla warfare than the Herero and so their 
  rising lasted longer. Witbooi was killed in October 1906 and the leadership was 
  taken over by Jacob Morenga who was also died in 1907. 
  As the consequences, this genocide had devastating result as many people died: 
  about 2 000 Germans killed, 54 000 of Herero died out of 80 000 while 10 000 
  of Nama were died;
  The he Germans continued a systematic purge of Nama and Herero to South 
  Africa and to Bechuanaland together with King Samuel Maherero. But the Nama 
  

  Kings Hendrich Witbooi and Morenga were killed.

  c. Herero genocide 

  Nama and Herero who were the cattle keepers lost almost all their cattle, which 
  were confiscated by the Germans;
  Germans banned all ethnic organizations and practices together with traditional 
  

  ceremonies of the natives;

  Some native people accepted to go and work for the Whites on their roads, 
  farms and railways construction and other projects as sign of submission to 
  save their life;
  Thousands of African women and children who survived the war of resistance 
  were put in concentration camps and shepherded by German government. 
  Most of them died of sunny desert climates of Kalahari and the vinegary effects 
  of forced labor;
  There was increase of German settler population because after this rebellion, 
  the Germans doubled in number. Their number grew from 4 600 in 1905 to 15 
  000 in 1913 and German administration became more secure as the uprising 
  was dealt with a knock down force;
  The cross ethnic and cultural alliance against a common enemy left behind the 
  feeling of patriotism and nationalism. This background led to the formation 
  of a multi-ethnic and tribal organization called “South West African People’s 
  Organization” (SWAPO) founded under Sam Nd’joma who fought against the 
  South African White rule in his country and led it to its independence in 1990.
  This genocide against the Herero was recognized by the Germany government 
  and the family of General Von Trotha but not yet recognized by the United 
  

  Nation Organization

  

  1.2.2 The Jews Holocaust (1939-1945)
  a. What is holocaust?
  The Holocaust (from the Greek holókaustos: hólos, “whole” and kaustós, “burnt”), 
  also known as the Shoah (Hebrew: HaShoah, “catastrophe”; Yiddish: Churben or 
  Hurban, from the Hebrew for “destruction”), was the genocide of approximately 
  six million European Jews during World War II.
  It was a program of systematic state-sponsored murder by Nazi Germany, led 
  by Adolf Hitler, throughout Nazi-occupied territories. Of the nine million Jews 
  who had resided in Europe before the Holocaust, approximately two-thirds 
  perished. In particular, over one million Jewish children were killed in the 
  Holocaust, as were approximately two million Jewish women and three million 
  Jewish men. 
  b. Causes of Holocaust 
  The Nazis used a euphemistic phrase, the “Final Solution to the Jewish Question” 
  and the phrase “Final Solution” has been widely used as a term for the genocide 
  of the Jews subsequently. Nazis also used the phrase “Life unworthy of life” in an 
  attempt to justify the killings philosophically.
  The Holocaust have been prepared and explained through the different myths 
  like Myths of the Nazi ideology and the Myth of Aryans developed during 18th
  and 19th centuries.
  This myth of Aryans was believed by a number of theoreticians, who included 
  Joseph Arthur de Gobineau, who had expressed his ideas in his book untitled 
  “Essay on the Inequality of Human Races (1853-1855). He stated that the Aryans 
  or white race was superior to all other races. Other supporters of this myth 
  were Eduard Drumont and Huston Stewart Chamberlain. 
  

  c. Preparation and execution of Holocaust: Genocide ideology

  
  

  Adolf Hitler used the Gabineau’s theory of race inequality to sustain that 
  the Germanic race was superior and therefore had to be protected from any 
  contamination emanating from mixed marriage. According to de Gobineau, the 
  intermarriage diminishes the proportion of the Aryan blood that they have. A 
  practice that was consequently forbidden and this targeted the Jews. 
  Hitler claimed that since the Jews were declared impure, their aim was to 
  intermarry with the pure Aryan people thereby corrupting the entire group 
  and spread bad and harmful ideologies such as Marxism, internationalism, 
  individualism and liberalism. 
  Another myth was the “Myth on Jews” developed in the 19th century was based 
  on religious beliefs. The Jews were accused by the first Church members not 
  to recognize Jesus Christ as the son of God and to have killed the son of God 
  (deicide). Since then, the Anti-Semitism which was political, social and economic 
  agitation and activities directed against Jews, was supported by the “Church 
  Fathers”; who included Saints Ambroise, Augustine etc. 
  The term of “Anti-Semitism” is now used to denote speech and behavior that is 
  derogatory to people of Jewish origin, whether or not they are religious. The 
  word Semitic originally was applied to all descendants of Shem, the eldest son 
  of the biblical patriarch Noah. 
  In the 14th century, the bubonic plague and the Black plague known as “Black 
  Death” devastated Europe for 20 years and killed about 25 million of people, 
  estimated to be 75 % of whole population. The Jews were held responsible 
  and rumors were spread that the Jews had poisoned water fountains. Between 
  1348 and 1350 due to those rumors, many Jews were hanged or buried live.
  After the First World War, between 1914-1918 (WW I), many Germans blamed 
  the Jews for Germany’s defeat in World War I, some even claiming that German 
  Jews had betrayed the nation during the war. In addition, at the end of the war 
  a Communist group attempted to carry out a Bolshevik-type revolution in the 
  German state of Bavaria. Most of the leaders of that failed attempt were Jews. 
  As a result, some Germans associated Jews with Bolsheviks and regarded both 
  groups as dangerous enemies of Germany. After the war, a republic known as 
  the Weimar Republic was set up in Germany. Jewish politicians and intellectuals 
  played an important role in German life during the Weimar Republic, and many 
  non-Jews resented their influence. 
  On the basis of his anti-Semitic views, Nazi leader Adolf Hitler attacked the 
  impressive role Jews played in German society during the Weimar Republic, 
  especially in the intellectual world and in left-wing politics. He referred to them 
  

  as a plague and a cancer.

  In his book Mein Kampf (My Struggle, translated 1939), which was published 
  in 1926, Hitler blamed the plight of Germany at the end of World War I on an 
  international Jewish plan and used terms such as extirpation and extermination
  in relation to the Jews. He claimed that the Jews had achieved economic 
  dominance and the ability to control and manipulate the mass media to their 
  own advantage. He wrote on the need to eradicate their powerful economic 
  position, if necessary by means of their physical removal.
  On April 7, 1933, the Reichstag enacted the “Law for the Restoration of the 
  Professional Civil Service”, the first anti-Semitic law passed in the Third Reich; 
  the Physicians’ Law; and the Farm Law, forbidding Jews from owning farms 
  or taking part in agriculture. Jewish lawyers were disbarred, and in Dresden, 
  Jewish lawyers and judges were dragged out of their offices, courtrooms and 
  beaten. Jews were excluded from schools and universities (the Law to Prevent 
  Overcrowding in Schools), from belonging to the Journalists’ Association, and 
  from being owners or editors of newspapers. In the same year, the books 
  written by Jews were publically burnt. 
  In July 1933, the “Law for the Prevention of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring” 
  calling for compulsory sterilization of the “inferior” was passed. This major 
  eugenic policy led to over 200 Hereditary Health Courts being set up, under 
  whose rulings over 400,000 people was sterilized against their will during the 
  Nazi period. 
  On September 15, 1935, the Reichstag met in Nurnberg and passed two laws, 
  known as “The Nurnberg laws”. The first, the “Reich Citizenship Law” declared 
  that only individuals of “German blood” could be citizens of the German Reich
  (state), thus depriving German Jews of their citizenship. The second, the “Law 
  for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor”, formalized barriers 
  between Jews and Germans, forbidding marriage and sexual relations between 
  Jews and “Aryans.” Thus, the Nazis deprived German Jews of all civil rights and 
  effectively excluded them from social and cultural life. Their policy was then 
  aimed at expropriating Jewish property with a view to compelling Jews to 
  emigrate from Germany.
  From Jews physical violence to large pogrom 
  On November 7, 1938, a young Jewish Herschel Grünspan assassinated Nazi 
  German diplomat Ernst vom Rath in Paris. This incident was used by the Nazis
  as a pretext to go beyond legal repression to large-scale physical violence against 
  

  Jewish Germans. What the Nazis claimed to be spontaneous “public outrage” 

  was in fact a wave of pogroms instigated by the Nazi party, and carried out by 
  SA (Sturmabteilug or Storm detachment) members and affiliates throughout 
  Nazi Germany. 
  These pogroms became known as “the Night of Broken Glass” (literally “Crystal 
  Night”), or November pogroms. Jews were attacked and Jewish property was 
  vandalized, over 7,000 Jewish shops and 1,668 synagogues (almost every 
  synagogue in Germany) were damaged or destroyed. The death toll is assumed 
  to be much higher than the official number of 91 dead. 30,000 were sent to 
  concentration camps, including Dachau, Sachsenhausen, Buchenwald, and 
  Orangeburg concentration camp, where they were kept for several weeks, and 
  released when they could either prove that they were about to emigrate in the 
  near future, or transferred their property to the Nazis. 
  Before the war, the Nazis considered mass exportation of German (and 
  subsequently the European) Jewry from Europe. Plans to reclaim former 
  German colonies such as Tanganyika and South West Africa for Jewish 
  resettlement were halted by Hitler. Diplomatic efforts were undertaken to 
  convince the other former colonial powers, primarily the United Kingdom and 
  France, to accept expelled Jews in their colonies. Areas considered for possible 
  resettlement included British Palestine, Italian Abyssinia, British Rhodesia,
  French Madagascar, and Australia. 
  The question of the treatment of the Jews became an urgent one for the Nazis 
  after September 1939, when they invaded the western half of Poland, home 
  to about two million Jews. Himmler’s right-hand man, Reinhard Heydrich, 
  recommended concentrating all the Polish Jews in ghettos in major cities, 
  where they would be put to work for the German war industry. The Warsaw 
  Ghetto was the largest, with 380,000 people, and the Łódź Ghetto the second 
  largest, holding 160,000. About 3 million of Jews were heaped together in those 
  ghettos where they died of hunger and suffered from dreadful deprivations and 
  diseases. 
  In January 1942, the Nazi leaders organized a conference in Berlin, the 
  Conference of Wannsee, where they devised the “Final solution of Jews problem”, 
  explicitly to kill the 11 million of Jews living in Europe. 
  As head of the German SD or Security service, or Security Service, Reinhard 
  Heydrich was asked by Nazi leader Hermann Göring to organize a “final 
  solution to the Jewish question.” And Adolf Eichmann was entrusted by the 
  

  leaders of Nazi Germany with responsibility for carrying out and coordinating

  the “final solution”; the murder of almost 6 million Jews during World War II 
  (1939-1945). Under Eichmann’s direction, Jews from all over German-occupied 
  Europe were sent to concentration camps to be killed. 
  About Jews concentration camps
  A concentration camp is a place in which large numbers of people, especially 
  political prisoners or members of persecuted minorities, are deliberately 
  imprisoned in a relatively small area with inadequate facilities, sometimes to 
  provide forced labour or to await mass execution. The term is most strongly 
  associated with the several hundred camps1945.
  Due to the role played by these prominent personalities, the concentration 
  camps were built mainly in Auschwitz, Majdanek, Treblinka, Chelmno, Sobibor 
  and Belzec where the majority of the deportees would perish on their arrival 
  in gas chambers.
  The crematorium was used to incinerate the bodies of people killed in the 
  camp’s four gas chambers. Birkenau, along with the nearby Auschwitz complex, 
  was the site of scientifically planned and executed genocide by Nazi Germany 
  during World War II (1939-1945). It is estimated that between 1.4 million and 
  4 million people were killed at Auschwitz and Birkenau during the war.
  Although it was the Jews who were targeted by the “Final Solution”, among the 
  victims were also the Gypsies, the Communists, Slavic, the Russian prisoners 
  of war, the invalids, homosexuals, Jehovah’s Witnesses and any other person 
  suspected of not adhering to the Nazi ideology.
  When the WW II ended in 1945, on September 2nd, the entire Jewish secular and 
  religious culture in Europe had been completely destroyed and near 6 million 
  Jews and about 11 million of Non-Jewish Europeans were exterminated.
  After the war, the Allies established an International Military Tribunal at 
  Nuremberg in Germany to prosecute the surviving Nazi leaders for war crimes 
  and crimes against humanity. Later, in 1948, a United Nations Organization 
  resolution established crime against humanity as a crime under international 
  law with no limitation period for the prosecution of those accused such crimes.
  After the Holocaust, some 250 000 Jewish were survived and in 1947 the UN 
  voted to partition Palestine into Jews and Arab States. The Israel, a Jewish State, 
  

  was established in May 1948 as a homeland for the Holocaust Jewish survivors.

  Role of Eichmann in Holocaust
  Otto Adolf Eichmann is considered as one of the major organizers of the 
  Holocaust. He formulated a plan to deport 600,000 Jews into the General 
  Government. The plan was stymied by Hans Frank, governor-general of the 
  occupied territories, who was disinclined to accept the deportees as to do so 
  would have a negative impact on economic development and his ultimate goal 
  of Germanisation of the region. 
  Under his order, Jews were concentrated into ghettos in major cities with the 
  expectation that at some point they would be transported further east or even 
  overseas. On 15 August 1940, Eichmann released a memorandum titled Reich 
  Main Security Office: Madagascar Project calling for the resettlement to 
  Madagascar of a million Jews per year for four years.
  Eichmann’s office was responsible for collecting information on the Jews in each 
  area, organizing the seizure of their property, and arranging for and scheduling 
  trains. His department was in constant contact with the Foreign Office, as Jews 
  of conquered nations such as France could not as easily be stripped of their 
  possessions and deported to their deaths. Eichmann held regular meetings 
  in his Berlin offices with his department members working in the field and 
  travelled extensively to visit concentration camps and ghettos.
  Throughout October and November 1944, Eichmann arranged for tens of 
  thousands of Jewish victims to travel by forced marches in appalling conditions 
  from Budapest to Vienna, a distance of 210 kilometres (130 miles).
  Role of Heydrich in Holocaust
  Reinhard Tristan Eugen Heydrich is regarded as the most fearsome member 
  of the Nazi elite. He was one of the main architects of the Holocaust during 
  the early war years, answering only to, and taking orders from, Hitler, Göring, 
  and Himmler in all matters pertaining to the deportation, imprisonment, and 
  extermination of Jews.
  Heydrich was one of the organisers of “Crystal Night” (Kristallnacht), 
  a pogrom against Jews throughout Germany on the night of 9–10 November 
  1938. Heydrich sent a telegram that night to various SD and Gestapo offices, 
  helping to co-ordinate the pogrom with the SS, SD, Gestapo, uniformed police 
  (Orpo), SA, Nazi party officials, and even the fire departments. It talks about 
  permitting arson and destroying Jewish businesses and synagogues and orders 
  the confiscation of all “archival material” out of Jewish community centres and 
  

  synagogues. Twenty thousand Jews were sent to concentration camps.

  On Himmler’s instructions, Heydrich formed the task forces (Einsatzgruppen)to 
  travel in the wake of the German armies at the start of World War II. On 21 
  September 1939, Heydrich sent out a teleprinter message on the “Jewish question 
  in the occupied territory” to the chiefs of alltask forceswith instructions to round 
  up Jewish people for placement into ghettos, called for the formation of Jewish 
  councils (Judenräte) ordered a census, and promoted Aryanization plans for 
  Jewish-owned businesses and farms, among other measures. The task forces 
  units followed the army into Poland to implement the plans. Later, in the Soviet 
  Union, they were charged with rounding up and killing Jews via firing squad 
  and gas vans.
  On 29 November 1939, Heydrich issued a cable about the “Evacuation of 
  New Eastern Provinces”, detailing the deportation of people by railway to 
  concentration camps, and giving guidance surrounding the December 1939 
  census, which would be the basis on which those deportations were performed.
  On 10 October 1941, Heydrich was the senior officer at a “Final Solution” 
  meeting of the RSHA in Prague that discussed deporting 50,000 Jews from 
  the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia to ghettos in Minsk and Riga. Given 
  his position, Heydrich was instrumental in carrying out these plans since his 
  Gestapo was ready to organize deportations in the West and his task forces were 
  already conducting extensive killing operations in the East.
  In 1941 Himmler named Heydrich as “responsible for implementing” the 
  forced movement of 60,000 Jews from Germany and Czechoslovakia to the Lodz 
  Ghetto in Poland.
  Earlier on 31 July 1941, Hermann Göring gave written authorization to Heydrich 
  to ensure the cooperation of administrative leaders of various government 
  departments in the implementation of a” Final Solution to the Jewish question” 
  in territories under German control. On 20 January 1942, Heydrich chaired a 
  meeting, now called the Wannsee Conference, to discuss the implementation of 
  

  the plan

  

  The camps increasingly became places where Jews and prisoners of war (POWs) 
  were either killed or made to work as slave laborers, undernourished and 
  tortured. It is estimated that the Germans established 15,000 camps and sub 
  camps in the occupied countries, mostly in Eastern Europe. The transportation 
  of prisoners was often carried out under horrifying conditions using rail freight 
  cars, in which many died before reaching their destination.
  Starting in December 1939, the Nazis introduced new methods of mass murder 
  by using gas. First, experimental gas vans equipped with gas cylinders and a 
  sealed trunk compartment, were used to kill mental care clients of sanatoria in 
  

  Pomerania, East Prussia, and occupied Poland, as part of an operation termed 

  Action T4. In the Sachsenhausen concentration camp, larger vans holding up to 
  100 people were used from November 1941, using the engine’s exhaust rather 
  than a cylinder. 
  Action T4 was a program established in 1939 to maintain the genetic purity of 
  the German population by killing or sterilizing German and Austrian citizens 
  who were judged to be disabled or suffering from mental disorder. The program 
  was named after Tiergartenstraße 4, the address of a villa in the Berlin borough 
  of Tiergarten, the headquarters of the General Foundation for Welfare and 
  Institutional Care, led by Philipp Bouhler, head of Hitler’s private chancellery 
  and Karl Brandt, Hitler’s personal physician.
  A need for new mass murder techniques was also expressed by the Nazi leaders. 
  It was this problem which led the SS (Security Squadron) to experiment with 
  large-scale killings using poison gas. Finally, Christian Wirth seems to have been 
  the inventor of the gas chamber.
  

  1.2.3 The 1994 Genocide against Tutsi in Rwanda

  The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi was a carefully planned and executed to 
  annihilate Rwandan Tutsi population and Hutu political opponents who did not 
  agree with the prevailing extremist politics of the time. It was the fastest and 
  most cruel genocide ever recorded in human history.
  a. Causes of the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda
  It is so hard to identify the root causes of the genocide against the Tutsi in 
  Rwanda. This because all Rwandans were united and shared the elements for 
  national cohesion like same king, clans, language, values, same religion, culture 
  and same country. But the following factors had contributed to the disunity of 
  Banyarwanda and led to the genocide:
  The racist ideology
  The genocidal ideology identified the two antagonist groups like “Us” and 
  “Them” or “You” and after proceeded by the nomination or qualification of 
  those two groups. 
  The genocidal ideology in Rwanda is based on ideas, attitude and practices 
  of discrimination and hatred against the Tutsi. It has been implemented 
  and disseminated by the political leaders since 1959. The most important 
  manifestation was persecution, killing, public hatred message, loose of 
  goods and properties, exclusion from political and administrative functions, 
  discrimination in many sector like education, forced exile, physical and 
  

  psychological violence etc….

  Since independence the Tutsi have been identified as “enemies” of the Hutu. 
  In 1960’s, the first president of the Republic, G. Kayibanda, used the hatred 
  speeches to qualify the danger of the Tutsi to the Hutu due to the attacks of 
  Inyenzi (groups of refugees) from outside of Rwanda. From 1990 with the attack 
  of RPF – Inkotanyi, the ideological speeches pointed out again the “double treat 
  presented by the Tutsi (of internal and of external) against the Hutu”. From 
  those qualifications and propaganda, many Newspapers and Radios, called 
  upon all Hutu for their self-defense, “to kill before being killed”. 
  Besides the presentation of the threats against the Hutu, another factor was 
  the dehumanization or qualification of enemy not as humankind but as an 
  animal like rats, snakes or cockroaches. The aim was to incite to direct and 
  public reactions against the “common enemy of the Hutu”, the Tutsi. This shows 
  that genocide crime before being act of physical destruction of enemy, the 
  genocidal ideology begins by ideas developing the vision of a “group-enemy” 
  to be exterminated. 
  Persecution and impunity
  During the colonial period, the colonizers had favored a group of” Tutsi elites” 
  which was associated to colonial power as auxiliaries. When their alliance 
  broke up in the end of 1950s, the colonizers changed from supporting the Tutsi 
  elites on power considered as “minority” (“Rubanda nyamuke”), to support the 
  Hutu elites, the “majority” (“Rubanda nyamwinshi). This change is the origin 
  of the political and ethnic violence which happened since November 1959 
  characterized by mass killings against the Tutsi and members of UNAR party. 
  The same scenarios of mass killing targeting Tutsi repeated in 1963/64, 1973 
  and in 1990-1994. They were scapegoats of the failure of the government.
  The authors of such massacres were never punished for the crimes committed. 
  Contrarily, many of them were promoted to the post of responsibility. On 
  the side of international community, it has always considered the respective 
  governments of Rwanda as the true representatives of population majority. 
  It has totally ignored the crimes committed and the injustices which those 
  governments are responsible for.
  Discriminatory leadership
  Under the two Republics (1962 – 1994), the social inequality was maintained and 
  encouraged by exclusion, favoritism and regionalism. It was under the Second 
  Republic that the policy of “ethnic and regionalism balance” was reinforced. The 
  social promotion was not based on meritocracy but on ethnicity and origin; a 
  choice which has generated negative effects on the development of the country 
  

  and the relations among Rwandans.

  Over the period of 1978 and 1990, three Prefectures (Gisenyi, Ruhengeri and 
  Kigali) received 51% of budget allocated to prefectures. The prefectures of 
  Gisenyi and Ruhengeri monopolized positions of responsibility in the public 
  administration. The “quotas system” was adopted in 1970’s as solution to social 
  injustice. However, this policy led to the exclusion of the Tutsi from schools 
  and services. It prevented the Tutsi to enjoy their rights on education and 
  employment.
  Finally, the governments of the first and second republic had systematically 
  ignored the problem of refugees who were roaming around in the neighbouring 
  countries since 1959. From such date, their number was increasing to 500 000 
  persons (according to minimum estimations). The reaction of the government 
  to their request of returning to their country and recovering their properties 
  and their rights was still the same stating that the country in overpopulated 
  and could not receive any other population. It was this repeated refusal that 
  made the refugees to organise them self in a politico-military structure, named 
  RPF – Inkotanyi and opted return by force.
  b. Course of the genocide against the Tutsi
  Mass killings started in the night of 6th April 1994, immediately after crash 
  of the Presidential airplane. Following the incitement from the media and 
  genocidal planners, soldiers of the presidential guards and Interahamwe 
  militias (created on September 1991) started systematic elimination of Tutsi 
  

  and Hutu politician’s figures in opposition.

  

  Following the meetings held at the High Command of the F.A.R (Forces Armées 
  Rwandaises), the interim government has been formed. On April 8th ,1994, 
  when Dr Sindikubwabo Theodore was nominated President of Republic and 
  

  Kambanda Jean as Prime Minister. This government was composed by ministers

  belonging to extremist wing of political parties which accepted to be part of the 
  coalition.
  From the night of April 6th – 11th, 1994, horror had spread throughout the 
  entire country except Gitarama and Butare Prefectures. Here killings began 
  respectively on 15th and 19th April after the sensitization of some members of 
  the interim government.
  At the beginning, the assailants in small groups killed the victims at their 
  homes, on the roads or arrested them at the road blockers. But later on, as the 
  Tutsi used to escape and to look for asylums at the public offices and Churches, 
  the killers also went to attack and kill them in those places: Church offices, 
  commune offices, hospitals and health centers, school, stadiums, etc... There 
  were no any safe places for protection.
  The concentration of the Tutsi at such places was encouraged by the local 
  authorities with the plan of facilitating and accelerating the mass killings 
  because the assailants found the Tutsi in mass in one place. The places served 
  as the “death camps”.
  April 12th, 1994, the interim government (called also “Abatabazi”) fled the capital 
  of Kigali due to the advance of the RPF – Inkotanyi and settled in Gitarama, at 
  Murambi. Later on it will move to Gisenyi and in refugees camps located in 
  Goma Zaire today Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).
  At the beginning of killing, men were mainly targeted and killed, at least until 
  mid-May. But later on, as the plan was to exterminate all Tutsi, killers started to 
  kill also women and children. 
  One of the characterics of the genocide against the Tutsi is the many forms of 
  extreme violence. The main tools used during this genocide against the Tutsi are 
  machetes, grenades, bullets, impiri called “nta mpongano y`umwanzi”, burning 
  people alive, throwing living people into pit latrines, forcing family members to 
  kill each other among others.
  Finally, RPF – Inkotanyi soldiers stopped the mass killings and scored victory 
  over the genocidal forces. On 4th July 1994 Kigali City and Butare were liberated. 
  c. Main actors of genocide against the Tutsi
  The main actors and killers include soldiers of the Forces Armées Rwandaises 
  (FAR) and Gendarmerie. In particular, the elite Presidential Guard carried 
  responsibility to begin killings; another group of actors is made up by civil 
  

  authorities from the top to the local authorities: the members of the former

  President Habyarimana political party (MRND) and the Interim government, 
  the Préfets of prefectures, the Burgomasters, the communal councilors who 
  basically mobilized and encouraged people to kill on hills;
  There are militias such as Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi, respectively 
  formed as youth wing of MRND and CDR political parties and members of Hutu 
  Power; 
  The extremist Medias (newspapers and radios) who disseminated the hate 
  speeches during the genocide and encouraged the population to exterminate 
  the “enemy” namely Kangura, La Medaille Nyiramacibiri, RTLM or Radio 
  Television des Milles Collines...
  The international representatives to have not intervened to stop the genocide 
  or assist victims, although they were informed about the preparation and had 
  enough troops in Rwanda or in the region;
  Lastly, the large group of killers is composed of extremist Hutu in general over 
  the country. 
  The targeted group to be exterminated was the Tutsi population without 
  any distinction of age, religion, region, etc. According to the survey done by 
  the Ministry of Local Government in 2002, the number of the Tutsi killed is 1 
  074 017. Another group targeted by the killers was the members of political 
  opposition like the leaders of some political parties of Parti Social Démocrate 
  (PSD), Pari Liberal (PL), Mouvement Démocratique Républicain (MDR), Parti 
  Démocrate Chrétien (PDC), Parti Démocratique Islamique (PDI), and Parti 
  Socialiste Rwandais ( PSR) and other dissent mostly who were the Hutu as 
  journalists, human rights activists, lawyers and civil servants opposed to 
  genocide initiative.
  According to the National Service of Gacaca Courts, 1 678 672 persons were 
  guilty of having committed the crime of genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda.
  d. Death camps
  Many victims of the genocide against the Tutsi were killed at their respective 
  homeland, but a number of other had tried to look for asylum at some special 
  places where they thought to get protection. However, these places, to some 
  extent, served as “death camps”. 
  These included the schools, church offices (Kabgayi, Ntarama, Nyarubuye, Saint 
  Famille, Nyange, Kibeho, Cyahinda, Adventist Church of Ngoma, Nyamasheke, 
  

  Mosque of Nyamirambo, Mugina, Mibilizi, etc

  Commune offices (Mugina, Musambira, Rwamatamu, Kamembe, etc). Hospitals 
  and health centres (Centre Hospitalier de Kigali “CHK”, Centre Hospitalier 
  Universitaire de Butare “CHUB”, Kibuye hospital, health centre of Kaduha, 
  Mugonero, etc. ).
  Schools (Collège Saint André Nyamirambo, Petit Séminaire Ndera, Saint Joseph 
  Rwamagana, Collège Marie Merci Kibeho, Ecole Technique Officielle “ETO “ 
  Kicukiro, etc,).
  Stadiums (Gatwaro in Karongi district today, Amahoro in city of Kigali and 
  Kamarampaka in Rusizi district today). 
  e. Effects of genocide against the Tutsi 
  The consequences of the genocide are numerous at all levels of life of Rwandans. 
  More than one million of men, women and children had been killed in 100 days 
  (1 074 017);
  The genocide against the Tutsi led to the destruction of infrastructures and 
  equipment where the public properties and private properties were massively 
  destroyed;
  During this genocide, the perpetrators did not only kill the victims but they also 
  damaged the body of the some survivors who still live with physical handicap; 
  The 1994 genocide against Tutsi created high level of psychological trauma 
  amongst the Rwanda population. This was caused by the horrific actions the 
  people were exposed to. These among others included rape, torture, murder 
  and extreme violence;
  A large group of refugees, displaced people, orphans, widows, (incike) and 
  families who disappear completely;
  The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi has led to social destruction of the Rwandan 
  society because it had created the suspicion and mistrust among the Rwandans. 
  After the genocide, Rwanda faced the problem of delivering justice. At the end 
  of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, more than one million (1 678 672) were 
  suspected of having participated in committing genocide had been apprehended 
  and imprisoned. Considering the big number of these prisoners who waited to 
  be judged, it was impossible to give justice to both victims and prisoners in a 
  reasonable period. Alternatives solutions, such as Gacaca has been initiated for 
  that purpose.
  

  Decadence of the country’s economy: during the genocide most of the active

  population abandoned their economic activities for looting and killing; other 
  abandoned the country as refugees and displaced people. The country recovered 
  the development stage after their return and re-installation.
  Disgrace of Rwanda’s international image: after the genocide against the Tutsi, 
  the country was only seen in negative way by considering almost the Rwandans 
  as the killers. The Rwanda was also seen as a country totally destroyed and 
  without any humanity and hope for the future.
  1.2.4. Srebrenica genocide 
  

  a. The roots cause of Srebrenica genocide

  
  

  The Srebrenica massacre, known as the Srebrenica genocide, refers to the 
  July 1995 killing, during the Bosnian War, of more than 8,000 Bosniaks (Bosnian 
  Muslims), mainly men and boys, in and around the town of Srebrenica in Bosnia 
  and Herzegovina, by units of the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) under the 
  command of General Ratko Mladić. A paramilitary unit from Serbia known 
  as the Scorpions, officially part of the Serbian Interior Ministry until 1991, 
  participated in the massacre and it is alleged that foreign volunteers including 
  the Greek Volunteer Guard also participated.
  The multiethnic Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was inhabited 
  by mainly Muslim Bosniaks (44 percent), Orthodox Serbs (31 percent) and 
  Catholic Croats (17 percent). Following a declaration of national sovereignty on 
  15 October 1991 as the former Yugoslavia began to disintegrate, a referendum 
  for independence was held on 29 February 1992. The result, in favor of 
  independence, was rejected by the political representatives of the Bosnian 
  

  Serbs who had boycotted the referendum.

  b. The course of Srebrenica genocide
  The Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was formally recognized by the 
  European Community on 6 April 1992 and by the United States the following 
  day. Following the declaration of independence, Bosnian Serb forces, supported 
  by the Serbian government of Slobodan Milošević and the Yugoslav People’s 
  Army (JNA), attacked the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to 
  unify and secure Serb territory. A fierce struggle for territorial control ensued, 
  accompanied by the ethnic cleansing of the non-Serb population from areas 
  under Serb control; in particular, the Bosniak population of Eastern Bosnia, 
  near the border with Serbia.
  The predominantly Bosniak area of Central Podrinje (the region around 
  Srebrenica) had a primary strategic importance to Serbs, as without it there 
  would be no territorial integrity within their new political entity of Republika 
  Srpska. They thus proceeded with the ethnic cleansing of Bosniaks from Bosniak 
  ethnic territories in Eastern Bosnia and Central Podrinje.
  In neighboring Bratunac, Bosniaks were either killed or forced to flee to 
  Srebrenica, resulting in 1,156 deaths, according to Bosnian government data. 
  Thousands of Bosniaks were also killed in Foča, Zvornik, Cerska and Snagovo.
  By the evening of 11 July 1995, approximately 20,000 to 25,000 Bosniak 
  refugees from Srebrenica were gathered in Potočari, seeking protection within 
  the UN compound there. Several thousand had pressed inside the compound 
  itself, while the rest were spread throughout the neighboring factories and 
  fields. Though the vast majorities were women, children, elderly or disabled, 
  63 witnesses estimated that there were at least 300 men inside the perimeter 
  of the UN compound and between 600 and 900 men in the crowd outside. 
  The Dutch claimed their base was full. Conditions in Potočari were deplorable. 
  

  There was very little food or water available and the July heat was stifling

  

  From the morning of 12 July 1995, Serb forces began gathering men and boys 
  from the refugee population in Potočari and holding them in separate locations 
  and as the refugees began boarding the buses headed north towards Bosniakheld territory, Serb soldiers separated out men of military age who were trying 
  to clamber aboard. Occasionally, younger and older men were stopped as well 
  (some as young as 14 or 15). 
  These men were taken to a building in Potočari referred to as the “White House”. 
  As early as the evening of 12 July 1995, Major Franken of the Dutchbat heard 
  that no men were arriving with the women and children at their destination in 
  Kladanj.
  On 13 July 1995, Dutchbat troops witnessed definite signs that the Serb soldiers 
  were murdering some of the Bosniak men who had been separated. When 
  the Dutchbat soldiers told Colonel Joseph Kingori, a United Nations Military 
  Observer (UNMO) in the Srebrenica area, that men were being taken behind 
  the “White House” and not coming back, Colonel Kingori went to investigate. He 
  heard gunshots as he approached but was stopped by Serb soldiers before he 
  could find out what was going on.
  The vast majority of those killed were adult men and teenage boys but the 
  

  victims included boys aged fewer than 15, men over the age of 65, women and

  reportedly even several babies. The Preliminary List of People Missing or Killed 
  in Srebrenica compiled by the Bosnian Federal Commission of Missing Persons 
  contains 8,373 names, some 500 of them under 18, and includes several dozen 
  women and girls. As of June 2011, 6594 genocide victims have been identified 
  through DNA analysis of body parts recovered from mass graves and 5,138 
  victims have been buried at the Memorial Centre of Potočari.
  c. The international community responsibility
  In 1999, UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan submitted his report on the Fall of 
  Srebrenica. In it, he acknowledged that the international community as a whole 
  had to accept its share of responsibility for its response to the ethnic cleansing 
  campaign that culminated in the murder of some 7,000 unarmed civilians from 
  the town designated by the Security Council as a “safe area”.
  In his address to the 10th anniversary commemoration at Potočari, the UN 
  Secretary-General paid tribute to the victims of “a terrible crime – the worst 
  on European soil since the Second World War”, on a date “marked as a grim 
  reminder of man’s inhumanity to man”. He said that the first duty of the 
  international community was to uncover and confront the full truth about what 
  happened, a hard truth for those who serve the United Nations, because great 
  nations failed to respond adequately. There should have been stronger military 
  

  forces in place, and a stronger will to use them

  

  

  a. The role played by Pol Pot 
  Cambodia was under the Khmer Rouge rule, Communist movement, from 1975 
  to 1979. The regime, which was headed by Cambodian guerrilla commander 
  Pol Pot (his real name Saloth Sar), came to power after years of guerrilla 
  warfare. While in power the Khmer Rouge murdered, worked to death, or killed 
  by starvation close to 1.7 million Cambodians, or more than one-fifth of the 
  country’s population.
  Cambodia was a French protectorate under the nominal control of a king 
  from 1863 until 1953, when France granted Cambodia its independence. At 
  the same time, Communist forces known as the Viet Minh were engaged in an 
  independence struggle against France in neighboring Vietnam; the Viet Minh, 
  which had recruited an army of Cambodian allies in common cause against 
  French colonialism, defeated France in 1954. Although Cambodian guerrilla 
  forces and the Viet Minh controlled much of Cambodia by 1954, the Geneva 
  Conference, which marked the end of the war in 1954, left Cambodia in the 
  hands of its monarch, Norodom Sihanouk.
  As political factionalism grew in Cambodia, Norodom Sihanouk has served, at 
  different times, as Cambodia’s king, prime minister, and head of state began 
  to crack down on his opponents, including Communists. The Communists fell 
  into two groups: Vietnamese-trained veterans of the independence struggle, 
  including former Buddhist monks and their peasant followers; and younger 
  

  urban radicals such as Pol Pot. While the former were major targets of Sihanouk’s 

  repression, Pol Pot and his followers were left largely untouched because of their 
  privileged backgrounds and French education. This group gradually assumed 
  leadership of the Communist movement. After Pol Pot became secretary general 
  of the Workers’ Party of Kâmpŭchéa (later renamed the Communist Party of 
  Kâmpŭchéa, or CPK) in 1963, the party made a concerted effort to seize control 
  of Cambodia.
  b. Effects of American intervention in Cambodia genocide
  By 1966, the American escalation of the war in neighboring Vietnam began 
  to have a destabilizing effect on Cambodia. North Vietnamese and National 
  Liberation Front (NLF) forces, made up of Vietnamese Communist guerrillas, 
  established logistical bases and supply routes in Cambodia. While Sihanouk 
  attempted to keep his country out of the Vietnam War, his political repression 
  increasingly drove veterans of Cambodia’s anti-French struggle back into 
  dissidence, where Pol Pot’s CPK drew them into its plans for rebellion. The CPK 
  launched a revolt against Sihanouk in 1967. Sihanouk termed the rebels Khmer 
  Rouge (French for “Red Khmers”), so-called after Cambodia’s predominant 
  ethnic group, the Khmers. Communist insurgency campaigns continued until 
  the Khmer Rouge took control of the government in 1975.
  In 1969, embroiled in Vietnam, the United States began a secret B-52 
  bombardment of Cambodia in an effort to knock out strongholds of the North 
  Vietnamese and NLF (National Liberation Front). A year later, Sihanouk was 
  overthrown by U.S.-backed General Lon Nol. The Vietnam War spilled across 
  the border, and the conflict tore Cambodia apart for five years. During the 
  secret bombing American planes dropped 490,000 metric tons (540,000 tons) 
  of bombs, killing about 100,000 Khmer peasants by August 1973, when the 
  bombardment ended. Meanwhile, the Khmer Rouge, aided by Sihanouk and 
  the North Vietnamese, who did not want a pro-U.S. Cambodian government, 
  battled Lon Nol’s government for control of Cambodia.
  c. Cambodia under Khmers Rouge leadership and American defeat
  On April 17, 1975, the Khmer Rouge armies defeated the Lon Nol regime and 
  took the capital, Phnom Penh, immediately dispersing almost all of its more 
  than 2 million inhabitants to a life of hard agricultural labor in the countryside. 
  Other cities and towns were also evacuated. The Khmer Rouge renamed the 
  country Democratic Kâmpŭchéa (DK), and for the next four years the regime, 
  headed by Pol Pot as prime minister and other members of the Standing 
  Committee of the CPK (Communist Party of Kâmpŭchéa ) Central Committee, 
  

  terrorized the population.

  d. Consequences of genocide in Cambodia
  Almost 1.7 million Cambodians were killed in the takeover, including members 
  of minority and religious groups, people suspected of disagreeing with the 
  party, intellectuals, merchants, and bureaucrats. Millions of other Cambodians 
  were forcibly relocated, deprived of food, tortured, or sent into forced labor. 
  Of about 425,000 Chinese Cambodians, only about half survived the Khmer 
  Rouge regime. While most of about 450,000 Vietnamese Cambodians had been 
  expelled by the Lon Nol regime, more were driven out by the Khmer Rouge; 
  the rest were tracked down and murdered. Of about 250,000 Muslim Chams 
  (an ethnic group inhabiting the rural areas of Cambodia) in 1975, 90,000 were 
  massacred, and the survivors were dispersed. 
  By 1979, 15 percent of the rural Khmer population and 25 percent of the urban 
  Khmer population had perished. The most horrific slaughter took place during 
  the second half of 1978 in a purge of the Eastern Zone on the Vietnam border, 
  where resistance to the Khmer Rouge was strong. At least 250,000 people were 
  killed in the worst single massacre of the Khmer Rouge period. 
  Religion in Cambodia was also affected by the Khmer Rouge regime. Buddhism 
  was completely suppressed from 1975 to 1979; many monks were defrocked 
  and sent into forced labor, while others were killed. The Khmer Rouge also 
  attacked the neighboring countries of Vietnam, Thailand, and Laos in an attempt 
  to reclaim territories lost by Cambodia many centuries before.
  On 15 July 1979 following the overthrow of the Khmer Rouge the new 
  government passed “Decree Law No, 1”; this allowed for the trial of Pol 
  Pot and Leng Sary for the crime of genocide. They were given an American 
  defense lawyer, Hope Stevens. They were tried in absentia and convicted of 
  genocide. 
  In January 2001 the Cambodian National Assembly passed legislation to form 
  a tribunal to try members of the Khmer Rouge regime. In 2013, the Cambodian 
  Prime Minister Hun Sen passed legislation which makes illegal the denial of the 
  Cambodian genocide and other war crimes committed by the Khmer Rouge. 
  The legislation was passed after comments by a member of the opposition, Kem 
  Sokha, who is the deputy president of the Cambodian National Rescue Party. 
  Sokha had stated that exhibits at Tuol Sleng were fabricated and that the 
  

  artifacts had been faked by the Vietnamese following their invasion in 1979.

  

  The above types of genocides have the following as common features or 
  similarities:
  Thorough preparation and execution by the Government using militia or 
  army; Large mobilization of means and human resources to execute the 
  genocide intention of destroying or completely wiping out the targeted group; 
  Involvement of the government in coming up with the necessary measures to 
  destroy the targeted group; Ruthless killing of the targeted group in masses; 
  Innocent people belonging to the targeted group were killed. The survivors 
  were amputated, mutilated and maimed; Cruel methods were used to torture 
  victims before killing them. Some examples of torture methods that have been 
  used are; burying them alive in mass graves, starving victims to death and 
  fumigating them to death in gas chambers with poisonous gases.
  Trauma has been caused to the survivors of genocides as a result of loss of their 
  loved ones, loss of property and displacement.
  

  Authorities in the involved countries have strongly denied genocide.

  1.3.2. Differences between the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi and 
  other Genocides
  The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi is different from other genocides due to 
  the following facts:
  It was executed within a short period of time. Over one million people lost their 
  lives in a period of one hundred days.
  People killed their fellow citizens, their relatives and neighbours. People who 
  shared common culture fought, injured and killed each other.
  The government agents, church members, security were all organs actively 
  involved in the Genocide.
  The International Community did not intervene to stop Genocide in Rwanda 
  while it was informed. The Genocide was stopped by Rwandans themselves. It 
  came to an end when the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) defeated the genocidal 
  forces in July 1994.
  Cruel methods were used in the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi. For example, 
  torturing victims before killing them, people were buried alive in mass graves, 
  women were raped before being killed, babies were crushed in mortars or 
  

  being smashed on walls.

  

  

  The unit analyses the crime of genocide looking at different such cases that 
  happened around the world. Among these genocides we have Jews, Serbians, 
  Herero and Nama, Cambodian and genocide against Tutsi in Rwanda. Beyond 
  this listing, a deep comparison is done on how the crime was perpetrated. A 
  list of steps is identified and many of them are similar. We can talk about state 
  involvement, population racist intoxication, medias usage and extermination 
  

  etc…

• UNIT 2:THE ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES OF THE GOVERNMENT OF RWANDA AFTER THE GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI

  
  
  
  

  2.1.1. Establishments of the Government of National Unity
  

  The new government had to fill the power vacuum left by the defeated Interim 
  

  Government. In this regard, the constitution of June 10, 1991, the Arusha Peace 
  

  Agreement with all its protocols, the RPF declaration of July 17, 1994 and the 
  

  Agreement of November 24, 1994 between political parties were used by the 
  

  new Government in order to put in place its programme. 
  

  The Arusha Peace Agreement was the main source of inspiration for 
  

  governmental action. This was due to the fact that the Arusha Peace Agreement 
  

  included two important principles in the management of the state namely the 
  

  establishment of the rule of law and the power sharing arrangement. However, 
  

  the texts were adapted to the new situations. For instance, MRND and its 
  

  satellite political parties supporting the “Hutu power” and those involved in the 
  

  Genocide were excluded from new institutions of the Transitional Government. 
  

  Their posts had to be given to RPF. 
  

  A new army had to be created by integrating in the APR, the ex FAR and the 
  

  recruitment of those who had not participated in the Genocide. In addition, 
  

  independent people and soldiers were introduced in the Transitional Parliament 
  

  and a post of Vice President of the Republic carrying another portfolio was 
  

  allocated to RPF.
  

  On July 19, 1994, the government programme was presented by Mr. Faustin
  

  Twagiramungu. The latter was the Prime Minister designated by the Arusha 
  

  Peace Agreement. 
  

  The programme focused on the following points:
  

  Restoration of peace and security; Organization of central and local 
  

  administration, i.e.préfectures, communes, sectors and cells; Restoration and 
  

  consolidation of national unity; Settlement of refugees and returning their 
  property; Improvement of living conditions of the people and solving the social
  

  problems that resulted from war and Genocide; Revival of the country’s 
  

  economy; Consolidation of democracy.
  

  During the establishment of the transitional institutions in July 1994, only 
  

  Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), Mouvement Democratique Republicain (MDR), 
  

  Parti Social Democratique (PSD), Parti Liberal (PL),Parti Democratique Chretien 
  

  (PDC), Parti Social Rwandais (PSR), Union Democratique Politique Rwanda 
  

  (UDPR) and Parti Democratique Islamique (PDI) were officially recognized. 
  

  Later, MDR was excluded from accepted political parties because of its divisive 
  

  ideology.A parliamentary report pointed out that some people wanted to use it 
  

  for their political agenda. 
  

  2.1.2. The achievements of the Government of National Unity on political level
  

  Safeguarding national security 
  

  After the Genocide against the Tutsi, the security in Rwanda was extremely 
  

  unstable as there were still unhealed wounds from the war. Most of the 
  

  population was displaced, creating a volatile situation in the country. Military 
  

  strategies were devised to find solution and eradicate the thousands of military 
  

  groups and ex-combatants who continued to torment and kill citizens. 
  

  The problem of insecurity especially on the western border of the country was 
  

  caused by the incursions of Ex-FAR and Interahamwe militias. To put an end to 
  

  this destabilisation, the Government of Rwanda proceeded to the repatriation of 
  

  refugees from Zaïre, current DRC and military operations aiming at weakening 
  

  the combatants.
  

  Politico-administrative reforms and fight against injustice 
  

  From its inception, the Government was supposed to set up administrative 
  

  structures from the top to the bottom. Due to lack of time to produce the 
  

  most appropriate administrative framework, it maintained the structure left 
  

  by the defeated regime namely central government, prefectures (provinces), 
  

  communes (Districts), sectors and cells.
  

  From 2001, Rwanda’s decentralization policy was an important innovation. 
  

  Its objective was to empower and invite the population to participate actively 
  

  in debates on issues that concerned it directly. It also aimed at encouraging 
  

  the electorate in the countryside to provide information and explain issues in 
  

  order to take decisions knowingly. The decentralization of activities went hand 
  
  

  in hand with the decentralization of financial, material and human resources. 
  

  The first phase (2001-2005) aimed at establishing democratic and community 
  

  development structures at the district level and was accompanied by a number 
  

  of legal, institutional and policy reforms, as well as democratic elections for 
  

  local leaders. However, the decentralisation process faced some challenges 
  

  because some leaders have to perform volunteer work. In addition, some of 
  

  them cumulated jobs and this could lead to their inefficiency.
  

  To reinforce good governance in Rwanda, anti-corruption and public 
  

  accountability institutions were created by the Government. Their operational 
  

  capacity continued to be strengthened to achieve greater accountability. 
  

  They include the Office of the Ombudsman, Office of the Auditor General for 
  

  State Finances, Rwanda Public Procurement Authority and Rwanda Revenue 
  

  Authority etc... 
  

  These institutions are mandated to fight injustice, corruption and abuse by 
  

  public officials and related offences in both public and private administration 
  

  and to promote the principles of good governance based on accountability and 
  

  transparency. 
  

  Rwanda has also signed and ratified the United Nations Convention Against 
  

  Corruption (UNCAC), the African Union anti-corruption Convention (AUCC) 
  

  and the UN convention against Transnational Organized Crime (UNTOC). 
  

  In order to promote consensual democracy, since 2000, free, transparent and 
  

  peaceful elections have been organised at local levels and Rwanda has put in 
  

  place a new constitution that clearly defines the main principles as well as 
  

  performance and limit of political institutions, multiparty system and respect 
  

  of everybody’s right.
  

  The 2003 Constitution accepts that almost important political positions in 
  

  the country must be shared by political parties and independent politicians. 
  

  This power sharing was observed not only in the government but also in the 
  

  Parliament made up of two chambers: the Chamber of Deputies and the Senate. 
  

  These two chambers are complementary in nature, but independent of each 
  

  other. The Executive is overseen by parliament, according to the constitution, 
  

  while the judiciary power is also independent from the Executive and the 
  

  Legislative ones. 
  Promotion of unity and reconciliation
  

  The national unity implies the indivisibility of the Rwandan people. All citizens 
  

  should have an equal opportunity to national economic resources and can claim 
  

  the same political rights. Rapidly, the Government of National Unity fought and 
  

  eliminated all constraints of national unity such as “ethnicity” and regionalism. 
  

  For instance, “ethnic” labels were removed from identity cards. 
  

  In the same perspective, the Commission of Unity and Reconciliation urges 
  

  Rwandans to strive to heal one another’s physical and psychological wounds 
  

  while building future interpersonal trust based on truth telling, repentance 
  

  and forgiveness. Thus, the Commission educates and mobilises Rwandans on 
  

  matters related to national unity and reconciliation and undertakes research 
  

  in the matter of peace, unity and reconciliation to make proposals on measures 
  

  for eradicating divisions and for reinforcing unity. 
  

  In addition, a series of strategies such as solidarity camps where different 
  

  categories of people meet to discuss issues related to unity and reconciliation 
  

  and programmes on radios are used by the Commission. The Government of 
  

  National Unity repatriated a big number of refugees which was a fundamental 
  

  obligation and a bridge to peace, national unity and reconciliation. 
  

  In addition to the above efforts, the Government of National Unity introduced 
  

  several structures and programmes that were meant to correct past errors that 
  

  led to war and Genocide. These structures include the National Commission of 
  

  Human Rights, the Gacaca Jurisdictions, Commission Nationale de Lutte Contre 
  

  le Génocide (CNLG) and Rwanda Demobilisation Commission. 
  

  Besides to promote unity among Rwandans new national symbols namely 
  

  the national anthem, the national flag and the coat of arms were designed to 
  

  reflect the unity of Rwandans. However, “ethnic” based ideologies propagated 
  

  by electronic media or in families keep hindering national unity. 
  

  Remaking justice 
  

  The Genocide was carefully planned and executed to annihilate the Tutsi. The 
  

  Government made it among its highest priorities to apprehend and bring to 
  

  justice the perpetrators of the Genocide.
  

  Thousands of people were arrested and judged. Some of them were released 
  

  for lack of evidence and others convicted and sentenced. It is pertinent to the 
  

  people of Rwanda to feel that no reconciliation is possible without justice. 
  

  The big number of prisoners and cases due for trial placed severe strain on 
  

  Rwanda’s criminal justice system which had already been crippled by the 
  murder of professionals during the Genocide. The Government of National 
  

  Unity decided to ease pressure on the criminal justice system by categorising 
  

  Genocide suspects according to the crimes they were accused of. In this regard, 
  

  category 1 was composed of the planners and perpetrators of the Genocide. 
  

  A number of 2,133 people were convicted in the conventional courts. The 
  

  categories 2-4 where involvement was slightly less serious were convicted in 
  

  traditional jurisdictions or Gacaca courts. 
  

  This new process significantly sped up trials and sentencing, which if they had 
  

  been restricted to conventional courts would take over 200 years to complete. 
  

  The Gacaca courts also had the advantage of involving the community in the 
  

  trial and sentencing process. The Government believed that involving the 
  

  population in the trials could also contribute significantly to reconciliation. 
  

  In fact, testimonies from the general population helped survivors to discover 
  

  the corpses of the family members killed during the Genocide. Moreover, 
  

  some perpetrators demanded pardon from the survivors. In some places, 
  

  perpetrators and survivors were gathered in associations. On the debit side, the 
  

  Gacaca courts were criticised for corrupt judges and lack of lawyers commonly 
  

  used in modern judicial system. 
  

  The Government also made it a priority to strengthen the criminal justice 
  

  system. Special training was provided to magistrates and judges, while courts 
  

  around the country were renovated. A national police force was created and 
  

  charged with civil security matters and criminal investigations. 
  

  2.1.3 The achievements of the Government of Rwanda on social level 
  

  Assistance to the most vulnerable people 
  

  From the social point of view, the Government of National Unity faced with the 
  

  problem of assisting vulnerable people. 
  

  Almost all the Rwandan population that had survived Genocide and war was 
  

  described as vulnerable. With time, their numbers kept on reducing given the 
  

  situation which improved politically, socially and economically. The vulnerable 
  

  people included Rwandan refugees and repatriated displaced people, Genocide 
  

  survivors, single children and orphans, widows, people with disabilities, the 
  

  poor, HIV/AIDS victims and prisoners. Moreover, between November 1995 
  

  and February 1996, Rwanda hosted almost 37, 000 refugees including former 
  

  Burundi refugees and Kinyarwanda-speaking ones from Zaïre. In 2003, the 
  

  number of foreign refugees in Rwanda was estimated at 300, 000 persons. Only 
  

  35, 000 refugees remained in Rwanda at the end of 2003.
  The survivors of Genocide were part of the most important vulnerable groups 
  
  in the country. The Government handled them as a priority. In 1998, an 
  Assistance Fund for Genocide Survivors, - Fonds d’Assistance aux Rescapés 
  du Génocide (FARG) was set up. It was allocated 5% of the national budget. 
  This budget enabled FARG to solve a big part of its problems experienced by 
  vulnerable surviving children in the fields of primary, secondary and higher 
  education. The fund was also used to pay for health care. FARG also helped 
  vulnerable survivors to construct residential homes in regrouped villages 
  (imidugudu) and/or elsewhere. It was also used to repair their former 
  residences. FARG financed small projects to help survivors fight against poverty. 
  From 1994, the orphans and single-children received assistance of varied 
  nature. For some of them, houses were constructed; others were trained and 
  given supplies in reception centres. In this way, they received physical and 
  mental health-care, education and social integration facilities. Some of them 
  were able to reunite with members of their families. 
  The ministries which were dealing with social affairs performed the following 
  services: designing intervention programmes in favour of widows, providing 
  material assistance, conducting a census of raped and pregnant women, etc. 
  On the other hand, women victims of war and genocide set up associations 
  for mutual help. These actions produced tangible results. However, a big 
  number of them still suffered from the after-effects of war and genocide such 
  as traumatism. Among them we can state AVEGA AGAHOZO (Association des 
  

  Veuves du Genocide du mois d`Avril), BAMPOREREZE, DUHOZANYE, etc…

  Health promotion 
  Between 1994 and 2003, a particular focus was put on the improvement of 
  health infrastructure given the role that the latter plays in the improvement 
  of health. Some new hospitals were constructed, and old ones were constantly 
  rehabilitated or expanded. Several health centres were also constructed while 
  old ones were repaired gradually. In 1996 the majority of health facilities 
  started to provide both curative and preventive treatment. 
  National referral hospitals such as King Faisal Hospital, the Centre Hospitalier 
  de Kigali and the University Teaching Hospital of Butare were rehabilitated, 
  re-equipped and made operational. There were 25 district hospitals in the 
  country. Out of 279 health centres and dispensaries, 257 were reopened after 
  rehabilitating them with new equipment. 
  In 2000, Nyanza Hospital and Kimironko Health Centre were established. In 
  2001, there were 33 district hospitals and 40 health centres. The above district 
  

  hospitals were coordinated by 11 regional health officials.

  Health staff increased qualitatively and quantitatively. The National University 
  of Rwanda (NUR) Faculty of Medicine produced 1,999 general doctors. 
  Nonetheless, the Government resorted to foreign doctors from neighbouring 
  countries and even beyond to solve the problem of inadequate medical 
  personnel. Kigali Health Institute (KHI) also trained several medical assistants 
  at A1 level. The nursing section at secondary school also level produced nurses 
  of A2 level, whereas those in the social section trained and graduated social 
  workers. 
  The government policy of encouraging the people to participate in health 
  programmes was successful. The Rwandan Sickness Insurance Scheme,La 
  Rwandaise d’Assurance Maladie (RAMA) was established to ensure that 
  government civil servants get proper medical insurance coverage. It started 
  business in 2001. 
  Meritocracy and skills enhancement in education 
  The colonial and post-colonial administrations left Rwanda with one of the 
  lowest skilled populations in the sub-region. In addition to this, an “ethnic” 
  quota system for entry into secondary schools and the university made access 
  to education limited for sections of the population. 
  On entering office, the Government of National Unity immediately instituted 
  meritocracy in education system and measures were put in place to address 
  the country’s manpower incapacity. Since 1994, the number of higher learning 
  institutions kept increasing and were six in 2000. The total number of students 
  receiving higher education rose from 3,000 and was close to 7,000 in 2003. The 
  number of university graduates between 1963 and 1994 was 2,160. Between 
  1995 and 2000, a period of just five years, the Government of Rwanda produced 
  over 2,000 university graduates. 
  A former military college in the heart of Kigali was transformed into a modern 
  Institute of Science and Technology. The new Kigali Institute of Science and 
  Technology (KIST) was established in 1997 to provide technical, skill based 
  training to 2,500 full and part-time students. 
  The institute also hosted the African virtual University and conducted business 
  and entrepreneurship courses. Licenses and facilitation were granted to other 
  institutions and colleges to make more training opportunities available to the 
  population. 
  Similarly, from 1994 to 2000, the number of primary schools increased more 
  than one and a half times. The number of qualified teachers rose by 53% 
  

  between 1994 and 2000. More resources were made available to build new

  schools and to rehabilitate old ones. In addition, Government introduced 
  universal primary education, established education support institutions such 
  as the National Curriculum Development Centre, the General Inspectorate of 
  Education and Examinations Board.
  The National Examination Council was introduced to ensure fairness, 
  transparency and uniformity in standards
  Promotion of gender equality 
  Women had suffered due to war and the Genocide. One of the Government 
  and civil society priorities were to strengthen capacity building programmes 
  for women in all fields. In this regard, the Rwandan legislation which was 
  disadvantaging women was amended in order to give equal opportunities 
  to both men and women. The Government set up the National Commission 
  for Women’s Rights which played an important role in revising the law and 
  culture. Articles which disadvantaged women were removed. Similarly, women 
  organizations became very active. Hence, an association called PROFEMMES/
  Twese Hamwe trained women and empowered them to take up roles in decision 
  making organs, justice etc….
  In addition, laws on inheritance were reformulated. Furthermore, the gender 
  factor was integrated in all national policies on Rwanda’s long term development. 
  In political domain, the Government encouraged women to get involved in 
  decision making organs. This started from the first electoral campaigns of 1999, 
  2001 and 2003. For example, during the 2001 elections organized by district 
  and sector committees, almost 25% of the women were elected. 
  All categories of the Rwandan population took part in the process of drafting the 
  Rwandan constitution of 2003. This facilitated the inclusion of the gender factor 
  in the constitution. The 2003 Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda stipulates 
  that women shall occupy at least 30% of the decision making organs in the 
  country. The results of the 2003 elections showed that Rwanda was among the 
  first world countries with the most outstanding percentage of women in the 
  National Assembly.
  2.1.3 The achievements of the Government of Rwanda on economic 
  level
  Enhancing economic growth and development 
  

  Due to War and the Genocide, the country’s infrastructure was destroyed. 
  Between July 1994 and 2000, the Government of National Unity put in place 
  an emergency programme of reconstruction. In this regard, policies and 
  programmes of economic recovery and social welfare were put in place. For 
  instance, the Government designed first a programme of national reconciliation 
  and another one of rehabilitation and development. The latter was presented 
  during Geneva donors’ conference in January 1995. Its aims were the restoration 
  of the macro-economic framework of the country, capacity building, reinforcing 
  the participation of local investors and integration of refugees and displaced 
  people. In addition, the Government had to restore favourable conditions for 
  economic and social activities. 
  Almost 600 million US dollars was received by Rwanda for the period 1995-
  1996 thanks to the Geneva donors’ conference. The international financial 
  contribution served not only to rehabilitate and repair the basic infrastructures 
  but also to increase agricultural activities. It also improved Rwanda’s balance 
  of payments. During the second conference held in June 1996, Rwanda 
  received 500 million US dollars for the second recovery programme called 
  Rehabilitation and recovery programme (1995-1998). The third programme 
  presented to the World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) was a 
  structural adjustment. It intended to stabilise the country’s macro-economic 
  performance to improve the balance of payments, controlling inflation, etc. 
  In June 1998, IMF (International Monetary Fund) approved Rwanda’s 
  application to achieve Reinforced Structural Adjustment Facility. In 1999, this 
  3 years programme was transformed into a ‘Facility for Poverty Reduction and 
  Growth’ (FPRG). It was supported with funds worth 413.3 million USD. Thus, 
  Rwanda embarked on its economic and social construction. 
  Even if some programmes and policies were conceived, it was from 2000 that the 
  Government of Rwanda started formulating long term policies. They included 
  Vision 2020 and the Strategic Plan for the Reduction of poverty (EDPRS) which 
  was published in June 2000. These two strategic programmes demonstrated 
  remarkable dynamism because they inspired subsequent policies which were 
  designed in all government sectors. 
  The Government immediately set out to create fiscal stability and economic 
  growth. Inflation was brought down from 64% in 1994 to fewer than 5% from 
  1998 up to 2000. In 1994, annual fiscal revenues were zero while in 2002 they 
  stood at nearly 70 billion of Rwandan Francs (frw). The economy grew steadily 
  at an average of 11%, while gross domestic incomes grew at an average of 
  14.3% per annum since 1995.
  The process of privatisation of government enterprises started in 1996. Many 
  enterprises were put up for privatisation and shares were sold to local or foreign
  investors. The government made it a priority to diversify Rwanda’s economic 
  base. 
  The Government of National Unity was committed to rebuilding, expanding 
  and improving the infrastructure of the country in order to facilitate 
  economic growth. Since 2003 new roads have been built and others have been 
  reconstructed to improve the road system. 
  Other efforts related to promote health conditions in residential houses 
  increased the availability of water and electricity. Up to 2001, only 2.4% of the 
  homes were connected to water supplied by ELECTROGAZ as opposed to 38.1% 
  homesteads which got water from natural wells. The poorest people fetched 
  water from rivers. The average distance between homes and water sources was 
  703 meters in 2001. 
  As for electricity, the number of ELECTROGAZ customers increased. It rose from 
  2% of the population in 1994 to 6% in 2002. In addition, there was a significant 
  difference in living standards between rural and urban dwellers. 
  Agriculture and animal husbandry 
  Ever since it took over power in July 1994, the Government of National Unity 
  focused its attention on boosting agricultural production. It sensitised the 
  population to embark on agriculture as soon as peace and security were 
  achieved. It distributed seeds, basic tools, pesticides, etc. to boost agriculture. 
  To curb the problem of famine and guarantee food security, government priority 
  identified the cultivation of the following crops: maize, rice, sorghum, beans 
  and, irish potatoes. 
  Rwanda’s economy heavily depended on the export of coffee and tea. The 
  evolution of quantitative production of coffee from 1994 to 2003 was achieved 
  unevenly. The new export crops on which the Government focused its attention 
  included flowers which started fetching foreign exchange to the Rwandan 
  economy. In short, agricultural production increased from 1994. Between 1995 
  and 2005, it multiplied twofold. 
  In the field of animal husbandry, government action since 1994 was bent on the 
  following: increasing the reproduction of animals in all regions of the country, 
  reopening of veterinary laboratories and research institutions in animal 
  technology, provision of veterinary medicines and the sensitization of farmers 
  

  to ensure an increase in animal production. In 1994 and 2003, the number of 
  domestic animals increased by almost five. Quantitatively, animal husbandry 
  also improved because big-sized animals and the number of cross-breed 
  

  animals increased though generally, a lot of improvement was still needed.

  

  

  1. Describe the above picture. Explain what you think about the 
  above picture. How do you link it with the 1994 Genocide against 
  the Tutsi consequences? 
  2. Reading to analyse:
  “Since Rwanda’s social cohesion had fractured due to the divisive politics 
  that preceded the Genocide, suspicion and mistrust characterized 
  relationships between Rwandans. Thus, the new government inherited a
  a deeply scarred nation where trust within and between social groups had 
  been replaced by fear and betrayal”. 
  How do you link this text with the challenges faced by Rwandans after the 
  

  1994 Genocide against the Tutsi?

  2.2.1 Political challenges 
  Problems of insecurity 
  Although the RPF had captured the power and a transitional government had 
  been put in place, the security situation was still fluid, with former government 
  forces and Interahamwe militia still carrying out Genocide in various part of 
  the country. 
  A French buffer area in western Rwanda, known as Zone Turquoise had become 
  a safe haven for genocidal forces. In addition, infiltrators from refugee camps 
  across the border continued to cross and destabilise the country. The Rwandan 
  combatants and refugees located on the border of the current DRC became 
  a security threat which destabilised the hosting country and the interests of 
  several companies. Consequently, a campaign against Rwanda was organised 
  by the affected companies. It should be noted that the ex-FAR and Interahamwe 
  were allowed to keep their weapons and to join the civilian refugees. Other 
  sympathizers of the former regime continued to support combatants, notably 
  Zaïre (current DRC) under President Mobutu Sese Seko. All these proved to be 
  security challenges for a country that had been affected by one of the worst 
  human tragedies of the 20th century. 
  The Government of National Unity had to devise means to address insecurity 
  in the whole country so that Rwandans could begin the task of rebuilding the 
  nation. 
  Political and administrative vacuum 
  The Government of National Unity inherited a country without political 
  and administrative institutions, due to the chaos provoked by the Interim 
  Government. Most of civil servants were either killed or have left the country 
  and the political institutions were destroyed. In addition, during the period of 
  emergence, the Government faced the problems related to insufficient numbers 
  of civil servants, lack of equipment and motivation for civil servants because 
  they had neither salary nor accommodation, a judicial system that had come to 
  a standstill due to lack of adequate qualified personnel, cases of embezzlement 
  of public funds, districts without leadership (bourgmestres), and inexperienced 
  police force among others. 
  

  Suspicion and mistrust among the Rwandan population

  Since Rwanda’s social cohesion had fractured due to the divisive politics that 
  preceded the Genocide, suspicion and mistrust characterised relationships 
  between Rwandans. Thus, the new government inherited a deeply scarred 
  nation where trust within and between social groups had been replaced by fear 
  and betrayal. 
  This lack of trust between people posed a serious challenge to the functioning 
  of institutions because the vision of the Government of National Unity was not 
  shared by all stakeholders. In spite of all this, the Government of National Unity 
  believed that Rwanda was not dead but that it could be reborn and re-built.
  To reach that goal, the Government of National Unity advocated strongly for 
  unity and reconciliation despite the enormous challenges. 
  Broken judicial system 
  The Government of National Unity inherited a broken justice sector. More 
  than 140, 000 genocide suspects had been arrested yet there was insufficient 
  prison infrastructure to host them. Their detention became a huge challenge in 
  terms of feeding, and provision of medical and other services. In the same vein, 
  there was inadequate number of trained lawyers to handle the large number 
  of perpetrators of Genocide and this shortage of judges was also true for other 
  crimes that were being committed in the country. For example, according to 
  records of the Supreme Court, out of 702 judges in 2003, only 74 possessed a 
  bachelor’s degree in law. 
  Laws were also outdated, obscure and inadequate. For example, there was no 
  law on the planning and execution of Genocide. Nonetheless, justice had to be 
  delivered. Despite meagre resources that were available, the government had 
  to operate reforms and introduce new judicial institutions to deal with all these 
  challenges. 
  2.2.2. Social challenges 
  Lack of shelter for refugees and other vulnerable people
  The Government of National Unity strived to restore Rwanda as a country for all 
  Rwandans and provide a homeland for millions of Rwandan refugees. Tens of 
  thousands of internally displaced people, especially Genocide survivors whose 
  houses had been destroyed, were looking for housing facilities. About three 
  million Rwandan refugees taken as hostage by the defeated genocidal forces 
  in current DRC and some in Tanzania and Burundi were brought back home by 
  

  the Transitional Government.

  This humanitarian exercise was largely successful despite the failure of the 
  international community to address their plight in refugees’ camps. A big 
  number of older refugees (from 1959 and subsequent years) came back also in 
  their country. All these categories of the needy people were looking for houses. 
  A bleak health sector 
  In the health sector, the picture was equally bleak. This sector was weak in 
  Rwanda. The personnel in health services were few and poorly trained. This 
  was a result of chronically poor human resource development strategies that 
  characterised colonial and post-colonial Rwanda. On one hand, this situation 
  was greatly exacerbated by the Genocide in which several health personnel had 
  either participated in or had fled the country. On the other hand, some health 
  workers had been killed. Few refugees that had returned from exile settled in 
  Kigali. 
  The capital city attracted health personnel because it had some infrastructures 
  and was also safer to live in.
  To mitigate the health crisis, a number of NGOs and the army came in and tried 
  to make a difference, but the task was overwhelming since the number of the 
  injured and the patients was very high. Statistics indicate that immunisation 
  coverage for children had decreased as a result of war and mismanagement. 
  Malnutrition levels were also very high. Child as well as maternal mortality 
  rates were equally high due to poor health service delivery. 
  The prevalence of water-borne diseases and other conditions related to poor 
  sanitation was among the highest in Africa at that time. The high infection 
  rate of transmittable diseases, especially HIV and AIDS was equally high. This 
  pandemic disease had worsened during the Genocide because rape was used 
  as a war weapon. 
  The situation worsened due to a good number of traumatized people and high 
  fertility rate coupled with ignorance. Malaria was hyper endemic in some parts 
  of the country, especially in the eastern and southern provinces. 
  A selective education system 
  During the genocide against the Tutsi, most education infrastructure was 
  destroyed and the human capital almost decimated. 
  The education system was poor and did not respond to the socio-economic 
  needs of the country. Few educated Rwandans could not translate their 
  

  knowledge into productive activities to improve the standard of living of the

  Rwandan people. For instance, in the eastern part of the country, schools were 
  not only few and scattered, but in some areas they did not exist at all. Higher 
  education was not only quantitatively low but was also a privilege of the few 
  favoured by the quota system. For example, in the period between 1963 and 
  1994, only about 2000 Rwandans had completed tertiary education. 
  2.2.3 Economic challenges 
  The Rwandan economy and political situation before 1994 were marked 
  by economic stagnation and high levels of poverty, mainly attributed to lack 
  of vision and poor economic planning, mismanagement, embezzlement, 
  corruption by the leadership of the time. 
  As a result, post Genocide Rwanda faced a number of economic challenges 
  including an unstable macroeconomic environment. For example, in 1994, the 
  economy shrank by 50 % and inflation rose to 64 %. Between 1985 and 1994, 
  the GDP (Gross Domestic Production) growth rate was a mere 2.2% against a 
  population growth rate of 3.2%, meaning there was an annual decline of-1% of 
  per capita GDP. 
  These challenges were mainly due to the fact that the economy was characterised 
  by low productivity in all sectors, but most especially in agriculture.
  Yet more than 90% of the population depended for their livelihood on 
  agriculture. This situation resulted in a very weak export base coupled with a 
  narrow revenue collection. It implied internally generated resources or external 
  aid to fund social services like education and health. 
  In addition, there was low private investment. As a result, the country lacked 
  a serious and vibrant private sector to drive economic growth. In the public 
  sector too, there was a high unskilled labour force. For example, in 1994, at 
  least 79% of civil servants in the country had not done tertiary education. 
  To make matters worse, skilled professionals had been particularly either 
  targeted in the Genocide or had fled the country. In brief, the Government of 
  National Unity inherited an economy completely destroyed by the Genocide 
  and mismanagement over three decades. 
  Agriculture was the key economic sector for Rwanda because it employed more 
  than 90% of the population. However, despite this fact, its output continued to 
  

  be poor because the techniques of production were still rudimentary with the

  use of the hand-hoe as the primary tool, lack of or inadequate use of fertiliser, 
  poor training of farmers in terms of technological use and poor soils emanating 
  from over cultivation and overpopulation. 
  Rwanda’s agriculture suffered from structural and fluctuating problems. For 
  example, Rwanda’s soils depended entirely on rains because 1.64 % of this soil 
  was under irrigation and only 1.2% was cultivated. This showed that Rwanda’s 
  agriculture depended on unpredictable climatic changes. In addition, soil 
  erosion affected more than 20% of the national territory. A fraction of 
  the Rwandan population still suffered from food insecurity and malnutrition. 
  Price fluctuation of exported products was also another problem whenever the 
  agricultural prices fell. Although agricultural production increased from 1994, 
  food availability per capita per year was on the decline. 
  Farming and animal husbandry activities needed agricultural space. However, 
  the Rwandan soil suffered from demographic pressure and physical degradation. 
  It was overexploited because of high population density. Rwanda’s inheritance 
  system of family land transfers also led to land fragmentation. On average, 
  the size of owned cultivable land by a household was 0.72 ha, although there 
  were differences at regional level. Hence, land fertility reduced gradually. Soil 
  erosion affected a big portion of this land and anti-erosion techniques were 
  not yet widespread on the entire territory. Other behaviours contributed to 
  aggravate the soil situation. For example, overgrazing, bush burning practices, 
  irresponsible deforestation, un-reasonable exploitation of marshlands by brick 
  

  makers and the extraction of sand along valleys.

  

    

  Unit Summary
  Throughout the whole unit, emphasis has been put to achievements of Rwanda 
  government after Rwanda government after the 1994 genocide against the 
  Tutsi. . Attention has been given to challenges caused by genocide and genuine 
  solutions found to overcome the tragedy consequences. It has been highlighted 
  that measures taken rank the country in well and organized one world widely 
  and serve as a model in Africa. However, more initiatives needs to be achieved, 
  like it has been proved that the country lacked a serious and vibrant private 
  sector to drive economic growth. In the public sector too, there is still low level 
  skilled labour force to prompt the economic vibrant progresses to a higher level.
  
  

• UNIT 3:GENOCIDE IDEOLOGY AND GENOCIDE DENIAL IN RWANDA AND ABROAD

  

  

  3.1.1 Genocide ideology
  Normally, an ideology is an organized collection of ideas. It was used in the 
  late 18th century to define a “science of ideas”. For genocide ideology, according 
  to Article 2 of the Rwanda law N°18/2008 of July 23, 2008, relating to the 
  punishment of the crime of genocide ideology, it is an aggregate of thoughts 
  characterized by conduct, speeches, documents and other acts aiming at 
  exterminating or inciting others to exterminate people basing on ethnic group, 
  origin, nationality, region, color, physical appearance, sex, language, religion or 
  political opinion, committed in normal periods or during war.
  In article 3 of the law above, it is characterized of any behavior manifested by 
  facts aimed at dehumanizing a person or a group of persons with the same 
  characteristics like threatening, intimidating, degrading through defamatory 
  speeches, documents or actions which aim at propounding wickedness or 
  inciting hatred.
  

  It can also be committed through:

  

  The crime of genocide ideology is punishable by the law. Under article 135 of 
  the penal code, “any person who commits the crime of genocide ideology and 
  other related offences shall be liable to a term of imprisonment of more than 
  five to nine years and a fine of one hundred thousand (100,000) to one million 
  (1,000, 000) Rwandan francs. 
  3.1.2. Genocide denial
  Encyclopedia universalis defines Genocide denial as an assertion contesting 
  the existence of historic facts mainly related to mass killings genocide denial 
  is also understood as “an attempt to deny or minimize statements of the scale 
  and severity of an incident of genocide”. It is a speech aiming at contesting or 
  denying the reality on Genocide against Jews perpetrated by the Nazis and 
  their accomplices during World War II. This denial appears through hiding 
  the reality, scale of killing methods used as well as the will of Nazis to commit 
  the genocide. In fact, it is a speech whose target is to deny genocide as well as 
  its execution conditions. In other words, it is an attempt to deny or minimize 
  statements of the scale and severity of an incidence of genocide. 
  From then on, such a speech is applied on genocides namely Genocide against 
  the Tutsi in Rwanda, the Serbian Genocide, the Holaucost and the Bosnian 
  Genocide, Nama and Herero Genocide, etc.
  Being a stage that always follows a genocide, genocide denial is among the 
  surest indicator of further genocidal massacres. It is characterized by: 
  ─ The digging up of the mass graves; 
  ─ Burning of the victim bodies; 
  ─ Trying to cover up the evidence and intimidate the witnesses; 
  ─ Denying the commission of any crimes;
  ─ Often blaming what happened on the victims.
  The crime of genocide ideology is punishable by the law. Under the Article 116 
  of the penal code “Any person who publicly shows, by his/her words, writings, 
  images, or by any other means, that he/she negates the genocide against 
  the Tutsi, rudely minimizes it or attempts to justify or approve its grounds, 
  or any person who hides or destroys its evidence shall be liable to a term of 
  imprisonment of more than five (5) years to nine (9) years. If the crimes under 
  Paragraph One of this Article are committed by an association or a political 
  

  organization, its dissolution shall be pronounced

  

  

  1. Explore above picture and discuss 3 forms of genocide denial 
  and ideology in Rwanda and abroad?
  2. Using internet, textbooks in library or other documentation, 
  explain twelve ways to deny 1994 genocide against Tutsi? 
  https://www.genocidewatch.com/twelve-ways-to-deny-genocide or https://www.
  

  newtimes.co.rw/opinions/genocide-denial-remaining-weapon-perpetrators

  3.2.1 Forms of genocide denial in Rwandan society and abroad
  The 1994 genocide against Tutsi was committed according to home-made 
  Rwandan plans already underway by early 1992 as it has been suggested by 
  numerous historical and legal record and studies like the International Criminal 
  Tribunal for Rwanda. 
  Since 1994, the genocide denial has taken three main forms: Literal genocide 
  denial, interpretative and implicatory genocide denial. In the case of the 1994 
  genocide against Tutsi, all these three forms of genocide denial are more or less 
  linked one to another. 
  The literal genocide denial
  It involves negating the facts of genocide, silencing talk of genocidal plans and 
  killings. The literal denial becomes harder to sustain once evidence emerges 
  that genocide plans were made and executed right across Rwanda.
  The interpretative genocide denial 
  It reframes or relabels the events of the genocide, viewing them as part and 
  parcel of civil war, rather than genocide. Interpretative genocide denial 
  involves recategorizing evidence that is established, and goes beyond 
  negating, ignoring or silencing talk of genocide. Higher moral goals are often 
  invoked in cases of interpretative denial, such as: ‘…revolutionary struggle, 
  ethnic purity, Western civilization’, or in the case of Rwanda, legitimate selfdefence and a striving for ethnic-based self-determination.
  The implicatory genocide denial 
  It becomes prevalent and involves explicit counter-accusations that genocide 
  was planned by those previously viewed as saving the victims. For instance, 
  the RPF (Rwandan Patriotic Front) government is thus accused of planning 
  genocide, not only in Rwanda but also in Eastern Congo, now DRC (Democratic 
  Republic of Congo). 
  A double genocide thesis is part of both the interpretative and implicatory 
  forms of genocide denial. All the three forms of denial tend to reinforce two 
  parallel and mutually incompatible accounts of the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, 
  of the past, and tend to further polarise political and public opinion, reinforcing 
  

  divisions over the past, present and future direction of the country. 

  3.2.1 Forms of genocide ideology
  Forms of genocide ideology may bear two common forms as long as they have 
  consequent aspects. These may be: official and family-based forms.
  Official form of genocide ideology 
  Official ideology is a system of ideas through which the state leaders learn to 
  structure their environment and explain reality. It helps the leadership reflect 
  upon various courses of action and rationalize the choices they have made. 
  Official form of genocide ideology, in this perspective and the case of Rwanda, 
  refers to a set of genocidal ideas by which the 1st and 2nd Republics leaders 
  referred to whenever they wanted to respond to home social and political 
  problems by shouldering the root causes to Tutsi. It helped the two former 
  Republics to reflect upon the attack of Inyenzi in 1963 and 1967, 1973 revolts 
  and attack of RPF in 1990 (Liberation war) and justify the reaction of the 
  leaders of that time against Tutsi (Killing of Tutsi who remained in Rwanda 
  and imprisonment of so-called RPF accomplices in 1990). This form of official 
  genocide ideology was used then from 1990 up 1994 when it finally ended in 
  justifying the Genocide against Tutsi in 1994 as defense legitimacy to avenge 
  J. Habyarimana’s death in airplane crash on national and international levels.
  After genocide, former Republics leadership (in exile-FDLR) continuously 
  refashioned and reinterpreted ideological formation according to the changing 
  international and domestic environment especially by denying genocide and 
  accusing the acting Government of Rwanda of having perpetrated Genocide 
  against Hutu.
  Family-based form of genocide ideology 
  The ideology of the family consists of all those values and norms that instruct 
  us on how ‘ideal’ family life should be lived. It provides a justification for the 
  type of institution the family is seen to be in our culture. Most of the time this 
  ideology is ‘hidden’ and it lies in our unconscious, but not often brought to 
  consciousness and seriously questioned. 
  The family-based form of genocide ideology, in the case of Rwanda, may refer 
  to all values and norms instructed to children by their parents (Hutu) on how 
  children have to live with their neighbors especially with those their parents 
  qualify as “them” meaning those who are not of their clan or ethnic group 
  (Tutsi) following the genocide-based indoctrination of the past history. In this 
  sense, it affects most the society when comes the mourning times where this 
  form of ideology is kept as status quo against hatred side (Tutsi) because the 
  

  other side (Hutu) feels uncomfortable

  So kept, it develops the ideals of genocide ideology and is liable to make family 
  members (parents and children) maintain genocide denial thoughts and 
  

  actions.

  

  3.3.1 Channels of genocide ideology and denial
  a. Channels of genocide ideology
  Education
  In Rwanda, education played the major role in development of and instilling 
  genocide ideology especially through the teaching of History of Rwanda 
  in primary and secondary schools after independence. Just before the 
  independence, it was based on the idea of Rwandan settlement where Hutu 
  were made the first settlers of the country, oppressed and poor while Tutsi 
  

  were said to be invaders, feudal and rich.

  When Rwanda became independent, this history was included in the 
  teaching curricula to reinforce Hutu identity as legitimate where it focused 
  on describing different components of the population, demographic rates, 
  origins and settlement periods. Tutsi, as foreigners or invaders, pastoralists 
  settled in Rwanda after Hutu and Twa. Hutu being the majority and organized 
  in chiefdoms. In fact, this teaching program also aimed at identifying African 
  social groups to which every Rwandan population component was related; Twa 
  as indigineous people, Hutu as part of Bantous of central, Eastern, Southern 
  and Western Africa while Tutsi were said to be related to Hima of Buganda and 
  Tanzania and to Massai of Kenya hence their origin being North-eastern Africa 
  (Somalia and Ethiopia). Teaching like this one in Primary 6 and in all levels 
  of secondary had the mission of accelerating the process of rationalizing the 
  marginalization of Tutsi. 
  Another point resided in the teaching of Civic education where students’ 
  knowledge was initiated around political institutions by presenting eminent 
  political leaders, ups and downs of the 1959 revolution and conditions of 
  accessing to independence. Furthermore, they were stigmatizing the opponents 
  and imposing history reconstructions through official speeches.
  Divisions and violence between Hutu and Tutsi students are the results of a deep 
  indoctrination of representations drawn through the channel of education.
  Press (media)
  It should be noted that apart from the role of education described above, between 1990-1994, the press/media achieved a remarkable task in broadcasting genocide ideological information on the causes and effects of the war. It was 
  centered around the “dual hutu-tutsi”, fixing the origins of hutu-tutsi dual in 
  past history and associating it with positive behavior for one camp (side) and 
  negative one for the other. 
  Additional to general difficult conditions, the war crystallized then passions 
  and pushed on to seek a scapegoat who was eventually a Tutsi.
  Political speech
  As a privileged channel for mobilizing identity tendencies by political authorities, 
  a political speech bears different contents such as listing measures to take, 
  formulation of projects to be executed, interpretation of events, etc. Mainly, it 
  plays a major role during hard times (social and political crises). It was mostly 
  used in the First Republic by Gregoire Kayibanda to recall referential values 
  of Hutu during the celebration of independence and identify the responsible 
  

  for the failure. He expressed despise and hatred vis a vis Tutsi. He also used

  to remind the nativity and majority of Hutu, hence Tutsi would pay for their 
  oppressive actions in the past against Hutu.
  By 1990, following the attack of RPF, Juvenal Habyarimana’s speeches constantly 
  referred to historic settlement of Rwanda and mobilized the maximum support 
  of Hutu to chase out Tutsi by all means. In addition, one may remember the 
  deadly speech of Leon Mugesera (Member of MRND party) at Kabaya- Gisenyi 
  in 1990s when he called Tutsi “Abyssinians” who might go back home by 
  Nyabarongo river.
  Political, Social and economic development movements
  These are movements or actions regrouping a given number of individuals 
  who commit to run determined activities for individual or common interest. 
  In politics, they are formed and organized by the government to implement 
  formulated ideologies or policies. Their members are regularly trained to the 
  cause and are requested to hold meetings periodically to evaluate their actions 
  and debate on the tasks ahead. In Rwanda, such movements were formed 
  and given extra-mission tasks of instilling genocide ideology throughout the 
  country during the First and Second Republics. They include: Cooperatives, 
  Militias, Youth Movements and state-organized community works of every 
  Tuesday. These were followed by singing songs (eg National Anthem) glorifying 
  the achievements of the acting government and the win over Tutsi domination 
  and gain of independence despite Tutsi indifference.
  Cooperatives during the 1st and 2nd Republics. Officially known as the Government 
  policy of bringing together efforts for sustainable development in different 
  sectors of development, they were also channelling through which the 
  genocide ideology had to be taught. This is because, in their meetings, not only 
  development matters were concerned but also history of Rwanda was taught 
  by the identifying Tutsi as enemies of the development regained grounds for 
  debate. 
  Political party militias. These were paramilitary organizations of people formed 
  and trained for the civil defense of the country especially by 1990. Groups like 
  Interahamwe (MRND), Impuzamugambi (CDR), Inkuba (MDR), etc. were used 
  to echo hatred, suspicion, division against Tutsi as the Liberation War was on 
  the move. The teachings recalled so many times differences between Hutu and 
  

  Tutsi, prejudices or other kinds of stereotypes of each group

  Faith-based organizations
  These organizations which include Christian churches over nosed in the 
  politics (eg. Mgr Vincent Nsengiyumva-Archbishop of Kigali in MRND political 
  area) other examples in adventists, Islam and took part in disseminating 
  hatred among their followers during their missionary activities. This is well 
  understood because many of them had acquired knowledge offered by the 
  same system of education in primary and seminaries. They preached a hatredcoated evangel where they consented on the fact of killing an enemy potentially 
  a Tutsi wherever he/she would be found as a legitimate action because before 
  being Christians, they were humans to defend themselves. Most of these biblical 
  teachings climaxed since 1990. 
  International political system
  This channel plays this role through the bilateral cooperation system. It is the 
  case of influence of a given western power over her ally in Africa or elsewhere. 
  The genocide ideology is taught to state officials during the state visits with 
  the aim of assuring its political presence in a country as long as one group is 
  not digested by the western power collaborating with the acting Government. 
  It is the case of France in Rwanda that supported, trained Militias and even 
  perpetrated genocide in Rwanda. This means, the genocide ideology was indeed 
  part of terms agreed on for long time with Juvenal Habyarimana regime.
  The ideology-based family 
  It will be recalled that the first family lesson makes the most remarkable 
  impact in child’s life. In addition, the acquisition of culture begins at home. 
  Most families in Rwanda have lived different experiences in the past history 
  of Rwanda under two former Republics. They are witness of political speeches 
  full of hatred, listened to them, even put into actions as state policies dictated 
  the move. Having been so long indoctrinated, some parents retold their past 
  memories reflecting the genocide ideology to their children. As being not 
  mature enough to assess the given information, children embrace the ideology.
  Social media (Internet, WhatsApp,…)
  As a social media and ground for a diversity of information, it has become a 
  channel where anyone believing in ethnic differentiation, hatred against Tutsi 
  can gather works written against or for genocide ideology from any corner of 
  

  the world. 

  b. Channels of genocide denial
  Press (media)
  Genocide denial is seen through the international press. For example, Pierre 
  Péan, a French journalist, who asserts the double genocide in Rwanda in his 
  publications and Press Conference where he shows that Tutsi are the root cause 
  of their killings. This was explained in his book published in 2005, « Noires 
  fureurs, blancs menteurs. Rwanda, 1990-1994 ». Another Author, Charles 
  Onana, from Cameroon, who wrote in his book, «Les secrets du genocide 
  rwandais » that Genocide was caused by the crash of Juvenal Habyarimana 
  airplane by adding that Tutsi prepared their killings. He is even the one to accuse 
  Rwandan authorities of standing behind Congo conflicts and blames Rwandan 
  forces for Hutu refugees killings in Congo and six million of Congolese. 
  Works of Robin Philpot, Canadian journalist, in his book “Ca ne s’est pas 
  passé comme ça à Kigali”, saying that what is being reported on Genocide 
  against Tutsi in Rwanda is not true. Another one who denies Genocide in her 
  publications is Jane Corbin of BBC in her documentary film “Rwanda’s untold 
  story” who collaborated with genocide deniers to produce a misleading tool for 
  permanent enemies of Rwanda and false accusations to the high authorities of 
  Rwanda for having caused Genocide. 
   Authors and Researchers 
  Authors and Researchers like Filip Reyntjens, A Belgian Professor, Permanent 
  Advisor of Juvenal Habyarimana, who even participated in the ethnic-based 
  1978 Constitution drawing up under Juvenal Habyarimana regime, always 
  writes by asserting that RPF was behind the plan of J. Habyarimana’s airplane 
  crash. Another genocide denier is Bernard Lugan, a French, who denies the role 
  of France in the Genocide against Tutsi and asserts that in Rwanda happened a 
  double genocide. 
  Manipulation of the number of victims (Minimization)
  There are so many other pseudo-researchers who deny genocide by 
  manipulating the number of victims of genocide and including a great number 
  of killed Hutu. These include: Allan Stam and Christian Davenport, Professors 
  in one USA universities. When denying genocide, they end up with giving 
  200,000 as a number of Tutsi killed during the genocide instead of over one 
  million victims. This way of minimizing the number of victims is always used 
  by the deniers of the Holocaust where they limited their number at 200,000 
  

  only instead of 6,000,000

  Law Specialists (Lawyers)
  Genocide denial is also seen through reports of Law specialists who assisted 
  the genocide perpetrators in Arusha International Criminal Court for Rwanda. 
  For example, Carl Peter Erlinder, Lawyer at Arusha, wrote so many reports 
  explaining that there was no genocide planning, and even genocide did not 
  happen in Rwanda. 
  International tribunals and courts
  In denying genocide against Tutsi, it accuses Rwandan authorities for having 
  masterminded genocide hence making not guilty genocidaires themselves. 
  For instance, the arrest warrants formulated by French justice and that of 
  Spain against some of High authorities of Rwanda. This was used as a political 
  instrument for hiding their role in genocide in Rwanda. Here also comes 
  International Criminal Court based in Arusha which is reluctant to pronounce 
  its position by freeing or reducing penalties of genocidaires in Arusha (Cases of 
  Bagosora, Zigiranyirazo, Mugenzi, Ndindiriyimana, etc.).
  United Nations Organization reporting
  For political reasons and refuting their role, UN and member States of UN 
  Security Council produce reports aiming at showing that in Rwanda happened 
  double genocide. 
  These include: “Mapping report” asserting the role of Rwanda in the Congo 
  genocide; Report of Steve Hege, former coordinator and armed groups expert of 
  the United Nations, on Democratic Republic of Congo’s armed groups, speaking 
  on behalf of Forces Démocratique de Libération du Rwanda (FDLR) by denying 
  its atrocities in 1994 in Rwanda and other crimes committed in Congo, Reports 
  of Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International publishing fabricated lies on 
  Rwanda. This brings about questions as these organizations have a hidden 
  agenda instead of promoting human rights.
  Some French political figureheads
  To hide the role of their government in the genocide in Rwanda, French 
  authorities namely Francois Mitterrand (Defunct), Alain Juppé, Hubert Vedrine, 
  Bernard Debra and Dominique de Villepin glorify the good image of France 
  (“Operation Turquoise”) during the genocide against the Tutsi and insist on the 
  happening of the double genocide in Rwanda.
  For them, the genocide against the Tutsi was the reaction to Juvenal 
  

  Habyarimana’s airplane crash they gratuitously attribute to the RPF. 

  Faith-based organizations and affiliated charity organizations
  These mainly include White Brothers organizations, Guy Theunis who played 
  the role in disseminating press of hate before the genocide, Serge Desouter in 
  his book “RWANDA, LE PROCES DU FPR”, deny genocide against Tutsi advancing 
  the causes of it out of the President’s airplane crash and the killing of Hutu. 
  In this line, some organization like “S’OLIVAR Foundation” and INSHUTI 
  Association whose tasks are collecting money for FDLR to buy weapons and 
  advocating for it in Western countries. 
  Genocidaires abroad and their friends holding genocide legacy 
  These include: genocidaires, their friends, political refugees and prisoners 
  jailed in different countries such as Augustin Ngirabatware who wrote the book, 
  “RWANDA, Le faît du mensonge et de l’injustice” and Ferdinand Nahimana, 
  who wrote the books, “Rwanda: les virages ratés” and “Rwanda. L’élite Hutu 
  accusée”. All of these individuals deny genocide and their Government’s role.
  Family 
  In a family, parents contribute the biggest share in children’s education: initiating 
  children into good manners, teaching politeness, discouraging the bad habits, 
  supervising them and assisting them where necessary. In Rwanda today, some 
  parents won by genocide ideology or having been involved in genocide, jailed 
  for that purpose still hold on informally interpreting to their children at home 
  or in the neighborhood their preferable views on genocide against Tutsi. This 
  has been seen very often during the mourning times where young people send 
  phone calls or messages to some Radio stations trivializing the genocide. This 
  also happens in some secondary schools and universities as well as in some 
  private areas. Nowadays, one cannot imagine where a student, a child born 
  after 1994 could have got such a behavior unless from her/his parents at home 
  and the neighborhood.
   3.2.3 Ways of fighting against different forms and channels of 
  genocide ideology and denial
  Ways or strategies may include: 
  Sensitizing the mass by making public the law N°18/2008 of July 23, 2008, 
  relating to the punishment of the crime of genocide ideology; Deploying efforts 
  in pursuing genocidaires who are still free abroad and making a follow up of 
  such trials;
  

  Instituting laws relating to the punishment of the crime genocide denial on 
  regional level (Great Lakes and in East African Community); Improving diplomatic 
  relationships among countries of the Great Lakes and exchanging information 
  about genocide denial; Encouraging other countries to commemorate Genocide 
  against Tutsi;Teaching the History of genocide against Tutsi to the Youth so that 
  they are aware of and prevent it; Carrying out and publishing researches on 
  genocide denial; Continuing keeping the country’s security; Fighting against 
  genocide ideology from its bases (ethnic and divisionist ideas as well as its 
  channels-rumor and lie); Reinforcing memory of genocide because without it 
  its history will be forgotten; Establishing and substituting denial maneuvers 
  for the truth by reconstructing genocide events (mission of CNLG); Legally 
  forbidding use of hate symbols or ethnic classification words, hate speech, etc ; 
  Counter-productive prohibition, as part of an ideology of denial, which prevents 
  people from naming, discussing and overcoming deep cultural divisions; 
  Genocide denial and ideology radio stations should be shut down as well as 
  hate propaganda banned; Denial as the final stage of genocide is best overcome 
  by public trials and truth commissions, followed by years of education about 
  the facts of the genocide, particularly for the children of the group or nation 
  

  that committed the crime.

  

  

  Unit Summary
  This unit is central as it talks about the crime of genocide and genocide denial. 
  Its main objective is first to give a clear meaning of the concept, second list 
  different forms of genocide ideology and examines strategies used to spread 
  out it in order to be committed easily and lastly make a complete survey of 
  channels used to deny the crime basically in case of Rwanda society. Among 
  other channels, formal and non formal education played a very big role to 
  disseminate the ideology, while in denying it overseas community is involved. 
  Hence books and articles are written by either perpetrators or politicians and 
  scholars etc…. Beyond this, acts of sabotage are committed even witnesses 
  

  killed or proofs destroyed.

• UNIT 4:PREVENTION OF GENOCIDE

  
  

  
  

  4.1.1 Concept of genocide prevention 
  

  Prevention is a continuous process that aims at avoiding the occurrence of 
  

  something harmful by tackling the causes of the harm prior to it and at each 
  

  phase of the process to its occurrence and after. Genocide Prevention is any 
  

  action that works toward averting a future genocide. 
  

  Since the adoption of the Genocide Convention in 1948 until now, the response 
  

  of the governments at the international community level to prevent genocides 
  

  and mass killings have been very poor. These poor performances are testified 
  

  by a number of tragic situations of genocide since the Holocaust. 
  

  The tragedies in Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia and Darfur in Sudan have shocked 
  

  the conscience of mankind, and there is a fear that the list may grow even longer 
  

  in future, if prevention of genocide is not clarified and taken seriously.
  

  What is absurd is that, while for other tragedies it is generally not easy to 
  

  foresee them before they happen and therefore difficult or even impossible to 
  

  prevent them, genocide is preceded by factors and clear signs that it may or is 
  

  about to happen. That would logically provide enough opportunities to take 
  

  measures to prevent those factors from leading to genocide. 
  

  Several years before the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda occurred, there 
  

  existed factors and signs that showed that a genocide could potentially break 
  

  out but it was not prevented.
  

  4.1.2 Factors that may lead to genocide
  

  Genocide is not something that happens overnight because for genocide to 
  

  happen there are a number of factors that precede and make it possible. They 
  

  create conditions or opportunities for genocide to occur. Hence, one needs to 
  

  first understand the process to genocide in order to know what to do, by whom, 
  

  at which moment and by which means of preventing it. 
  

  The prevention of genocide will not be successful, if the concerned people do 
  

  not understand the process to genocide. Many factors have been discussed, but 
  

  there is no consensus on a definitive list of signs or elements that are present in 
  

  all genocides. The following are some of the factors that may lead to genocide: 
  

  Differences in identity: Genocide is not possible where there is no difference 
  

  among the population in a given state but this difference itself cannot lead to 
  

  genocide if not combined with other factors;
  

  Difficult life due to economic problems (poverty): Being poor itself does 
  

  not make genocide possible but it certainly creates a favourable environment 
  

  to other associated problems that may contribute to the process to genocide; 
  

  Deprivation or inequalities in the allocation of resources: When this 
  

  inequality is based on the differences in racial, ethnicity grounds, meaning, 
  

  when some groups are given more privileges than others or when a group is 
  

  totally excluded from accessing the resources, it may create tensions that may 
  

  lead to other problems that may soon or later lead to genocide; 
  

  Political problems: in many cases the origin of the genocide is the political 
  

  dominance of one group over other groups. The dominant group may intend 
  

  to eliminate other groups in order to have the guarantee of continuation of 
  

  dominance. In reaction, the underprivileged group may feel discriminated and 
  

  plan to get to power by any means. In both cases, they tend to use a war which 
  

  might be itself another factor leading to genocide;
  

  Armed conflicts: the existence of armed actors has served as a motivation 
  

  and excuse for human rights violations, including killings, arbitrary arrest 
  

  and discrimination committed against the civilian population that the armed 
  

  actors claim to represent. Refugees from the persecuted side may also become 
  

  warriors determined to overthrow the government in place in order to recover 
  

  their rights (like having a home land); 
  

  Human rights violations and impunity: genocide is always preceded by 
  

  successive human rights violations and by impunity. In Rwanda, the culture 
  

  of impunity of perpetrators of human rights violations based on ethnicity that 
  

  characterized the colonial and post-colonial periods played a leading role in the 
  

  genocide against the Tutsi that occurred in 1994. The episodes of unpunished 
  

  massacres committed against the Tutsi “ethnic” group in 1959, 1963-1964, 
  

  1973, 1990-1993, did not only pave the way to genocide against them, but 
  

  also contributed to its magnitude in that it made the public participation high 
  

  because of the then assurance that no prosecution would follow. The role of the 
  

  elites and leaders in denying the enjoyment of human rights to some groups 
  

  and in the impunity before and during armed conflicts is also an important 
  

  factor. 
  

  4.1.3 Practices leading to genocide 
  

  During the process to genocide some special practices reinforce the divisions. 
  

  Based on different studies, the practices are as follows:
  

  Social categorization 
  

  People are classified into “us and them” by ethnicity, race, religion, or nationality: 
  

  Germans and Jews, Hutu and Tutsi. In Rwanda, during the colonisation, 
  

  researchers measured for instance the people’s height and the length of their 
  

  noses. And then everyone was classified as Tutsi, Hutu or Twa. 
  

  Identities cards were issued to each individual mentioning the ethnicity. It may 
  

  not be deduced that this policy was meant to incite Hutu to commit genocide 
  

  against the Tutsi, but this permanent line put between the groups and the 
  

  implications related to that, contributed to the antagonism between the two 
  

  groups that later, combined with other things, led to genocide.
  

  
  

  Discrimination/classification
  

  The social categorization which gives the basis for defining groups may be 
  

  followed by the exclusion of some groups, intensified by the injustice in the 
  

  allocation of resources as well as the injustice on how the participation in 
  

  decision making process is distributed. Since these practices of discrimination 
  

  against some targeted groups are either done by state leaders or supported by 
  

  them, they grow and lead to other phases that may lead to genocide.
  

  Dehumanization 
  

  Dehumanisation is a denial of the humanity of others and a step that permits 
  

  killing with impunity. This genocidal ideology “dehumanises” members of a 
  

  group and justifies violence against it. Victims are not considered as belonging
  

  to the same human race as the oppressors. The targeted group is often likened 
  

  to a disease, microbes, cockroaches, infections or a cancer in the body. That is 
  

  what explains why during the genocide, bodies of victims are often mutilated to 
  

  express this denial of humanity. 
  

  Dehumanisation is an important phase in the process that leads to genocide 
  

  because ideologically, the perpetrators claim to purify the society as a 
  

  justification. So, the ideology grows deeper to convincing one group that another 
  

  deserves nothing but death and this is a legitimization to kill. The availability of 
  

  the dehumanising ideology is important in the process to genocide but may not 
  

  be enough to cause genocide if it is not followed by other actions. 
  

  Propaganda for the elimination of targeted group (to which stage this fact could 
  

  be linked in Staton categorization) 
  

  For the dehumanisation to have its effect, it needs propaganda to spread out 
  

  the hate ideology done either by leaders themselves, the authorised who are 
  

  supported by them. This is an important phase in the whole process because 
  

  it helps the elite members of the eliminating group to disseminate the 
  

  dehumanising ideology and to bring other members of that group to believe 
  

  in that hatred. This is an important motivating factor to take part actively in 
  

  killings. A prominent example of the hate media in Rwanda during the 1990s 
  

  is the famous Kangura newspaper as well as the Radio Television Libre des 
  

  Mille Collines (RTLM). 
  

  Preparation 
  

  This phase is when some possible acts liable of making genocide are performed. 
  

  They include writing lists of victims, creation and training of militia, purchase 
  

  and distribution of arms to be used. 
  

  Massacre of the target group members 
  

  In many cases, genocide is always preceded by killings targeting a given group 
  

  or individuals belonging to that group in different places. Genocide may also 
  

  be preceded by killings of moderate people because, of not supporting the 
  

  extermination of the targeted group. 
  

  Extermination (genocide) 
  

  This is the phase when the genocide is executed. It is when the intent to destroy 
  

  the targeted group can be seen from what is happening on the ground. When 
  

  killings are sponsored by the state, the armed forces often work with militias to 
  

  kill like the Interahamwe in Rwanda during the Genocide
  

  
  

  In the case of the genocide against the Tutsi, the main actors were: the interim 
  

  government, local administration, security forces, militia, the media, civil 
  

  society organizations (churches included), the population and the international 
  

  community. 
  

  Denial and impunity of genocide 
  

  During and after every genocide, the perpetrators always find a way of denying 
  

  their crime. They try to justify the killings, and to blame the victims, claiming 
  

  that their own behaviours brought about the killings. In Rwanda, killers alleged 
  

  that Tutsi were helping rebels of RPF, and they used this to justify the mass 
  

  killing of innocent Tutsi. The denial of genocide is not only the destruction of 
  

  the truth about the genocide by negating or minimising it, it is also a potential 
  

  cause of its repetition.
  

  
  

  4.2.1. Prevention of genocide at primary level
  

  Genocide is not something that happens overnight or without warning. 
  

  Genocide requires organization and constitutes in fact a deliberate strategy and 
  

  one that has been mostly carried out by governments or groups controlling 
  

  the state apparatus. Understanding the way genocide occurs and learning to 
  

  recognise signs that could lead to genocide are important in making sure that 
  

  such horrors do not happen again. 
  

  Since genocide is a process, prevention of genocide would mean to tackle it at 
  

  a very early stage. The prevention at the primary level consists of measures 
  

  aiming at creating an environment that reduces the risk of its escalation. At this 
  

  phase the aim is to put in place measures that may pre-empt the start of the 
  

  harm. This means preventive measures that may avoid the occurrence of the 
  

  harm by tackling its root causes. Prevention will therefore include the adoption 
  

  of measures that not only prohibit the harm but also put in place mechanisms
  

  that ensure the prevention of that harm.
  

  On international level, the focus in upstream prevention is determining which 
  

  countries are at the risk. This is mainly done using risk assessments which are 
  

  quite accurate predictors. Numerous models have been developed, each looking 
  

  at different factors such as differences in identity, difficult conditions due to 
  

  economic problems, sharing of available resources, democracy and respect of 
  

  human rights. 
  

  Among other things to consider when assessing and addressing the risk of 
  

  genocide is looking at structural and institutional frameworks in the country 
  

  including domestic legislation, an independent judiciary and an effective police 
  

  force to protect people. 
  

  By using risk assessments (Early Warning System), policy makers, civil society 
  

  organisations and the UN must take appropriate measures to stop the situation 
  

  from evolving into genocide. 
  

  When the primary preventive measures are unsuccessful, then the need to take 
  

  other measures may arise.
  

  4.2.2. Prevention of genocide at secondary level
  

  Prevention of genocide at this secondary level is necessary in two situations. 
  

  Firstly, in case a state has not adopted measures at the primary level and 
  

  secondly, in case the measures adopted before did not prevent the risks of 
  

  genocide from developing. 
  

  The secondary prevention takes place when a genocide is already taking 
  

  place. At this level, many genocidal actions are observed, such as hatred, 
  

  intolerance, racism, ethnic cleansing, torture, sexual violence, disappearances, 
  

  dehumanizing and public discourse. 
  

  The main focus is to end the genocide before it progresses further and claims 
  

  more lives. Measures tailored to the situation are taken in order to prevent the 
  

  risk from materialising or the situation from becoming worse. 
  

  This level of prevention may involve military intervention of some sort, 
  

  especially when it is in an armed conflict context. But there is a debate about 
  

  the effectiveness of this military intervention whereby some claim that military 
  

  intervention promotes rebel groups or that it is too expensive for the lives it 
  

  saves. They prefer peaceful prevention because it saves lives and does not 
  

  require costly intervention for example (MINUAR, MONUSCO).
  

  4.2.3. Prevention of genocide at tertiary level
  

  When the measures at the secondary level fail or have never been taken and 
  

  the mass killings start, measures at the tertiary level are needed in order to 
  

  respond to this final phase of the genocide. Tertiary prevention focuses on 
  

  avoiding genocide in future by rebuilding, restoring he community and dealing 
  

  with all the consequences to repair the damage caused
  

  
  

  Rwanda is an example of the failure of international community to intervene. In 
  

  1994, with the presence of United Nations (UN) peace keepers, it was possible to 
  

  stop the genocide against the Tutsi, but because of various politico-diplomatic 
  

  reasons, these peace keepers were obliged to go back to their countries and let 
  

  Tutsi die in the hands of the perpetrators. 
  

  Tertiary prevention takes place during and after the genocide has ended. Its 
  

  focus is on preventing genocide in the future, thus re-building and restoring 
  

  the community. In other words, the tertiary prevention level also deals with 
  

  all consequences in order not only to repair the damage but also to avoid the 
  

  reoccurrence of the harm.
  

  In concluding, it is important to say that prevention is a continuous process 
  

  which involves several actions at different levels which involve the individuals, 
  

  government, and international community.
  

  
  

  The first challenge is related to lack of certainty that the presence of factors 
  

  at different phases may lead to genocide and the second is the uncertainty 
  

  on whether the preventive measures to be taken can prevent it. Sometimes it 
  

  is better to highlight the key aspects in the text where needed for more facts 
  

  visibilty.
  

  Regarding the first challenge, it must be said that the certainty from the existing 
  

  factors and risks at early phases that they will to genocide may be difficult to get, 
  

  given the fact that the genocide is planned by those in power. Even at advanced 
  

  phases, the degree of certainty of occurrence may still not be there. The process 
  

  to genocide cannot be understood as an exact science. That is why it may be 
  

  argued that the answer to the lack of certainty may be negative. Before taking 
  

  preventive measures, one cannot wait until there is certainty that genocide will 
  

  happen. 
  

  In fact, by the time this is clear, it might be too late to prevent genocide from 
  

  happening and too difficult to do it without causing other problems. The 
  

  analogy with the prevention of environmental damage which does not require 
  

  full scientific certainty can help to understand the uncertainty of the occurrence 
  

  of genocide. The fact that there may not be a linear process to genocide that is 
  

  identical everywhere is a big challenge.
  
  

  4.4.1. The role of the international community
  

  The poor record in preventing genocides forced the United Nations to 
  

  conceptualize ways of deterring the crime while “recognizing and fully 
  

  respecting the sovereignty of States.” The then UN Secretary - General Kofi 
  

  Annan took important measures which inspired many programs in the field 
  

  of genocide prevention. He identified a Five Point Action Plan to end genocide: 
  

  Prevent armed conflict, which usually provides the context for genocide; 
  

  Protect civilians in armed conflict, including the mandate for UN peacekeepers; 
  

  End impunity through judicial action in both national and international courts; 
  

  Gather military information and set up an early warning system; Take quick 
  

  and decisive action along a continuum of steps, including military action.
  
  
  

  Annan created the Office of the Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide, 
  

  later changed to the Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide and Mass 
  

  Atrocities (SAPG). The mandate of the SAPG is to: 
  

  a. Collect existing information, in particular from within the United 
  

  Nations system, on massive and serious violations of human rights and 
  

  international humanitarian law of ethnic and racial origin that, if not 
  

  prevented or halted, might lead to genocide; 
  

  b. Act as a mechanism of early warning to the Secretary - General, and 
  

  through him to the Security Council, by bringing to their attention 
  

  potential situations that could result in genocide; 
  

  c. Make recommendations to the Security Council, through the Secretary 
  

  General, on actions to prevent or halt genocide; 
  

  d. Liaise with the United Nations system on activities for the prevention of 
  

  genocide and work to enhance the United Nations capacity to analyse and 
  

  manage information relating to genocide or related crimes.
  

  With the introduction of Responsibility to protect people in 2001, the 
  

  international community has taken significant steps towards greater awareness 
  

  of escalating situations and employing a tempered preventive mechanism 
  which views intervention as a last resort.
  

  According to this international norm signed by all member states of the UN, 
  

  any nation has the right to intervene if a state fails to protect its citizens from 
  

  genocide or other crimes. This means that state sovereignty can be violated for 
  

  the protection of a population if the state is unable or unwilling to do it. This 
  

  norm has enabled the international community to step in more easily for the 
  

  prevention of genocide. However, there has been some question of the abuses 
  

  of this norm as an excuse to intervene or create regime changes. Also there are 
  

  still difficulties when intervention is discussed but it fails to give an answer to 
  

  who should intervene and what are the constraints to such intervention.
  

  4.4.2 Availing different mechanisms for prevention of genocide
  

  At regional level
  

  Role of the African Union (AU). It is significantly more engaged in the region. 
  

  It has set up mechanisms related to conflict prevention, early warning and 
  

  preventive diplomacy, peace-building, intervention and humanitarian action, 
  

  and disaster management. 
  

  The intervention of Eastern Africa Standby Force (EASF). This force was created 
  

  by the decision of the Summit of the African Union held in July 2004 in Addis 
  

  Ababa to deal with the possible outbreak of genocides and peace in Africa. 
  

  All countries have to put in place measures related to genocide prevention 
  especially where they occurred.
  
  

  All countries have not put in place measures related to genocide prevention. 
  

  Only those who have experienced that tragedy seem to be aware more than 
  

  others and Rwanda is in that case. In the aftermath of genocide, measures have 
  

  been taken to face the immediate consequences and to prevent genocide from 
  

  happening again.
  

  In the case of Rwanda, the Constitution of Rwanda chapter III, article 10 commits 
  

  to upholding the following fundamental principles and ensuring their respect: 
  

  1. Prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, fighting against 
  

  denial and revisionism of genocide as well as eradication of genocide 
  

  ideology and all its manifestations;
  

  2. Eradication of discrimination and divisionism based on ethnicity, region 
  

  or on any other ground as well as promotion of national unity;
  

  3. Building a State governed by the rule of law, a pluralistic democratic 
  

  Government, equality of all Rwandans between men and women
  

  Laws punishing the crime of genocide and the genocide ideology have been 
  

  elaborated. Special organ to monitor and implement these principles has been 
  

  created, the National Commission for the Fight against Genocide established 
  

  by Law Nº09/2007 of 16/02/2007. Its mission is “to prevent and fight against 
  

  Genocide, its ideology and overcoming its consequences”.
  

  Keeping alive the memory of past acts of genocide. In case of Rwanda, genocide 
  

  against the Tutsi Memorials are kept and are extremely important in prevention 
  

  of Genocide in Rwanda. Therefore, it is imperative that the genocide against the 
  Tutsi and all other acts of genocide elsewhere in the world be remembered. 
  
  

  It is imperative that the genocide against the Tutsi and all other acts of genocide 
  

  elsewhere in the world be remembered. The second one is to educate people 
  

  for sustainable peace and prevention of genocide using memorials. 
  

  Then the prevention of genocide should be done in educational setting. The 
  

  country of Rwanda has included the prevention of genocide and peace education 
  

  as a cross cutting issue in the programmes that have to be taught at all levels of 
  education from primary to tertiary levels.
  
  

  Other measures of prevention of genocide encompass effective arrest, trial 
  

  and punishment of those who have committed genocide. The implementation 
  

  of these measures requires the existence of the early and effective functioning 
  

  of the International Criminal Court, the use of national courts with universal 
  

  jurisdiction, and the creation of special international tribunals to prosecute 
  perpetrators of genocide. That is why the International Criminal Tribunal for
  Rwanda (ICTR) was set up in Arusha, Tanzania, began operating in 1995, after 
  a UN Security Council resolution 955 of November 8, 1994. 
  At national level, the country of Rwanda had put in place Gacaca court which is 
  a traditional justice system based on telling truth, in the eradication of impunity 
  

  that lead to genocide against Tutsi in 1994.

  

    

  1. Do you agree or disagree with the above quotation of the UN General 
  - Secretary Ban Ki-moon. Comment on your position. 
  2. Evaluate three initiatives made by the Government of Rwanda 
  to prevent the reoccurrence of genocide both at national and 
  international levels. 
  3. To what extent does lack of an institution in charge of assessing the 
  factors that can lead to genocide be a challenge to the prevention of 
  genocide?
  4. Read carefully the following extracts:
  Text 1:
  “The first thing I can tell them [other Rwandan children] I can explain that 
  ethnic or skin color is not very important in this world. We must live together 
  without discriminating against any person because we don’t choose what we 
  are. That is why I preferred to forgive rather than revenging”!
  

  A genocide survivor

  Text 2:
  “We were walking with many other refugees near Ruyenzi, across the 
  river from Kigali. The road was so crowded with people. I was with my 
  grandmother. As I was walking, I heard a voice of a woman crying, and 
  screaming from a child. I looked to the side and saw a lady with a baby. I 
  asked my grandmother to stop, to go and see what is happening with the 
  lady. But my grandmother didn’t want to go, saying, “If we go there, they will 
  kill us.” And then I went down off the road alone, but other people continued 
  on. The mother was lying on her side with the child lying on top of her. She 
  was around one year, because she couldn’t walk. I was thinking, “Of course 
  this mother will die, but at least I can rescue this child. I never had a sister. If 
  I rescue her, she will be my sister.” My grandmother said, “Make sure that you 
  don’t ask me for anything to help you.” I said, “I will take her; if I die, she will 
  die. If she doesn’t die she will be my sister.” But my grandmother said, “You 
  should not walk close to us, because we may be killed. Walk behind us, with 
  a little distance between us and you. ”I was very, very committed. We kept 
  going; I was carrying the baby on my back up until we got to Zaire”.
  Source: Aegis Trust Archives 
  Questions
  1. After reading text 2, if it was you, what would you have done when the 
  grandmother prevented the young girl to go down off the road to see 
  the child? Justify your position. 
  2. By comparing text 1 and 2 explain how the measures taken by the 
  main characters can help to prevent genocide from happening again 
  in Rwanda. You can use direct quotes from the text. Do you agree that 
  visit of genocide memorial has a role in genocide prevention? Justify 
  your answer.
  3. Write an essay in no more than 300 words on the importance of 
  genocide commemoration.
  4. Imagine a genocide memorial you can create in your home community. 
  Describe what you can put in the memorial and explain how it can 
  

  help to prevent further genocide.

  Unit Summary
  In this unit, the focus is put to prevention to genocide crime. Indeed, the concept 
  means in general a continuous process that aims at avoiding the occurrence 
  of something harmful by tackling the causes of the harm prior to it and at 
  each phase of the process. Concerning genocide, prevention is any action that 
  works toward averting a future genocide. However, since the adoption of the 
  Genocide Convention in 1948 until now, the response of the governments at 
  the international community level to prevent genocides and mass killings have 
  been very poor. These poor performances are testified by a number of tragic 
  situations of genocide since the Holocaust. The tragedies in Cambodia, Rwanda, 
  Bosnia and Darfur in Sudan have shocked the conscience of mankind, and there 
  is a fear that the list may grow even longer in future. Normally, genocide is 
  preceded by factors and clear signs that it may or is about to happen. In the 
  case of Rwanda, several years before the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda 
  occurred, there existed factors and signs that showed that a genocide could 
  potentially break out but it was not prevented. The unit explores a big number 
  of those factors and give tentative solutions and measures to better prevent 
  (primary, secondary and tertiary levels) it from Rwanda society and elsewhere 
  

  around the world.
• UNIT 5:RIGHTS, DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONS

  
  
  
  

  5.1.1 Concepts of rights, duties and obligations
  

  5.1.1.1 Rights
  

  The term “rights” have different understandings and senses. In this context it 
  

  refers to legal, social, or ethical principles of freedom or entitlement i.e rights 
  

  are fundamental normative rules about what is allowed or owed to people 
  

  according to some legal system, social convention, or ethical theory. Rights 
  

  are of essential importance in such disciplines as law and ethics, especially in 
  theories of justice and deontology.
  
  
  

  b. Types of Rights
  

  Natural rights. Sometimes called moral rights or inalienable rights, they are 
  

  rights which are “natural” in the sense of “not artificial, not man-made” as in 
  

  rights deriving from human nature or from the edicts of a god. They are universal 
  

  that is they apply to all people and do not derive from the laws of any specific 
  

  society. E.g a natural right of humans: right to protect or to be protected.
  

  Legal rights. Sometimes called civil rights or statutory rights, they are rights 
  

  based on a society’s customs, laws, statutes or actions by legislatures. E.g a 
  

  right to vote of citizens.
  

  Claim rights. These are rights which entail that another person has a duty to 
  

  the right-holder. E.g claim rights to things like “life, liberty, and property”; these 
  

  rights impose an obligation upon others not to assault or restrain a person, or 
  

  use their property, without the claim-holder’s permission.
  

  Liberty rights. Also known as privileges, they are simply freedom or permission 
  

  for the right-holder to do something, and there are no obligations on other 
  

  parties to do or not do anything. E.g a liberty right to free speech where nobody 
  has the obligation to listen to the speech or refrain from speaking to anyone
  

  Negative rights: They are permissions not to do things, or entitlements to be 
  

  left alone. E.g a right against being assaulted.
  

  Positive rights: These are permissions to do things, or entitlements to be done 
  

  unto. 
  

  One example of a positive right is the “right to welfare”.
  

  Individual rights: These are rights held by individual people regardless of their 
  

  group membership or lack thereof.
  

  Group rights: These are rights existing when a group is seen as more than a 
  

  mere composite or assembly of separate individuals but an entity in its own 
  

  right. E.g a set of rights which individuals-as-group-members have such as the 
  

  rights to specific working conditions or wages for workers grouped into a labor 
  

  union.
  

  5.1.1.2 Duties
  

  A duty is a term that conveys a sense of moral commitment or obligation to 
  

  someone or something. When someone recognizes a duty, that person theoretically commits himself to its fulfillment without considering his/her 
  

  own self-interest. Its fulfillment generally involves some sacrifice of immediate self-interest. For instance, the services performed by a minister 
  

  of a church, by a soldier or by any employee or servant are a kind of duties. 
  

   Note that duty is not only about doing things right, it is also about doing the 
  

  right thing.
  

  There are two major known types of duty: Civic duty and Filial duty
  

  Civic duty is referred to as something owed to one’s country (patriotism), or to 
  

  one’s homeland or community. 
  

  A civic duty could include:
  

  ─ Obey the law;
  

  ─ Pay tax;
  

  ─ Provide for a common defense, should the need arise;
  

  ─ Enroll to vote, and vote at all elections and referenda (unless there is 
  

  a reasonable excuse such as a religious objection, being overseas or 
  

  illness on polling day);
  

  ─ Serve on a jury, if called upon;
  

  ─ Going to the aid of victims of accidents and street-crime and testifying 
  as a witness later in court;
  

  ─ Reporting contagious illnesses or pestilence to public-health 
  

  authorities;
  

  ─ Volunteering for public services (e.g. life-saving drills);
  

  ─ Donating blood.
  

  Filial duty is defined as appropriate actions children would perform in 
  

  relationship with, or feelings towards their parents (families).
  

  A filial duty could include:
  

  ─ Upholding the family’s honor in the eyes of the community;
  

  ─ Entering into arranged marriages that benefit the family’s status;
  

  ─ Caring for in poor conditions relatives;
  

  ─ Being good as a son and obedient as a young man.
  

  Note: a filial duty plays the role of mobilizing the loyalties, labor power, and 
  

  other resources children in the ostensible interests of the household and, in 
  

  some cases, those of the lineage clan as a whole.
  

  5.1.1.3 Obligations
  

  An obligation is a course of action that someone is required to take, whether 
  

  legal or moral (eg an obligation of keeping a promise or fulfilling a contract). 
  

  The word “obligation” can also designate a written obligation, or such things as 
  

  bank notes, coins, checks, bonds, stamps, or securities.
  

  The term “obligation” in plural “obligations” has so many uses and types 
  

  depending on the context in which it is used. Here it is looked at in the normative 
  

  context where its types include: 
  

  Obligations of etiquette: These are referred to as a code of behavior that defines 
  

  expectations for social behavior (a behavior among two or more organisms, 
  

  typically from the same species eg Humans) according to present conventional 
  

  norms within a society, social class or group. 
  

  Social obligations: Also known as “social responsibilities”, these ethical 
  

  frameworks which suggest that an entity, be it an organization or individual, 
  

  has a duty to act for the benefit of society at large.
  

  Political obligations: These moral duties a citizen’s (or member’s) owes to 
  obey the law. 
  

  These obligations above are generally known as Legal obligations (intend to 
  

  make citizens obey the laws enacted by the civil authority), which can incur 
  

  a penalty for non-fulfillment, although certain people are obliged to carry out 
  

  certain actions for other reasons as well, whether as a tradition or for social 
  

  reasons. 
  

  Civil obligations: These are obligations to respect and uphold the legitimately 
  

  constituted civil authority. 
  

  Note: Obligations vary from person to person. Eg a person holding a political 
  

  office will generally have far more obligations than an average adult citizen, who 
  

  him/herself will have more obligations than a child. Furthermore, obligations 
  

  are generally granted in return for an increase in an individual’s rights or power.
  

  5.1.2. Role of rights, duties and obligations in society 
  

  They play the role of:
  

  Developing Individual’s personality. Rights, duties and obligations are 
  

  indispensable for the development of the personality of an individual as water, 
  

  air, soil, sun are so for a plant.
  

  Providing the success of democracy: Rights, duties and obligations enable 
  

  citizens to take part in administration and this leads to the success of democracy.
  

  Availing Liberty and Equality: Enjoyment of rights, performance of duties and 
  

  fulfilling of obligations by the individuals lead to liberty and equality.
  

  Promoting the welfare of the society and State: A society/state can get on the 
  

  path of peace, progress and prosperity only when its citizens are vigilant about 
  

  their rights, perform their duties and meet their obligations properly.
  

  Giving way to other people’s rights: When the law, public order and collective 
  

  well-being are respected;
  

  Providing ways of working and acting independently by meeting the set rules 
  

  and regulations;
  

  Promotion of accountability and the respect of the human dignity.
  

  5.1.3 Duties of a citizen towards his/her nation
  

  As a member/ part of a particular Nation each citizen is supposed to fulfill 
  certain obligations/duties/responsibilities such as:
  

  ─ Respect for national symbols; 
  

  ─ Respect for national values;
  

  ─ Respect for public property;
  

  ─ Prompt payment of taxes;
  

  ─ Promotion of peace, national unity and reconciliation;
  

  ─ Defense of territorial integrity;
  

  ─ Proof fellow-citizens and their property;
  

  ─ Contribution to national development;
  

  ─ Supporting good morals in the family and the society;
  

  ─ Participation in the creation of a conducive environment within the 
  family and the society.
  
  

  As the supreme institution, the state owes to its citizen obligations such as: 
  

  Protecting its populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and 
  crimes against humanity; Providing equal access to public service in accordance 
  

  with their competence and abilities and gender balance; Maintaining relations 
  

  conducive to safeguarding, promoting and reinforcing mutual respect, solidarity 
  

  and tolerance among its citizens; Protecting and defending the security of 
  

  citizens inside and outside their motherland; Respecting the Constitution, 
  

  other laws and regulations of the country; Protecting and preserving the 
  

  environment; Promoting the national culture; Safeguarding and promoting 
  

  positive values based on cultural traditions and practices; Preserving the 
  

  national cultural heritage; Providing the socio-economic development facilities 
  

  to its people; Educating its people; Promoting good relationship with other 
  

  countries;Repressing the culture of impunity and promoting equality before 
  law for all; Providing a legal right of self-defense of its citizens, etc.
  
  

  

  This implies the policies and actions through which the Government of Rwanda 
  demonstrates its commitment to work towards the fulfillment of its duties and
  obligations to its citizens and the ways citizens work likewise.
  

  Achievements in the fulfilling of duties and obligations of either side

  

  

  Out of the ways the government fulfills its duties and obligations to its citizens 
  likewise, there arises positive results which include: 
  ─ Rwanda’s being on spot in terms of peace and security keeping 
  regionally and internationally. Eg Participation in UN mission troops 
  in Darfur, Centrafrique, Haiti… 
  ─ Booming of socio-economic development (UNDP- Human 
  Development, 2014 Report); 
  

  ─ Enhancing citizens’ loyalty; 

  ─ Increase of diplomacy on regional and international levels;
  ─ Success of the country’ s policies.eg Decentralization; 
  ─ Sharpening of patriotism; 
  ─ Increase of the pride to belong to a country that cares for its citizens; 
  ─ Promotion of dignity and self-reliance among Rwandans; 
  

  ─ Promotion of Unity and reconciliation, etc

  

   

  Unit Summary
  The unit above captures main duties and obligations the state and citizen 
  should perform in achieving socio-economic development. This implies the 
  policies and actions through which the Government of Rwanda demonstrates 
  its commitment to work towards the fulfillment of its duties and obligations to 
  its citizens and the ways citizens work likewise. As consequence, if all is well 
  done, this leads to citizen welfare improvement at every sector of economic 
  field countrywide.in this book, planned activities allow learners to assess how 
  

  far they understood the shared responsibilities.

• UNIT 6:DIGNITY AND SELF-RELIANCE

  
  

  
  
  

             
  

  6.1.1. Home-grown solutions (initiatives) 
  

  Home -Grown Initiatives (HGIs) are Rwanda’s brain child solutions to economic 
  

  and social development. They are practices developed by the Rwandan 
  

  citizens based on local opportunities, cultural values and history to fast track 
  

  their development. Being locally created, HGIs are appropriate to the local 
  

  development context and have been the bedrock to the Rwandan development 
  

  successes for the last decade. 
  

  HGIs are development/governance innovations that provide unconventional 
  

  responses to societal challenges. They are based on: 
  

  ─ National heritage/legacy 
  

  ─ Historical consciousness 
  

  ─ Strive for self-reliance 
  

  HGIs include Umuganda (community work), Gacaca (truth and reconciliation 
  

  traditional courts), Abunzi (mediators), Imihigo (performance contracts), 
  

  Ubudehe (community-based and participatory effort towards problem solving), 
  

  Itorero and Ingando (solidarity camps), Umushyikirano (national dialogue), 
  

  Umwiherero (National Leadership Retreat) and Girinka (One cow per Family 
  

  program). They are all rooted in the Rwandan culture and history and therefore 
  

  easy to understand by the communities.
  

  Self-reliance: This is a state of being independent in all aspects. The 
  

  independence could be social, political or economic.
  

  6.1.2. Abunzi – Community mediators
  

  The word “abunzi” can be translated as “those who reconcile” or “those who 
  

  bring together” (from verb kunga). In the traditional Rwanda, abunzi were men 
  

  and women for their integrity and were asked to intervene in the event of conflict. 
  

  Each conflicting party would choose a person considered trustworthy, known 
  

  as a problem-solver, who was unlikely to alienate either party. The purpose of 
  

  this system was to settle disputes and also to reconcile the conflicting parties 
  

  and restore harmony within the affected community. 
  

  Abunzi can be seen as a hybrid form of justice combining traditional with modern 
  

  methods of conflict resolution. The reintroduction of the Abunzi system in 2004 
  

  was motivated in part by the desire to reduce the accumulation of court cases, 
  

  as well as to decentralise justice and make it more affordable and accessible for 
  

  citizens seeking to resolve conflicts without the cost of going to court. Today, 
  

  Abunzi is fully integrated into Rwanda’s justice system.
  

  a. Conflict resolution through community participation 
  

  Historically, the community, and particularly the family, played a central role in 
  

  resolving conflicts. Another mechanism for this purpose was inama y’umuryango 
  

  (meaning ‘family meetings or gatherings) in which relatives would meet to find 
  

  solutions to family problems. Similar traditions existed elsewhere, such as the 
  

  “dare” in Zimbabwe. These traditional mechanisms continue to play important 
  

  roles in conflict resolution regarding land disputes, civil disputes and, in some 
  

  instances, criminal cases. 
  

  The adoption of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms in Rwanda emerged 
  

  from the recognition of a growing crisis in a judiciary where it had become 
  

  almost impossible to resolve disputes efficiently and in a cost-effective manner. 
  

  The Government of Rwanda concluded that modern judicial mechanisms of 
  

  dispute resolution were failing to deliver and so the decision was taken to 
  

  examine traditional mediation and reconciliation approaches as alternatives. 
  

  By doing so, it would not only help alleviate the pressure on conventional 
  

  courts but also align with the policy objective of a more decentralised justice 
  

  system. In addition, the conflict resolution mechanisms rooted in Rwandan 
  

  culture were perceived as less threatening, more accessible and therefore more 
  

  intimate. Those who referred their cases to Abunzi were more comfortable 
  

  seeking mediation from within their community, which afforded them a better 
  

  understanding of the issues at hand. 
  

  b. Establishment of the mediation committees ( Abunzi committe)
  

  In 2004, the Government of Rwanda established the traditional process of 
  

  abunzi as an alternative dispute resolution mechanism. 
  

  Established at the cell and sector levels, abunzi primarily address family disputes, 
  

  such as those relating to land or inheritance. By institutionalizing Abunzi, low 
  

  level legal issues could be solved at a local level without the need to be heard in 
  

  conventional courts. Citizens experiencing legal issues are asked to first report 
  

  to abunzi, cases not exceeding 3,000,000 Frs (for land and other immovable 
  

  assets) and 1,000,000 Rwf (for cattle and other movable assets). Cases of these 
  

  types can only be heard in a conventional court if one party decides to appeal 
  

  the decision made at the sector level by the mediation committee.
  

  As the Abunzi system gained recognition as a successful method to resolve 
  

  conflict and deliver justice, the importance of providing more structure and 
  

  formality to their work increased. Consequently, the abunzi started receiving 
  

  trainings on mediating domestic conflicts and support from both governmental 
  

  and non-governmental organizations to improve the quality of their mediation 
  

  services.
  

  
  

  6.1.3. Gacaca – Community courts
  

  The word gacaca refers to the small clearing where a community would 
  

  traditionally meet to discuss issues of concern. People of integrity (elders and 
  

  leaders) in the village known as inyangamugayo would facilitate a discussion 
  

  that any member of the community could take part in. Once everyone had 
  

  spoken, the inyangamugayo would reach a decision about how the problem 
  

  would be solved. In this way, Gacaca acted very much as a traditional court. 
  

  If the decision was accepted by all members of the community, the meeting 
  

  would end with sharing a drink as a sign of reconciliation. If the parties were 
  

  not happy with the decision made at Gacaca, they had the right to take their 
  

  case to a higher authority such as a chief or even to the king.
  

  One aspect particular to traditional Gacaca is that any decision handed down 
  

  at the court impacted not only the individual but also their family or clan as 
  

  well. If the matter was of a more serious nature and reconciliation could not 
  

  be reached, the inyangamugayo could decide to expel the offenders or the 
  

  members of their group from the community. 
  

  The most common cases to come before Gacaca courts were those between 
  

  members of the same family or community. It was rare for members of other 
  

  villages to be part of the courts and this affirmed the notion of Gacaca as a 
  

  community institution. 
  

  Colonisation had a significant impact on the functioning of Gacaca and in 1924 
  

  the courts were reserved only for civil and commercial cases that involved 
  

  Rwandans. Those involving colonisers and criminal cases were processed under 
  

  colonial jurisdiction. While the new justice systems and mechanisms imported 
  

  from Europe did not prohibit Gacaca from operating, the traditional courts saw 
  

  far fewer cases. During the post colonial period, the regimes in power often 
  

  appointed administrative officials to the courts which weakened their integrity 
  

  and eroded trust in Gacaca. 
  

  The Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994 virtually destroyed all government and 
  

  social institutions and Gacaca was no different. While Gacaca continued after 
  

  the Genocide, its form and role in society had been significantly degraded. 
  

  a. Contemporary Gacaca as a home-grown solution 
  

  Contemporary Gacaca was officially launched on June 18, 2002 by President 
  

  Paul Kagame. This took place after years of debate about the best way to give 
  

  justice to the survivors of the Genocide and to process the millions of cases that 
  

  had risen following the Genocide. 
  

  Contemporary Gacaca draws inspiration from the traditional model by 
  

  replicating a local community-based justice system with the aim of restoring 
  

  the social fabric of the society. In total, 1,958,634 genocide related cases were 
  

  tried through Gacaca. The courts are credited with laying the foundation for 
  

  peace, reconciliation and unity in Rwanda. The Gacaca courts officially finished 
  

  their work ten years later on June 18, 2012.
  

  
  

  Gacaca first began as a pilot phase in 12 sectors across the country one per 
  

  each province as well as in the City of Kigali. After the pilot, the courts were 
  

  implemented across the country and the original Organic Law No. 40/2000 
  

  (January 26, 2001) was replaced by the Organic Law No. 16/2004 (June 19, 
  

  2004) which then governed the Gacaca process.
  

  b. The aims of the contemporary Gacaca 
  

  ─ Expose the truth about the Genocide against the Tutsi 
  

  ─ Speed up genocide trials 
  

  ─ Eradicate impunity 
  

  ─ Strengthen unity and reconciliation among Rwandans 
  

  ─ Draw on the capacity of Rwandans to solve their own problems. 
  

  These activities were carried out at three levels of jurisdiction: the Gacaca 
  

  Court of the cell, the Gacaca Court of the Sector, and the Gacaca Court of appeals. 
  

  There were 9013 cell courts, 1545 Sector courts and 1545 Courts of Appeal 
  

  nationwide. 
  

  According to the statistics given by National service of Gacaca Courts, the Gacaca 
  

  Courts were able to try 1,958,634 cases of genocide within a short time (trials 
  

  have begun on to 10/3/2005 in pilots sectors). This is on irrefutable evidence 
  

  of the collective will and ability of Rwandans to overcome huge challenges of 
  

  their country and work for its faster development basing on “ Home grown 
  

  solutions”
  

  6.1.3 Girinka Munyarwanda- One Cow per Poor Family Programme
  

  The word girinka (gira inka) can be translated as “may you have a cow” and 
  

  describes a centuries’ old cultural practice in Rwanda whereby a cow was 
  

  given by one person to another, either as a sign of respect and gratitude or as a 
  

  marriage dowry. 
  

  Girinka was initiated in response to the alarmingly high rate of childhood 
  

  malnutrition and as a way to accelerate poverty reduction and integrate 
  

  livestock and crop farming. 
  

  The programme is based on the premise that providing a dairy cow to poor 
  

  households helps to improve their livelihood as a result of a more nutritious 
  

  and balanced diet from milk, increased agricultural output through better soil 
  

  fertility as well as greater incomes by commercialising dairy products. 
  

  Since its introduction in 2006, more than 203,000 beneficiaries have received 
  

  cows. Girinka has contributed to an increase in agricultural production in 
  

  Rwanda - especially milk products which have helped to reduce malnutrition 
  

  and increase incomes. The program aimed at providing 350,000 cows to poor 
  

  families by 2017.
  

  a. Traditional Girinka 
  

  Two methods, described below, come under the cultural practice known as 
  

  gutanga inka, from which Girinka is derived.
  

  
  

  Kugabira: Translated as “giving a cow”; such an act is often done as a sign of 
  

  appreciation, expressing gratitude for a good deed or to establish a friendship. 
  

  Ubuhake: This practice established a relationship between the donor and 
  

  beneficiary. An informal but highly valued social contract was established 
  

  which was fulfilled through the exchange of services such as cultivating the 
  

  farm of the donor, looking after the cattle or simply vowing loyalty.
  

  For centuries the cow has been considered as a symbol of prosperity in Rwanda 
  

  and was used in barter trade before colonisation. For these reasons, the whole 
  

  chain of social relationships across the country has been built around cattle for 
  

  generations. This remains true up-to-date. 
  

  The 20th century experienced a dramatic shift in the social understanding of 
  

  what it meant to own cattle in Rwanda. Before colonisation, there was little 
  

  distinction between cattle keepers and those who cultivated. Herders and 
  

  cultivators often worked together to achieve greater agricultural production. 
  

  During this time while owning cattle was associated with being rich, herders 
  

  and cultivators alike faced the challenges of drought, poor soil fertility and the 
  

  country’s topography. The arrival of colonisation, however, brought a change 
  

  in these understandings and cultural practices. The cow was used to divide 
  

  Rwandans along “ethnic” lines and cattle became a symbol of elitism and a 
  

  commodity reserved only for a portion of the country’s people.
  

  While significant progress had been made since the genocide in improving the 
  

  livelihoods of its people, Rwanda continued to face high levels of poverty and 
  

  childhood malnutrition. It was with these indicators in mind that Girinka was 
  

  established in 2006. 
  

  b. Contemporary Girinka 
  

  Girinka was introduced in 2006 against a backdrop of alarmingly high levels of 
  

  poverty and childhood malnutrition. The results of the Integrated Household 
  

  Living Conditions Survey 2 (EICV 2) conducted in 2005 showed rural poverty 
  

  at 62.5%. The Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) and Nutrition Survey showed that 28% of Rwanda’s rural population were 
  

  food-insecure and that 24% of the rural population were highly vulnerable to 
  

  food insecurity. 
  

  The survey showed that in some parts of the country (such as Bugesera), up to 
  

  40% of the households were food insecure. The Demographic Health Survey of 
  

  2005 indicated that 45% of Rwandan children under the age of five had moderate chronic malnutrition and 19% had severe chronic malnutrition. At that 
  

  time, 90% of the Rwandans lived in households that owned some farming land
  

  and more than 60% of the households cultivated less than 0.7 hectares of land, 
  

  according to the EICV2. It was these factors that provided the catalyst for the 
  

  Girinka programme.
  

  c. The objectives of the Girinka programme 
  

  ─ Reducing poverty through dairy cattle farming. 
  

  ─ Improving livelihoods through increased milk consumption and 
  

  income generation. 
  

  ─ Improving agricultural productivity through the use of manure as 
  

  fertilizer. 
  

  ─ Improving soil quality and reducing erosion through the planting of 
  

  grasses and trees. 
  

  Promoting unity and reconciliation among Rwandans based on the cultural 
  

  principle that if a cow is given from one person to another, it establishes trust, 
  

  respect and friendship between the donor and the beneficiary. While this was 
  

  not an original goal of Girinka, it has evolved to become a significant aspect of 
  

  the program. 
  

  The program is structured in two phases. First, a community member 
  

  identified as someone who would greatly benefit from owning a cow is given a 
  

  pregnant dairy cow. That person benefits from its milk and manure production. 
  

  Beneficiaries are then obliged to give the first born female calf to another 
  

  worthy beneficiary in their community. This is known as the ‘pass on’ principle, 
  

  or kuziturirana/kwitura.
  

  
  

  Girinka has been described as a culturally inspired social safety net program 
  

  because of the way it introduces a productive asset (a dairy cow) which can 
  

  provide long-term benefits to the recipient. Approved on 12 April 2006 by 
  

  Cabinet decision, Girinka originally aimed to reach 257,000 beneficiaries; 
  

  however, this target was revised upwards in 2010 to 350,000 beneficiaries by 
  

  2017. The Government of Rwanda was initially the sole funder of the Girinka 
  

  program, but development partners have since become involved in the program. 
  

  This has led to an increase in the number of cows being distributed. 
  

  Girinka is one of a number of programs under Rwanda’s Vision 2020, a set of 
  

  development objectives and goals designed to move Rwanda to a middle income 
  

  nation by the year 2020. By September 2014 close to 200,000 beneficiaries had 
  

  received a cow.
  

  6.1.4 Imihigo – Performance contracts
  

  The word Imihigo is the plural Kinyarwanda word of umuhigo, which means to 
  

  vow to deliver. Imihigo also include the concept of guhiganwa, which means to 
  

  compete among one another. Imihigo practices existed in pre colonial Rwanda 
  

  and have been adapted to fit the current challenges of the Rwandan society. 
  

  a. Traditional Imihigo
  

  Imihigo is a pre-colonial cultural practice in Rwanda where an individual sets 
  

  targets or goals to be achieved within a specific period of time. The person must 
  

  complete these objectives by following guiding principles and be determined to 
  

  overcome any possible challenge that arises. Leaders and chiefs would publicly 
  

  commit themselves to achieving certain goals. In the event that they failed, 
  

  they would face shame and embarrassment from the community. Definitions 
  

  however vary on what constitutes a traditional Imihigo. Some have recalled it 
  

  as having a basis in war, where warriors would throw a spear into the ground 
  

  while publicly proclaiming the feats they would accomplish in battle.
  

  b. Contemporary Imihigo 
  

  Imihigo were re-initiated by Rwanda’s President, Paul Kagame, in March 2006. 
  

  This was as a result of the concern about the speed and quality of execution 
  

  of government programs and priorities. The government’s decentralisation 
  

  policy required a greater accountability at the local level. Its main objective 
  

  was to make public agencies and institutions more effective and accountable 
  

  in their implementation of national programs and to accelerate the socioeconomic development agenda as contained in the Vision 2020 and Economic 
  

  Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) policies as well as the 
  

  Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
  

  Today, Imihigo are used across the government as performance contracts and 
  

  to ensure accountability. All levels of government, from the local district level 
  

  to ministries and embassies, are required to develop and have their Imihigo 
  

  evaluated. Members of the public service also sign Imihigo with their managers 
  

  or head of institution. 
  

  While Imihigo are now widely used across government, it first began at 
  

  the district level. When developing its Imihigo, each local government 
  

  administrative unit determines its own objectives (with measurable indicators) 
  

  taking into account national priorities as highlighted in the national as well as 
  

  international strategy and policy documents such as the MDGs, Vision 2020, 
  

  EDPRS, District Development Plans (DDPs) and Sector Development Plans 
  

  (SDPs). The Imihigo, at both planning and reporting phases, are presented 
  

  to the public for the purpose of accountability and transparency. The mayors 
  

  and province governors also sign the Imihigo or performance contracts with 
  

  Rwanda’s President committing themselves to achieving set objectives. The 
  

  Imihigo process ensures the full participation and ownership of citizens 
  

  because priorities are developed at the grassroots level. 
  

  Between 2006 and 2009 a limited evaluation process took place whereby the 
  

  best ten performing districts from across the nation were reviewed (two from 
  

  each province and the City of Kigali). Each province and the City of Kigali would 
  

  rank the performance of their districts with the top two then communicated to 
  

  the national evaluation team. This team then conducted their own review and 
  

  ranked them from 1-10. This approach suffered from significant limitations 
  

  including the fact that it was not possible to objectively compare the performance 
  

  of all districts because while one province may have had better performing 
  

  districts than another, this system did not allow that to be discovered.
  

  Due to these shortcomings, a nation-wide district Imihigo evaluation exercise 
  

  was conducted in 2010 for all the thirty districts. A national evaluation 
  

  committee with technical expertise and experience conducts this process.
  

  
  

  Undertaken by a multi-sector team of experts from government, the private 
  

  sector and civil society institutions, the first Imihigo evaluation was launched 
  

  on May 11, 2010 and completed on June 17, 2010. The evaluation exercise was 
  

  significant because it was the first time that the Government of Rwanda had 
  

  thoroughly assessed the degree to which district priorities and targets were 
  

  realised against their Imihigo. The exercise acknowledged key achievements 
  

  and challenges in the areas of planning, implementation, reporting and 
  

  communication. 
  

  c. Principles and objectives of Imihigo 
  

  Imihigo are guided by the following principles: 
  

  Local: Each district decides what goes into its Imihigo. However, alignment with 
  

  national priorities is required. 
  

  Ambitious: Pledges are made to achieve only what has not already been gained 
  

  or achieved. 
  

  Excellence: Imihigo is about outstanding performance. 
  

  Imihigo aims at: 
  

  ─ Speeding up implementation of the local and national development 
  

  agenda. 
  

  ─ Promoting accountability and transparency; 
  

  ─ Promoting result-oriented performance.
  

  ─ Instilling innovation and encourage competitiveness. 
  

  ─ Engaging stakeholders (citizens, civil society, donors, private sector, 
  

  etc) in policy formulation and evaluation.
  

  ─ Promoting zeal and determination to achieve set goals. 
  

  ─ Instilling the culture of regular performance evaluation. 
  

  d. Imihigo preparation process 
  

  Imihigo and action plans are used by the Government of Rwanda to define 
  

  goals, targets and objectives. While different in their purpose, the two tools are 
  

  interlinked. The action plan is a set of activities to be achieved within a set time 
  

  period, usually a period of one year. Imihigo are a subset of the action plan 
  

  showing priority activities to be used as a performance measure. The action 
  

  plan may contain any number of activities of a routine nature such as payment 
  

  of salaries whereas Imihigo define targets that have a significant impact on 
  

  economic development, poverty reduction, good governance and social welfare. 
  

  When Imihigo are developed, the Rwandan Government leaders are advised 
  

  to ask some key questions before including activities in Imihigo. Activities 
  

  that answer positively to the questions outlined below are given priority 
  

  consideration. 
  

  1. Will the activity impact positively on the welfare of the local population 
  

  (water access, transport, energy access, schools, etc.)? 
  

  2. Does it create jobs for the local population? 
  

  3. Does it create income generating opportunities for the population /local 
  

  government? 
  

  4. Does it have an impact on poverty reduction? 
  

  5. Is it a priority for the residents in the area? 
  

  6. Does the activity have synergy with development of other areas (an 
  

  activity may have potential to impact development in neighbouring 
  

  areas)? 
  

  7. Is the activity sustainable or are the results sustainable?
  

  8. Is there ownership from the local population for the activity? 
  

  9. Does it help to achieve the national targets and is it linked to the national 
  

  and international priorities, programs or policies (MDGs, EDPRS, Vision 
  

  2020)? 
  

  10. Can the activity produce quality results/outputs with minimum 
  

  resources? 
  

  11. Can it improve the way services are delivered or reduce costs? 
  

  12. Does the activity promote social cohesion (unity and reconciliation)? 
  

  13. Does the activity reduce social disturbances (insecurity, drug abuse, 
  

  prostitution, environmental degradation, conflicts, corruption, etc.)? 
  

  14. Does it address key cross cutting issues (gender, HIV/AIDS, environment, 
  

  social inclusion and youth)? 
  

  15. Has the source of funds for implementation been determined? 
  

  16. Is it realistic and can it be achieved? 
  

  Imihigo is the result of a participatory process of identifying and implementing 
  

  priorities from the grassroots to the national level. In the process of identifying 
  

  priorities, each level demonstrates its contribution to the achievement of the 
  

  development goals. The table below describes who prepares Imihigo from the 
  

  individual to provincial level. 
  

  Step 1: Identification of national priorities by the central government 
  

  Each ministry identifies national priorities to be implemented at local levels 
  

  for which they have earmarked resources that they will transfer to local 
  

  governments. 
  

  Consultation on the following policies and programs occurs: 
  

  Vision 2020. 
  

  Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). 
  

  Government of Rwanda programs and policies. 
  

  National Leadership Retreat and National Dialogue resolutions.
  

  Cabinet resolutions.
  

  Three Year Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF)
  

  Five Year District Development Plan (DDP).
  

  Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). 
  

  Seven Year Government Program. 
  

  Where they do not have earmarked resources, line ministries identify how the 
  

  resources, whether financial or non-financial, can be mobilised (both national 
  

  and local).The central government consolidates the priorities paying special 
  

  attention to areas of quick wins and synergy while avoiding duplication. 
  

  Step 2: Communication of national priorities to the local government 
  

  The list of central government priorities is communicated and discussed with 
  

  local government leaders at a forum of central and local government leaders. 
  

  Step 3: Identification of local priorities 
  

  District leaders consult their District Development Plans (DDPs). Consultative 
  

  meetings with different stakeholders are held at province/Kigali City, districts, 
  

  sector, cell and village levels to discuss and consolidate the emerging priorities. 
  

  Step 4: Preparation and approval 
  

  Firstly, districts consult their respective DDPs and national priorities as 
  

  communicated in the forum/meeting between central and local governments. 
  

  Secondly, local and national priorities at district level are consolidated. Thirdly, 
  

  the draft (for district and province/City of Kigali) is discussed with Quality 
  

  Assurance Technical Team (from the Ministry of Local Government and 
  

  Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning). Fourth, priorities are presented 
  

  to stakeholders. Finally, priorities are approved. 
  

  The Quality Assurance Technical Team was set up to assist the districts and 
  

  provinces/Kigali City in preparing tangible Imihigo that respond to national 
  

  targets. The Quality Assurance Technical Team is composed of members of the 
  

  Imihigo evaluation team, the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO), the Ministry of 
  

  Local Government (MINALOC) and Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning 
  

  (MINECOFIN) as well as all sector ministries that are part of decentralization 
  

  including:
  

  ─ Ministry of Health 
  

  ─ Ministry of Education 
  

  ─ Ministry of Agriculture
  

  ─ Ministry of Infrastructure 
  

  ─ Ministry of Trade and Industry 
  

  The team gives regular feedback to district planners during the process of 
  

  preparing Imihigo. District leaders across Rwanda are asked to prepare plans 
  

  that are realistic, take into account the cost of delivering services as well as the 
  

  available resources. To make sure that proper monitoring and evaluation can 
  

  be conducted, indicators, targets and outputs must be clearly identified in the 
  

  planning process. 
  

  e. Monitoring and evaluation 
  

  A full evaluation of Imihigo takes place once a year. Evaluation teams are 
  

  established to carry out the process in all districts (each province and the City of 
  

  Kigali). The terms of reference for the team are distributed to all team members 
  

  beforehand to ensure proper understanding of the exercise. 
  

  The evaluation team is made up of people with skills in planning, monitoring 
  

  and evaluation (this might include a director general, coordinators and experts). 
  

  Objectivity is also assessed to make sure that any person with potential bias is 
  

  excluded from the team. 
  

  The methodology for the evaluation (including scoring) is developed and 
  

  communicated to local government in advance of the evaluation exercise. The 
  

  evaluation used is a standard template developed against the Imihigo of each 
  

  district. 
  

  After analysing the Imihigo reports received from the districts, the evaluation 
  

  team conducts field visits to specific activities for verification and assessment 
  

  purposes. 
  

  After the field visits and verification of selected activities, the team scores/ 
  

  assesses performance against Imihigo targets and provides a written report.
  

  
  

  
  

  
  

     
  

  f. Reporting 
  

  Districts report their Imihigo progress to the provincial level on a monthly basis. 
  

  Reporting to the national level is completed quarterly (in line with the timelines 
  

  of the EDPRS). An assessment of the progress in implementing Imihigo is done 
  

  after six months, while a full evaluation is done at the end of each fiscal year. The 
  

  assessment and evaluation of Imihigo is conducted by the National Evaluation 
  

  Team whose composition is shown in the table above.
  

  6.1.5 Itorero - Civic education
  

  a. Introduction
  

  Itorero was an educational institution where Rwandans would learn Language, 
  

  Patriotism, Social Studies, Sports, Creative Arts, Martial Arts, good governance, 
  

  the spirit of courage, integrity, and synergy while dealing with challenges 
  

  because Intore would never give way to defeat so that should be the very legacy 
  

  we hand over to our posterity. This program was reintroduced in 2007 as an 
  

  appropriate tool of achieving the goals of all Visions and enhance sustainable 
  

  development through Rwandan culture values. Participants were encouraged 
  

  to critically discuss, explore and analyse Rwandan cultural values with the aim 
  

  of instilling its values, which would in turn give them the lifelong foundation in 
  

  the way they mirror their social environment, shape their conduct, tune their 
  

  mind-set, their way of doing things, and mound their social interaction. 
  

  b. Traditional Itorero program 
  

  As a traditional school, itorero trainers planned daily activities according to 
  

  different priorities. The common belief was that intore were different from the 
  

  rest of the community members, especially in matters of thoughts, expression 
  

  and behaviour they were expected to be a role model in social relations, quick 
  

  thinkers and knowledgeable. Each Itorero included participants of various age 
  

  groups and had its own unique name. The best performer (Indashyikirwa) 
  

  would receive cows or land as award.
  

  The tradition of Itorero provided formative training for future leaders. These 
  

  community leaders and fighters were selected from intore (a person trained 
  

  through Itorero. Itorero was found at three levels of traditional governance: 
  

  the family, the chief, and the king’s court. At the family level, both girls and 
  

  boys would be educated on how to fulfil their responsibilities as defined by 
  

  the expectations of their communities. For example, the man was expected to 
  

  protect his family and the country, while the woman was expected to provide 
  

  a good home and environment for her family. Adults were also asked to treat 
  

  every child as their own in order to promote good behaviour among children
  

  At the chief level, a teenage boy was selected by either his father or head of the 
  

  extended family to be introduced to the chief so that he could join his Itorero. 
  

  Selection was based on good behaviour among the rest of his family and his 
  

  community. 
  

  At the king’s court level, the person selected to join this highest level of Itorero 
  

  could either be the son of a man who went through the king’s Itorero or a young 
  

  man who distinguished himself while in the chief’s Itorero. The king could also 
  

  select the young man who would join his Itorero based on his own observations 
  

  of the candidate in action. 
  

  Both the chief and king’s itorero trainings lasted for long periods of time to 
  

  test the perseverance of the participants. Those who performed well would 
  

  be rewarded with cows, allowed to return home and get married, or were 
  

  nominated to various national duties. Intore who lead/represent others were 
  

  called Intore zo ku mukondo, which translates as the ‘frontline Intore’. 
  

  From 1924 to 1994, Itorero was banned by the colonial rule and further by 
  

  the post-independence regimes. Itorero lost its significance which resulted in 
  

  distortions of the Rwandan culture and breakdown of Rwandan social fabric, 
  

  mutual support and selfless service to the nation. The Itorero during and after 
  

  the colonial period were different in the sense that they focused on singing and 
  

  dancing only. These distortions are indubitably among the main causes of the 
  

  1994 Genocide against the Tutsi which devastated the Rwandan society.
  

  c. Contemporary National Itorero program
  

  In the aftermath of the Genocide against the Tutsi, the Government of Rwanda 
  

  reintroduced Itorero in view of societal transformation. This HGS translated as 
  

  Civic Education Program, was adopted following the top leadership retreat in 
  

  February 2007. 
  

  The Government of Rwanda established the National Itorero Commission 
  

  (Reference: Law N0 41/2013 of 26/06/2013) as public Institution with the 
  

  objective of build a patriotic Rwandan who has values and taboos of the Rwandan 
  

  culture and who has Ubutore culture. The commission was entrusted with 
  

  developing a program that allowed all Rwandans from diverse backgrounds 
  

  to undertake personal development and contribute to the wellbeing of the 
  

  communities where they live or that they serve. The Itorero program provides 
  

  opportunities for participants to enhance positive values, build a sense of 
  

  responsibility through patriotism and gain professional knowledge.
  

  Itorero operates on the following structure namely “Ingamba” in 
  

  Kinyarwanda
  

  1. Children of 0-5 years old called Ibirezi/Nursery, 
  

  2. Children of 6-12 years old (Imbuto)/Primary level, 
  

  3. Children of 13-18 years old (Indirira)/Secondary level 
  

  Those groups be trained through Itorero at Village and school level with 
  

  intention to help them grow up and become responsible citizens. 
  

  • Compulsory National Service (Urugerero) is designed for those between 
  

  the ages of 18 and 35 (Indahangarwa)/University & Professionals 
  

  levels who have completed secondary education. 
  

  • Other years old Ingobokarugamba/Professionals 
  

  • From 56 years old and above (Inararibonye/Experts) 
  

  Those groups are given the opportunity to do so according to their professional 
  

  backgrounds. 
  

  • Rwandan citizens living abroad also join Itorero program and a number 
  

  of young Rwandans living abroad participate in Itorero indangamirwa 
  

  course in Rwanda
  

  • Non-nationals desiring to participate and provide service to the 
  

  country can also do so. 
  

  • University graduates and retired people who participated in Urugerero 
  

  before and wish to do so again are also given the opportunity to join 
  

  Itorero. 
  

   Curriculum/content/Program
  

  The curriculum content for Itorero ry’igihugu is unique to Rwanda since it is 
  

  based on principles of intore and values peculiar to the Rwandan culture while 
  

  Urugerero (National Service) on the other hand, has much in common with 
  

  what takes place in other countries. Different curricula have been developed to 
  

  suit the program’s varied participants. 
  

  The values at the core of contemporary Itorero are unity, patriotism, selflessness, 
  

  integrity, responsibility, volunteerism and humility. 
  

  1. Unity: The state of being joined together to form one unit. A genuine 
  

  vehicle of “the same wisdom, the same vision of the world, and the 
  

  perception of political life
  

  2. Patriotism: Love and allegiance to the nation and the government of the 
  

  Republic of Rwanda
  

  3. Selflessness: the renunciation of one’s own interests in favour of the 
  

  interests of others. The spirit of not putting one’s self first but being 
  

  willing to give one’s time and resources for the benefit of others.
  

  4. Integrity: the act of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, 
  

  principles, expectations and outcome.
  

  5. Responsibility: the obligation and authority to take the necessary 
  

  actions to ensure success. The obligation for the proper custody, care, 
  

  and safekeeping of resources entrusted to the possession or supervision 
  

  of an individual.
  

  6. Volunteerism: Volunteering is the practice of people working for a 
  

  particular cause without payment for their time and services. It is the 
  

  desire to undertake by choice and free will a task or work for the benefit 
  

  of the wider community beyond the volunteer’s immediate family and 
  

  friends
  

  7. Humility: defined as a disposition to be humble; a lack of false pride. 
  

  This attribute increases one’s willingness to listen to others.
  Contemporary Itorero includes 5 major activities in each Itorero session:
  
  
  
  
  

  Participants performing practical exercise (Umukorongiro) simulating the 
  

  exercises of moving people from a certain living condition to another one.
  

  Civic or political component of the training included an Introduction to the 
  

  Legacy of Rwanda in general and a history of the liberation struggle in particular, 
  National strategy for transformation and African development
  
  
  

  Participants
  

  Participating in Itorero is the right of every Rwandan, regardless of status and 
  

  social group.
  

  Training is adapted for the group participating in Itorero relevant to their 
  

  profession, age and category. For example, Local leaders, Student within 
  

  Country and living abroad, journalists, veterinary and agronomist, drivers, 
  

  electriciticians, teachers, education professionals, health workers… have been 
  trained on activities, service delivery, good governance and so on.
  
  
  
  

  6.1.6. Ubudehe – Social categorisation for collective action and mutual support
  

  Ubudehe refers to the long-standing Rwandan practice and culture of collective 
  

  action and mutual support to solve problems within a community. It is one 
  

  of Rwanda’s best known Home Grown Solution because of its participatory 
  

  development approach to poverty reduction. In 2008, the program won the 
  

  United Nations Public Service Award for excellence in service delivery. Today 
  

  Ubudehe is one of the country’s core development programs.
  

  a. Traditional Ubudehe
  

  The origin of the word Ubudehe comes from the practice of preparing fields 
  

  before the rainy season and finishing the task in time for planting. A community 
  

  would cultivate clear the fields together to make sure everyone was ready for 
  

  the planting season. Once a community had completed Ubudehe for everyone 
  

  involved, they would assist those who had not been able to take part, such as the 
  

  very poor. After planting the partakers gathered and shared beer. Therefore, the 
  

  focus of traditional Ubudehe was mostly on cultivation. It is not known exactly 
  

  when Ubudehe was first practiced, but it is thought to date back more than a 
  century. 
  
  

  Ubudehe was an inclusive cultural practice involving men, women and members 
  

  of different social groups. As almost all members of the community took part, 
  

  the practice often led to increased solidarity, social cohesion, mutual respect 
  

  and trust. 
  

  Colonisation and the introduction of a cash-based economy weakened the 
  

  practice of Ubudehe as some members of the community were able to recruit 
  

  some people to perform agricultural works for payment. While this trend 
  

  occurred across the country, in some places Ubudehe was still practiced until 
  

  the 1980s. 
  

  b. Contemporary Ubudehe 
  

  Contemporary Ubudehe is a poverty reduction initiative by the Government of 
  

  Rwanda which provides communities with the skills and support necessary to 
  

  engage in problem solving and decision making for their development. This 
  

  programme was conceived through a set of meetings of political, social, legal 
  

  and religious leaders between 1998 and 1999 known as the Urugwiro Debates. 
  

  These gathering discussed the most pressing issues concerning national 
  

  reconstruction after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. The Urugwiro 
  

  Debates prioritised policies and programs that promoted collective action and 
  

  that upheld the principles of decentralisation. 
  

  After Urugwiro Debates, Ubudehe was reintroduced into Rwandan life in 2001 
  

  as a way to better involve communities in their development by setting up 
  

  participatory problem solving mechanisms. The program helps citizens to use 
  

  local institutions to achieve goals set by the community. 
  

  The program was seen as a way to strengthen democratic processes and good 
  

  governance through greater community involvement in decision making 
  

  process. In this regard, Ubudehe creates opportunities for people at all levels of 
  

  the society, especially the village level, to interact with one another, share ideas, 
  

  create institutions and make decisions for their collective development.
  

  Ubudehe has its roots in the Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) whereby 
  

  citizens would self identify as poor or otherwise according to a set of criteria. 
  

  The objective of the PPA was to help community groups and some poor 
  

  households to create their own problem solving strategies. 
  

  c. Evolution of Ubudehe 
  

  The programme was reinstituted and launched in a pilot phase in Butare 
  

  prefecture (known today as Huye) by the Ministry of Finance and Economic 
  

  Planning and the Ministry of Local Government in 2001. The pilot covered
  

  all 769 cellules in the prefecture. The pilot was carried out as a way for the 
  

  government to test the methodology of Ubudehe as well as to demonstrate its 
  

  potential for nationwide adoption. After a positive assessment at the end of the 
  

  two year pilot, Ubudehe was rolled out nationally. 
  

  The national roll out of Ubudehe took place between 2004 and 2006 as the 
  

  programme was officially adopted as a national policy overseen by the Ministry 
  

  of Local Government. 
  

  Ubudehe took place between 2007 and 2012. This was at the same time as 
  

  an administrative restructure which saw the creation of 14,837 villages 
  

  (Umudugudu) as the lowest level of government organisation. In 2011-12, 
  

  Ubudehe was conducted in ten districts and in 2012-13 Ubudehe was conducted 
  

  in 15 districts.
  

  The Government of Rwanda planned to carry out Ubudehe in the 20 districts by 
  

  2014. 
  

  How Ubudehe works 
  

  a. Identifying and analysing the problems facing the community and 
  

  determine a priority problem to be addressed. Planning the activities 
  

  and resources needed for addressing the prioritized problem through a 
  

  collective action plan (Ubudehe). 
  

  b. Putting in place a system to manage the identified collective action. 
  

  c. Assisting people to classify the level and type of poverty that exists in their 
  

  community and reach a common understanding of this classification. 
  

  d. Drawing up the social map of the cell showing the names of household 
  

  heads, their social category (different categories are again decided by the 
  

  people themselves) and development infrastructure.
  

  e. Helping communities define their development priorities by bringing 
  

  communities together to discuss and decide upon the most effective 
  

  and efficient ways to achieve poverty reduction and their development 
  

  priorities. 
  

  f. Helping communities establish ways of funding their development plans, 
  

  at a group and individual level. 
  

  To achieve these aims, participating villages across Rwanda come together over 
  

  a period of four to seven days (at times convenient to the community such as 
  

  after farming activities) to complete the Ubudehe process. This process takes 
  place at the beginning of the financial year. 
  
  

  Meetings are chaired by the President of the local Ubudehe Committee and the 
  

  village leader. They usually last for three hours each day. Ubudehe takes place at 
  

  both the umudugudu (village) and household level through similar processes. 
  

  The management committee, elected by the community, local technicians, local 
  

  authorities and other stakeholders approve the execution of the collective 
  

  action and engage to safeguard and respect the principles of collective action. 
  

  After this process, funds are made available to support the identified Ubudehe 
  collective action.
  
  

  At the household level, one household is chosen to undergo the Ubudehe process 
  

  to assist it in overcoming poverty. The purpose of singling out one household is 
  

  to provide the community with a model that can be followed. The household’s 
  

  coping strategies are analysed before the following process is undertaken 
  

  with the assistance of trained Ubudehe facilitators. A compatibility test is then 
  

  carried out by people of integrity in the community (inyangamugayo) to make 
  

  sure that the retained strategy is appropriate and will be of good use to the 
  

  household. The household members finally accept and sign for the funds that 
  

  are accorded to them. They agree that the funds supporting the execution of 
  

  their strategy will have a rotating character. 
  

  A key part of Ubudehe is the residents of a community defining the levels of 
  

  poverty that exist in their village. This process takes place every two years and 
  

  the information is used to decide development priorities as well as who should 
  

  benefit from other social security programs and Home Grown Solutions such as 
  

  Umuganda and Girinka.
  

  Traditionally, at the end of a successful harvest, the community would come 
  

  together to celebrate at an event known as Umuganura. Everyone would 
  

  bring something from his/her own harvest for the celebrations. This event 
  

  would often take place once the community’s sorghum beer production was 
  

  completed. 
  

  6.1.7 Umuganda – Community work
  

  In simple terms, the word Umuganda means community work. In traditional 
  

  Rwandan culture, members of the community would call upon their family, 
  

  friends and neighbours to help them complete a difficult task. 
  

  Umuganda can be considered as a communal act of assistance and a sign of 
  

  solidarity. 
  

  In the period immediately after independence in 1962, Umuganda was only 
  

  organised under special circumstances and was considered as an individual 
  

  contribution to nation building. During this time, Umuganda was often referred 
  

  to as umubyizi, meaning ‘a day set aside by friends and family to help each 
  

  other’. 
  

  On February 2, 1974, Umuganda became an official government programme 
  

  and was organised on a more regular basis – usually once a week was in charge 
  

  of overseeing the program. Local leaders at the district and village level were 
  

  responsible for organising Umuganda and citizens had little say in this process. 
  

  Because penalties were imposed for non-participation, Umuganda was initially 
  considered as forced labour.
  

  While Umuganda was not well received initially, the programme recorded 
  

  significant achievements in erosion control and infrastructure improvement 
  

  especially building primary schools, administrative offices of the sectors and 
  

  villages and health centres. 
  

  After the Genocide, Umuganda was reintroduced to Rwandan life in 1998 as part 
  

  of efforts to rebuild the country. The programme was implemented nationwide 
  

  though there was little institutional structure surrounding the programme. 
  

  It was not until November 17, 2007 with the passing of Organic Law Number 
  

  53/2007 Governing Community Works and later on August 24, 2009 with Prime 
  

  Ministerial Order Number 58/03 (determining the attributions, organisation, 
  

  and functioning of community work supervising committees and their relations 
  

  with other organs) that Umuganda was institutionalised in Rwanda. 
  

  Today, Umuganda takes place on the last Saturday of each month before noon. 
  

  For Umuganda activities to contribute to the overall national development, 
  

  supervising committees have been established from the village level to the 
  

  national level. These committees are responsible for organising what work is 
  

  undertaken as well as supervising, evaluating and reporting what is done.
  

  Rwandans between 18 and 65 are obliged to participate in Umuganda. Those 
  

  over 65 are welcome to participate if they are willing and able. Expatriates 
  

  living in Rwanda are also encouraged to take part. Those who participate in 
  

  Umuganda cannot be compensated for their work – either in cash or in kind. 
  

  Today close to 80% of the Rwandans take part in monthly community work. 
  

  Successful projects have been developed for example the building of schools, 
  

  medical centres and hydro-electric plants as well as rehabilitating wetlands 
  and creating highly productive agricultural plots.
  
  

  While the main purpose of Umuganda is to undertake community work, 
  

  it also serves as a forum for leaders at each level of government (from the 
  

  village up to the national level) to inform citizens about important news and 
  

  announcements. Community members are also able to discuss any problems 
  

  they or the community are facing and to propose solutions together. This time 
  

  is also used for evaluating what they have achieved and for planning activities 
  

  for the next Umuganda a month later.
  

  6.1.8 Umwiherero – National leadership retreat
  

  Umwiherero, translated as retreat, refers to a tradition in Rwandan culture 
  

  where leaders convene in an isolated place in order to reflect on issues affecting 
  

  their communities. Upon return from these retreats, the objective is to have 
  

  identified solutions. On a smaller scale, this term also refers to the action of 
  

  moving to a quieter place to discuss issues with a small group of people. 
  

  (The first National Leadership Retreat was held from 10th to 17th January 
  

  2004at Akagera Game Lodge in Kayonza District. It gathered Senior Officials 
  

  such as ministers, permanent secretaries, provincial governors, Mayor of City 
  

  of Kigali as well as representatives from the private sector)
  

  Now, the Government of Rwanda is drawing on this tradition to reflect on, and 
  

  address the challenges the country faces on an annual basis. 
  

  Umwiherero is annuary organised by the Office of the Prime Minister in 
  

  parterniship with the Office of the President. The President chairs Umwiherero 
  

  during which presentations and discussions centre on a broad range of 
  

  development challenges, including economics, politics, justice, infrastructure, 
  

  health, education and others. Contemporary Umwiherero was intended for 
  

  senior public officials but has evolved to include leaders from the private sector 
  

  as well as civil society. 
  

  Since its inception, organisers of Umwiherero have adopted numerous initiatives 
  

  to improve the implementation of resolutions agreed upon at each retreat. 
  

  By 2011, these efforts resulted into noticeable improvements in planning, 
  

  coordination, and accountability leading to clear and more concise priorities. 
  

  In 2011, six priorities were identified, down from 174 in 2009, allowing for 
  more effective delivery and implementation of Umwiherero resolutions.
  
  

  6.1.9 Community Policing
  

  When Rwanda National Police (RNP) was established in 2000, it adopted 
  

  the community policing strategy to build ties and work closely with members 
  

  of the community to fight crime. Since then, the department for Community 
  

  Policing has reduced crime throughout the country. The department is run on 
  

  a philosophy that promotes proactive partnerships with the public to address 
  

  public safety issues such as social disorder and insecurity. 
  

  Traditionally, the police respond to crime after it occurs. On top of that, the 
  

  police cannot always be everywhere and, therefore, relies on routine patrols, 
  

  rapid response to calls for service, arrests and follow-up investigations.
  

  Community Policing, therefore, was adopted to encourage citizens to participate 
  

  in crime-solving. It is focused on the prevention of crime and disorder, by 
  

  partnering with the public to increase police visibility in all communities so as 
  

  to solve, prevent and reduce crime. 
  

  Community Policing enables the police to engage citizens in reporting incidents 
  or to use volunteers to provide timely reports that help in anti-crime operations. 

  
  This strategy has improved police response to crime, because many reports are 
  now provided by community members. This shows that they trust the police. 
  The police now serve the citizens professionally and ensure that they have a say 
  in the security of their communities.
  

  

  

  

  The culturally based policies have contributed a lot in helping getting some 
  socio-economic solutions that were not possible to get otherwise.
  6.2.1 Contribution of Abunzi
  As the abunzi system gained more recognition as a successful method to resolve 
  conflicts and deliver justice, the importance of providing more structure and 
  formality to their work increased.
  During the fiscal year ending June 2017 for example, mediation committees 
  received 51,016 cases. They were composed of 45,503 civil cases representing 
  89.1% and 5,513 penal cases received before the amendment of the law 
  determining organization, jurisdiction, and competence and functioning of 
  mediation committees. A total of 49,138 cases equivalent to 96.3% were 
  handled at both sector and cell levels. 38,777 (76.0%) cases received by 
  mediation committees were handled at cell level, 10,361 (20.3%) cases were 
  mediated at sector level whereas only 3.6% were undergoing at the end of the 
  year. The number of cases received by mediation committees increased at the 
  rate of 30.9% over the past three years.
  The Rwanda Governance Board (RGB) conducted an investigation into public 
  perceptions of some of the benefits of Abunzi in comparison to ordinary courts. 
  

  Those surveyed highlighted the following positive attributes:

   The reduction of time spent to settle cases (86.7%).
  ─ Reduction of economic costs of cases (84.2%);
  ─ The ability to mitigate conflicts between litigants (80.1%).
  ─ The participation of citizens in the mediation process (67.3%) 
  and freedom to choose a judge by the complainant and defendant 
  

  (56.7%)

  The best practices from mediation committees are as follows:
  Pre-hearing counselling: Before cases are heard, mediators call on both 
  complainant and defendant to emphasize the importance of social cohesion 
  and conflict resolution through community mediation. In some instances, both 
  parties may opt to withdraw the case at this point and come instead to a mutual 
  agreement. In other cases, litigants are more inclined to accept, rather than 
  appeal, the mediation decision as a result of the counseling.
  Reduced social distance between parties and mediators: Since mediators 
  are members of the same community from which disputants come, the latter 
  feel less intimidated and more comfortable expressing themselves during those 
  sessions, whether in public or in camera.
  Integrity over legal literacy: Most of the participants insisted that the question 
  of integrity, which determine the selection of mediators, confer more “trust and 
  confidence” in the committees and fostered an environment in which justice 
  prevailed.
  • Parties’ freedom to choose mediators:This was another factor highlighted 
  by participants who felt that the freedom to choose mediators helped 
  ensure equal treatment during mediation and reduced the likelihood 
  of corruption.
  • Win-Win approach: During mediation, Abunzi avoid referring to either 
  party as “winner” or “loser” as these words could create resentment 
  and further contribute to the atmosphere of conflict. The goal of these 
  mediations is to find lasting solutions through reconciliation, hence 
  

  the avoidance of such words

  6.2.2 Contribution of Gacaca courts
  Gacaca courts officially finished their work on June 18, 2012 and by that time 
  a total of 1,958,634 genocide related cases were tried throughout the country. 
  As earlier mentioned Gacaca is credited with laying the foundation for peace, 
  

  reconciliation and unity in Rwanda.

  

    

  6.2.3 Impact of Girinka
  Girinka has led to a number of significant changes in the lives of the poorest 
  Rwandans. The impact of the program can be divided into five categories 
  including: (1) agricultural production, (2) food security, (3) livestock ownership, 
  (4) health outcomes, (5) unity and reconciliation.
  Agricultural production
  Girinka has contributed to an increase in agricultural production in Rwanda, 
  especially milk products. Milk production has risen due to an increase in the 
  number of cows in the country and because beneficiaries have received cross 
  breeds with better productive capacity than local cattle species. Between 2000 
  and 2011, milk production increased seven fold allowing the Government of 
  Rwanda to start the One Cup of Milk per Child program in schools. Between 
  2009 and 2011, national milk production increased by 11.3%, rising to 372.6 
  million liters from 334.7 million liters. Over the same period, meat production
  increased by 9.9%, according to the Government of Rwanda Annual Report 
  2010-2011. The construction of milk collection centres has also increased and 
  by February 2013, there were more than 61 centres operational nationwide 
  with 25 more due to be completed by the end of 2013.
  Most of the beneficiaries produce enough milk to sell some at market, providing 
  additional income generation. The manure produced by the cows increases 
  crop productivity, allowing beneficiaries to plant crops offering sustenance and 
  employment as well as a stable income. Girinka has also allowed beneficiaries 
  to diversify and increase crop production, leading to greater food security.
  Food Security
  According to the Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis and 
  Nutrition Survey (CFSVA) conducted in March/April 2012, almost four in five 
  (79%) or about 1,717,000 households had acceptable food consumption and 
  could be considered food secure. Others either had poor food consumption 
  (82,000 households, representing 4% of all the households) or borderline food 
  consumption patterns (378,000 households, 17%), adding up to a total of 21% 
  of food insecure households in Rwanda. These figures show a 7% decrease 
  in food insecure households since 2006 at which time the figure was 28% 
  

  according to the CFSVA report of 2006

  Livestock ownership
  The Third Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey (EICV III) of 2012 
  indicated that 4% of all Rwandan households received a cow under the OneCow per Poor family policy. The highest rate was seen in the Eastern Province 
  (7%). Animal production and the integration of livestock into smallholder 
  farming is a key contributor to food security. Animal products are a good source 
  of proteins and lipids and, in times of crisis, livestock functions as a shock 
  absorber, contributing to the resilience of poor households.
  According to the CFSVA and Nutrition Survey 2012, 70% of all households in 
  Rwanda own some type of livestock. Results of the EICV III of 2012 showed 
  that in comparison to 2005/2006, higher proportions of households are now 
  able to afford cattle at 47% nationally (up from 34%). The survey also showed 
  that the percentage of livestock-owning households owning cattle increased to 
  47.3% in 2012, up from 34.4% in 2005/2006.
  Health outcomes
  While Girinka cannot be credited with single-handedly for improving the health 
  outcomes across Rwanda, the program has certainly played a part in reducing 
  the level of malnutrition across the population, among children under five 
  years. According to the Demographic Health Survey of 2010, the percentage of 
  stunted children fell from 51% in 2005, to 44% in 2010, and the percentage of 
  underweight children fell from 18% to 11%.
  Unity and Reconciliation 
  Girinka has played a significant role in post genocide reconstruction in Rwanda. 
  During the colonial period, the cow was used to divide Rwandans along ethnic 
  lines and cattle became a symbol of elitism and a commodity reserved only for 
  a portion of the country’s people.
  Girinka has changed what it means to own cattle in Rwanda. While the symbolism 
  of prosperity is still attached to the cow, by giving cattle to the poorest in society, 
  the program has helped to end the divisive perception surrounding owning 
  cattle. The ‘pass on’ component of Girinka, whereby a recipient gifts the first 
  born calf to a neighbour, has helped to rebuild social relationships which had 
  been destroyed during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. This is because 
  the giving of a cow to someone or “Gutanga Inka” translated as “sealing a bond 
  of friendship” remains a cultural practice owned, understood and valued by 
  

  Rwandans.

  6.2.4 Contribution of Imihigo
  

  Swere completed including roads and bridges, hospitals and health centres, 
  classrooms and toilet facilities, houses for vulnerable people, modern markets, 
  selling points, drying grounds, street lighting and housing development in 
  urban areas, trading centres and administrative offices. There was great 
  improvement in distribution of electricity and water in both urban and rural 
  areas. In addition, there was evidence in most districts of small scale factories 
  being started, especially those involved in agro-based products being initiating.
  Greening and beautification: Reasonable effort was made to plant grass 
  and flowers at most public buildings such as district, sectors and cell offices, 
  schools, health and trading centres. In other places, especially at district level, 
  pavements were laid. 
  Rural settlement (imidugudu): There was a general improvement in 
  mobilizing citizens to build in areas set aside for communal villages. This was 
  accelerated by setting up basic infrastructure like roads, water supply and 
  power. The eradication of grass thatched houses and the construction of houses 
  for vulnerable people was also a contributing factor to this success.
  

  6.2.5 Contribution of Itorero
  

  The contribution of Itorero as a home-grown solution towards good governance, 
  

  self-reliance and dignity is observed through Itorero activities described above.
  

  Ubutore culture, self reliance and dignity among Rwandans instiled and 
  

  promoted structures of Intore were elected from villages up to sector levels in 
  

  2009. Later on in 2012, Itorero ry’Igihugu was officially launched in primary 
  

  and secondary schools. From November 2007 up to the middle of September 
  

  of 2017, National Itorero Commission had a total of 2.502.000 trained Intore 
  

  nationwide. Those mentored are the ones who go down to mentor in villages, 
  

  schools, and at various Itorero for specific groups. 
  

  Impact of Itorero at village level to resolve social, economic and financial 
  

  challenges through“amasibo” groups.
  

  Impact of induction week by welcoming new students into their respective 
  

  High Institutions of Learning in order to continue familiarizing those students 
  

  with Rwandan culture values as way to enhancing civic education; namely 
  

  patriotism, integrity, self-reliance and hardworking just to mention few.
  

  Instilling the culture of unity, truth and hard work among Rwandans: 
  in 2009, Itorero ry’Igihugu was launched in all districts of the country. Each 
  

  
  district’s regiment presented their performance contracts at that colourful 
  

  ince its introduction, Imihigo has been credited with improving accountability 
  

  and quickening the pace of citizen centred development in Rwanda. The 
  

  practice of Imihigo has now been extended to the ministries, embassies and 
  

  public service staff.
  

  Once the compilation of the report on Imihigo implementation has been 
  

  completed, the local government entity presents it to stakeholders including 
  

  citizens, civil society, donors and others. After reviewing the results, 
  

  stakeholders are often asked to jointly develop a way forward and this can be 
  

  done by utilising the Joint Action Development Forums (JADF)
  

  
  

  Since the inception of Imihigo in 2006, the following results and best practices 
  

  were observed:
  

  SACCOs (Savings and Credit Cooperatives) and payment of teachers’ salaries 
  

  and arrears: Good progress was made in mobilising citizens to join SACCOs 
  

  and reasonable funds were mobilised. Although most of the SACCOs obtained 
  

  provisional licenses from the National Bank of Rwanda to operate as savings
  

  and credit cooperatives, they needed to mobilise more member subscriptions 
  

  in order to realise the minimum amount required to obtain full licenses. Most of 
  

  all SACCO at the sector level needed adequate offices. In addition great efforts 
  

  were made to ensure that teachers were paid their monthly salaries on time.
  

  Nine Years Basic Education (9YBE): All districts evaluated made substantial 
  

  progress in classroom construction, made possible by the willingness of the 
  

  community to play a role in the districts’ development programmes, particularly 
  

  Imihigo. This was as a result of awareness raising campaigns and mobilisation 
  

  efforts to encourage citizens to own their development activities.
  

  Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP): Programmes implemented 
  

  under VUP substantially improved the welfare of citizens and facilitated the 
  

  implementation of government policies such as SACCO, terracing and road 
  

  construction.
  

  Community assemblies (Inteko z’Abaturage): The function of Community 
  

  Assemblies was reasonably understood, taking place once a month to resolve 
  

  various community problems. This was evidenced by the fact that very few 
  

  unresolved problems reached the district level. 
  

  Citizen participation and ownership of government programmes: Most 
  

  of the citizens contacted during the field visits were aware of, and actively 
  

  participated in government programs especially the health insurance scheme, 
  

  SACCOs, 12YBEs, Girinka and adult literacy. Citizen participation in the Imihigo 
  

  process was especially visible in rural areas. 
  

  Health statistics such as those of maternal and child mortality, accessibility 
  

  of maternal and child care, and accessibility to health insurance (Mutuelle de 
  

  Santé) revealed improved levels of health care for Rwandans.
  

  Land use consolidation: Through programs such as Umuganda, TIG (Travail 
  

  d’Intérêt Général, meaning community service done by prisoners) and the one 
  

  village one product program, selected crops such as wheat, Irish potatoes, 
  

  coffee, tea, and beans were cultivated extensively.
  

  Improvement of agricultural production: Significant efforts were made by 
  

  the districts in mobilizing and advising farmers on how to improve farming, 
  

  notably among which was land use consolidation (maize, rice, coffee, tea, 
  

  cassava, potatoes, banana and beans) which helps to guarantee national food 
  

  security.
  

  Infrastructure development: A significant number of infrastructure projects
  

  were completed including roads and bridges, hospitals and health centres, 
  

  classrooms and toilet facilities, houses for vulnerable people, modern markets, 
  

  selling points, drying grounds, street lighting and housing development in 
  

  urban areas, trading centres and administrative offices. There was great 
  

  improvement in distribution of electricity and water in both urban and rural 
  

  areas. In addition, there was evidence in most districts of small scale factories 
  

  being started, especially those involved in agro-based products being initiating.
  

  Greening and beautification: Reasonable effort was made to plant grass 
  

  and flowers at most public buildings such as district, sectors and cell offices, 
  

  schools, health and trading centres. In other places, especially at district level, 
  

  pavements were laid. 
  

  Rural settlement (imidugudu): There was a general improvement in 
  

  mobilizing citizens to build in areas set aside for communal villages. This was 
  

  accelerated by setting up basic infrastructure like roads, water supply and 
  

  power. The eradication of grass thatched houses and the construction of houses 
  

  for vulnerable people was also a contributing factor to this success.
  

  6.2.5 Contribution of Itorero
  

  The contribution of Itorero as a home-grown solution towards good governance, 
  

  self-reliance and dignity is observed through Itorero activities described above.
  

  Ubutore culture, self reliance and dignity among Rwandans instiled and 
  

  promoted structures of Intore were elected from villages up to sector levels in 
  

  2009. Later on in 2012, Itorero ry’Igihugu was officially launched in primary 
  

  and secondary schools. From November 2007 up to the middle of September 
  

  of 2017, National Itorero Commission had a total of 2.502.000 trained Intore 
  

  nationwide. Those mentored are the ones who go down to mentor in villages, 
  

  schools, and at various Itorero for specific groups. 
  

  Impact of Itorero at village level to resolve social, economic and financial 
  

  challenges through“amasibo” groups.
  

  Impact of induction week by welcoming new students into their respective 
  

  High Institutions of Learning in order to continue familiarizing those students 
  

  with Rwandan culture values as way to enhancing civic education; namely 
  

  patriotism, integrity, self-reliance and hardworking just to mention few.
  

  Instilling the culture of unity, truth and hard work among Rwandans: 
  

  in 2009, Itorero ry’Igihugu was launched in all districts of the country. Each 
  

  district’s regiment presented their performance contracts at that colourful 
  

  ceremony marked by cultural festivals. Each district’s Intore regiment publically 
  

  announced its identification name. At the national level, all the 30 district Intore 
  

  regiments comprised one national Itorero, but each district regiment has its 
  

  identification name. Each district regiment can have an affiliate sub-division 
  

  which can, in turn, also have a different identification name. There is also 
  

  Itorero for Rwandans in Diaspora that has the authority to develop its affiliated 
  

  sub-division.
  

  In order to enable each Intore to benefit and experience change of mindset, 
  

  each group chooses its identification name and sets objectives it must achieve. 
  

  Those projected objectives must be achieved during or after training, and this is 
  

  confirmed by the performance contracts that necessarily must be accomplished. 
  

  With this obligation in mind, everyone also sets personal objective that in turn 
  contributes to the success of the corporate objectives.
  
  Instill among youth, fraternity, patriotism and participation in National 
  programmes through National Service/Urugerero program: Plans to 
  implement Urugerero (National Service) started towards the end of 2012 and 
  the actual implementation started in 2013. Despite this short time, however, 
  Urugerero program has started to yield impressive results. Students who 
  completed Secondary School since 2012 went through Itorero mentorship. 
  Upon the completion of the prescribed course, participants were given the 
  certificates, but later on they had to undergo practical exercise of Urugerero 
  non residential and Residential National service since 2017 and organized
  through various activities designed to promote social cohesion and community 
  wellness in particular and boost national development in general.
  Intore contributed to activities related to the Volunteer Services in National 
  Development Programmes. In the Rwandan culture, “volunteerism” means 
  rendering a sacrificial and selfless service out of love either to a national 
  cause or to a needy neighbour. According to the policy of Itorero ry’ Igihugu, 
  volunteerism refers to any unpaid communal work, voluntarily undertaken in 
  the service of the nation. 
  Volunteerism is reflected in various community works such as: Umuganda, 
  Ubudehe and contributions to a common cause. Other voluntary activities 
  include those of community mediators, various councils, community health 
  workers, Community Policing Committees/CPCs, Red Cross volunteers, etc. 
  6.2.6 The contribution of Ubudehe
  

  Ubudehe has been recognised internationally as a highly successful 
  
  development program. In 2008, Ubudehe was awarded the United Nations 
  “Better Management: Better Public Service” Award.
  One of the most significant impacts of Ubudehe is the way in which it has 
  transformed citizens’ engagement with their own development. Much of the 
  twentieth century in Rwanda was characterised by centralised planning and 
  delivery of services with little or no involvement from local communities. 
  Ubudehe has changed this and, coupled with decentralisation efforts, has 
  changed the way Rwandans participate in decision making processes that affect 
  their lives. Ubudehe has achieved almost nationwide coverage and communities 
  across Rwanda are now actively involved in developing their own social maps, 
  visual representations and collection of data to the extent of poverty in their 
  village. 
  This information is used to determine national development objectives against 
  which the national government and its ministries are held accountable.
  The way through which Ubudehe has brought communities together for collective 
  action based on their own priorities is also considered a major achievement 
  of the programme. The provision of a bank account to each community has 
  enabled thousands of communities to lead actions such as purchasing livestock, 
  undertaking agriculture activities, building clean water facilities, classrooms, 
  terraces, health centres as well as silos for storing produce. In 2006-2007, 
  9,000 communities undertook different projects through Ubudehe and in 2007-
  2008 that number rose to 15,000. 2010 saw over 55,000 collective actions by 
  communities with the assistance of 30,000 Ubudehe facilitators.
  At least 1.4 million people, around 20% of the population, have been direct 
  beneficiaries of Ubudehe. Between 2005 and 2008, around 50,000 people were 
  trained on Ubudehe concepts and procedures. This has resulted in a greater 
  level of skills available to the community at the local level helping Ubudehe to 
  be more effective.
  6.2.8 Contribution of Umuganda
  Umuganda is credited with contributing to Rwanda’s development, particularly 
  in the areas of infrastructure development and environmental protection. 
  Common infrastructure projects include roads (especially those connecting 
  sectors), bridges, heath centres, classroom construction (to support the nine 
  and twelve12) Years of Basic Education programs), housing construction for 
  poor and vulnerable Rwandans (often to replace grass-thatched housing) and 
  the construction of local government offices and savings and credit cooperative 
  buildings.
  

  
  
  
  Environmental protection projects undertaken include tree planting and 
  terracing to fight erosion, wetland rehabilitation, renewable energy construction 
  and crop planting.
  From 2007 to 2010/11, the activities valuated at 26,397,939,119 Rwf consisted 
  mainly of the construction of houses for vulnerable people, roads, classrooms 
  for the Nine Year Basic Education Programme (9YBE), health centres, public 
  offices, tree planting, terracing and other infrastructures to protect against 
  erosion. 
  To measure the impact of Umuganda and encourage greater participation, the 
  Government of Rwanda introduced the National Umuganda Competition in 
  2009. The aim of the competition is to create awareness of the best projects 
  carried out, award communities that have completed good initiatives and to 
  encourage communities to plan properly and maintain what they have achieved.
  

  The competition includes all levels of Rwandan society from the village up to 
  

  the national level. The best activity in each district is awarded with a certificate 
  

  and funding for future projects, and the best three projects in each province 
  are awarded prizes. The best three projects from across Rwanda are awarded 
  a cash prize of between US $1,500 (1,200,000 RWF) and $2,300 (1,840,000 RWF).
  Umuganda is also credited with assisting in reconciliation and peace building 
  in Rwanda. This is because neighbours are brought together to build their 
  community and can discuss problems and solve them collectively.
  6.2.9 Impact of Umwiherero
  
  For a few days every year, leaders from all arms of Government come under one 
  roof to collectively look at the general trajectory the country is taking and seek 
  remedies to outstanding problems. Initially, Umwiherero had been designed 
  exclusively for senior public officials but it has evolved to include leaders from 
  the private sector as well as civil society. Provided under the constitution, 
  Umwiherero is chaired by the Head of State and during this time, presentations 
  and discussions centre on a broad range of development challenges including 
  but not limited to the economy, governance, justice, infrastructure, health and 
  education.
  Since its inception, organizers of Umwiherero have adopted numerous innovative 
  initiatives to expedite the implementation of resolutions agreed upon at each 
  retreat. Since then, the results are quantifiable. These efforts have resulted in 
  noticeable improvements in planning, coordination, and accountability leading 
  to clearer and more concise priorities.
  As discussions go deep in exposing matters affecting the wellbeing of the people 
  of Rwanda, poor performers are reprimanded and those who delivered on their 
  

  mandate are recognized

  
  
  Umwiherero provides a platform for candid talk among senior officials. For 
  example, an official raises a hand to mention his/her superior who is obstructing 
  a shared development agenda. The said superior is then given a chance to 
  explain to the meeting how he/she intends to resolve this deadlock. The retreat 
  sets a scene for every leader to be held accountable. Ultimately, this provides an 
  opportunity for leaders to forge a better future for Rwanda. The organization, 
  implementation and outcomes of Umwiherero have vastly improved and 
  significant achievements recorded. 
  The focus has been to make number of key priorities that makes it easier for 
  meaningful discussions and effective implementation. The retreats are also 
  credited with significantly improving coordination and cooperation between 
  government ministries and agencies. This time round, priorities might not be 
  just small in number, but much more challenging and tougher.
  6.2.10 Contribution of Community Policing
  The Rwanda Governance Scorecard produced by the Rwanda Governance Board 
  in 2016, presented results from a nationwide survey, which indicated that 92
  per cent of the citizens trust the Police. This is an indicator of professional 
  services, discipline and partnership. It is when the community and the police 
  work together for their common good that citizens will trust the police. 
  Once the citizens trust the officers, they will provide them with information to 
  help prevent or solve crimes and to arrest criminals. 
  This has enabled the police to serve communities better and to fulfill its mission 
  

  of making the people living in Rwanda feel safe and secure.

  

         

  6.3.1 Challenges of Abunzi 
  Some of the challenges encountered during the implementation of Abunzi are:
  Inadequate legal knowledge: While most mediators acknowledged that they 
  received training session on laws, they expressed a desire to receive additional 
  training on a more regular basis to enhance their knowledge of relevant laws.
  Insufficient mediation skills: Mediators also expressed a desire to receive 
  additional training in professional mediation techniques in order to improve 
  the quality and effectiveness of their work.
  Lack of permanent offices: In some areas, mediation committees do not always 
  have workspace reserved for them and must share space with the staff from 
  cells and/or sectors offices; this sharing can sometimes result in the loss or 
  mix-up of case files.
  Incentives: A number of mediators complained that the incentive promised to 
  them and their families in the form of “mutuelle de santé” (health insurance) 
  was not always forthcoming.
  Transportation for field visits: Mediators complained about not always being 
  able to afford transportation to perform site visits when reviewing cases. While 
  each chairperson at the appeal level received a bicycle, it has been recognised 
  that field visits for all mediators have been very difficult in some cases. This can 
  result in delays in the mediation process. 
  Communication facilities: To perform their duties, mediators must communicate 
  among themselves or with other institutions, but they are not given a 
  communication allowance. This proves problematic at times and can lead to 
  financial stress for some when they are obliged to use their own money to 
  contact for instance litigants and institutions.
  6.3.2 Challenges of Gacaca courts 
  Below are challenges faced during implementation of Gacaca.
  At the beginning of the data collection phase at the national level, 46,000 
  Inyangamugayo representing 27.1% of the total number of judges, were 
  accused of genocide. 
  This led to their dismissal from Gacaca courts. Leaders, especially in the local 
  government, were accused of participating in genocide constituting a serious 
  obstacle to the smooth running of Gacaca. In some cases, there was violence 
  against genocide survivors, witnesses and Inyangamugayo.
  Serious trauma among survivors and witnesses manifested during Gacaca 
  proceedings. In some cases, there was a problem of suspects fleeing their 
  communities and claiming that they were threatened because of Gacaca. In 
  some cases there was corruption and favouritism in decision making.
  
  6.3.3 Challenges of Girinka 
  The following are the major challenges faced by the Girinka programme:
  In some cases, the distribution of cows has not been transparent and people with 
  the financial capacity to buy cows themselves were among the beneficiaries.This 
  issue was raised at the National Dialogue Council. (Umushyikirano) in 2009 
  and eventually resolved through the cow recovery programme. This program 
  resulted in 20,123 cows given to unqualified beneficiaries (out of a total of 
  

  20,532 wrongly given) redistributed to poor families.

  

  A lack of feed factories in the country has hindered efforts to properly feed some 
  of the cattle affecting their health and productivity. The Ministry of Agriculture 
  worked with investors who have shown interest in building feed factories in 
  Nyagatare, Kayonza and Kicukiro. In some instances, the cost of management 
  inputs has been high and, in some districts, there has been a delay in utilisation 
  of earmarked fund.
  Decentralisation of the programme has helped address this. Provision of 
  additional services (especially veterinary services and artificial insemination) 
  has been limited in some cases due a shortage of skilled staff with relevant 
  training. This has affected the cows’ milk production and the ‘pass on’ system.
  With regards to bank loans, some farmers received cows that were overpriced. 
  As a resolution, farmers who were overcharged are required to pay the bank 
  the actual cost of the cow only through a new contract with the difference paid 
  by those who were responsible for over costing.
  Poor management by inexperienced farmers has increased the mortality for 
  some cows. A shortage of land requires an intensification program in cattle 
  management practices which can sometimes have adverse impacts on the 
  cows such as increase in disease prevalence. To address this, beneficiaries now 
  receive training about modern farming practices prior to receiving their cow.
  6.3.4 Challenges of Imihigo 
  While Imihigo have provided the Government of Rwanda and citizens with a way 
  to hold leaders to account, some challenges listed below have been identified 
  from the 2010-2011 evaluation report:
  There is a planning gap especially on setting and maintaining logic and 
  consistency: objectives, baseline, output/targets and indicators.
  Setting unrealistic and over-ambitious targets by districts was common. Some 
  targets were not easily achievable in 12 months. For example, construction of 
  a 30 km road when no feasibility study had been conducted or reducing crime 
  by 100%.
  In some districts low targets were established that would require little effort 
  to implement. The practice of consistent tracking of implementation progress, 
  reporting and filing is generally still weak. Some targets were not achieved 
  because of district partners who did not fulfil their commitments in disbursing 
  funds - especially the central government institutions and development 
  partners. There is a weakness of not setting targets based on uniqueness of 
  rural and urban settings.
  Setting targets that are beyond districts’ full control was observed: For 
  example, construction of stadiums and development of master plans whose 
  implementation is fully managed by the central government. There was 
  general lack of communication and reporting of challenges faced that hindered 
  implementation of the committed targets.
  6.3.5 Challenges of Itorero 
  

  During its implementation, Itorero faced a series of challenges including:
  a. Insufficient budget compared to workload.
  b. Small number of personnel;
  c. Staff compensation low compared to workload; 
  d. National service program not reflected in Districts plan;
  e. Training sites at districts and provincial level still missing;
  f. Some partners not owning Itorero activities (not yet included activities 
  relating to the promotion of Ubutore culture in their planning). 
  g. Low understanding of the role of Itorero especially at the village level.
  6.3.6 Challenges of Ubudehe 
  The major challenges of Ubudehe can be divided into categorisation and project 
  implementation:
  Categorisation
  In some cases, village members have preferred to be classified into lower 
  poverty levels as a way to receive support from social security programs such 
  as health insurance and Girinka. To overcome this, household poverty level 
  categorisation takes place publically with all heads of households and must be 
  validated by the village itself.
  If community members dispute the decision made by their village, they are 
  entitled to lodge a complaint and appeal in the first instance to the sector level. 
  The Ubudehe Committee at the sector level conducts a visit to the household 
  and either upholds or issues a new decision. If community members remain 
  unhappy with the decision, they can appeal in the second instance to the district 
  level. The final level of appeal is to the Office of the Ombudsman at the central 
  government level.
  Project implementation
  The major challenges of project implementation are with the community 
  choosing a project and then completing the project.
  Communities sometimes have difficulty to define the problems affecting their 
  development and struggle to know how best to prioritise the projects and 
  select the most crucial project to execute. Challenges also sometimes arise 
  when communities are required to choose one household to act as a model for 
  the village. This can be a point of contention because that household receives 
  significant resources to carrying out its Ubudehe development plan.
  To overcome these challenges, the programme has increased training provided 
  to communities on how to select and prioritise projects. In deciding which 
  household will be the model for the village, the community is required to vote 
  which helps members support the decision.
  At the household level it has been observed that some beneficiaries have 
  struggled to manage the funds or resources they received. In some cases, 
  households spent the money on things other than their project or sold the 
  livestock they received. To overcome this challenge, the Ubudehe Committee 
  at the village level has been tasked to provide regular follow up and support.
  6.3.7 Challenges of Umuganda
  The challenges faced by Umuganda fall into two broad categories: planning and 
  participation. In some areas of the country, poor planning has led to unrealistic 
  targets and projects that would be difficult to achieve without additional 
  financing. 
  To address this challenge, the team responsible for Umuganda at the Ministry 
  of Local Government has run trainings for the committees that oversee 
  Umuganda at the local level. These trainings include lessons on monitoring 
  and evaluation, how to report achievements, the laws, orders and guidelines 
  governing Umuganda as well as responsibilities of the committee. 
  In urban areas, participation in Umuganda has been lower than in rural areas.
  So in order to overcome the issues of low participation rates in some areas 
  of the country, especially in urban areas, an awareness raising campaign is 
  conducted through documentaries, TV and radio shows to inform Rwandans 
  about the role Umuganda plays in society and its importance. 
  A mobilisation strategy is also currently being devised which includes ideas 
  about how to streamline the laws and policies governing Umuganda so that 
  they are more easily understood. This is also to ensure that they are in line with 
  the National Community and Local Development Strategy. The City of Kigali is 
  also embarking on a process to find the best ways to encourage those living in 
  urban areas to take part in Umuganda.
  The Ministry of Local Government has begun a partnership with South Korea to 
  learn from the community work practice there known as Saemual Undong. This 
  is part of attempts to learn from the best practices all over the world as well as 
  share Rwanda’s experience with other countries.
  
  6.3.8 Challenges of Umwiherero 
  The first four years of Umwiherero saw questionable results. The organisation 
  of the retreat was often rushed, objectives were poorly defined, and few tangible 
  results could be measured.
  This led the establishment of the Strategy and Policy Unit in the Office of the 
  President and the Coordination Unit in the Office of the Prime Minister. At the 
  same time, the Ministry of Cabinet Affairs was set up to improve the functioning 
  of the Cabinet. These two newly formed units were tasked with working 
  together to implement Umwiherero. While the first retreat organised by the two 
  new teams suffered from similar problems to previous retreats, improvement 
  was noticeable.
  Following Umwiherero in 2009, Minister of Cabinet Affairs served as head of 
  the newly formed steering committee tasked with overseeing the retreat. The 
  steering committee was comprised of 14 team members. Alongside the steering 
  committee, working groups were set up to define the priorities to be included 
  on the retreat agenda. This process was overseen by the Strategy and Policy 
  Unit who developed a concept paper with eleven priority areas to be approved 
  by the Prime Minister and the President.
  Since that time the organisation, implementation and outcomes of Umwiherero 
  have vastly improved and significant achievements have been recorded. 
  The focus on a small number of key priorities has made it easier for meaningful 
  discussions to be had and for effective implementation to take place. For 
  example, the number of national priorities agreed upon by participants fell from 
  174 in 2009 to 11 in 2010 and to six in 2011. The retreats are also credited with 
  significantly improving coordination and cooperation between government 
  ministries and agencies.
  6.3.9 Challenges of Community policing
  While the Community policing is helping the police to address security related 
  problems, every district faces its unique challenges, but in general common 
  challenges are:
  a. Increase of drug abuse and gender based violence;
  b. The issue of human trafficking in Rwanda;
  c. The persistence of home assaults and prostitution becoming a threat to 
  

  security everywhere.

  

      

  Unit summary
  This unit focuses basically to home grown solutions initiatives. It intends to 
  contribute to instill various innovations taken by the country in order to improve 
  and speed economic progress. These are all related to historical background 
  and Rwanda society genuine and impactfull issues. Among them we can state 
  

  ubudehe, umuganda, girinka munyarwanda, kwigira, community policing etc…

  
  
  
  

  

• UNIT:ORIGIN, RISE AND DECLINE OF WEST AFRICAN EMPIRES

  

  1. Identify and locate those empires on a map of Africa
  2. Discuss on the main characteristics of those empires
  

  3. Map the gradual growth up and break up of Western African empires

  

  Ghana was the first kingdom to emerge as an empire in the Western Sudan. Apart 
  from metropolitan Ghana, the empire included several important provincial 
  territories. Chief among these was Awkar, a name by which Ghana was, for some 
  time, better known in the Islamic world. At its height, the territories governed 
  or influenced by Old Ghana covered a considerable area in the source-region of 
  

  the Rivers Niger and Senegal

  

  7.1.1 Origin
  The earliest known Negro Empire of Western Sudan recorded in history is 
  Ghana Empire. The Kingdom was founded by the Soninke who were a branch of 
  the Mande speaking people in about 300 AD. It started as the small independent 
  kingdom of Wagadu, which later came to be named Ghana with its capital at 
  Kumbi-Saleh. The first King was named Kaya Magha Cisse.
  By the 10th and 11th centuries, the Empire of Ghana had reached its highest peak 
  of glory and power. By this period it stretched from Timbiktu on the Niger to 
  central Senegal then to the north into Sahara and to the south up to Balile River.
  7.1.2 Factors that led to the rise and growth of Old Ghana
  These were the reasons for the rise of Old Ghana:
  Control of trade routes. The empire occupied the savannah land between the 
  rich gold-fields of Wangara and the most important of the trans-Sahara trade 
  routes. In this middle-man position, the ruler of Ghana could control and tax 
  both the trading goods taken from North Africa to the Western Sudan (e.g. salt 
  and horses) and those taken from the Western Sudan to North Africa (e.g. gold, 
  ivory, kola). From this trade came wealth and with this wealth the rulers of 
  Ghana were able to establish and maintain a reasonably efficient administration 
  and army.
  The use of iron. The Soninke were apparently the first group of people in 
  that part of the Western Sudan to discover the use of iron. The ability to make 
  weapons of iron was important and assisted in Ghana’s military strength and 
  growth.
  Use of horses. Soninke are considered the first people to secure a sufficiently 
  large number of horses from North Africa to build up a powerful cavalry.
  Effective administration. The Soninke built up a fairly effective large-scale 
  government, which enabled them to rule a large area and to maintain law and 
  order.
  Unity in the empire. The fact that the rulers of Ghana were considered 
  semidivine must also have helped the rise of the empire by maintaining unity 
  

  and limiting the incidence of rebellion.

  7.1.3 Organization of Ghana Empire
  Political organization
  At the head of the empire was the king, operating from the headquarters at 
  Kumbi Saleh. The king was assisted by able administrators. These men served 
  also as secretaries. In the capital city, there was a governor. He was in charge 
  of the civic administration of metropolitan Ghana. In the conquered (or vassal 
  states) two types of provincial government seem to have operated: In some 
  provinces, the administration was entrusted to governors appointed directly by 
  the emperor. These were places where either hostile subjects were constantly 
  plotting to rebel where there was no centralized native provincial ruler. In 
  other places the local rulers were allowed a great measure of independence. All 
  that was required of these provincial native rulers was loyalty to metropolitan 
  Ghana, and regular payment of tax to the emperor.
  Vassal kings sent up their sons to the emperor’s palace. This practice was 
  maintained for two reasons. Firstly, as long as the sons of the vassal kings were 
  at the emperor’s palace or court, it was not wise for their fathers to rebel against 
  the imperial authority. Secondly, these pages learnt a great deal of the arts of 
  government from the imperial court. The experience thus gained stood them in 
  good stead when later they returned home to assume the reins of government 
  in their own land, in succession to their fathers.
  The supreme judicial power in the empire was vested in the emperor, assisted by 
  a hierarchy of subordinate officials. The king did not maintain a standing army. 
  Men were recruited or called up when the king needed them for a campaign or 
  

  to defend the empire from external attack.

  

  Economic Organisation
  The sources of economic prosperity of Ghana came from the gold mines were 
  a source of revenue. The king held a monopoly of all the gold mines in the 
  empire. This policy helped to maintain the high value of this precious metal. It 
  also accounts for the great wealth which the kings enjoyed. Ghana’s middleman 
  position helped it to benefit immensely from the trans-Saharan trade. Taxation 
  on trade goods gave the emperor good revenue. The import and export taxes 
  yielded much revenue for the king’s treasury. The people of Ghana used their 
  skills in iron-working in good farming and adequate production of food. The 
  people were successful fishermen from the many rivers.
  Social Organization
  The king of Ghana made use of Muslims in his government, but his people still 
  followed the traditional religion. The king of Old Ghana was regarded as semidivine. As the chief priest, the king conducted special ceremonies and rituals, 
  and was the link between the living and gods. The people believed in life after 
  death. This was seen in the burial rites that were performed when the king 
  died. After his death, the king’s body was placed in a special building on a bed 
  decorated with fine cloths. His clothes, weapons and other personal belongings 
  were placed near him. When all this had been done, some of the closest servants 
  entered the tomb, which was then sealed. The people threw earth over the 
  tomb until a small burial mound had been created. The people of Old Ghana 
  lived in thatched houses that were built of wood. The king wore special robes 
  and ornaments during official ceremonies. People approached the king on their 
  knees as a sign of respect.
  7.1.4 Decline of old Ghana
  By the end of the 11 century, Old Ghana had begun to decline. A number of 
  reasons caused this:
  Generally speaking, the inherent structural weaknesses common to most 
  Sudanese states caused the decline. In this case it was particularly due to the 
  disruptive activities of the Almoravids, who, either because of a genuine desire 
  to purify and spread Islam, or because of the prospects of booty, descended on 
  and sacked Ghana in AD 1076.
  The Almoravid attacks had opened the way for internal revolts and incursions 
  

  from hostile neighbours which Ghana could not control.

  Ghana’s great wealth, which had been an asset in its heydays, was now a 
  disadvantage as its envious neighbours began to make increasingly menacing 
  attempts to seize it;
  Towards the end of the 12 century, the Soninke dynasty, established by Kaya 
  Magan about 770 AD, was overthrown by a soldier called Diara Kante who was 
  succeeded in turn by Sumanguru Kante (1200-35). 
  From the small vassal state of Kaniaga, Sumanguru Kante took advantage of his 
  suzerain’s weakness and conquered Ghana in 1203. The resultant confusion 
  and insecurity caused the merchants and scholars in the capital of Old Ghana 
  to move out and settle in Walata. Sundiata, the only surviving son of the ruler 
  of the state of Kangaba which was sacked by Sumanguru in 1224, captured and 
  

  killed Sumanguru at the Battle of Kirina in AD 1235.

  

  From the ruins of the Old Ghana Empire, there rose the Mandingo Empire of Mali. 
  Two important personalities dominated the history of this empire, Sundiata 
  (1230-1255) and Mansa Musa (1312-37). Under Sundiata, Mali became the 
  dominant trading empire of the Western Sudan. It therefore took the place
  of Ghana and although there are differences, it imitated the previous empire 
  very closely. One essential difference is that everything that Mali did was on a 
  grander scale; there was more trade, a larger army and a larger empire.
  7.2.1 Origins
  Mali was not given the name by which it is known until after Sundiata started to 
  build the empire. Its original name was Kangaba. The people of Kangaba were 
  the Mandinka, or in other words, the southern Mande. Thus, Mali developed 
  from the coming together of a number of Mandinka chieftaincies to form the 
  small state of Kangaba. However, the neighbouring Old Ghana ruler Sumanguru 
  Kante viewed this up-and-coming state with grave concern; and in about 
  1224 he descended on Kangaba and conquered it, killing, according to some 
  traditions, all but one of its ruler’s twelve sons, Sundiata, who went into exile. 
  Kangaba was left in a desperate situation, but eventually Sundiata returned 
  from exile and became the king. He was sent help by many of Sumanguru’s 
  enemies, such as the king of Bobo who sent 1,500 archers to help Kangaba. 
  Thus, Sundiata was able to assemble a large army to face his foe at a place called 
  Kirina. His greatest obstacle to victory was the fear that Sumanguru inspired in 
  the Mandinka.
  They believed incredible stories about Sumanguru; for example, that he 
  possessed eight heads. It was very important for Sundiata to lead the way in 
  battle and to demonstrate that the Susu king was human and indeed mortal, 
  which he did. The Susu were defeated and Sundiata went on to capture the old 
  kingdom of Ghana.
  Between 1235 and his death in 1255, Sundiata created the empire of Mali. Mali 
  is a name given to the empire by Arab travellers and its meaning is the ‘place 
  where the king lives’. The title which the Mali people gave to their king was 
  mansa; so by 1235 the once crippled Sundiata was Mansa Sundiata of Mali.
  By 1337, Mali controlled an area in West Africa that included most of what are 
  now Gambia, Guinea, Senegal, and Mali and parts of present-day Burkina Faso, 
  

  Mauritania and Niger

  

  7.2.2 Rise and expansion of Mali Kingdom
  A number of factors led to the rise and expansion of Mali:
  Strategic geographical position: Mali’s position, away from the southern 
  movement of the Sahara Desert, and near the centre of the savannah lands, gave 
  it a good geographical advantage. Thus, with good farming land Mali could be 
  sure of adequate food, a large population and a powerful army.
  Unity in Islam: The empire was not a target of the jihads because Mali, unlike 
  Ghana, had long been a Muslim state. Not all the people of Mali, including 
  Sundiata, were strict Muslims, but most kings seem to have been. This fact was 
  beneficial to smooth running of Mali government.
  Expansion of trade: Sundiata extended the empire’s trading activities resulting 
  in the expansion of the empire. By concentrating trade in positions on the Niger, 
  he could be sure of keeping in contact with Gao and copper-producing area of 
  Takedda and Taghaza from where the salt came.
  Military conquests and annexations: Sundiata extended Mali kingdom through 
  a series of conquests and annexations. Following the defeat of Sumanguru, 
  Sundiata annexed the kingdom of Kaniaga and all her vassal states, including 
  Ghana which he conquered in 1240. 
  Good administration: Sundiata organized an effective administrative system. 
  He united many petty states, including the newly-annexed ones under one 
  centralised system of administration. He himself took control of the metropolitan 
  

  administration.

  The contributions of Mansa Musa: He made contributions in the expansion of 
  Mali by for instance devoting to Islam and expanding trade.
  7.2.3 Organisation of Mali Kingdom
  Political organisation
  The Mali Empire covered a larger area for a longer period of time than any 
  other West African state before or since. This in part can be explained by its 
  political organisation:
  Decentralisation of administration: The farther the territory was from Niani, 
  the more decentralized the mansa’s power became. Nevertheless, the mansa 
  managed to keep tax money and nominal control over the area without agitating 
  his subjects into revolt. The Empire reached the limit of its expansion in the 
  reign of Mansa Musa.
  Skilful leaders: Sundiata was an able ruler. Mansa Musa even surpassed him. 
  This great ruler of Mali, who possessed considerable administrative skills, did 
  much to organize Mali’s machinery of government. 
  Administration: Mali was divided up into two main administrative units; the 
  metropolitan area which comprised the state of Mali itself and a collection of 
  provincial states annexed through conquest. Sundiata divided the empire into 
  a number of provinces. Mansa Musa re-organised the provinces in the south 
  into fourteen administrative units. The government of these provinces was 
  entrusted to able governors. 
  Motivation of officials: To encourage faithful and effective local administration, 
  provincial officials were all well paid, not only in gold, but often in kind with 
  horses and leases of land. In addition, Mansa Musa instituted special honours 
  to reward outstanding leaders.
  Administration of justice: The administration of justice was keenly promoted 
  by the kings of Mali, notably Mansa Musa. The king made sure that no-one 
  received preferential treatment in the law courts, whether the case involved a 
  governor against an ordinary citizen, or a native against an alien.
  Loyalty and respect for authority: Loyalty and respect for authority were other 
  

  characteristics of the people of Mali, which resulted from good administration.

  Economic organization
  Mostly, the Mali Empire flourished because of trade of gold and salt. All gold 
  was immediately handed over to the imperial treasury in return for an equal 
  value of gold dust. Gold dust had been weighed and bagged for use at least since 
  the reign of the Ghana Empire. 
  Salt was as almost if not equally valuable to gold in Sub-Saharan Africa. It was 
  cut into pieces and spent on goods with close to equal buying power throughout 
  the empire. Also Copper, traded in bars, was mined from Takedda in the north 
  and traded in the south for gold. 
  Social organization
  Social organization of Mali covered a number of areas such as:
  Islamisation of state: Mansa Musa’s major achievement was that he made Mali 
  a much more devoutly Muslim country. 
  Education: Mansa Musa encouraged the establishment of Islamic schools. 
  These increased the prestige of both Mali and professors in the schools and 
  colleges in the empire.
  Architecture: Returning from the pilgrimage, Mansa Musa brought with him 
  a group of renowned Muslim architects and scholars. Chief among these men 
  was As-Sahili the celebrated architect and poet. Among his great constructional 
  works were the famous burnt brick mosques in Gao and Timbuktu as well as 
  the burnt brick palace at Timbuktu. Through the influence of As-Sahili the 
  knowledge of the use of burnt bricks for houses spread throughout the empire. 
  Mansa Musa’s pilgrimage to Mecca: In the years 1324-5, Mansa Musa went 
  on a pilgrimage to Mecca, passing through Muslim centres like Walata, Tuat and 
  Cairo. 
   The important effects of his pilgrimage to Mecca may be summarised as follows:
  • Mansa Musa’s own faith and zeal increased remarkably;
  • He based about purifying the religion in his empire and, as noted 
  earlier, insisted on the strictest observance of the faith and practice of 
  Islam;
  • He promoted Islamic learning;
  • Mansa Musa’s example and his devout insistence on the faithful 
  observance of the rules of Islam must have increased his prestige 
  

  greatly among the Muslims of Western Sudan.

  

  7.2.4. Decline of Mali Kingdom
  Mali’s greatness and renown continued up to the end of Mansa Sulayman’s 
  reign. It was then that the empire began to decline. By the end of the 15 century 
  it had lost much of its power to Songhai. The disintegration of the empire of 
  Mali took place because of internal and external reasons:
  Internal causes
  Internal causes of Mali’s decline included the following:
  Weak and incompetent leaders. The death of Sulayman began a period of forty 
  years of constant civil war and changes of kingship. There were immediately 
  two men ready to rule over Mali: Sulayman’s son Kamba and the grandson of 
  Mansa Musa, Mari Jata II. The army was split in civil war and the royal clan was 
  divided. Temporary peace was restored when Mari Jata became king (1360-
  1374). A greedy despot, he hardly reflected the greatness of his grandfather. 
  The attempts made by Mansa Musa II (1374-87) to revive the strength of the 
  army, trade and government failed. Constant internal dissension resulted in the 
  assassination of Mansa Maghan II (1387-9), after a short reign.
  Rebellion by vassal states. At the height of its glory the Mali empire was very 
  extensive, comprising many provinces which were inhabited by different 
  ethnic groups. Each of these was waiting for signs that the central authority 
  was weakening; for them to seize an opportunity to become independent of 
  imperial control. Some of these attempts were successful. The first to do this 
  was Gao (Songhai).
  On his way from pilgrimage, Mansa Musa had stopped at his vassal city of Gao 
  and taken with him to Mali two princes of Gao, Ali Kolen and Sulayman Nar, 
  as hostages to ensure the continued loyalty of the people to his authority. Not 
  long afterwards, the two princes escaped from Mali and went back home to 
  Gao. They organized a successful rebellion and drove out the military forces 
  stationed there by Mansa Musa. The people of Tekrur in the west followed the 
  example of Gao.
  External causes
  The empire suffered a number of attacks by her jealous neighbours:
  Attack from Mossi: In the reign of the great Mansa Musa, in 1333, the Mossi in 
  the south had attacked Timbuktu. They were Later repulsed. About 1400 they 
  made another destructive attack on the empire.
  Tuareg attack: Mali’s northern neighbours, the Tuareg, under their able leader 
  Aki lag Malwal, took Walata and Timbuktu in 1433-4.
  Songhai attack: In 1468, Sunni Ali of Songhai started raids on Mali. By the end 
  of the 15th century, Mali had been completely annexed by Songhai.
  French colonization: Mali as an ancient kingdom disappeared from the maps 
  from about 1670 onwards. About a century and a half later, this former great 
  West African territory fell into the hands of the French. Great patriots like Samori 
  Toure made courageous attempts to recover Mali’s lost heritage. But it was not 
  until 1960 that this French colony regained her independence. The founders 
  of this new nation renamed their country Mali, to recall the past glory of the 
  

  medieval Sudanese empire of that name, to which their ancestors belonged

  

  

  7.3.1 Origin
  What became the nucleus of Songhai began with the coming together of 
  two mutually unfriendly groups of oborigines: the Sorko, who were mostly 
  fishermen, and made their living on the river Niger; and the Gabibi, who were 
  agriculturalists, and lived in different parts of the countryside. Depending 
  mainly on fishing, the lives of the Sorko were dominated by the river. 
  By the 7th century, they had organized themselves into a fairly strong kingdom, 
  with Kukia as their capital. With time, the Sorko dominated the Gabibi. The two 
  people’s merged into one kingdom, which the Arabic records refer to as AlKawkaw. About the beginning of the 8th century, the Berber Lemta tribe from 
  the north of Gao, under their leader Za Alieamen, conquered the kingdom. 
  Thus, began a long line of Za rulers in Al-Kawkaw. Al-Kawkaw grew into a 
  prosperous and powerful kingdom through fishing, cattle-rearing and trade. 
  The growing prosperity attracted Muslim merchants from the north. In about 
  1010 the ruler, Za Kossoi, was converted to Islam. We have seen that Sundiata 
  moved the capital of Kaniaga from Jeriba to Niani (Mali) to be nearer the centre 
  of trade. The leaders of Al-Kawkaw transferred their capital from Kukia to 
  Gao for the same reasons. Al-Kawkaw grew in importance alongside both the 
  Ghana and Mali empires. But as the two empires developed, more and more of 
  the Sudanese trade shifted westwards, and Al-Kawkaw declined gradually in 
  importance. Indeed, she lost her independence for a time to Mali.
  7.3.2 Factors that led to the growth of Songhai
  A number of factors led to the growth of Songhai:
  Trade: Songhai’s rich and fertile land and other resources attracted traders. 
  Three principal trade routes converged at the capital, Gao.
  Influences of Islam: Trans-Saharan trade brought into the kingdom Muslim 
  influences which helped the development of the kingdom. These influences 
  became more pronounced from the beginning of the 11th century, following 
  the conversion of the king, Za Kossoi, to Islam. Furthermore, as happened 
  elsewhere, the Muslims became advisers in the royal court, and influenced not 
  only the administration, but also the social, economic, and political life of the 
  kingdom.
  Gao’s resistance to Mali domination: In the 14th century, the kingdom of Gao 
  came under the control of Mali in the reign of Mansa Musa. In due course, Gao 
  threw off Mali’s domination, in a rebellion initiated by the two Gaoan princes,
  Ali Kolen and Sulayman Nar whom Mansa Musa had taken away to Mali as 
  hostages. These princes escaped and Sulayman Nar drove out the army of Mali 
  stationed at Gao. However, some time elapsed before Gao, now developing into 
  an empire, was able to gain its independence of Mali completely.
  The work of Sunni Ali (1464-92): Just as Sundiata was the founder of the Mali 
  Empire, so was Sunni Ali’s role in the history of the Songhai empire.
  The work of Askia Muhammad (1493-152): When Sunni Ali died in 1492, he 
  was succeeded by his son, Abu Bakr (also known as Sunni Baru). He reigned 
  for only a little over a year. After a long a period of succession disputes Askia 
  Muhammad took over. Askia Muhammad took measures to improve the social 
  and economic life of the empire.
  7.3.3 Organization of Songhai Empire
  Songhai reached its peak in political, economic and social organizations under 
  Askia Muhammad (1493-1528).
  Political organization
  Under him the empire reached its greatest extent stretching from Walata in the 
  west to Kano in the east it included a number of important trading centres in 
  the Sahara.
  Territorial expansion: Askia followed the example of Sunni Ali and made further 
  territorial gains through conquests and treaties. He renewed Songhai’s attack 
  on the Mossi but, like his predecessor, Sunni Ali, he failed to subjugate these 
  strong southern neighbours. After a long campaign he then conquered what 
  was left of the Mali kingdom. His next move was against the Hausa states of 
  Gobir, Kano, Katsina, and Zamfara, all of which he annexed. At the height of 
  Askia’s reign the Songhai empire stretched from the Atlantic to Lake Chad.
  Administration: Askia set about consolidating the territorial gains made by his 
  predecessor, Sunni Ali, by an elaborate administrative system. He extended this 
  administrative system to the new lands he added to the empire. He redivided 
  the empire into four regions, and at the head of each he placed a vice-roy or 
  governor. The regions were Kurmina Masina, Bambara; Dendi Bala, to and 
  Bangu Each region was headed by a governor, called fari, farma or koy. Local 
  rulers still had authority but they were responsible to the regional governors. 
  In metropolitan Songhai itself, the king held direct control of the machinery of 
  government. He appointed a council of ministers who assisted him in ruling not 
  

  only the metropolitan area but the entire empire.

  Military organization: Askia Muhammad also organised the army effectively. 
  The soldiers kept Tuareg bandits out of the empire and maintained a peaceful 
  atmosphere in which commerce could flourish.
  Social organization
  Religion: Like Mansa Musa, Askia Muhammad was a devout Muslim. He used 
  Islam as a unifying force and adopted Islamic principles as guidelines for the 
  conduct of his people. Askia appointed judges in each important town of the 
  empire. These judges followed the Koranic law and the Sharia. As a devout 
  Muslim, Askia Muhammad made a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1497. Though not 
  as fabulous as Mansa Musa’s, Askia’s pilgrimage had important effects on the 
  development of his empire. 
  Education: Askia Muhammad encouraged the spread of education. It was 
  recorded, for example, that during Askia’s reign, there were as many as 150 
  Koranic schools in Timbuctu alone. The standard of learning at centres like the 
  Sankore Mosque in Timbuktu, in Jenne and in Gao reached a very advanced 
  level. Scholars from all over the Islamic world came to these centres for further 
  studies. 
  Economic organization 
  Under Askia Muhammad the economy was reformed and put the economy 
  of Songhai on a firm basis. He encouraged regional specialisation according 
  to the natural distribution of the Empire’s economic resources. Thus, some 
  areas specialised in the cultivation of food crops, some in fishing, others in the 
  production of building materials, in smith work and in the mining of gold, salt 
  and copper. 
  He regularised the system of weights and measures and made salt, in addition 
  to cowries, the imperial currency. His reforms increased the yield of state 
  revenue from slave-worked in royal estates, regular contributions from the 
  provinces, tributes from vassal states and proceeds from state-controlled 
  commerce, particularly the trans-Saharan trade. The prosperity helped, among 
  other things, in the establishment of a standing professional army vital to the 
  strength and stability of Songhai.
  The economy was principally based on:
  Weights and measures: Askia established a unified system of weights and 
  measures throughout the empire, allowing, where necessary, a degree of local 
  variation… He legislated against cheating in trade, and appointed inspectors to 
  

  control weights and measures and prices.

  Collection of imperial revenue: The imperial treasury derived its revenue from 
  farming and industry, court fines and from a variety of taxes. The income from 
  these sources and the huge sums of money gained from commerce helped the 
  kings to maintain an effective administration, to build up a strong army and 
  navy, and to develop flourishing cities like Gao, Timbuctu and Jenne.
  Farming: Much wealth was derived from farming and fishing. Throughout the 
  empire, the government established vast estates which were worked by slaves. 
  Each estate was under a fanfa, or estate manager. The revenue from these state 
  farms went into the imperial treasury.
  Crafts: Teams of slaves were also organised for the production of boats, spears 
  and arrows. Some of these products went to equip the imperial army and navy. 
  Some were sold to replenish the imperial treasury.
  Tributes: Other sources of imperial revenue were tributes collected from vassal 
  states.
  Taxes: Taxes were collected from farmers by the regional governors and were 
  sent regularly to the capital.
   Tolls and duties: In addition, much revenue was collected in form of tolls and 
  customs duties.
  Court fines: These were another source of imperial revenue.
  • Reign of Sunni Al Ber Kolon (1464 – 1492)
  Sunni Ali Ber also known as Ali Kolon was one of the most powerful performing 
  king of Songhai. He claimed power in 1464 and ruled up to 16491 when he 
  drowned in Niger River when he was returning from a military expedition 
  against the Fulani. During his reign, he laid a foundation for the rise and growth 
  of the empire to the greatest standards in western Sudan. His reign had been 
  characterized by the following facts:
  He was a founder and liberator: He founded the greatest Empire of Songhai when 
  he liberated his people from the tyranny of the Tuaregs and the Berbers, raids 
  and transformed the small State of Gao into a large, powerful and a peaceful 
  Empire of Songhai.
  He expanded the Empire: He expanded the empire through his conquests of the 
  neighbors. In 1468 he conquered Timbuktu, 1472 he captured Jenne, Haussa 
  state of Kebbi, remaining parts of Mali etc and added them to make a large 
  

  Empire of Songhai.

  He built a strong army: He consolidated himself in Gao and improved the army 
  by establishing cavalry, infantry and naval fleets which he used for a vigorous 
  conquest policy, defending the empire and maintaining law and order that 
  brought peace and stability.
  He promoted good governance and administration. He also established a good 
  and efficient system of governance by dividing his conquered into provinces. 
  He appointed new governors and areas where there was submission he left 
  them with their rulers. Special governors were appointed to the state, resisted 
  his rule and commanders in chief who were loyal to him.
  He eliminated enemies of the empire: In his duty to build his empire, he used 
  excessive hostility on his enemies but generous to those who submitted to his 
  authority. It’ said that he hated and killed the Fulani and the Moslems clerics 
  and scholars of Timbuktu because they resisted his administration.
  He promoted trade: Sunni Ali promoted trade and commerce by capturing the 
  commercial centers like Timbuktu, controlling the trade routes, encouraging 
  his people to participate in the T.S.T with foreign countries and by creating the 
  stability and security in his empire.
  He promoted agriculture: He encouraged his people to get engaged in agriculture 
  and fishing activities in order to meet food and commercial requirements in the 
  selling of the surplus.
  He did not tolerate Islam: Though, he was a Moslem, he was not in practice. In 
  fact he did not promote Islam as a religion and he remained indifferent and he 
  could kill his fellow Moslems as long as they did not obey him.
  He never employed and integrated his enemies in the government: He excluded 
  people he considered as enemies in his government and judiciary. He was also 
  too harsh to Moslems and Fulani who refused his authority and killed them.
  He failed to annex Mossi: However, Sunni Ali Ber is said to have failed to defeat 
  and annex the Mossi of Yatega as a tributary State. He murdered his enemies 
  whether man or women or innocent or not, brands him a murderous despot 
  who destroyed his empire other than building it.
  However, his efforts are greatly appreciated for founding the empire of Songhai 
  by laying a foundation on which his successors began from. Within a period of 
  28 years, Sunni Ali had converted the title State of Gao into a huge empire of 
  Songhai. It is no wonder that he was clever politician, a brave soldier and an 
  

  able administrator.

  • Reign of Askia Muhammad, the Great (1493 – 1529)
  After the death of Sunni Ali, Askia Muhammad originally called Muhammad 
  Toure Ibn Baker replaced him. He was one of Sunni’s general and Prime minister. 
  Since he did not belong to the royal family, he had to grab power through a coup 
  d’état by deposing his former master’s son Abu Bakr Dao (Bari) in April 1493 
  who was the legitimate claimant of the throne.
  After gaining power, Askia Muhammad killed and expelled all members of 
  the previous ruling family and established his own dynasty known as “Askia 
  dynasty”. Because of his great achievements in Songhai, he was given a title of 
  “the Khalifa of Blacks”, and his achievements can be seen as follow:
  He eliminated enemies of the Empire: He introduced “Askia Dynasty” in Songhai 
  by eliminating members of the previous ruling dynasties so as to eliminate 
  opposition who would cause political revelries. He either killed or expelled 
  them from the empire i.e. the “Za’ and “Sunni” dynasties.
  He promoted Islamic unity: He consolidating himself by promoting as s unifying 
  factor although he and his master had previously persecuted it. He appointed 
  Moslems as his advisers, went on a pilgrimage to Mecca in 1497 and built many 
  mosques.
  He expanded Songhai: He consolidated Sunni Ali’s conquest and also expanded 
  the empire by conquering the remains of Mali, Agadez, Kano, Katsina and 
  Zamfara etc.
  He established efficient administration: He introduced an excellent administration 
  by dividing the empire into four regions each under a Regional Commissioner. 
  He further divided each region into provinces each under Provincial Governor. 
  He also appointed a Council of Ministers like Commander in Chief of the army 
  known as Balama, Chief Tax Collector called Farimudya, Minister in charge of 
  Rivers, Lakes and fisheries and Minister of Foreign Affairs.
  He formed a strong administration over Vassal States: He forced kings in the 
  provincial states to marry from the royal family, placed permanent official to 
  oversee the payment of annual tributes but left them under their rule.
  He established good flow of income: Muhammad established good source of 
  income to maintain his administration and army namely, royal estates which 
  produced rice, corn, spears arrows etc. by use of slaves, fish, tributes from 
  

  provincial states, taxes from peasants, farmers and custom duties.

  He promoted local factory: He established local factories such as smelting from 
  where he got spears and arrows, cotton and lien weaving, salt mining etc., which 
  improved the defense and standards of living of people.
  He promoted agriculture: He strengthened the agricultural sector as a strong 
  foundation of the economy by establishing royal estates which produced 
  specific commodities (food) by use of slaves.
  He promoted diplomatic relations: Askia Muhammad had compassion for 
  foreigners by promoting diplomatic and commercial relationships with outside 
  countries. His regime saw many foreign traders, scholars etc who contributed 
  to the development of trade, Islam and education.
  He promoted Islamic education: Askia Muhammad is a distinguished ruler of 
  Songhai for developing education. He introduced higher education, attracted 
  scholars and professors and made Timbuktu a popular centre of education. 
  He built many Koranic schools and University education was provided in the 
  mosque of Sankole.
  By 1529 Askia Muhammad became ripe, old and blind and his son Musa seized 
  the throne on 15th, August 1529 and in 1537 he was deposed from Gao to 
  Kankaka Island on the Niger. But only returned by his good-Son Askia Ismail to 
  Gao where he died peacefully in 1538.
  7.3.4 Decline and collapse of Songhai Empire
  In 1590 the great Empire of Songhai built by Sunni Ali and strengthened by 
  Askia Muhammad collapsed due to the following reasons:
  Internal conflicts: The Empire had been characterized by internal disorders 
  created by succession disputes. After the death of Askia Muhammad, struggle 
  for power between his sons Askia Muhammad Bani and Sadiq with official 
  weakened Songhai Empire.
  Weak leaders: The cruelty of Askia Musa and Askia Bankouri who oppressed 
  the subjects discredited the rule of Askia dynasty among their subjects and the 
  foreigners. They became too weak to maintain the defense of the large empire 
  and the captured States took advantage of such weak leadership to break away.
  Weakness of the army: This was mainly a result of numerous civil wars that took 
  place after the reign of Askia Muhammad the great and probably the political 
  incompetence of the new leaders. So, the army was so weak so that they could 
  no longer defend and protect the Empire
  
  Decline of Trans-Sahara Trade.: due to political instabilities in Songhai and 
  insecurity in desert, the T.S.T declined which means that guns, gifts and revenue 
  were no longer got and the army that was used to defend the Empire became 
  weak.
  Disunity in Songhai: The Songhai Empire declined probably because of disunity 
  among the people e.g. non-Moslems and Moslems, the Sunni dynasty and Askia 
  dynasty; that paved way for the weakness and fall of Songhai.
  Neglect of agriculture: By political instabilities, agriculture was neglected which 
  led to famine, the army and population were not supplied with food and the 
  army was incapable defending Empire.
  Rise of nationalism among captured States: Many people in the captured States 
  wished to regain their independence which they had lost. They rose and 
  revolted demanding for self-rule and they took advantage of Songhai being 
  ruled by weak leaders.
  Expensive nature of Songhai: At the greatest peak of power, Songhai had widely 
  expanded and it became difficult to control and to administrate it effectively 
  especially after the death of able and strong leaders.
  Attacks of the Fulani and Tuaregs: These were constant attacks from the war-like 
  people who eventually attacked Songhai, taking away the salt mine of Taghaza 
  which weakened the economy of Songhai.
  Moroccan invasion of 1590: This was the last blow to the life of Songhai. The 
  Moroccan invaders wanted to control trade and Songhai resources. Morocco 
  had a stronger army with superior weapons while the Songhai army was weak.
  In 1590, Ali Musa, the Sultan of Morocco sent his force, the Moors, who were 
  4 000, but only 1 500 were Moroccans the rest were mercenaries from Spain 
  and Portugal. They attacked and defeated the soldiers of Songhai at the battle 
  of Tondibi, (nearest of Gao). This led to the final of Songhai and it became a part 
  of Moroccan Empire.
  
  
  
  
  
  7.4.1 Origins
  The origins of the Kanuri Empire are very unclear. Much of what we know 
  about it is purely legendary. According to the so-called Kisra legend, Kanem 
  was founded by a prince called Kisra and his followers who migrated to the east 
  of Lake Chad from eastern Africa. It is believed that the westward movement of 
  Kisra and his people took place as a consequence of the destruction of the city 
  of Meroe (in the present day republic of the Sudan) by the people of Axum (in 
  Ethiopia) in about AD 350.
  Archaeologists have unearthed several historical remains in Kanem, which 
  seem to point to the influence of Meroe. Some of the early peoples of the Kanem 
  area were the So, who were the original inhabitants of the area; the Zaghawa – a 
  nomadic people who were believed to have immigrated from eastern Africa in 
  early times, and to have settled to the east of the lake in about eighth century 
  

  AD; the Kanuri or Kanembi; and the Bulala.

  

  7.4.2 Factors for the rise and growth of Karem-Bornu
  The power and growth of Kanem-Bornu, unlike that of most other Sudanese 
  states, fluctuated over the years, but the state never really completely broke 
  down. One reason for this was the remarkable longevity of the Sefawa dynasty 
  whose rulers were able to sustain the state through crises of disintegration. 
  Their profiles below show how this happened:
  a. Mai Dugu
  The first known Mai (or ruler) who ruled these early settlers as a united people 
  was Dugu. He founded the Sefawa dynasty in about AD 774. His capital was 
  Njimi, situated to the north-east of Lake Chad.
  b. Mai Umme Jilmi (1085-97)
  It was in the reign of Mai Jilmi that Islam was introduced to Kanem-Bornu. He 
  is said to have died while on pilgrimage. Between 1085 and 1240 Islam gained 
  ground in Kanem Bornu, especially among the ruling class. Islam tended to 
  

  make a positive contribution to scholarship and administration.

  c. Mai Dunama 1 (1097-1150)
  Dunama had a long reign. He was powerful and pious. He strengthened the hold 
  of the Kanembu on their subjects and went on pilgrimages several times.
  d. Mai Selma (1194-1221)
  Mai Selma is notable as the first Kanembu king of Kanem-Bornu, his predecessors 
  in office having been the Zagha was who founded the state. He continued to 
  strengthen the state by maintaining a firm control over his more troublesome 
  peoples,particularly the nomadic tribes, and by controlling the trans-Saharan 
  trade as far as Fezzan. Njimi became well-established as the capital of the 
  growing empire in Selma’s time.
  e. Mai Dunama Dabalemi ibn Selma (1221-59)
  

  He was also known as Dunama II. His reign was full of wars, and with an army 
  

  30,000-40,000 strong men, he made extensive conquests. Dunama II maintained 
  

  good relations with the powerful Hafsid rulers of North Africa. He is said to 
  

  have exchanged rich presents with them, including a giraffe which he sent to 
  

  Al-Mustansir. The first phase of the empire (ie from its foundation to the time 
  

  when it moved westwards to Bornu) reached its height under Mai Dunama II.
  

  f. Mai Ali Ghaji (Ghazi) (1472-15-4
  

  He came to the throne after a period of civil wars which threatened the 
  

  continued existence of Kanem-Bornu. On his accession, he began to move the 
  

  headquarters from Njimi to Ngazargamu, completing this in 1484. He thus laid 
  

  the foundation for the second phase of the Kanem-Bornu Empire. He ended the 
  

  disruptive civil wars, ands reformed the administration and the army. But he 
  

  is best remembered for his remarkable career of conquest which earned him 
  

  the title ‘El Ghazi’ or the Warrior.Ali Ghaji patronized Islam and is said to have 
  

  enforced Islamic practices with the help of his Chief Imam.
  

  g. Mai Idris Katakarmabi and Mohammed (1504-45)
  

  This was Ali Ghaji’s son and successor, who completed his father’s conquests. 
  

  He checked the Bulala threat, and strengthened the link with North Africa by 
  

  sending an embassy to Tripoli about 1512. Idris Katakarmabi was followed 
  

  by Mai Mohammed (1526-45). Mohammed more or less ended the continued 
  

  Bulala menace by a ruthless military action in which the Bornu ‘rebels’ were 
  beaten and their king killed.
  
  After Mohammed, succession disputes flared up again and there followed a 
  brief interregnum when the Magira Aicha ruled, preparing the way for the most 
  famous Mai of Kanem-Bornu.
  h. Mai Idris Aluma (1571-1603)
  Kanem-Bornu peaked during the reign of the outstanding statesman Mai Idris 
  Aluma (1571-1603). Idris Aluma’s reign was well-documented by his chief 
  Imam, Ahmed Ibn Fartua. Aluma (also spelled Alooma). He is remembered 
  for his military skills, administrative reforms, and Islamic piety. His main 
  adversaries were the Hausa to the west, the Tuareg and Toubou to the north, 
  and the Bulala to the east. Mai Aluma’s reign can be remembered for a number 
  of innovations and achievements:
  Military innovations. His innovations included the employment of fixed military 
  camps (with walls); permanent sieges and ‘scorched earth’ tactics, where 
  soldiers burned everything in their path; armoured horses and riders; and 
  the use of Berber camelry, Kotoko boatmen, and iron-helmeted musketeers 
  trained by Turkish military advisers. (ii) Good diplomatic relations. His active 
  diplomacy featured relations with Tripoli, Egypt, and the Ottoman Empire, 
  which sent a 200-member ambassadorial party across the desert to Aluma’s 
  court at Ngazargamu. Aluma also signed what was probably the first written 
  treaty or cease-fire in Chadian history.
  Legal and administrative reforms. Aluma introduced a number of legal and 
  administrative reforms based on his religious beliefs and Islamic law (sharia).
  Islamisation. Idris Aluma was a great patron of Islam and used his great power 
  to boost the process of Islamisation within his sphere of influence. Previously 
  only the clerical families and the ruling class had adopted Islam; but in Idris 
  Aluma’s time all the notables, and a good many others, according to Ibn Fartua, 
  became Muslims. He began the process of substituting the Sharia for customary 
  law in certain spheres. He sponsored the construction of numerous mosques 
  and made a pilgrimage to Mecca, where he arranged for the establishment of a 
  hostel to be used by pilgrims from his empire.
  Political alliances: As with other dynamic politicians, Aluma’s reformist goals 
  led him to seek loyal and competent advisers and allies. He frequently relied on 
  slaves who had been educated in noble homes. Aluma regularly sought advice 
  from a council composed of heads of the most important clans. He commanded 
  the loyalty and support of the Kanuri who came to identify themselves with the 
  Bornu empire, and he went a long way towards the political unification of the 
  various groups within it. He used a combination of Islam, dynastic marriages
  and a careful definition of Bornu’s sphere of influence, to achieve this. He 
  required major political figures to live at the court. He reinforced political 
  alliances through marriages.
  Economic organization: Kanem-Bornu under Aluma was strong and wealthy. 
  Government revenue came from tributes, sales of slaves, and duties on 
  participation in trans-Saharan trade. The Chadian region did not have gold. Still, 
  it was central to one of the most convenient trans-Saharan routes. Between Lake 
  Chad and Fezzan lay a sequence of well-spaced wells and oases. From Fezzan 
  there were easy connections to North Africa and the Mediterranean Sea. Many 
  products were sent north, including natron (sodium carbonate), cotton, kola 
  nuts, ivory, ostrich feathers, perfume, wax, and hides. But the most important of 
  all were slaves. Imports included salt, horses, silks, glass, muskets, and copper.
  Mai Idris Aluma’s achievement for the second Kanem-Bornu empire is 
  comparable to that of Mansa Musa of Mali and Askia Muhammad Ture for 
  Songhai. He died in 1603 when returning from an expedition. He died, he had 
  expanded the empire to its widest extent; he had Islamised all aspects of life in 
  the empire; he had made his empire widely known and respected throughout 
  the Muslim world in Africa, Asia and Turkey; he left the empire at the peak of 
  its power and prosperity. His reign coincided with the decline of the Songhai 
  empire. His fame did not end with his death but persisted down to the 19th
  century.
  7.4.3. Organization of the empire - Social and political organization
  The empire lasted for over a thousand years. During this long period institutions 
  of government underwent changes. However, the following may be regarded as 
  an outline of how the vast empire was organized, when at the peak of its power.
  At the head of the central government was the king (Mai). He was regarded 
  as sacred and was more or less worshipped. For this reason, he did not show 
  himself in public, except on two annual festivals. Otherwise he remained always 
  hidden behind a curtain, even when receiving guests. Next in importance was 
  the queen mother Magira. Some of these Magira became so powerful that they 
  had great influence over and sometimes vetoed the decisions of the Mai. Another 
  influential person was the first or ‘eldest’ wife of the king Gumsu. The Mai in 
  effect ruled indirectly through a hierarchy of officials, including the Supreme 
  Council of State. Each of the twelve councilors exercised authority over a feudal 
  like territory, sometimes in addition to other administrative assignments in the 
  capital.
  

  The most important Councillors were the Yerima First War Lord and Warden of 
  the South, the Warden of the North, the Warden of the East and keeper of the 
  Mai’s household and the (Galadima) Warden of the West. In time these titles 
  became honorific, as circumstances changed, and their holders settled down to 
  a life of cultured leisure in the capital. They appointed officers called Chimagana 
  to administer their fiefs.
  The change of dynasty, from Seifawa to Shehu, in the 19th century also saw the 
  shifting of effective political power from these old dignitaries to a new class of 
  administrators called ‘Kokenawa’.
  Other important officials of Kanem-Bornu included the Mainin Kanendi (Chie 
  Judge), who was the second most important citizen after the Mai. He and twelve 
  other judges formed the High Court which dispensed justice; a Registrar (Talba) 
  kept records of its proceedings. There were also courts in the main towns 
  from which appeals could be put before the High Court. Eventually, as Islamic 
  practices took root in Kanem-Bornu, Muslim Qadis and local judges (Malamai) 
  joined the judiciary.
  Royal personages like the Queen Mother the Mai’s official elder sister (Magara), 
  and his consort or official wife (Gumsu), enjoyed certain privileges and took part 
  in the administration. In particular, the Queen Mother wielded considerable 
  political influence, if not direct power. For instance, one Mai, Biri Ibn Dunama 
  (1151-74), was said to have been imprisoned by the Magira of his time. Another 
  Queen Mother, Aicha, successfully fought and won the throne for her son, Idris 
  Aluma, who was to become the greatest Mai of Kanem-Bornu.
  Economic organization
  Kanem-Bornu got its revenue from poll tax (binemram) which was levied 
  through each fief-holder and the sadaa, a special harvest tithe. The proceeds 
  went direct to the royal coffers. Tribute was collected from vassal states, and 
  officials of royal origin were generally entrusted with this.
  Trade was the greatest source of income, despite the absence of large and 
  important commercial centres as in the Western Sudan. Grain from the empire 
  was exchanged for salt at Bilma, and natron or potash from the Lake Chad region 
  was sent to Kano from where it was distributed over wide areas of the Sudan. 
  Kanuri middlemen handled the copper trade between Darfur and Nupe. Kola 
  from the forest belt came through Kano and was exported, along with slaves 
  from the southern part of the empire, to Tunis, Tripoli and Cairo. Cowries and 
  

  rolls of cloth were the standard currency.

  7.4.4. Decline of Kanem-Bornu Empire
  The administrative reforms and military brilliance of Aluma sustained the 
  empire until the mid-1600s, when its power began to fade. By the late 1700s, 
  Bornu rule extended only westward, into the land of the Hausa. Around that 
  time, Fulani people, invading from the west, were able to make major inroads 
  into Bornu. 
  By the early 19 century, Kanem-Bornu was clearly an empire in decline. In 
  1808, Fulani warriors conquered Ngazargamu. Usman dan Fodio led the Fulani 
  thrust and proclaimed a jihad (holy war) on the irreligious Muslims of the area. 
  His campaign eventually affected Kanem-Bornu and inspired a trend toward 
  Islamic doctrines. But Muhammad al-Amin al-Kanemi contested the Fulani 
  advance.
  Kanem was a Muslim scholar and non-Sefawa warlord who had put together 
  an alliance of Shuwa Arabs, Kanembu, and other semi-nomadic peoples. He 
  eventually built a capital at Kukawa (in present-day Nigeria). Sefawa mais 
  remained titular monarchs until 1846. In that year, the last mai, in league with 
  Wadai (Ouadai) tribesmen, precipitated a civil war. It was at that point that 
  Kanem’s son, Umar, became king, thus ending one of the longest dynastic reigns 
  in regional history. Although the dynasty ended, the kingdom of Kanem-Bornu 
  survived. Umar, who eschewed the title mai for the simpler designation shehu, 
  (from the Arabic“shaykh”) could not match his father’s energy. 
  He gradually allowed the kingdom to be ruled by advisers (wazirs). Bornu 
  began to decline, as a result of administrative disorganization and attacks by 
  the militant Wadai Empire to the east. The decline continued under Umar’s 
  sons. In 1893 Rabih Fadlallah, leading an invading army from eastern Sudan, 
  

  conquered Bornu. He was defeated by French soldiers in 1900.

  

   

  Unit Summary
  The unit considers the raise of great and powerful empires West Africa such as 
  Songhai, Mali, Kanem Bornu etc…. It focuses to their raise, their organization 
  and their decline. In general, many of them were muslim believers and 
  geographically vaste. Their dimemnsion is one of the cause of their decline. 
  Trade seems to be the major income activity, even the use of horses in battle 
  

  and commerce to travel long distances. 

• UNIT 8:ORIGIN OF ISLAM AND ITS IMPACT IN WEST AFRICA

  

  The religion of Islam arose in Middle East (Saud Arabia in Asia) about 622 AD. 
  The word “Islam” means ”the act of submitting, or giving oneself over to God 
  Allah, the followers of Islam are called ”Muslims” which means “believers”. This 
  religion was founded by Muhammad Ibn Abdulah. He became to be known as 
  the prophet of Allah or God
  Muhammad and Islam
  The name Muhammad means “a name praiseworthy”. Abdoul KASSIM known 
  as Muhammad was born around 570 AD and died on June 8th 632 in Mecca, his 
  birthplace. His parents were ABDALLAH and AMIN. As a child, at the age of six, 
  he became orphan and raised by relatives (at his uncle’s ABOU TALIB who also 
  died shortly after). He had a hard life. He first became” a shepherd and then his 
  employer (Khadija) caravans’ leader.
  As Muhammad grew older, his employer (who was a wealthy widow) Khadija’s 
  respect and love for him grew likewise. At 25 years old, Khadija married 
  Muhammad and they had four children. But all these children died except his 
  daughter FATIMA by whom all Muhammad’s descendants are recognized.
  However, this marriage brought him economic security and social prestige. It 
  also gave him leisure time, which he spent in mediation and prayer.
  When Muhammad was about 40, he began to have visions in which God and the 
  Angel Gabriel were speaking to him in 610 AD. Muhammad became convinced 
  that he was the appointed prophet or messenger of the one true God, called 
  

  Allah (in Arabic language).

  

  According to Islam the prophet Muhammad received many divine revelations 
  during his life. These revelations were written down and together make up the 
  Qur’an, the holy book of Islam. In this painting from an 18th-century manuscript, 
  Muhammad (shown at the right without facial features) is receiving a revelation 
  during a battle. Muhammad’s face is never depicted in Islamic art.
  He believed that God had called him to turn Arabs away from idolatry, the only 
  true God of Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and now himself. In 620 AD, he began 
  preaching his new religion. But most of Mecca wealthy merchants became 
  

  hostile and opposed him and few followers.

  

  The al-Haram Mosque in Mecca, Saudi Arabia, holds the holiest shrine of Islam, 
  the Kaaba. As the birthplace of Islam’s founder, the Prophet Muhammad, Mecca 
  is considered a holy city. It is a pilgrimage point for Muslims worldwide, who 
  are expected to visit the city at least once if they can do so.
  In 622 AD, Muhammad fled Mecca for a more promising field for his missionary 
  work, the city of Medina. His departure, called Hijra, is so important to Muslims 
  that it marks the beginning of the Muslim Calendar, just as the birth of Jesus 
  marks the first year of the Chritian calendar. Muhammad soon became Medina’s 
  

  political and religious leader.

  

  Medina, in western Saudi Arabia, is a sacred city that only Muslims are 
  permitted to enter. The Prophet Muhammad took refuge in Medina after fleeing 
  Mecca in 622 ad, and the city’s numerous mosques remain a destination for 
  large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage. The income derived from 
  visiting pilgrims forms the basis of Medina’s economy.
  In 630 AD, he returned to Mecca in triumph. By Muhammad’s death two 
  year later, Islam had spread to most of Arabia. But before his death, he had 
  recommended his followers of setting down his teachings and sayings in one
  and unique sacred book called Koran (the Muslim holy book) containing Muslim 
  

  laws on personal behavior and dogma.

  

  

  Islam is based on two basic truths in what is called the Islamic creed. The creed 
  of Islam is a simple statement in two parts.
  1. The first part is “La ilaha ilalah wa muhammadur rasuk al-lah,” meaning 
  there is no God but Allah the almighty.
  2. The second part of the creed is that Muhammad is the messenger of God. 
  Muslims accept these two basic statements in the heart, that there really is 
  one God, supreme and unique, and that the revelation given through Prophet
  Muhammad by Allah is genuine, final and complete, and supersedes all 
  revelations that came before it. 
  The teachings of Islam are based on the revelations Prophet Muhammad received from God. They were first memorized by the prophet before they were 
  written in the Quran. Muslims believe that the original books from where these 
  revelations were got are in heaven with God. To Muslims, God will not reveal 
  anything else beyond the Quran. They regard Muhammad as the medium 
  through which God’s revelations reach humanity. 
  Muslims believe that the Quran is the direct word of God. It contains 114 
  chapters, or suras. The chapters are divided into verses called Ayat. Adherents 
  of Islam have five principal duties which they are obliged to fulfill as part of 
  the faith. These are usually termed the five pillars. They constitute the main 
  teachings of the Quran. 
  The five pillars are discussed below:
  Profession of faith (Shahada): All Muslims are expected to utter the following 
  statement: “There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the messenger of the 
  God.” This statement is to be uttered by new converts and is also the principal 
  means by which an individual asserts his or her adherence to Islam. It stresses 
  that for Muslims, there is only one God and the belief in one God (monotheism) 
  is central to the Islamic faith. 
  Giving of alms (Zakat): Zakat is regarded as a requirement in Islam. It does 
  not stop Muslims from giving money or goods to charity at any time. The alms 
  usually consist of giving two and a half percent of one’s income, and perhaps 
  other assets to charity or deserving causes. There are however, variations in 
  the income and goods which form its basis, how it should be donated and how 
  it should be collected. Communities may differ on who is required to give the 
  alms. The zakat collected is often used not only to support those in financial 
  need, but also to help with passing the message of Islam onto others.
  Ritual prayer: It requires that Muslims – who may pray to God at any time 
  of the day – to pray five times a day, using certain words while facing Mecca. 
  The prayers are also accompanied by certain forms of kneeling and bowing 
  (prostrations). This form of prayer is known as Salat and should be preceded 
  by ritual washing to create a sense of spiritual cleanliness prior to prayers 
  in what is known as wudu. Where there is no mosque, a clean and peaceful 
  place is used, and a prayer mat is placed on the ground as a symbol of spiritual 
  

  cleanliness.

  

  The ritual prayers take place on five occasions during the day: at daybreak, 
  midday, the middle of the afternoon, at sunset and during the evening. The 
  main prayer time of the week is at noon on Fridays. These prayers are said by 
  the Imam, who also gives a sermon based on a few verses from the Quran.
  Fasting during the holy month of Ramadhan: Ramadhan is usually marked in 
  the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. The fast is observed from sunrise to 
  sunset for a total of 30 days. All Muslim adults are prohibited from taking food 
  or drink during the day. This occasion is a period which Muslims demonstrate 
  great discipline, both in a physical sense and in a spiritual sense. 
  They also contemplate God and the religious life. At sunset each day during 
  Ramadhan, Muslims eat a light meal to break the fast. Later in the evening, there 
  is a much more substantial meal taken together with family members. People 
  visit the mosque in the evening for prayers and to take part in the special events 
  marked during the holy month. After a night’s sleep, people wake up early to 
  take a light meal which they will survive on up to evening. 
  Towards the end of Ramadhan there are special celebrations. One important
  celebration is celebration symbolizes the first night during which Prophet 
  Muhammad received revelation from God. The conclusion of the fast of 
  Ramadhan is usually graced by great celebration, when family members gather 
  and offer each other presents. This festival is known as Eid-Ul-Fitr.
  Making of pilgrimage to Mecca: This is also known as hajj. A Muslim is expected, 
  where possible, to make the pilgrimage at least once during one’s lifetime. The 
  event is held every year at approximately the same time. This date is usually 
  between certain specific days on the 12th month of the Islamic calendar. 
  Prophet Muhammad made a hajj in AD 632. Most of the tradition 
  and celebratory features of the hajj are based on this visit. During 
  the pilgrimage, people visit Mecca, the neighbouring towns and sites 
  of religious significance in the history of Islam. There is a particular 
  dress code for men and women. The first place to be visited is the 
  Kaaba (a large cube-shaped building covered in black cloth at the 
  time of the Hajj).
  In one corner of it, there is a black stone which was said to have been 
  given to Ibrahim (Abraham) by Angel Jibril (Gabriel). The Kaaba is 
  situated in the grand mosque in Mecca. Pilgrims walk around it seven 
  times, moving in an anti-clockwise direction. 
  All Muslims are expected to “fight” to further the faith and to defend 
  it against any acts that might seek to undermine Islam. Jihad may at 
  

  times involve a physical struggle.

  

  

  The Islamic civilization comprises the politico-administrative, economic, 
  social and religious organisations and science and art of Muslims. In terms 
  of the politico-administrative organization, the Umma (Muslim Community) 
  was under Allah’s authority and led by a theocratic chief called “caliph”, a 
  successor to Muhammad. Caliphs were both political and religious leader 
  helped by the Visir (or Prime Minister) and sheiks in the provinces. Regarding 
  economic organization, throughout Muslim world, the economy was/is based 
  on agriculture and trade while for the social organization, Islam is based on 
  egalitarian system but yet the caliphs living standards is a rich aristocracy. 
  The Muslim faithfuls were fanatics and so the submission made them progress 
  because they could only respect the Koran teachings. The men are family bosses.
  In Muslim society, the infanticide is prohibited. Arab women could own and 
  inherit property and also have rights on education. The polygamy is tolerated 
  but not compulsory because Muhammad’s teachings limited men to four wives. 
  And in addition, men can unilaterally repudiate their wives if necessary. 
  In the field of religious organization, very often Muslims follow the Koran 
  teachings and hadiths (traditions collection of the living time references of 
  Muhammad once ruling Medina) and the respect for the five pillars is required. 
  In science and art of Muslims, most of the scientific and artistic activities 
  developed in leading big cities where some of the caliphs encouraged scholars
  and hence promoted scientific knowledge. The Arabic language and Islam 
  religion promoted the spread of Islam civilization. This is how the Muslim 
  world produced writers, philosophers and famous scientists. In this regard, 
  were known as philosophers such as Avienna and Averroès. 
  In mathematics, Muslims invented algebra, the numeral zero, Arabic numerals 
  improved from Indians, analytical geometry and trigonometry. In geography, 
  they made several maps with a wealthy information provided by an Arab 
  traveler Ibn Batuta.
  In medicine and chemistry, they performed alcohol distillation, delicate surgery, 
  the urine tests and the treatment of eye diseases.
  In literature, the Arabs promoted poetry due to the presence of a library and 
  a museum at cordova in Moorish Spain and also due to presence of paper. In 
  art, Arab art was very significant in architecture. Arabs did build Mosques as 
  the churches of Islam and palaces for their Caliphs. It is why some people say 
  that Arab art was civil or religious art. For decoration and painting, they did not 
  make human and animal representations. 
  From Saudi Arabia, Mecca in the 7th century, after the death of Muhammad, 
  Islam as well as its civilization spread fast over the world due to the Holy wars 
  (Jihads), economic gains and religious fanatism and many other factors such as 
  uniting religion, zeal of fighting against infidels, etc. Thus, Muslims conquered, 
  dominated a great number of people and ended up establishing a vast Muslim 
  empire in the world. However, Muslims did not gain all of these conquests in 
  one day. It took them several stages and time. 
  Effects of the spread of Islamic civilization in the world
  Islam like Christianity had both positive and negative consequences in Europe 
  and the rest of the world. Some of these consequences were identical while 
  others were unique to Islam. The main ones were as follows:
  Liberation of women: In Arabia women had rights not enjoyed in all the other 
  lands. They could legally inherit property, divorce husbands, and engage in 
  

  business ventures.

  

  Division of Muslims: At first Islam had uniform adherents. But due to 
  interpretation of the faith vis-à-vis leadership, divisions occurred. This led to 
  the emergence of the Sunni and Shi’a. Each has interpreted the teachings of the 
  prophet differently.
  Formation of dynastic rule: Islam was responsible for the emergence of various 
  dynasities in areas controlled by the religion. Both the Umayyad and Abbasid 
  dynasities came and emerged as strong dynasties after the death of Prophet 
  Muhammad. The two dynasties brought centralization of authority in areas 
  where they exercised control.
  Urbanisation: Muslims equally contributed to emergence of urban centres in 
  areas under their control. Populations increased at the same time with business 
  opportunities. This directly led to emergence of urban centres. Old centres 
  were also expanded e.g. Bagdad during the Abbasid dynasty was a symbol of 
  authority, wealth and power. The Abbasid rulers in the city, adopted traditional, 
  ancient style of Persian court with a high degree of luxury. 
  Belief in monotheism: Muslims believed in only one God – Allah and his prophet 
  was (is) Muhamad. People reached Allah through prayers. Islam also brought to 
  an end paganism in areas it controlled.

  Loss of life and destruction of property: This issued from the Jihads. It involved
  waging a physical struggle against non-believers who threatened Islam. The 
  wars led to massive loss of lives and destruction of property.
  Change in dietary habit: Islam brought some dietary regulations on its adherents. 
  Acceptable foods were (and are) called ‘Halal’ while forbidden ones are called 
  

  “Haraam”. Muslims have since stuck to these dietary regulations.

  

  In Africa, the Islamic civilization first spread in North Africa between 750 AD 
  and 1250 AD. By 1850, it had spread into most parts of West Africa during 
  the early trade contact between the Arabs and the Berbers and the people of 
  western Africa during the Turkish occupation of North and West Africa. 
  There were two principal ways through which Islamic civilization spread in 
  West Africa in the 19th century; through peaceful means and force (jihads) as 
  follows:
  The commercial activities: Between the States of North Africa and West Africa 
  because the trade involved the Berbers who were Moslems and converted the 
  West Africans to Islam. This Trade is the Trans Saharan Trade. Even, the name 
  of Sahara has been given referring to as the Dar-Al- Islam meaning the country 
  of Islam.
  Migration: Some communities of North and Sahara region due to hot climate 
  migrated and settled in Western Sudan and forest region of West Africa which 
  had good climate e.g. the Berbers, the Wolof, the Serere and the Fulani who 
  were mostly Moslems. They integrated with the people of West Africa who also 
  

  joined Islam.

  Moslem missionaries. Moslem fanatics came in West Africa to win many people 
  to Islamic through preaching and building mosques, for example, a Creole well 
  known missionary Muhammad Shita converted many people and built mosques 
  in Freetown, Furah Bay and Lagos.
  Education. Many Moslem schools were built in West Africa and many Arab 
  scholars arrived to teach Islamic principles to the children of West Africa who 
  eventually converted to the faith.
  Conversion of the West African leaders: Some African kings and chiefs who joined 
  Islam encouraged their subjects to join Islam too, especially who got interested 
  in leadership joined Islam as a symbol of loyalty.
  Jihads: Moslem fanatics by force declared a holy war in order to purify or reform 
  Islam faith which was declining in the region by conquest e.g. the Fulani jihad in 
  Hausaland, Macina, Tukolar, and the Mandika Empire etc.
  Prestige: Those who made pilgrimages to Mecca came back with wealth, new 
  ideas etc. They were considered heroes in their communities; therefore, others 
  were inspired to join in order to enjoy such status.
  Moslem solidarity: Islam was based on simple theology of brotherhood which 
  was an admiration of other non-Muslims who joined in order to be integrated 
  in society by sharing the brotherhood in problems and happiness.
  Similarity with African culture: Islam tolerated some African culture in case of 
  similarity. It accepted polygamy, discourage immorality and it also tolerated 
  traditional African religion.
  Oppression from African leaders: People from the Hausa States faced a lot of 
  oppression and brutality from their leaders. They therefore decided to join 
  

  Jihad’s movement hence they voluntarily accepted Islam faith.

  

  

  The spread of Islamic civilization in West Africa had brought the following 
  effects:
  The rulers who undertook pilgrimages to Mecca brought with them technology 
  and scholars from the Moslems world. These influenced and charged the 
  political, economic and social situations in West Africa.
  Islam was a new religion, for many people were diverted from their traditional 
  practices and adopted those of Islam such as attending Juma prayers, fasting 
  and pilgrimages to Mecca.
  Islam introduced literacy as well as Moslem education for example Arabic 
  language and writing was taught. This made the cities of the Niger to become 
  great centres of learning such as Timbuktu University.
  Islam helped to unite empires that were made up of people with different tribes, 
  culture, language and customs. In other words, Islam brought about different 
  ethnic groups to be one in religion.
  The leaders employed educated Moslems such as secretaries, administrators 
  and judges. These were conversant with Arabic writing and reading.
  The coming of Islam increased and made stronger trading links between West 
  and North Africa to the Arab World and Europe.
  Islam gave rise to the growth of small states into large empires which used the 
  Moslem system of government and laws.
  The Sharia law was introduced in governments of some West African states as 
  the constitution of Moslem states.
  It discouraged slave trade among Moslems in West African states though in 
  

  Western Sudan it encouraged slavery.
  
  It affected African culture by eroding African traditional cultural practices like taking alcohol,
  

   taming dogs, etc. So many Africans abandoned their traditional ways.

  

  8.6.1 Concept of Jihad
  A Jihad is an Islamic religious movement or a holy war that is fought by fanatic 
  Moslems against those who do not believe in their faith aiming at spreading, 
  purifying and strengthening Islam. 
  The 19th Century saw a wave of Jihad or Islamic movements in northern Sudan. 
  The causes of these jihads were extremely complicated. Although, they were 
  religious movements, they had a mixture of political, economic and intellectual 
  causes.
  The first jihads in West Africa were recorded in Guinea in Futa Jallon in 1720s 
  led by Ibrahim Musa. In 1770s, there was yet another jihad in Senegal in Futa 
  Toro led by Sulayman BAL. In 1808, Uthman Dan Fadio began holy wars in 
  the Hausa States (Daura, Kano, Katsina, Zaria, Rano, Gobir and Hiram). Other 
  West African Jihadists were Seku Ahmadu of Macina, Al Hajj Umar of Tukolor 
  

  and Ahmed Bello.

  8.6.2 Causes of Jihads in West Africa
  They included:
  Purification of Islam. It argued that after the decline of Mali and Songhai, 
  there was a decline in Islamic faith in Western Sudan. Islam was mixed with 
  paganism for example. Therefore, there was a need for retrieving Islam. To stop 
  unfair judgments in courts of law: These courts were infected with rampant 
  corruption and bribery which were against the teaching of Islam.
  Tribal sentiments: The Fulani who were leaders of the Jihads aimed at 
  overthrowing the government of the Hausa people and to establish a government 
  that was favourable to their people. This act was so because the Fulani were 
  discriminated.
  Wide spread belief of the Mahdi (Savior). According to the Moslems, he was 
  supposed to come during the 13th century of the Islamic calendar. This started 
  from 1785 to 1882.
  Overthrow of pagan governments. The Jihadists wanted to establish governments 
  on Islamic rule, strict Muslims in West Africa could not tolerate being ruled 
  by pagans. To make matters worse, Moslems were forced to go to war against 
  fellow Moslems contrary to Islamic practice.
  Spreading Islam. This was aimed at the people who had resisted to be converted 
  in Islam. Thus, they would be forced to join Islam.
  Desire to spread Islamic education. By removing the pagans who were against 
  Islamic education, the Jihadists hoped to an ideal Islamic society through 
  education. This was an intellectual cause.
  Over taxation. Governments in Western Sudan imposed heavy taxes on the 
  town Fulani merchants while the Fulani pastoralists or nomads were opposed 
  to the heavy taxation.
  Unfair methods for tax collection: These methods were ruthless because the tax 
  collectors were harsh. They wiped and imprisoned the people if they failed to 
  pay. Even then some of the property was confiscated. Reason why the people up 
  rose and welcome Islam.
  Defense of African independence: The West African joined jihad in order to 
  save their independence and against slave trade allowed in West Africa. This 
  because according to Sharia law, no Muslim is supposed to enslave or sell 
  

  another Muslim.

  Therefore, with the above, causes, time was right for a revolution that needed 
  only as part. This was provided by the arrival of men filled with religious zeal 
  and reformist ideas with the ability to lead and organize for example Uthman 
  

  Dan Fodio, Al Hajji Umar, Seku Ahmadu among others.

  

  The Sokoto Caliphate, which spanned much of the northern halves of today’s 
  nations of Nigeria and Cameroon
  The first jihad in western Sudan took place in Hausaland in 1804. This jihad 
  was led by Uthman Dan Fodio. He was a Fulani and a scholar. He was born in 
  1754 at Martha in Gobir. 
  He received Islamic education from various teachers but finally he ended up 
  in Agades under the famous Islamic teacher Jibril Ibn Umar. At the age of 20, 
  he started his career as a writer and teacher in Senegal. From here, he started 
  missionary tours in Hausaland, especially Zamfara, Kebbi and Daura. In his 
  preaching and writing, he attacked all unreligious tendencies. He condemned 
  corrupt and unjust governments, and illegal taxation. He insisted on complete 
  acceptance of the spiritual and moral values of Islam.
  He soon mobilised a large number of followers. Most of these believed that he 
  was the Mahdi or the saviour. His fame attracted the administration of Sultan 
  Bawa, the leader of Gobir. He was employed as the tutor of the Sultan’s son. 
  All these increased Fodio’s influence. Because of this influence, he successfully 
  negotiated with Sultan Bawa of Gobir to release all Muslim prisoners. He also 
  requested the king to grant freedom of worship and also exempt Muslims from 
  un-Islamic taxes.
  Unfortunately, Bawa was succeeded by Sultan Nafata and later Yunfa who did 
  not support Uthman Dan Fodio. Because of Uthman’s growing influence, Yunfa 
  arranged the assassination of Fodio but he managed to escape. Along with his 
  brother Abdullah and son Mohammed Bello, Fodio escaped to Gudu outside 
  Gobir.
  At Gudu, many Fulani tribesmen joined him and he was elected commander of 
  the faithful, Amir Al Munimin. He then, declared a jihad on the non-believers in 
  1804 and confronted Yunfa’s army. After a prolonged fight, Yunfa’s army was 
  defeated and he was killed at Akolawa. Serious resistance against Fodio’s army 
  collapsed in 1809. Immediately, Fodio declared the Sokoto Caliphate and he 
  became the undisputed caliph.
  Once the conquest period was over, Fodio returned to his work of writing books 
  since he was basically an Islamic scholar. He divided the empire between his 
  son and his brother. Mohammed Bello his son was in charge of the eastern 
  region and Abdullah his brother the western region. Fodio died in 1817 and 
  

  his son Mohammed Bello was recognised as the caliph of the Sokoto Caliphate.

  

  

  

  Al Hajj Umar was born in 1794 in Futa Toro. His father was a Tukolor scholar. 
  Umar belonged to the Tijaniyya brotherhood and his first teacher was Abd Al 
  Karim. Umar was also a disciple of Uthman Dan Fodio.
  In 1825, he made a pilgrimage to Mecca. The Tijani authorities were impressed 
  with the works of Umar and he was appointed the Khalifa or religious leader 
  of the Tijaniyya in western Sudan in 1831. He was charged with the duty of 
  reviving and spreading Islam in the region.
  While away, he was impressed by the reformist ideas of the day. He witnessed 
  

  Mohammed Ali’s revolution in Egypt. He also spent sometimes in Bornu, Sokoto.

  In Sokoto, he was impressed by the leadership possibilities opened by jihad. He 
  married the daughters of both Alkanem of Bornu and Mohammed of Sokoto.
  He witnessed the expansion and spread of Islam through a jihad. He was also 
  convinced that the revival and purification and spread of Islam would be 
  possible through embracing Tijaniyya ideas.
  In 1838, he returned home with even greater inspiration and determination to 
  purify and spread Islam. He settled at a place called Fouta Djalon. From here he 
  made extensive tours, teaching, preaching and converting.
  In his book “Rinah”, he attacked evil and illegal tendencies. He condemned 
  mixed Islam. He appealed to the masses, assuring them of favoured treatment 
  on the day of judgement as members of the Tijaniyya. His teachings were well 
  received by the ordinary persons. These had been alienated by the Quadiriyya. 
  His fame as a scholar and teacher attracted a large following. He was regarded 
  as the Mujahidin (soldiers fighting in support of their strong Muslim beliefs). 
  His growing fame and influence alarmed the Quadiriyya scholars and Fouta 
  Djalon political authorities. In 1851, he fled to Dinguiray.
  Here, he established an armed camp with his faithful disciples as well as 
  students attracted from West Africa. These were mainly from the lower classes.
  He equipped the army with European weapons bought from the coastal towns 
  of West Africa. He even established a workshop of gun smiths who could repair 
  guns. At a later stage, Al Hajj Umar was able to manufacture some of these arms, 
  thus supplying his army.
  In 1852, Umar declared a holy war on infidels in the Sudan. In 1854, he 
  conquered the Wangara states. By 1857, he was ready to attack the Bambara 
  of Segu. Nevertheless, this brought him into conflict with the Muslim state of 
  Massina. After this, Umar diverted his attention against French imperialists. 
  This was a mistake that he would regret later. By 1863, the Tukolor Empire 
  extended from Futa Djalon to Timbuktu.
  In February 1863, Al Hajj Umar was killed in the famous Massina uprising. 
  This was spear-headed by the Quadiriyya leaders who were opposed to his 
  Tijaniyya principles. But the empire under his eldest son and successor Ahmadi 
  Bin Sheikh, survived till it was over-run by the French in 1893.
  Umar strengthened Islam expanded the borders of the Tukolar Empire, and 
  promoted Islamic literacy. For example, he set up new centres of Islamic 
  education in western Sudan. Lastly, in his efforts he made the Tijaniyya sect
  more popular than the Quadiriyya. Today, the Tijaniyya is more dominant in 
  West Africa.
  We note that some of these jihad movements succeeded while others failed. So, 
  the jihad leaders succeeded in their holy wars due to the following factors like:
  ─ Disunity among non-Islamic states in West Africa against fanatic 
  Muslims;
  ─ Jihad movement in West Africa enjoyed good leadership;
  ─ These jihads were led by elites who had very convincing rhetoric or 
  persuasive speech that won then big numbers of followers;
  ─ The possession of fire arms by the jihadists;
  ─ The hope to gain economic achievements. The non-Muslims who 
  

  were poor supported the jihads with hope of raiding for wealth.

  

  They included:

  The Jihads led to the closer contacts with the outside World. This was much so 
  with Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. In fact, a pilgrimage made by Al Hajji 
  Umar to Mecca in 1825 further exposed the Sudan to the outside world.
  They led to the spread and revival of Islam culture for example the way of 
  dressing with items such as the veil, the turban and others like the daily prayers 
  and the Hijja.
  They led to the employment of literate Moslem officials by Kings and Emperors 
  as clerks, secretaries, judges, auditors, inspectors and teachers were parts of 
  this Islamic change.
  The large and powerful political states were formed as Islamic States under 
  Moslem rulers like Uthman Dan Fodio of the Sokoto, Muhammad Bello of the 
  Sokoto, Seku Ahmad of the Macina, Al Hajji Umar of Tokolar and Al Kanemi of 
  Dinguiray.
  They created clashes and conflicts between the traditional pagans and the 
  Moslems for example there was enslavement of non-Moslems as permitted by 
  the Koran. This led to tribal wars and antagonism.
  The formation of States enough to resist European infiltration because Jihads 
  united the masses behind their leaders; against the French for example.
  The creation of a new order of administration known as a centralized system of 
  administration and the rule in accordance to the requirement of Koran.
  The stabilization and efficient management of the economy in the Islamic states 
  because they started abolishing the unlawful taxes and levied taxes that were 
  stipulated in the holy Koran.
  They led to the decline of the African traditional religions because the leaders 
  of the religion and people that refused to change to Islam were executed.
  By the Jihads, there was a control of the spread of Christianity in West Africa 
  because the European Christian Missionaries were deterred from entering the 
  

  Muslim lands.

  

  Unit Summary

  The unit examines the raise of Islamic as a religion and civilization. Mainly 
  it focuses to how coquests were done from north Africa and how different 
  caliphates were consequently organized. Important cities comprising even 
  universities were created like Timbuktu one and up today, this part of Africa 
  shows deep Islamic beliefs that expose the region to terrorism and blood 
  conflicts. Among so called jihad movements leading such events are Boko 
  

  Haram, AQMI (AL-Qaeda in Maghred Islamic) to mention but few.

• UNIT 9:ROLE OF COLONIAL AGENTS IN THE CONQUEST OF AFRICA

  

  

  

  An agent is a person who acts on behalf of another. It can also mean a person 
  who obtains and provides information for the government in a certain area 
  in secret. Europeans who acted as agents to their respective governments in 
  the second half of the 19th Century and early part of the 20th Century came to 
  Africa either individually or in groups such as: traders, hunters, explorers and 
  missionaries among others.
   9.1.1. Explorers 
  Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose of obtaining information 
  or resources. An explorer is a person who travels in search of information 
  about various things and places. European explorers in Africa were seekers 
  of information on geographical features, trade possibilities and agricultural 
  potentials to mention but a few areas. 
  However, whatever their immediate motivation, the result of their explorations 
  led to European ultimate conquest of Africa. Examples of explorers include 
  Mungo Park, Clapperton, Richard Lander, Speke, Burton, Grant, Henry Morton 
  Stanley, Joseph Thomson
   9.1.2. Traders and hunters 
  During the latter part of the 19th Century, traders penetrated Central Africa 
  using two main approaches: from the east coast, either overland from the 
  central settlements in Tanganyika and Mozambique; or up the Zambezi and the 
  Shire and Luangwa rivers, to the land between the four great lakes of Mweru, 
  Bangweulu, Tanganyika and Malawi.
  Many Arab and Swahili traders used the overland routes while Portuguese 
  traders generally used the Zambezi one. The other main approach was from 
  South Africa to Barotseland and the area south of the Zambezi. European hunters 
  and traders went into this area from the south. They went first to Matabeleland 
  and then extended their interests to Mashonaland and Barotseland. Few 
  penetrated further into Zambia which was very inaccessible before 1890.
  Most of the visitors travelled along the so-called ‘Missionary Road’ to 
  Matabeleland, which ran between the borders of the Transvaal and the Kalahari 
  Desert. This area offered good facilities for hunting, as elephants and other 
  game animals were plentiful in the savannah. Traders too were attracted as 
  they were able to bring their goods into the area quite easily by wagon from the 
  south. Examples of traders and hunters included George Philips, George Cobb 
  

  Westbeech and Frederick Selous.

  9.1.3. Missionaries and Christianity in Africa
  Missionaries or the ‘soldiers of Christ’, as they called themselves, provided the 
  first concerted thrust at African institutions and way of life. Although they were 
  preceded by the explorers, the missionaries were men with a mission. They 
  wanted to stay and win Africa into Christianity.
  Their activities were to have a serious bearing on the direction of African history 
  in the 19th and 20th Centuries. They usually invited their home countries to 
  come and conquer Africa. In a sense therefore, the pattern of the partition was 
  substantially affected by the earlier settlement of the missionaries.
  Secondly, the missionaries purported to know the African better than other 
  Europeans. Thus, many of the policies pursued by the colonizing powers were 
  inspired by the reports of the missionaries. It is important therefore to regard 
  missionary activity in Africa in the 19th Century as the pioneering arm of 
  imperialism. 
  Examples of missionary organisations included the Church Missionary Society 
  (founded and run by Evangelical Anglicans), the Wesleyan Missionary Society,
  The Church of England (Anglican Church), The Society for the Propagation of 
  the Gospel (SPG), Church Missionary Society (CMS) and the Roman Catholic 
  Missionaries, The Lutherians The Orthodox Missionaries and The Holy Ghost 
  

  Fathers.

  

  9.2.1. Explorers
  They mapped the economic potentials of Africa so that the future colonialists 
  would know where they could establish their colonies. Explorers discovered 
  and drew the maps indicating the location of the strong and hostile African 
  tribes.
  They show on maps where located the weak African kingdoms and befriended 
  some Africans and their chiefs. They also indicated the location of African 
  geographical features like navigable lakes and rivers.
  They called upon their home government to come and to exploit and dominate 
  Africa, leading to the African colonization by European.
  They revealed to colonialists the ways of life of African people i.e. language, 
  culture and all kind of organizations.
  They took to Europe African soils sample which enabled the colonialists to 
  identify and occupy fertile part of Africa.
  They encouraged the treaty signing with some African leaders, consequently 
  facilitated and accelerated the colonization process.
  They established the contacts and relationships between Africans chiefs and 
  European colonialists. For instance, we can mention the visit of Stanley to 
  Kabaka in Buganda and Von Goetzen to Kigeli IV Rwabugili in Rwanda.
  9.2.2. Missionaries
  Missionaries exaggerated the wealth of Africa. For instance, Livingstone and 
  Rev. Moffat said that the minerals of South Africa were found in all areas from 
  South Africa to Cairo. This attracted the Europeans to come and control these 
  areas in order to exploit Africa’s wealth.
  Missionaries gave alarming reports about slave trade and human sacrifice which 
  raised deep humanitarian fillings. According to them those could end if the 
  African chiefs are overthrown and replaced by whites in colonial environment.
  Missionaries financed bankrupt – chartered companies as a means of enabling 
  them to finish the assigned duties and completed the preliminary work of 
  colonization.
  Missionaries played key roles in the signing treaties as long as they were 
  working in fraternity with chartered companies and other colonial agents in 
  luring Africans to sign treaties.
  Missionaries agitated for the coming of many white settlers to come and 
  occupy Africa. According to their plan, the white settlers would in turn seek for 
  protection from their metropolitan countries.
  Missionaries with collaboration of chartered companies trained Africans who 
  became army men and later used by the colonialists. They condemned African 
  cultures and customs as backward primitive and barbaric. This weakened the 
  African spirit of resistance and made it easy for Europeans to take over.
  Missionaries built schools where they trained Africans that were to receive 
  and work for colonialists. In such schools, missionaries trained Clerks 
  administrators, interpreters and the masses taught the new language that 
  imperialists would when they joined them.
  Missionaries established communication facilities which were seen by European 
  powers as favoring factors for their take over. Since they were assured of easy 
  movements into most parts of Africa especially the interior, they did not hesitate 
  to come to Africa to colonize it.
  Missionaries did the work of softening the minds and hearts of the Africans. 
  In their constant preaching, they emphasized on “Love one another as you love 
  yourself”. This meant that the European strangers should not be killed but loved; 
  which neutralized African resistance, but Africans might receive European 
  colonialists in a hospitable behavior.
  9.2.3. Traders (Chartered Companies)
  Traders ended up being regrouped in Chartered companies. These ones paved 
  way for European colonization by signing treaties with African leaders. To 
  Europeans these treaties meant surrender of the Africans thus such areas for 
  their home government.
  They exaggerated the mineral wealth of Africa, which created more appetite to 
  colonize Africa. The British South African Company (BSACo) exaggerated the 
  mineral wealth of South Africa; Leopold’s company said that the Diamonds and 
  copper in Congo extend up to the coast of East Africa.
  Troubles of slave trade were exaggerated which forced some countries to come 
  on a ticket of humanitarianism. These companies argued that slave trade could 
  only be controlled if the social, economic and political lives of the Africans were 
  

  firmly governed by Europeans hence leading to colonial conquests.
  
  The Chartered companies created peace, established law and order and courts 
  to promote justice in Africa. When all these were done, their metropolitan 
  countries saw the situation ready for take over from the Chartered companies.
  Chartered companies built social facilities like hospitals and schools that helped 
  the colonialists to come to do their work. The fear of diseases was reduced 
  which encouraged the imperialists to come to Africa.
  Chartered companies, in collaboration with missionaries, created manpower 
  that was to help the imperialists in colonial administration as they financed 
  some schools that trained clerks, interpreters and administrators as colonial 
  auxiliaries.
  Chartered companies trained and equipped African Loyal Army which was 
  used in suppressing African resistance and rebellion. It was used also in the 
  annexation of more land for the Europeans.
  Chartered companies drew the maps and boundaries of the areas under their 
  control and their establishment meant that the partition of Africa began when 
  the companies were still operating.
  Chartered companies supported religious, internal and external wars in Africa. 
  This was meant to weaken African military, make them become enemies to 
  each other and force one of these seek for European protection.
  Chartered companies exploited the interior of Africa, opening it to the 
  colonialists and they drew the map of African interior locating the fishing 
  grounds, fertile soils, forests, mineral locations, mountains and other African 
  economic potentials. All these had to attract the colonial powers to take over 
  

  Africa.

  

  

  9.3.1. Explorers
  None of the explorers really knew where they were going because they were 
  the first European who came in Africa without any previous knowledge to this 
  continent. As results, they faced the following problems: 
  Explorers had to use big waters like oceans which were by the time inhabited by 
  dragons and some sea monsters. Those animals have hindered the movements 
  of explorers.
  Explorers were facing a problem of wild animals like lions, hyenas, leopards, 
  snakes, etc. To some extent, those animals claimed their life especially in the 
  areas where they had to cross the forests.
  Explorers face a problem of shortage of food and water and other major supplies 
  as they would go so far interior of Africa and they could not easily adapt African 
  food as their diet.
  The problems of diseases like malaria, yellow fever and sleeping sickness which 
  scared them and even some attacked and killed them like Dr David Livingstone.
  Due to the previous problems, the number of explorers was limited so that 
  they could not effectively carry out their work in Africa. This became a great 
  problem as long as they would explore a large area in Africa. 
  Explorers also encountered the problems related to the lack of means of 
  transport and accommodation because the African rivers and lakes were not 
  yet navigable and large area was still covered by the forests and desert.
  Explorers were facing the problems of linguistic barriers as long as they used 
  Europeans languages to the local people with the local languages.
  
  9.3.2. Missionaries
  Like explorers, missionaries had a few knowledges about Africa. So, they had to 
  face problems on their ways such as:
  Lack of means of transport: This was because in Africa there were no roads, 
  railways and water bodies like rivers and lakes were not yet open for navigation.
  The small number of their own while their proscribed areas of operation 
  were so wide and with a large population: So, their influence got limited to a 
  few communities.
  Poor communication facilities: The Missionaries went into little-known areas 
  with poor communication facilities, and for months, or even years at a time, 
  they had to depend on the haphazard trips of traders and hunters for supplies 
  and letters.
  Insecurity: They were faced with constant insecurity, for missions depended 
  on the goodwill of some powerful chief, and at any time succession quarrels, 
  tribal wars or raids could endanger their lives or force them to leave the district.
  Hostility of people: Frequently, missionary teachings provoked trouble, for 
  they attacked many existing customs which appeared to them to conflict with 
  the teaching of Christianity.
  Slave trade: Missionaries were often sickened by the heartlessness and cruelty 
  they encountered, which included the agonies of victims of slave raids, speared 
  to death if any rescue was attempted.
  Lack of medium for communication : Mission work in scattered populations, 
  speaking a variety of languages increased the difficulty of putting new ideas 
  across to the people. To secure understanding and acceptance of the Christian 
  message was a long and arduous task.
  Unfavourable climate and disease: Most dangerous of all was the tropical 
  climate, and the fevers that followed. Although quinine was known, the causes 
  of malaria, blackwater fever, and many other diseases had not been discovered. 
  Few of the missionaries were given any training in the use of such medicines as 
  were available, and poor communications often caused a shortage of medical 
  

  supplies. All suffered continually of illness and there were frequent deaths.

  Lack of central government in some areas of Africa: Lack of central 
  government was an obstacle to missionary work; the spread of independent 
  chiefdoms, often rivalling each other, resulted in missionaries getting into 
  unnecessary antagonisms. This was not conducive to consistency and even 
  success of missionary work.
  Discrimination of missionaries: In some areas, the missionaries were 
  manifesting racial tendencies, being harsh, cruel and marginalizing the Africans. 
  In West Africa for instance, Bishop Crowther Ajayi was underlooked and denied 
  powers in his diocese hence hampered in his work.
  
  In general, by paying attention to each group of colonial agents, consequences 
  of colonial agents are summarized as follows:
  9.4.1. Effects of explorers in African societies
  The introduction of new products in Europe like gold and silver flooded into 
  Europe especially in Spain because it was more involved in explorations.
  The exploration led to the improvement of the European economic conditions 
  and the increasing of the population in Europe.
  The exploration led to the motion of vast colonial empire to European leaders 
  like French, British, Spanish, Portuguese and Belgians who got colonies in 
  Africa.
  It also contributed to the discovery of African rivers and lakes by Europeans 
  

  like Victoria, Zambezi, Malawi, etc

  The exploration led to the development of industries, commercial routes and 
  banking system.
  There was also evolution and spread of the Christianity religion because almost 
  European explorers were Christians and along their paths they had introduced 
  their religion.
  The exploration prepared the ground to the slave trade. Slaves were taken 
  from Africa and were brought to America as the workers in different kinds of 
  plantations and mining.
  Explorers discovered much economic potential in Africa and this made them 
  call upon their home government to come to occupy the regions in order to 
  exploit which led later to colonization of the African continent.
  Explorers exposed the hostile tribes and the tribes who were so welcoming 
  which facilitated the coming of the colonialists.
  They also encouraged the treaty signing that consequently facilitated the 
  colonization in non-European territories.
  9.4.2. Impacts of the Missionaries on African societies
  Missionaries succeeded in spreading Christianity in Africa through 
  evangelization, and then Africans took up new faith abandoning their traditional 
  religion.
  Missionaries campaigned against slave trade and succeeded in having it 
  abolished in most part of Africa. They would receive and give protection to 
  people running away from slave raiders.
  They built schools where Africans received Western education and taught 
  Africans how to write, read and to calculate. Some languages learnt were 
  English, French, Portuguese and German.
  Missionaries established health centers and hospitals which were to basically 
  benefit the Whites and their converts, and they were signs of social development 
  in Africa.
  Missionaries undermined and tried to uproot African way of life because they 
  replaced Africans ways of life by their home civilizations and cultures. African 
  Christian converts stopped polygamy, widow inheritance, sharing of wives, 
  

  human sacrifice and killing of twins.

  Missionaries contributed to the spread of European languages through 
  education. However, there are some missionaries who studied and mastered 
  African languages and were able to write and translate African languages. There 
  were like Krapf who translated the New Testament of the Bible into Swahili.
  Missionaries improved on agriculture by introducing new crops like coffee, 
  cotton, sweet potatoes, palm oil trees and cacao and new methods of farming.
  Missionaries collaborated with traders and established the means of transport 
  and communication lines in Africa.
  Missionaries tried to bring peace and security in areas they were operating. 
  However, in other areas they increased and planted seeds of divisionism and 
  conflicts. They also involved themselves in the local politics.
  Missionaries paved way for the colonization of Africa as they were the 
  forerunners of the European imperialism. They signed treaties which meant 
  the surrender of territories of the signing chiefs, they called upon their home 
  governments to come and give them protection together with their converts.
  9.4.3. Effects of traders (Chartered companies)
  They introduced taxation system in order to enable them and their home 
  government to operate and set up some development schemes.
  They rounded big spheres of influence for their home government by acquiring 
  territories that they surrendered to their metropolitan countries. Or instance, 
  the BSA Company annexed central and South Africa for the British and German 
  East African Company (GEA Company) got Tanganyika for Germany. This has 
  reduced African resistance to colonial conquest.
  They established economic assets that became the base for economic 
  development for the imperialists. They started large plantations, industries, 
  mining centers and farms. This was effective form of exploitation of African 
  resources.
  They prepared areas where the imperial settlers would occupy. E.g the Imperial 
  British East Africa Company (IBEA Co.) reserved Kenya highlands for the British, 
  Shire highlands of Nyasa and Shonaland in Zimbabwe annexed by the British 
  South African Company (BSA Co.) and the Niger basin region by the Royal Niger 
  Company (R.N.Co.) also were kept for the British settlers.
  They signed treaties with African leaders. These treaties principally meant to 
  make these people co-operate to the white and meant that the African surrender
  their land. For instance, Leopold’s AIC Co. signed treaties with Chief Makoko of 
  Kongo while the R.N Co signed 237 treaties with the Niger Delta States.
  They established the market for their home industries products. They spread 
  European civilization and detribalized Africans, which forced them to need 
  European goods. They even established a monetary environment which made 
  some Africans be able to purchase European manufactured goods.
  They established communication facilities like roads and railways that helped 
  in trade, exploitation of the resources and for easing administration.
  They trained an African army that assisted them to carry out their duties 
  especially annexing more territory and defeating African resistors. This army 
  was also inherited by the imperialists who came shortly after.
  They began social facilities that were a means of “modernizing and civilizing” 
  Africa. Thus, they established schools etc which helped them in training 
  Africans who joined their schools as they learnt how to read and write. These 
  later became the interpreters of Europeans and administrators.
  They helped in the abolition of slave trade and used their armies including the 
  

  local soldiers they had trained in fighting against slave trade.

  

       

• UNIT 10:AFRICAN RESPONSE TO COLONIAL RULE

  

  The scramble for Africa was followed by its partition during the 1884-1885 
  Berlin Conference. These exercises were soon followed by the imposition 
  of colonial rule that was done through a combination of coercive (forceful) 
  and persuasive means. Some of these means bred African reactions against 
  Europeans as analysed below.
  Collaboration
  It was adopted by people who realized the great power of the invader (Europeans) 
  and saw the only way of accommodating the new danger and preserving their 
  independence as cooperating with the enemy. They allied with the Europeans 
  to guard against local enemies or signed treaties allegedly to buy time. For 
  instance, the Baganda, the Massai, the Fante and the Barotse (Central Africa) 
  societies collaborated with Europeans. However, those societies (collaborators)
  have been described by some Afro-centric as traitors, opportunists or passive 
  resistors.
  The collaboration was of two forms:
  ─ Career collaboration. This concerned the people who were not 
  traditional political leaders but ordinary men who were more 
  opportunists. They chose to collaborate for political, prestigious and 
  social reasons only. Here, we can give an example of Ekinyajwi of 
  Kenya, Nuwa Mbangula, Appollo Kaggwa, Kakungulu, etc.
  ─ Mercenary collaboration. This was the way where legitimate African 
  chiefs used work hand in hand with the foreign infiltrators in their 
  society. They gave the imperialists much of the necessary assistance 
  like military protection, land and food. For example, we can mention 
  Kasagama of Toro, Mwanga and Cwa of Buganda, Merere of Maraangu 
  and chiefs Lewanika and Lenana of Masai.
  Indifference
  This meant a situation where a society or individuals neither collaborated nor 
  resisted in the practical sense but just looked on as their independence was 
  eroded e.g Rwanda Kingdom under Yuhi V Musinga. The indifference, as an 
  indirect resistance, complicated the work of the imperialists by refusing to take 
  up orders given by the imperialists.
  Resistance 
  It was an armed struggle against the imposition of colonialism as the only way 
  of preserving independence. Examples include Kabalega of Bunyoro, Mwanga 
  of Buganda, Samoure Toure of the Mandika Kwaku Dua III (Prempe I) of Asante 
  and Mkwakwa of the Hehe.
  However, in this unit, the attention is paid to methods of collaboration and 
  resistance as they are the ones having happened in most kingdoms of Africa 
  

  and resulted into significant effects to be analysed.

  

  

  In their penetration of Africa, European got some collaborators. These were 
  Africans who welcome the Whites, embraced their cultures, their ways of 
  administration and gave them much of the need assistance as they tried to 
  establish colonial rule.
  They include:
  Some Africans collaborated because they believed that invading imperialists 
  were far superior militarily, well-experienced and had better weapons. “He who 
  makes the gun wins the battle” commented Gerere, chief of Dahomey.
  Some chiefs collaborated because they were seeking protection and defense 
  against their neighboring hostile kingdoms or empires. E.g. The Fante against 
  the Asante, Toro and Buganda against Kabalega of Bunyoro, the Shona were 
  against the Ndebele, the Yao were against the Hehe, etc.
  African opportunists collaborated because they saw it as a chance of getting 
  job, prestige, becoming rich and gaining high status in their respective societies.
  The societies that were politically segmented collaborated because of lack of 
  coordination to resistance. They had no single identified leader who could 
  organize them and they did not have a standing army and no military equipment.
  The weaknesses of some African societies caused by the constant and prolonged 
  wars led them to collaborate with the imperialists. These were like the Batoro 
  weakened by the Banyoro, Fante weakened by Asante and the Shona who were 
  weakened by the Ndebele.
  The role of the missionaries, who had prepared the Africans to be humbled, 
  softened and made obedient to the people with the white skin. They had been 
  told not to fight foreigners because it was against the will of God.
  The chiefs who had lost their throne collaborated in order to get support from 
  the Europeans so that they could re-ascend it. That was in case of King Lenana of 
  Masai against his brother Sendeyo and Mwanga of Buganda against his brother 
  Kalema supported by the Muslims.
  Some societies collaborated because their neighboring societies which had 
  tried to resist had been defeated and with heavy losses. In order to avoid 
  similar suffering and loss of independence, they decided to collaborate with 
  the infiltrators. The Chagga and Nyamwezi witnessed in the Abushiri war.
  Some Africans collaborated because they were economically weak, like the 
  Masai, and they could not finance the war for a long time.
  Some other African societies collaborated because their ancient enemies had 
  resisted and their collaboration was a means of getting military supplies, 
  assistance and destroying the enemy totally. E.g. Buganda and Toro collaborated 
  because Bunyoro had taken up resistance and the Masai collaborated because 
  

  the Nandi had resisted.

  

  They are among others:
  Spread of Christianity. Africans who collaborated with Europeans did not delay 
  embracing Christianity as a new religion introduced by Europeans.
  Adoption of European civilization. In order to show their loyalty to their colonial 
  masters, Africans collaborators adopted European civilization such as the way 
  of dressing, food diet, administrative and judicial systems, etc.
  ─ Failure of African resistances. Due to the role of collaborators who 
  provided food, offered protection and even military support as they 
  revealed the African defense secrets to the Europeans.
  ─ Stability of some African States. Some African leaders who collaborated 
  were given protection and defense against their neighboring hostile 
  kingdoms or empires. E.g. The Fante against the Asante, Toro and 
  Buganda against Kabalega of Bunyoro, the Shona were against the 
  Ndebele, the Yao were against the Hehe, etc.
  ─ Loss of African culture and the disappearance of African religions. 
  African collaborators actually lost their religions and they were 
  forced to abandon their culture in favor of those of Europeans. This 
  way, several elements of African cultures disappeared or even mixed 
  those of Europeans through colonial education.
  ─ Alignment of Africans to European policies. Most of African 
  collaborators peacefully adopted the European colonial policies such 
  as tax collection, education system, growing cash crops, and forced 
  labor among others.
  ─ Enrichment of some Africans. Those who collaborated managed to 
  become rich and gaining high status in their respective societies.
  

  ─ Recruitment of some Africans. Africans who collaborated with 
  

  European got a chance of getting jobs in European enterprises and in 
  colonial administration.
  ─ Stability of some African States. Some African leaders who collaborated 
  were given protection and defense against their neighboring hostile 
  kingdoms or empires. E.g. The Fante against the Asante, Toro and 
  Buganda against Kabalega of Bunyoro, the Shona were against the 
  Ndebele, the Yao were against the Hehe, etc.
  ─ Loss of African culture and the disappearance of African religions. 
  African collaborators actually lost their religions and they were 
  forced to abandon their culture in favor of those of Europeans. This 
  way, several elements of African cultures disappeared or even mixed 
  those of Europeans through colonial education.
  ─ Alignment of Africans to European policies. Most of African 
  collaborators peacefully adopted the European colonial policies such 
  as tax collection, education system, growing cash crops, and forced 
  labor among others.
  ─ Enrichment of some Africans. Those who collaborated managed to 
  become rich and gaining high status in their respective societies.
  ─ Recruitment of some Africans. Africans who collaborated with 
  European got a chance of getting jobs in European enterprises and in 
  

  colonial administration.

  

  Forms or methods of resistance
  Resistors were people who opposed the establishment of European rule in 
  Africa. They were reactionaries to European imperialism and annexation 
  of their territories and in general they used primary and secondary forms of 
  resistances defined below:
  ─ Primary resistance
  This was direct confrontation by African communities at the invasion 
  of Europeans into their land. They used force to expel the Europeans 
  before they gained access to their land. A number of examples of 
  primary resistance can be cited where African reaction immediately 
  followed the arrival of Europeans.
  ─ Secondary resistance
  This was a way used by Africans by initially accepting the imperilists 
  to operate within their territories but later to rise against them after 
  understanding their intentions e.g Mwanga of Buganda and Nandi 
  

  from North Rift of Kenya.

  

  Reasons for resistance 
  They included:
  There was need to preserve African independence because some African people 
  had nationalistic and patriotic feeling to their societies. Those who resisted 
  saw it as a means of keeping away foreign intruders and maintaining the 
  independence of their kingdoms. Such people were like Kabalega of Bunyoro, 
  Samori Toure of the Mandika, Menelik and Theodore of Ethiopia, etc.
  Some African chiefs and societies resisted because they trusted their military 
  strength and they hoped defeating the Europeans. For instance, Kabalega with 
  his Abarusura army, Mosheshe of Suto, Ngoni, Zulu, Samori Toure, etc.
  Some Africans resisted because their traditional enemies had collaborated. 
  Bunyoro resisted because Buganda had collaborated and gave a base to the
  British, Samori Toure resisted because Sikaso had collaborated with the French.
  Some Africans resisted because they were struggling to keep and guard their 
  trade monopolies as they knew that the coming of Whites would force them out 
  of trade. Some Africans resisted hoping that the Europeans could not withstand 
  some African geographical environment using examples of explorers, traders 
  and missionaries who had died because of the conditions in Africa.
  Some Africans resisted in order to safeguarding their traditional religion 
  because they supposed that their ancestors were not happy with the Christianity 
  introduced by the Whites in Africa.
  Some Africans resisted because of presence and pressure of Islam because it 
  was known in some areas of Africa before the Christianity, which forced the 
  Africa Moslems to counter the spread of Christianity and the Europeans.
  Some African chiefs resisted because they had known that the earlier 
  collaborators had been mistreated, undermined and politically subjected. Some 
  chiefs who had collaborated were later overthrown and replaced by others. So, 
  other chiefs who come to know about this decided to resist.
  Some African chiefs resisted because they had a long standing enmity with 
  the Whites. That long enmity was developed by explorers, missionaries and 
  traders. For instance, Kabalega of Bunyoro quarreled with Samuel Baker and 
  Samori Toure with the French.
  Some African chiefs and societies resisted because the European colonial 
  administrative and economic policies were so oppressive and exploitative like 
  forced labor, high taxes, land alienation and overthrowing of the traditional 
  political leaders.
  Note: Generally, all African resistance cases ended up to a failure. A number of 
  factors contributed much to the occurrence of this phenomenon. 
  10.2.2. Reasons for the failure of African resistance
  At the time of the arrival of the imperialists in Africa, the chiefs and African 
  societies had attempted to resist them, but they failed due to the following 
  reasons or factors:
  Africans were militarily weak comparing to the well-trained and well-armed 
  

  colonial invaders while the Africans were poorly armed with traditional arms.

  Disunity among resistors themselves because the African armed resistors did 
  not organize a coordinated and joint struggle against Europeans.
  Role played by the missionaries and explorers that had facilitated easy 
  European penetration in Africa by identifying the strong and weak societies 
  and preparing the minds of Africans.
  Effects of slave trade because the Europeans had taken the Africans who were 
  strong able to defend their continent and left those who were too old, weak, 
  sick and very young who could not contribute much towards the success of 
  resistance.
  The role played by the collaborators who provided food, offered protection 
  and even military support as they revealed the African defense secrets to the 
  Europeans.
  Use of diplomacy and treaty signing by the Europeans which meant the 
  surrender and submission of African sovereignty because most African leaders 
  were illiterate and ignorant about the content of the document they signed.
  Constant civil wars among the African societies made them vulnerable to 
  European defeat because the Africans had been weakened by those constant 
  wars and no longer to defend their kingdoms or empires.
  Africans were economically weak, and they failed to get finances for purchasing 
  modern weapons that would level them with the Europeans and the Europeans 
  imposed arms embargo on Africans.
  Lack of patriotic and nationalism spirit because some Africans had no sense of 
  political maturity and love for their territorial integrity.
  Europeans were determined to colonize Africa while some Africans seemed 
  relaxed and never sought support from their neighbors while the Europeans 
  used all means to get victory against the Africans.
  Geographical factors: the absence natural geographical defensive barriers like 
  mountains, valleys and deserts in many places made it easier for European 
  powers to triumph in their conquest of Africa. In only case that occurred in 
  

  Africa was Ethiopia which benefited from its mountains to defeat Italians.

  

  10.3.1.The Maasai collaboration
  The Maasai are a Nilotic speaking community. They occupied an area stretching 
  from the Uasin Gishu plateau in the north to the plains around Mount Meru in 
  Tanzania to the south. From AD 1750, they were the dominant group in the 
  Rift Valley. Organised and strong militarily, the Maasai were a constant threat 
  to their neighbours whom they raided for cattle at will. The caravan traders 
  avoided Maasai country for they spared no strangers on their land. When in 
  the late 19th Century the British appeared on the scene, it was expected that 
  the Maasai would put up a stiff resistance against them. But they did not, and 
  instead became one of the best examples of Kenyan collaborators with the 
  

  invading Europeans.

  

  A photo of Lenana, the Chief Medicine-Man of the Maasai circa 1890. Pt Lenana (4,985m), 
  the third highest peak, on Mount Kenya was named after him by Halford Mackinder. 
  Mackinder made the first ascent of Mount Kenya in 1899. Lenana is sitting next to Sir 
  Arthur Hardinge (the man wearing spectacles). Lenana was the son of Batian who was 
  the previous Chief Medicine-Man. Batian is the name of the highest peak on Mount Kenya.
  Reasons for Maasai collaboration
  This response can be explained by five main factors: 
  Effects of the rise of the Nandi: The rise of the Nandi from the 1850s adversely 
  affected Maasai power. They began raiding the same communities for cattle 
  which were traditionally Maasai raiding grounds. The Nandi even successfully 
  raided the Uasin Gishu Maasai. Second, at the time of the British penetration 
  of Kenya the Maasai were economically and politically in a state of decline. 
  The civil wars of the 19th Century had destroyed whole sections of the Maasai 
  including the Uasin Gishu, the Ngurumaini, the Iloogolala and the Losegallai. 
  From 1889 to 1890, cattle diseases spread to Maasailand, especially rinderpest 
  and pleuro-pneumonia. 
  Drought of 1891: In 1891 there was drought and famine with smallpox and 
  cholera, further reducing both human and animal populations. As a result of 
  

  these calamities, many Maasai joined up with Kikuyu and Akamba neighbours. 

  Others sold their women and children to neighbouring peoples. Still others 
  became mercenaries, especially in the armies of Mumia and Akamba. The 
  Maasai were no longer as strong as they used to be.
  Succession disputes: In 1890, Mbatiany, the great Laibon of the Purko and Rift 
  Valley Maasai, died. Although a laibon by tradition was only a ritual expert and 
  prophet, Mbatiany had also gained political power in the civil wars. Thus, the 
  position of laibon was still politically attractive when Mbatiany died, but there 
  was no one of his stature to succeed him, and his two sons, Lenana and Sendeyo 
  both claimed and disputed the position of laibon for ten years. Sendeyo was 
  finally driven with his followers to the Loita region of northern Tanzania. But he 
  never gave up and continued raids against the territory of his brother Lenana 
  who remained in the area between Ngong and Naivasha.
  Dispute with the Kikuyu: Succession dispute placed the Maasai in an even 
  weaker position in the face of the incoming British. Lenana was also in dispute 
  with the Kikuyu. Following the calamities that befell the Maasai as already 
  outlined, Lenana had arranged for some Maasai women and children to be 
  cared for in Kikuyu villages to avoid certain death. When he later went back for 
  them he learnt that the Kikuyu had sold many of them to the slave traders. He 
  quarrelled with the Kikuyu and prepared to go to war against them. He grew 
  desperate: his enemies threatened to destroy him and his people; he was faced 
  by the problems of raids by Sendeyo; there were frictions with the Kikuyu; 
  famine and disease were afflicting his people and cattle. Lenana sought the 
  support of the IBEACO agent, Francis Hall at Fort Smith. And Hall was only too 
  happy to oblige, and assisted Lenana in his campaigns against Sendeyo and the 
  Kikuyu. The British and the Maasai became allies. Maasai warriors assisted the 
  British against other Kenyan peoples from 1894 to 1908. 
  The Kedong Valley Massacre: There was the Ewuaso-oo-Ng’indongi Massacre 
  (Kedong Valley Massacre) of November 1895, and the friendship between 
  Lenana and the British was sealed. A caravan of the Kikuyu, Swahili and Arab 
  porters was returning from Eldama Ravine. Resting in the Ng’indongi Valley 
  near Naivasha, members of the caravan attacked the Maasai, stole food and 
  seized some Maasai girls. The Moran attacked the caravan, killing 647 out of 
  871 men. On getting the news, a Scottish trader, Andrew Dick, who was camped 
  nearby, took the caravan side and set forth with two French travellers to fight 
  the Maasai. He shot dead about 100 Maasai before he himself was killed. But 
  this incident, in which three white men had killed a hundred Maasai warriors 
  in one encounter, so shocked the Maasai that they immediately sought peace. 
  Subsequent investigation into the whole incident by British officials exonerated 
  the Maasai and put the blame for the Massacre upon the porters. 
  Lenana and his people were greatly impressed both by the military 
  might of the white men and the magnanimity and sincerity of the British 
  officials: From these and earlier contacts, good relations between the Maasai 
  and the British were established, and Lenana and his followers collaborated 
  

  with the British.

  

  According to the table above, many people in Africa tried their best to resist the 
  European occupation. But some a few cases were chosen so as to apprehended 
  how the reaction took place such as Samoure Toure. 
  Resistance of Samoure Toure in Mandinka Empire
  The Mandika people occupied the area of Western Sudan, bordered on the West 
  by Futa Jalon, on South by forests, in the north by the Tokolor Empire and in the 
  East by the Mossi and Asante’s kingdoms. The people of the area were Malinke, 
  

  part of the great Mande-speaking family.

  Samori Toure was born in 1830 to a Malinke peasant of a Dyula clan who 
  practiced African traditional religion, later become Muslims and traders.
  Being a Dyula by birth, he later joined Dyula traders to trade in gold from 
  Wassulu and cattle from Futa Jalon. As a trade, he travelled widely to market 
  towns in search of firearms, horses and cattle. He reached Freetown and the 
  Tokolor Empire.
  In 1852, he joined and served in the army of Sori Birema Amande chief of 
  Bisandugu in exchange for the release of his imprisoned mother. But he rapidly 
  began to build up an army of his own, centered round a solid nucleus of friends 
  and relatives.
  Between 1870 - 1890’s, Samori Toure was master of a large empire which 
  included the gold-bearing area of Boure. He established his capital at Bisandugu. 
  His expansion had brought him into conflict with Kankan and Wassulu states 
  which he captured in 1880’s.
  Reasons for the resistance
  The reasons that led to the conflict between Samori Toure and the French were 
  imperial and defensive in nature:
  Samouri Toure defended Mandika independence from being colonized by the 
  French.
  Defense of Islam since the French colonialists were Christians while the 
  Mandika were Muslims. Consequently, resisting them was a purposeful action 
  to defend Islamic state against infidels.
  Samouri Toure defended trade because the French domination would 
  monopolize the trade in the empire by out competing the Mandika merchants.
  The French colonial administration was very oppressive and repressive as it 
  was in Algeria and Senegal.
  Samouri Toure defended the land from the French settlers because they were 
  looking the fertile soils which were under the ownership of the Malinke people.
  Samouri Toure wanted to conclude an alliance with the British because he had 
  shown the willingness to hand over his empire to the British protection other 
  than the French.
  Samouri Toure defended Mandika culture which the French were set to destroy 
  

  and replace it with the French culture through their policy of Assimilation.

  The French plan to use Tiebe of Sikasso to attack and when Toure found out he 
  dissolved the treaty he had concluded with Sikasso and attacked them before it 
  was too late. Unfortunately, Samori Toure was defeated.
  False foreign support because Samori Toure had been falsely encouraged by 
  the military support had expected from the British, Creoles of Sierra Leone and 
  Tokolor against the French. However, they had betrayed him when they left him 
  alone in the battleground.
  Europeans were exploitative in nature; they subjected Africans to forced labor, 
  over taxation and its brutal collection like the hut tax in Sierra Leone. Aware of 
  

  this nature of Europeans, Samori Toure of Mandika had to resist.

  

  A charismatic and revered leader in his time, Samori Toure was a Guinean Muslim cleric 
  and the founder and leader of the Wassoulou Empire of West Africa. Besides south-eastern 
  Guinea, the Islamic Empire stretched to parts of the Ivory Coast, Sierra Leone and Mali. 
  Samori Touré led an armed resistance against French colonial rule from 1882 until his 
  capture in 1898. He was then exiled to Gabon where he died on June 2, 1900.
  Samori Toure’s downfall 
  A number of factors explain Samori Toure’s downfall:
  He was unsuccessful in winning British support against the French. Britain had 
  decided that the Mandinka area was a French sphere of influence.
  There were differences and lack of unity among African ruler. Samori did not 
  get the support of his neighbours, such as Ahmadou Sekou of Tukolor, Tieba of 
  Sikasso.
  Samori was faced with local resistance due to his scorched earth policy and 
  ruthless aggression against his neighbours. He thus dissipated his energy 
  fighting the French and fighting wars of conquest in the east at the same time.
  Non-Mandinka subjects – largely captives – were cruelly treated and did not 
  give the right level of support against the French. They even tended to welcome 
  the French, whom they saw as their liberators.
  French troops were better armed and trained.
  Shifting of the empire eastwards weakened him economically. He was cut off 
  from the gold fields of Wangara where he used to obtain his gold.
  Amori was also cut off from Freetown where he used to buy firearms. So he 
  had to rely entirely on his military workshops for supplies, which were not 
  adequate.
  The new empire was surrounded by the French and the British. The French 
  attacked from the Ivory Coast; the British occupied Asante in 1896; the French 
  had also occupied all the surrounding areas by 1898. Therefore, Samori was 
  stack at his second empire at Dabakala.
  His troops suffered heavy losses.
  The empire was too large for him to manage effectively.
  Samori was tricked into believing that if he surrendered, he would be allowed 
  safe conduct and quiet retirement in his home village. But the French did not 
  keep their promise, and when he surrendered in 1898, he was deported to 
  

  Gabon, where he died in 1900.

  Results of Samori Toure’s Resistance
  Samori’s resistance had the following results:
  ─ Samori lost his independence as the Mandinka Empire was conquered;
  ─ There was a lot of loss of lives and property as a result of the war;
  ─ Samori was sent into exile in Gabon where he died in 1900 at the age 
  

  of 70.

  

  10.4.1. Consequences of resistance
  Depopulation: caused by the loss of lives due to the fighting because where 
  Africans tried to resist, Europeans reacted by killing them massively. It was also 
  due to displacement of people who were flying from the battle field.
  Destruction of property: due to the fighting between Africans and Europeans, 
  there was destruction of properties such as houses, crops and villages, etc.
  Famine:because of insecurity and instability, economic activities were disrupted 
  and people could not provide themselves with foods and essential items. In 
  some cases, this famine was also caused by military tactics like “scorched earth 
  policy” used by the Germans in Tanganyika.
  Spread of diseases and other epidemics: This was due to the presences 
  unburied bodies and by the fact that people were living in forests because their 
  houses had been destroyed. 
  Rise of African nationalism: the rebellion provided a lesson to the Africans 
  because the patriotic and national consciousness was implanted in these people 
  who participated in the revolt and later used as base for future nationalist.
  Spread of Christianity: Traditional religion lost its credibility among the 
  Africans because of its defeat after the execution of its leaders. Thus, this 
  opened chance for the spread of Christianity.
  African submission to colonial policies: Some native people accepted to go 
  and work for the Whites on their roads, farms and railways construction and 
  other projects.
  Increase of European settlements in Africa: after defeating African resistances, 
  Africa was secured and this encouraged other European to come massively to 
  settle in peaceful African regions.
  Land alienation: Because of the end of the war of resistance, many Europeans 
  settled in Africa which increased the confiscation of the land of the Africans. 
  For instance, Zimbabwe still has a very large population of Whites.
  104.2. Consequences of African collaboration
  The Maasai collaboration had a number of consequences:
  The British helped the Maasai against the Kikuyu and against his rival brother 
  Sendeyo, and later the Maasai morans helped the British in their punitive raids 
  against the Nandi in 1905 and other ‘unco-operative’ communities. 
  The British were able to build their railway across Maasailand without any 
  trouble.
  Lenana increased his prestige because the British rewarded him with cattle and 
  he not only successfully claimed the laiboniship but was given the grand title 
  ‘Paramount Chief of the Maasai’ in recognition of his support for the British. 
  This was a purely political position, which helped to alienate him from many 
  Maasai. He then moved permanently away from his traditional home among 
  the Loita to Ngong, to live among the Kaputiei and Keekonyokie.
  However, this happy relationship did not exist for long. Not all British 
  administrators were friends of the Maasai and British Commissioner of the 
  East Africa Protectorate from 1901-04, Sir Charles Eliot openly despised 
  the Maasai, asserting that they should abandon their ‘socially and politically 
  abominable’ nomadic habits and settle down. Eliot considered that the Maasai 
  had served their purpose and could no longer pose a threat to the railway or to 
  the administration. 
  The Anglo-Maasai Agreements, 1904 and 1911: Eliot was succeeded in 1904 
  by Sir Donald Stewart, who in the same year accomplished what Eliot had been 
  working on earlier - the signing of the first Anglo-Maasai Agreement. While 
  Donald Stewart represented the British, the Maasai were represented by Lenana 
  and his associates such as Masikonte (‘Chief’ of Laikipia) and Ole Gilisho (‘Chief’ 
  of Naivasha). But the mass of the Maasai had no say in the matter. The Maasai 
  are said to have agreed to move to two reserves – to the south of Ngong and 
  to the Laikipia plateau. They were promised that the two areas would remain 
  theirs ‘so long as the Maasai as a race shall exist’. A half-mile corridor would be 
  created to link the two reserves. 
  But none of these points was implemented. On the other hand, all the land 
  formerly owned by the Maasai was made available for white settlement. As a 
  matter of fact, the Colonial Government and local settlers in particular were 
  determined to alienate the enviable Maasai land. 
  By 1911, the settlers were putting pressure on the Government to move the 
  Maasai out of Laikipia so that they could move there themselves. The Laikipia 
  Maasai, through their chief, Legalishu, refused to move. Lenana, on the other hand, 
  is said to have agreed as the ‘Paramount Chief’. The second Maasai Agreement 
  of April 1911 settled the matter. This time, the Maasai were literally forced to 
  vacate their lands at great personal inconvenience and loss of property. In fact, 
  their lands in Laikipia were appropriated before adequate arrangements were 
  made for them in the less attractive southern reserve (Ngong) even before the 
  Imperial Government in London had given its approval. It is doubtful whether 
  the Maasai agreed to move from Laikipia. 
  By April 1913, they had vacated Laikipia and moved to the enlarged, but drier 
  and less attractive southern reserve in Ngong. The Maasai ‘as a race’ still 
  existed; but they had virtually been forced to vacate Laikipia for white settlers 
  and, as for other communities, their collaboration had not spared them from 
  the ravenous intents of colonialism.
  
  
  

• UNIT11:CONTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN SOCIETY

  

  Explore above picture (Parthenon) and answer the following questions:
  1. Identify the form of art Parthenon of Athens represents?
  2. Identify its artist, location and period?
  

  3. Discuss its influence today?

  

  Human evolution has informed changes in human development. What is 
  civilization? Where did it begin? And how does it explain where humanity finds 
  itself today? These questions have been posed by humanity itself for many 
  years. We will attempt to provide answers to them in this chapter.
  The word “civilization” comes from the Latin word ‘civis’ which means a city. 
  Therefore, civilization is a way of a group of people that entails their various 
  way of life such as culture, dressing and food. Civilization is life of human 
  beings, in cities and towns. Urban dwellers had to have rules or laws to live by, 
  someone to govern them, someone to make them or see them work together, 
  urban dwellers must also exchange goods. 
  The earliest civilizations began along the banks of great rivers in warm 
  countries where the soil was fertile. Examples of such rivers were the Nile in 
  Egypt (which gave us the Egyptian Civilization), the Tigris and Euphrates in 
  Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) and the Indus river (which gave us the Indus 
  Valley civilization). In these valleys, a variety of crops grew hence keeping 
  hunger at bay. This enabled people to have time to study the things on earth 
  and heavenly bodies in the sky.
  Two civilisations developed in Europe at different times but immediately 
  one after the other. The Greek Civilisation preceded the Roman one. The 
  development of these civilizations happened from around 1750 B.C to AD 500. 
  Each of these civilisations brought high levels of development and organisation 
  to the human society at the time. Their ideas were to be later useful to humanity 
  hence forming the background to its development today.
  

  

  From the ancient times to today, the Greeks have called their land Hellas while 
  they call themselves Hellenes. The names Greek and Greece were used to 
  describe them later on by the Romans. Superiority of Roman Civilisation made 
  their names to stick.
  Greece is to be found in a rocky, mountainous southward extension of the 
  Balkans, on the east of Mediterranean Sea. On one side, the eastern shore lays 
  the Aegean Sea. The Ionian Sea, facing Italy, is on the western side. To the south, 
  across the Sea of Crete from the portion of Greece known as the Peloponnesus, 
  is to be found the large island of Crete. The whole country is stunning and 
  very beautiful. It has over one thousand islands, the sea, the mountains and 
  

  numerous fertile green valleys.

  Only 20 percent of Greece is suitable for agricultural production. Most of the 
  high mountains ranging into 6000 feet, narrow fertile valleys and small to 
  medium size but fertile plains such as those of Thessaly and Boeotia are usable 
  for agriculture. Rivers are small and sometimes dry up during summer thus 
  making farming a challenge. Nevertheless, most of her climate is mild and 
  favourable for cultivation of crops such as wheat, olive and grape vines that 
  could support the population of ancient times. As during the Ancient times, 
  today, the hills and mountains provide pasture to goats, sheep and cattle.
  Greece was founded on conquest. The area witnessed invasions from time to 
  time from around 1900 BC. By the beginning of the eighth century B.C, The 
  Greek Civilization had taken shape. But it was not until the 4th Century BC 
  that it became the common cultural currency of the Mediterranean and Near 
  Eastern worlds. This was the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great’s 
  empire.
  Greece was invaded by various groups at different times. The decedents of these 
  groups were the ones who were later to be known as the Greeks. They settled in 
  the peninsula and evolved an unusual system of government for themselves on 
  the hills and rocky coasts which gradually developed into city states.
  Cretans
  Their entry into the Peninsula began around 2500 BC and was first done by 
  Cretans. One of their ancient kings was known as Minos. Theirs was therefore 
  known as Minoan civilization, named after their king. The civilization was 
  mainly concentrated along the Aegean Sea. These people are described to have 
  lived well had hot and cold running water, bathrooms and possessed elaborate 
  furniture.
   They are also said to have protected their valuables with metal locks and keys. 
  Their houses are also said to have had plastered interiors which were decorated 
  with paintings called frescoes, a technique of painting on wet plaster still in use 
  even today.
  Cretans are further said to have been fond of dancing, boxing, racing and bull 
  leaping among other sports. Lastly, they are described to have been slender, 
  short and had dark curly hair and been a very peaceful community who were 
  among the earliest sea traders in the region. Trade what was thus brought them 
  

  to the shores of main land Greece.

  Archeans
  After the Cretans were the Achaeans who arrived about 2000 B.C. These groups 
  came to dominate the trade and government of the area. Near the Sea, they 
  met and interacted with the Cretans thus giving rise to a new civilisation called 
  Mycenaean. This civilisation was marked by constructions of walled cities and 
  development of bronze goods. They occupied Knossos around 1400 BC and 
  ruled it until 1100 B.C. hence making them rule the whole of the Aegean area.
  Later the Bronze – Age civilizations of the Mycenaens were acquired by later 
  groups. One of the outstanding groups was the Dorians. They invaded the area 
  and overran Knossos around 1100 BC. 
  Dorians
  The Dorians invaded Greece from the North and drove the Myceanaens off to 
  Asia. At around the same time, another linguistic and religious subgroup known 
  as Ionians reached the area. Around the 5th Century the Ionians and Dorians 
  engaged in intensive rivalry in Greece. 
  The Ionians mainly inhabited the city of Athens and even prohibited the 
  Dorians from entering their sanctuaries. There was thus tension between the 
  groups even though they interacted in various ways to give forth to the Greek 
  Civilisation between 1000 BC and 800 BC.
  The Greek city states that existed in the area during their civilisation included: 
  Athens, Sicyon, Megara, Corinth, Thebes, Chalccis, Eretria, Boetia, Argolis, 
  Phoxcis and Thessaly, Arcadia, Archaea, Aetolia. 
  These cities were involved in various wars. Examples of such wars are:
  ─ Peloponnesian war (431 – 404 BC); and 
  

  ─ Corinthian war (395 – 386 BC)

  

  

  The Roman Civilisation grew along the Tiber River in central Italy. It was mainly 
  first concentrated in the city of Rome. This was after the Romans, conquered 
  the Greeks in 146 BC. They founded the city in 753 BC. 
  According to legend, this was done by two twin brothers – Romulus and Remus 
  who were abandoned on the Tiber River as infants and raised by a she-wolf. 
  The two decided to build the city. By the end of the Fourth Century BCE. the city 
  was already the dominant power on the Italian peninsular.
   For five centuries thereafter, Rome’s power steadily increased. By the first 
  century CE, it controlled Greece and most of her colonies, as well as most of 
  Western Europe. It expanded her hegemony in these areas through conquest. 
  Rome also managed to take control of the powerful North African city of 
  Carthage hence uniting the entire Mediterranean region. She also controlled 
  the Mediterranean Sea. 
  At the peak of its powers, her empire covered Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria – 
  all to her East. To her west were Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Spain, Portugal, 
  France, Switzerland, Belgium and England. She managed to Conquer all these 
  lands.
  Rome’s development was greatly influenced by the geography of the Italian 
  peninsular. The area had excellent marble and small quantities of lead, tin, 
  copper, iron (on the island of Elba) and silver in its extensive coastline. There 
  were few good harbours, most of which faced the west away from Greece and 
  the Near East. Ancient Italy, nonetheless, was well endowed with large forests.
   It had more fertile land than ancient Greece. However, it was more exposed 
  to invasion. Invaders entered it easily, as the Alps posed no effective barrier
  to invaders from central Europe. To make matters worse, Italian low lying 
  coastline opened it to invaders from the sea. All these made the Romans, from 
  an early time in their settlements, to be absorbed in military pursuits to defend 
  

  their own conquests against the invaders.

  

  The geography of the Italian Peninsular made possible the rise of Rome. The 
  peninsular extends about 750 miles from north to south with a width of about 
  120 miles. It is centrally located in the Mediterranean. The city of Rome is in 
  the centre of Italy. This central location made Rome to expand, first in Italy, and 
  later in the lands around the Mediterranean Sea.
  Italy’s location made it easier to unify than Greece. The Peninsular is not broken 
  up into small, isolated valleys. The Apennine Mountains formed a ridge from 
  north to south and divides the country into west and east. Italy was equally 
  blessed by having broad, fertile plains, both in the north under the shadow of 
  the Alps, and in the west, where the Romans settled. The fertile lands supported 
  

  her growing population. Rome was built on seven hills and was easily defensible.

  Occupation of Rome
  The earliest settlers in the Italian peninsular arrived in prehistoric times. From 
  as early as 1000 to 500 BC the area was already settled. Three groups inhabited 
  the region and eventually battled for its control. These were: the Latins, the 
  Greeks and the Etruscans. The Latins were farmers and livestock keepers. They 
  wandered into Italy across the Alps around 1000 BC These people settled along 
  the Tiber river valley in a region they called Latium. They are credited with 
  building the first settlement at Rome. This was a cluster of wooden huts on 
  Palatine Hill, one of the seven hills in the city. Other main hills were Esquiline 
  and Quirinal. The Latins were the first Romans.
  Next to invade the area were Greek settlers. They arrived and settled in the area 
  between 750-600 BC. They brought with them elements of their civilisation. 
  They established about 50 colonies on the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily. 
  Their cities became prosperous and commercially active. They taught the 
  Romans farming, especially how to grow grapes and olives. 
  Unlike Latins and Greeks, the Etruscans (or Rasenna as they called themselves 
  before they were given the name Etruscans) were native to northern Italy. 
  These people were skilled in metal works and engineering. They exerted 
  a great influence on the Roman Civilisation. This was especially in writing, 
  (where the Romans, adopted their alphabet) and which had been borrowed 
  from the Greeks) architecture (where they influenced Rome’s architecture, 
  especially the use of the arch). The Romans are also said to have borrowed 
  religious ideas from both the Greeks and the Etruscans e.g. from the Etruscans, 
  they borrowed rituals which they believed helped them to win the favour of the 
  gods. The Etruscans are also the ones who built the city of Rome and even gave 
  the Romans their dress – the toga and short cloak. The Romans also borrowed 
  their military organisation. 
  The Romans, from the Greeks, even took Greek gods but changed their names 
  e.g. Zeus became Jupiter, while Hera, the queen god, became Juno. They also 
  gave Rome its artistic and cultural models through their sculpture, architecture 
  

  and literature.

  

  

  11.3.1. The distinctive elements of the Greek Civilizations
  The Greek Civilization permeated virtually every aspect of the human life. It 
  marked a complete refinement of its predecessors, which are Egyptian and 
  Mesopotamian civilizations. Some of its elements were:
  A common language
  All the Greece islands spoke an identical language known as Greek. They were 
  thus able to communicate easily with one another. The common language also 
  brought feelings of togetherness among the islands’ inhabitants. Greeks had 
  forgotten their diverse backgrounds. All of them considered themselves as one 
  race. They regarded non-Greeks as barbarians- men and women whose speech 
  was to them meaningless noise.
  The Greek language gave them a great advantage. It was something of superb 
  beauty and clarity. The people closely associated settlement in city states with 
  it. Greek was spoken and written. The language was also used for instruction in 
  both private and public functions. The Greeks also had a common alphabet. This 
  formed the basis of the Greek language. In the 8th Century BC, they adopted a 
  simpler alphabet from the Phoenicians.
  Settlement in cities 
  City states were a major feature of the Greek Civilization. Greeks lived in cities 
  which were all independent of each other. Each city and the farms around it 
  formed a separate state called a polis. Sometimes a city sent out a band of its 
  citizens to find a daughter city elsewhere. The new city was quite independent 
  of its parent city, although naturally it had close ties with the latter.
  By the 8th and 7th Centuries BC, cities were built almost everywhere throughout 
  Greece. All these cities were independent. The city-states forged alliances with
  one another. Each city state was proud and jealously guarded its independence. 
  This made them to be characterized by battle and shifting alliances. Cooperation 
  among them also took place. The citizens were very patriotic. Where the enemy 
  was non-Greek, the other city states came to the defense of their counterpart. 
  The city-states governed themselves differently. Sometimes they had kings for 
  example at Sparta. Other cities were led by a self-imposed strong man who 
  ruled the way they wanted. Such a leader is known as a tyrant. Sometimes the 
  nobleman ruled, and this was called an aristocracy. Sometimes all the citizens 
  took part in the government. This was called a democracy. It was practiced in 
  Athens. All adult male assembled together to discuss issues of interest to their 
  polis. Other forms of government in the city states were: monarchy, oligarchy 
  and aristocracy.
  Ancient Greek city of Athens 
  In city states were found the asty (city itself) with its watchtower, the agora 
  (public square/market place) and surrounding rural- agricultural lands referred 
  to as the chora. The asty was the business, political, religious and social centre 
  of the entire community while the Chora provided the food to both the villages 
  and to the city.
  Participation in games
  In Ancient Greek, there was a strong belief that athletic competitions were a way 
  to please the gods and honour the dead heroes. Greeks therefore participated 
  in the Olympic games from 776 BC. During the games, fighting city-states even 
  suspended wars between them to allow the competitions to go on.
  The games were held after every four years. They attracted some 40,000 Greeks 
  into the stadium built in Olympia. The games were dedicated to the god Zeus, 
  father of the gods. The games lasted for more than five days.
  Games events included foot races, wrestling, boxing, jumping, javelin, discus 
  throwing and chariot-riding. Athletes were proud of their bodies and emphasized 
  physical fitness. A greek by the name Myron, made a famous marble sculpture 
  of a discus thrower around 450BC. This sculpture survives in the Roman copy 
  of the Greek Bronze. The most celebrated event during the Olympic Games was 
  known as the pentathlon. It was considered the supreme contest of athletic 
  skill. Winners were crowned with a wreath of olive leaves, a coveted Olympic 
  prize. The wreath of olives awarded the candidate was considered sacred to 
  

  Zeus. 

  The Greek Olympic Games came to an end in 393 AD. They were banned by a 
  Christian Roman Emperor. He saw them as pagan practices. But fifteen hundred 
  years later, the games were revived through the efforts of a French baron, Pierre 
  de Coubertin, who was inspired by the ideals of the Ancient Greeks. In 1896, the 
  first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece. Since then, the games 
  have been a major event in the history of sports in the world.
  Belief in gods and goddesses
  Ancient Greeks were very religious. They believed in gods and goddesses. They 
  had a common religion based on twelve chief gods and goddesses. These deities 
  were thought to live on Mt. Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece. 
  The gods and goddesses include the following:
  Zeus – the chief god and father of the gods
  Athena – goddess of wisdom and craft
  Apollo – god of the sun and poetry
  Aphrodite – goddess of love and beauty
  Poseidon – brother of Zeus and god of the seas and earthquakes
  Hades – the god of the underworld – where the spirits of the dead went 
  Nemesis – god of vengeance
  Nike – goddess of victory 
  Apollo - god of archery, music, poetry, prophecy, medicine and later on god of 
  the sun.
   Although the twelve gods and goddesses were common to all Greeks, each citystate usually singled out one of the twelve Olympian gods as its guardian e.g. 
  Athena was the patron goddess of Athens, for example. Each polis also had its 
  own local gods. These local gods remained vital to the community as a whole. 
  Important elements in the Greek religion were rituals and festivals. The Greeks 
  wanted the gods and goddesses to look favorably upon their lives and activities. 
  This was what informed these religious practices.
  Artistic heritage
  The Greeks attached a lot of importance to artistic expressions. Their arts have 
  greatly influenced the standards taken by those of other European groups. 
  Human beings were the subject matter of ancient Greeks’ art. In them, people
  were presented as objects of great beauty. It was based on the ideals of reason, 
  moderation, balance and harmony in all things. 
  Greek art was shown in their unique architecture and sculptures. Here, they 
  went to great lengths to show their expression of beauty. Some of these works 
  still stand today. On architecture, their artistry was visible in the temples they 
  built for their gods and goddesses. An example was the famous building built 
  in the fifth century BC, the Parthenon. This temple was built between 447 and 
  432 BC under the supervision of Ictinus and Calibrates as the master builders. 
  The temple covered 23,000 square feet.
  It was dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. The temple was also 
  dedicated to the glory of Athens and the Athenians. It shows the principles 
  of classical architecture: the search for calmness, clarity, and freedom from 
  unnecessary detail. The Parthenon still stands on the Acropolis in Athens. Its 
  classical beauty and symmetry symbolize the power and wealth of the Athenian 
  empire. The temple was decorated with statuary and beliefs by the sculptor 
  Phidias. 
  They also made sculptures and statues. Their sculptors showed relaxed 
  attitudes. Most of their faces were self-assured, their bodies flexible and smooth 
  muscled. They were life-like as the figures bore natural features. 
  The sculptors shown their ideal standards of beauty. Most were informed by 
  Doryphoros, a known sculptor at the time, who operated on the theory that 
  use of ideal proportions, based on mathematical ratios found in nature, could 
  produce an ideal human form, beautiful in its perfected features. The figures 
  were graceful, strong and perfectly formed. Their faces showed neither laughter 
  nor anger, only serenity. Sculptors also tried to capture the grace of the idealized 
  human body in motion. They valued order, balance and proportion in the works.
  Love of philosophy
  In the Greek society, there were thinkers who challenged the belief that events 
  were caused by the whims of gods. Instead, these thinkers, used reason and 
  observation to establish the causes of things. They were known as philosophers 
  or lovers of wisdom.
  The philosophers explored many subjects from mathematics and music to 
  logic (rational thinking). Some were interested in ethics and morality. Through 
  reason and observation, the thinkers believed that, they could discover laws 
  

  that governed the universe.

  They based their philosophy on two assumptions:
  ─ The universe is put together in an orderly way, and subject to absolute 
  and unchanging laws;
  ─ People can understand these laws through logic and reason.
  Greek philosophers were divided into two. There were those who questioned 
  people’s unexamined beliefs and ideas of justice, and other traditional values. 
  These were known as the sophists. The most famous of them was Pytagoras. 
  He took a position questioning the existence of the traditional Greek gods. 
  Pythagoras also argued that there was no universal standard of truth, saying 
  ‘Man (the individual) is the measure of all things …’ These ideas were considered 
  

  dangerous and radical.

  

  Marble portrait bust from the Archaeological Museum, Athens. Socrates (469-399 BC) 
  is considered to be the intellectual father of modern Western philosophy. His method of 
  enquiry was to enter into a penetrating discussion with his companions, questioning the 
  nature of knowledge itself in pursuit of absolute truths. Socrates himself wrote nothing, 
  but versions of his conversations are recorded in the written works of his pupils Plato and 
  Xenophon. Socrates’ pursuit of true knowledge brought him into conflict with the piety 
  laws of his native Athens, where his eventual prosecution led to enforced suicide. (Photo 
  

  by Ann Ronan Pictures/Print Collector/Getty Images)

  

  Plato (428-348 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher and founder of the Academy of 
  Athens, the first university of the western world. Along with his teacher Socrates and his 
  student Aristotle, Plato is considered to have set the grounds for Western philosophy and 
  

  to have influences the thinking of many modern philosophers.

  

  Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and 
  teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, 
  metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government, 
  ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates, Aristotle is one of the 
  most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle’s writings were the 
  first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality 
  and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.
  Then there were critics of the sophists. One of their harshest critics was Socrates. 
  Socrates believed that absolute standards did exist for truth and justice. He 
  however, encouraged Greeks to go further and question themselves and their 
  moral character. But like the sophists, his ideas were considered radical and 
  poisonous. He was later sentenced to death over the same. Others were Plato (a 
  student of Socrates) and Aristotle (a student of Plato).
  Literature and drama
  Athens led the other Greek city states in literature and drama. The latter was 
  made up of both tragedy and comedy. Epic and lyric were other literary forms 
  in the Greek world of literature. Drama is said to have developed out of the 
  choruses that chanted lyrical poems also known as Odes, to the god Dionysius. 
  A group of citizens judged the plays and awarded the winner a simple prize: 
  a wreath of ivy. The plays were partly acted and partly chanted. Action was 
  limited as emphasis was on the story and its meaning. Greek literature began 
  with the epics of Homer, whose stirring tales inspired later writers.
  The drama was closely tied to the political and religious life of the state, which 
  sponsored it. The Dionysian odes were improved by adding characters and 
  chorus into them, making them conversational, hence being able to bring 
  human conflict on the stage.
  In the drama, staging remained simple. There were two or three characters 
  (all male) wearing masks, with a chorus of twelve to fifteen members chanting 
  commentary on the action. Dialogue was in verse, and movements were slow, 
  solemn and formal, punctuated by music and dance; but the emotional impact 
  of tragic drama could be overwhelming. 
  Aristotle is credited with the introduction of definition and explanation of the 
  nature of tragedy. He declared that the purpose of tragedy was to inspire pity 
  and fear in the audience, and so to purge these emotions through a catharsis. 
  Comedy, on the other hand, was even more directly a form of direct political 
  commentary. It also addressed themes such as sex, farming, the good old days, 
  the nightmare of politics, the oddities of religion and the strange manners of 
  

  the town, among others.

  Prose was another literary genre that emerged in Ancient Greek. The people, 
  from the fifth century, began to express philosophical and political ideas 
  through prose. This symbolized the increasing functional literacy of mostly, the 
  Athenians. It was in this background that later major literary achievements, by 
  Plato and Aristotle, were to emerge.
  Drama held a vital position in the public life of Athens that citizens were 
  sometimes paid to attend the plays, just as they were paid to hold public office. 
  As part of their civic responsibility, wealthy citizens bore the cost for producing 
  the plays.
  Writing of History
  We owe the discipline of History to the Ancient Greeks. At first, History was 
  part of literature until Herodotus campaigned for its separation from literature. 
  The Greeks applied observation, reason, and logic in understanding the human 
  past. Herodotus was the pioneer in this hence he is often referred to as the 
  Father of History. According to Thucydides, history was to be written in an 
  accurate, factual and impartial way. He also vouched for the use of eye witness 
  accounts in writing in this discipline.
  Trade
  Ancient Greeks were also seamen and traders. They traded with the neighbouring 
  lands in a variety of goods. The Greek city states also traded with each other. 
  Trade made the city states to be rich and prosperous.
  In sum, the Greeks were ahead of other people in virtually all fields. Little wonder, 
  Cicero, the Roman scholar is quoted saying that “in all branches of learning, the 
  Greeks are our masters”. He made this statement in the first century B.C. It still 
  holds today. Even in medicine, astronomy and other sciences, they made their 
  footprints. The Greek Civilization spread to other parts of the world through 
  education (literacy), trade and conquest. They built their civilization from the 
  wide array of resources which abounded in their environment. A few examples 
  were marble, limestone, copper and silver. Coupled with the bounty of the sea, 
  and fertile land, they had a lot of wealth and food which supported their strong 
  and growing population. 
  The Greeks were united by geographic region, language, religion, economics 
  and common customary practices. However, they remained divided politically 
  into the scores of the independent city states. Loyalty was first and foremost to 
  

  the city state before it extended to the more remote ideal of Hellas.

  

  Architecture
  Like other ancient communities, the Romans paid attention to architecture. 
  Their architecture borrowed a lot from the Greek and Etruscans ones. They 
  also introduced new designs and materials in their works. The Romans, for 
  example, pioneered the use of concrete in construction. Roman architectural 
  works were hence an improvement over the earlier Greek ones. 
  Roman civil engineering and building construction technology became 
  developed and refined. Some of what they built have remained to date for 
  example, the Pantheon (with one of the largest single span domes in the world), 
  a building still found in the business district of the present city of Rome. There 
  was also the Colossium, a theatre which could accommodate 50,000 spectators. 
  The pantheon was a temple of all Roman gods.
  Roman architectural developments were found in virtually all the cities under 
  its control and influence. A few examples are: the Verona Arena in Verona 
  Italy; Arch of Hadrian in Athens, Greece; Temple of Hadrian at Ephesos in 
  Turkey; a theatre at orange in France and Lepcis Magna in Libya among others. 
  The architectural works were visible in palaces, stadiums, temples, private 
  

  dwellings, villas, public buildings and hydraulics. Roman architectural works 
  emphasized grandeur. Roman Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain
  
  Romans are known to have experimented with the dome and pioneered in the 
  building of amphitheaters, public baths, and race courses. In the empire, public 
  buildings were of massive proportions and solid construction.
  Roman architecture made use of rows and columns and rectangular buildings. 
  They also used curvilinear forms (forms based on curved lines): the arch, vault, 
  and dome. Combined with concrete, the curvilinear forms saw the Romans 
  building massive building by their times.
  Closely related to architecture was road construction. They made big strides 
  in this area even though they did little in science. Engineering was thus their 
  strength. The Romans built magnificent roads and bridges some of which have 
  survived to date. Aqueducts brought water into Rome from nearby hills. The 
  water was used for drinking and bathing. It also served as sewage system.
  Law
  The early Roman republic had a written code of law which was heavily based 
  on custom. It was known as the ‘Twelve Tables or tablets. They were written to 
  make the interpretation of the law objective. Work of writing the law begun in 
  451 B.C. It involved a group of ten officials. Upon finishing the work, the laws 
  were carved on twelve tablets or tables and hung in the Forum (market place). 
  These laws became the basis for future Roman law. They were based on the 
  spirit of equality of all citizens to the law. Every individual had thus a duty to 
  protect the law.
  Through the universal laws, they were able to establish standards of justice 
  that applied to all people. The standards of justice brought by the Romans 
  included principles that were recognizable by people. An individual was 
  regarded innocent until proved guilty. Every suspect was allowed to face his or 
  her accuser and himself or herself before a judge who was expected to weigh 
  the evidence carefully before making a verdict. The Roman law was based on 
  the following principles:
  ─ All persons had the right to equal treatment under the law.
  ─ A person was considered innocent until proven guilty.
  ─ The burden of proof rested with the accuser rather than the accused.
  ─ A person should be punished only for actions, not thoughts.
  ─ Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set 
  aside.
  Government
  From the earliest times, the Romans had distrust of Kingship and of a sole ruler. 
  This was due to the lessons they learned from their experience with Etruscans. 
  As a result, the Romans devised a complicated system of government.
  In the Roman republic, the chief executive officers were the consuls and praetors. 
  Two consuls, chosen every year, ran the government and led the Roman army 
  into battle. In 366 BC., a new office, that of praetor was created. The occupant 
  oversaw civil law. A counsel’s term was only one year, and once elected, he could 
  not be elected again for ten years. One counsel could also overrule or veto the 
  others’ decision.
  The senate was made up of a select group of about 300 land owning men who 
  served for life. It begun by serving as an advisory body to government officials. 
  Later, by the 3rd Century BC., it got the force of law. Senators each year, elected 
  from the patrician class two consuls. The power of the consuls was thus checked 
  by the senate. Consuls’ power was further checked by limitation of terms. They 
  could only serve for one term. Membership to the senate was for life.
  There were also a number of assemblies in the Roman republic. It was 
  organized by classes based on wealth. This assembly was fixed in such a way 
  that the wealthiest citizens always had a majority. It elected the chief officials 
  and passed laws.
  

  

  The senate was allowed during war, to elect a dictator, or a ruler who enjoyed 
  complete control over government. The consuls chose him before the senate 
  elected. Each Roman dictator was granted power to rule for six months. After 
  the expiry of the time, the dictator had to give up power and go back to his 
  former duties. This governmental set-up made Roman writers to boast by 
  about 275 B.C. that they had attained a balanced government. This was because 
  there was a blend of monarchy, Aristocracy and democracy. They believed that 
  mixture gave them the best features of all kinds of governments.
  When Rome became an empire, from the reign of Octavian, Senate gave him the 
  honorific title of emperor. He became known as emperor Augustus. This marked 
  the beginning of the Roman Empire. From the date, Roman rulers adopted the 
  name of emperor. But like before, they exercised the very powers as during the 
  period of consulship. 
  Social organization
  The family held a central place in the Roman society. By law and custom, power 
  at the household was vested exclusively in the eldest man, known as the ‘pater 
  familias’ or the father of the family. This individual had absolute authority over 
  the family. He controlled all family property. He could sell a member of his 
  household into slavery or even kill any member of the family without penalty. 
  The father was equally the individual who protected the family, spoke on behalf 
  of the family in public assemblies or in law courts. He also acted as the family’s 
  chief priest. 
  Roman women were in charge of the day to day management of their families. 
  Generally in Rome, women enjoyed more freedom than in the Greek society. 
  They had right to own property and testify in court. They also often provided 
  advice to their husbands on business and politics.
  All members of the family and by extension the clans, were supposed to uphold 
  the principles of their ancestors, a set of traditions known mos maiorum. 
  Traditions were considered sacred and were products of many years of 
  experience.
  The Roman society was divided into classes. At the top was a group of families 
  which claimed that their ancestors had been parts or “fathers” who had founded 
  the city of Rome. These families were privileged and belonged to a class known 
  as the patrician. They claimed that due to their ancestry, they had the right to 
  make laws for Rome and its people.
  The other class which brought together common farmers, artisans and
  merchants formed the plebeians. They were citizens with a number of rights, 
  including the right to vote. However, they were considered to be below the 
  patricians. In the Roman society thus, birth and not merit or wealth, was the 
  sole determinant of an individual’s social and political status. Voting when the 
  Republic was founded in 509 BC was exercised by the patricians and plebeians. 
  Slaves, women and children were not allowed to vote.
  On food, the Romans observed very simple dietary practices. They usually ate 
  the first meal of the day at around 11 O’clock. It consisted of bread, salad, olives, 
  cheese, fruits, nuts and cold meat which had been left over from the previous 
  night’s meal. They also had other meals such as breakfast and dinner. 
  Education
  Formal schooling begun around 200 BC. In most of the Roman Empire, pupils 
  began to learn at around age six and spent the next six to seven years in school. 
  They learnt basics of reading, writing and counting. By age twelve, they were 
  introduced to learning Latin, Greek grammar and literature after which, they 
  undertook training for public speaking. Romans highly valued oratory. Good 
  orators commanded respect from the rest of the society. It was for this reason, 
  that one of the objectives of education and learning, was becoming an astute 
  orator. 
  Language
  The Romans’ native language was Latin. This was a form of Italic language in the 
  Indo-European family. There were several forms of Latin spoken in the empire. 
  Silver Age Latin was the most popular. The language’s alphabet originally came 
  from the Greek one.
  Greek was spoken by the well-educated elite. Most of the literature studied 
  by Romans was in Greek. Latin in this area was mostly used by the Roman 
  administrators and soldiers. Eventually, Greek replaced Latin as both the official 
  written and spoken language of the eastern empire. The western empire used 
  Latin. Later Latin was to spread in various dialects to Western Europe as a 
  distinct Romance language hence giving birth to Portuguese, Romania, French, 
  Italian and Spanish. 
  Literature
  Roman literature, like, its religion, was greatly inspired by the Greeks’. The 
  earliest were historical epics which told the early history of Rome e.g. Augustus 
  sponsored the historian, Livy, to document the history of Rome from its founding
  to the rule of Augustus. He did this in 142 Roman style books. Generally, Latin 
  literature took many forms.
  The expansion of the empire culminated to expansion in the type of literally 
  works. Writers began to produce poetry, comedy, history and tragedy. Some of 
  these works have survived in today e.g. “Histories” of Tacitus, Julius Ceasers’ 
  “Gallic wars” and Livy’s “History of Rome”.
  During the reign of Augustus, the literature of the time is generally referred to 
  as works of the Golden Epic. Most literature of the “Golden Age” were vigorous, 
  affirmative and uplifting. It mainly served political and propaganda ends. 
  Whereas that of the silver age was characteristically less calm and balanced. Its 
  effects are said, to have derived more often from self-conscious artifice. Most 
  were intended to entertain than instructor uplift the mood of the reader.
  Visual art
  Roman art was greatly influenced by Etruscans – especially in portrayal 
  of political issues. Greek art also influenced Roman art from the 3rd BCE. It 
  surpassed the influence the Etruscans had exerted on the Romans. Many Roman 
  homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.
  With time the Romans came up with their own styles. Some remarkable ones 
  were: “Incrustation” in which the interior walls of houses were painted to 
  resemble coloured marble. A second style involved painting interiors as open 
  landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals and buildings.
  The Romans learned the art of sculpture from the Greeks. From the knowledge, 
  they were able to create realistic portraits in stone. Much of the Roman art was 
  practical in purpose. It was intended for public education.
  The Roman artists were especially good in creating mosaics. These were 
  pictures or designs made by setting small pieces of stone, glass, or tile onto a 
  surface. Most villas, the country houses of the wealthy, had at least one coloured 
  mosaic. Romans also made good works of painting. Most of the wealthy people 
  had bright, large murals, called frescoes, painted directly on their walls.
  Music
  The society in Rome recognised and appreciated the vital role played by music 
  in life. In the entire empire. They graced both private and public events with 
  music. There was music during nightly dining and in military parades and 
  maneuvers. Romans used a variety of musical instruments in their songs. Some
  of the main ones included; tuba, cornu, aulos, askanles, flute, panpipes, lyre, 
  lute, cithara, timpani, drums, hydraulis and the sistrum.
  Economy
  In Imperial Rome, agriculture was the main economic activity. All else depended 
  on the industry. About 90% of the population engaged in farming. Most people 
  survived on produce from their farms. Additional food stuffs (when needed) 
  and luxury items for the rich were obtained through trade. 
  From the time of Augustus reign, a silver coin called a denarius, was used as 
  a medium of exchange. Existence of a common currency made commercial 
  transactions throughout the empire. The coins often carried the likeness of 
  the emperor or depicted a Roman achievement. A standard system of coinage 
  developed in 269 BCE.
  Transportation when carrying out trade was made easy by the existence of 
  the Mediterranean Sea. Ships from the east travelled along the sea under the 
  protection of the Roman’s navy. Trade made cities on the eastern Coast of the 
  Mediterranean to expand and become rich. Examples of these cities were: 
  Corinth, Ephesus and Antioch.
  Apart from water transport, the empire had a good network of roads. Roads 
  linked various places in the empire. The roads were originally built by the 
  Roman army for military purposes. The most important were the silk roads, 
  named for the overland routes on which silk from China reached the Romans. 
  Other luxury goods also passed through the same routes. There were numerous 
  trade goods which changed hands in the empire.
  Religion
  The earliest Romans worshipped powerful spirits or divine forces, called 
  Mumina. These spirits were thought to reside in everything around them. 
  Closely related to these spirits were the Lares, for each family.
  Interactions with the Greeks and Etruscans made the Romans begin to associate 
  the spirits with human like forms and individual personalities. The spirits now 
  got Roman names and were honoured through rituals. People expected the gods 
  and goddesses to give them favour and ward off misfortunes from their midst.
  In the empire, the state and religion were linked. The deities were symbols of 
  the state. Individuals were expected to honour them in private rituals and in 
  

  their homes. Priests also conducted public worship ceremonies in temples.

  Polytheism or belief in more than one god, thrived in the Roman Empire. Among 
  the most important gods and goddesses were Jupiter (father of the gods), Juno 
  (Jupiter’s wife who supposedly watched over women), Minerva (goddess 
  a wisdom and of the arts and crafts) and Vesta (goddess of home). Emperor 
  worship also came with the creation of the institution.
  It became part and parcel of the state religion of Rome. Priests were appointed 
  to work for the governor. Their religion depended on knowledge and the correct 
  practice of prayer, ritual and sacrifice. They also never placed great emphasis 
  on rewards and punishments after death.
   But unlike the Greeks, the Romans revered their ancestors, their “household 
  gods” included deceased members of a lineage who were worshipped in order 
  to ensure a family’s continued prosperity. 
  Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations were offered 
  to the family deity. The Romans looked on their gods to bestow upon their 
  households, city and empire, with the blessings of prosperity, victory and 
  flexibility. 
  There was religious toleration in the Roman Empire. This witnessed varied 
  religious traditions. People were expected to honour Roman gods and 
  acknowledge the divine spirit of the empire and upon meeting these conditions, 
  they had freedom to observe their other religious practices as they pleased. 
  Sports
  In the ancient city of Rome, there was a place called the campus. Here, Roman 
  soldiers conducted drills. Later the campus became Rome’s track and field 
  playground. Other urban centres in the empire copied the campus in their 
  centres and military settlements. The youth in the urban centres, assembled 
  in the campus to play, exercise and perform inappropriate acts. These acts 
  included: jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing, riding, throwing and swimming. 
  In the rural areas, people also participated in fishing and hunting. Women were 
  prohibited from partaking of these activities.
  There were several ball games which could be found in Ancient Rome. These 
  included: dice (Tesse-rae or tali) Roman Chess (Latrunculi) Roman Checkers 
  (Calculi), tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli) and Ludus duodeeim Scriptorum and Tabula.
  Philosophy
  Roman philosophy heavily borrowed from its Greek predecessor. Two major 
  philosophical schools – Cynism and stoicism – derived from Greek religion and 
  philosophy became prominent in the Roman empire in the 1st and 2nd Century 
  A D. These two philosophies were fairly merged in the early years of the Roman 
  Empire.
  The two philosophies expressed negative views on civilization, something which 
  was reflected in their adherants way of life. Cynicism upheld that civilization 
  was corrupt and people needed to break away from it and its trappings while 
  stoicism, on the other hand, taught that one must surrender all earthly things 
  and assist others.
  Apart from the three philosophical schools we have mentioned above, there was 
  also Epicureanism. The most renowned of its Roman exponents was Lucretius 
  (98-35B C). He expresses the view that everything is a product of mechanical 
  evolution, including human beings and their habits and beliefs. He nonetheless 
  admitted the existence of the gods but saw them as living in eternal peace, 
  neither creating nor governing the universe. 
  Lucretius and Cicero led the other Roman philosophers in advancing Greek 
  thought in the Roman Empire. Their teachings resonated well with the upper 
  classes. Cicero wrote in a rich and elegant Latin prose style that has never been 
  surpassed. His prose became a standard for composition and has been up to 
  today.
  Militarisation
  The Roman society was highly militarised. Citizenship for provincials could 
  be obtained after 25 years of military service. The army doubled as an army 
  corps of engineers. They built roads and other forms of infrastructure such as 
  aqueducts.
  Rome fought mercilessly with its neighbours. It had most of its male population 
  pass through military service. This made it a highly militarized state. Even 
  leaders had to have passed through the military to be accepted to lead. Political 
  career of an individual could only commence after ten years of service in the 
  military.
  The Roman Civilisation spread to all the lands they controlled. This happened 
  through trade and conquest. Its location along the Mediterranean region 
  enabled people to pursue their commercial interests while their military 
  nature, allowed them to register victories in their enemies’ camps. Once they 
  had brought an area to their fold, the Roman administrators helped to spread 
  

  their civilisation in the areas.

  

  Sports
  In sports we owe to the Greeks the Olympic games which are held after every 
  four years. The games are today a global event which attracts teams from 
  various nations in different parts the World.
  Literature
  Greeks pioneered drama as a form of entertainment. They performed plays 
  which explored the struggles made by individuals to free themselves from the 
  imperfections in their characters. The playwrights balanced their tragedies 
  with comedies that poked fun at the important and the disliked. Some of the 
  outstanding playwrights included:
  Aristophanes added his genius by using satire and comedy to make his points 
  about society and politics of the time.
  Hommer believed to have been two people with the name to have written the 
  Iliad and the Odyssey. 
  Sappho brought lyric poetry as a genre. 
  Aeschylusintroduced ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwright 
  

  hence inventing drama.

  Sophocles brought irony as a literacy technique.
  Plato introduced philosophy in literature through his dialogues. 
  Writers valued and preserved much of the knowledge and writings of the past 
  in libraries such as Alexandria, the most famous in the world. 
  Athenians led other Greek city states in literary appreciation. They are famous 
  for their love and appreciation of literature especially poems and plays. The 
  world today has borrowed heavily from their rules and habits for writing, 
  reaching and theatre arts performance. Some of their plays are still being 
  performed in different parts of the World today.
  History
  The Ancient Greeks are credited with developing history as a distinct discipline 
  of study. Prior to this, history was considered to be part of literature. Herodotus 
  constructed a narrative of the Persians wars using critical methods and 
  interpretative framework. Later, Thucydides (460 – 400 B .C) used scientific 
  methods in writing the History of the Peloponnesian war. He used the analytic 
  methods borrowed from science and philosophy in writing the history so as to 
  produce ‘an exact knowledge of the past as an aid to the interpretation of the 
  future.’
  Philosophy
  Philosophy is the study of nature and meaning of the universe and of human life. 
  The Greeks believed in rational explanation for the existence of the universe or 
  wise people. They believed that truth was relative and depended on how one 
  argued his or her case out notwithstanding whether what was at stake was 
  truthful or false.
  The philosophers tried to understand humanity’s relationship to nature, the 
  gods, individual to another and between the individual and the groups of human 
  society. Some of the most renown philosophers of ancient Greece are. Socrates, 
  Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurious. 
  Science and Mathematics
  Greeks made most pronounced legacy in science and mathematics. Various 
  personilities made numerous contributions. A few examples include:
  Aristarchus of Samos living around 200 B.C. discovered that the earth and the 
  other planet revolved around the sun.
  Eratosthenes discovered that the earth is spherical. 
  Euclid around 300 B.C, in his school at Alexandria, borrowed from the 
  ideas of other scientists from Mesopotamia and Greece and developed the 
  basic principles of geometry. Later other Greek mathematicians developed 
  trigonometry. In schools today, students still study Euclid geometry. Euclid also 
  noted that light travels in straight lines and described the law of reflection.
  Archimedes (287 -212 BC). He was a student of Euclid. He developed various 
  laws of physics. His discoveries included: the principle of determining specific 
  gravity and the basic principle of the modern conveyor belt. He is also said to 
  have known the use of the pulley system and the lever and once used them to 
  pull a loaded ship out of the sea and brought it to the beach. Today, there is even 
  a screw pump which bears his name. Archimedes also defined a spiral.
  Hero living in Alexandria, around 100 BC made a long list of inventions some of 
  which includes a fire engine and steam engine. 
  Hippocrates is known today as the father of medicine. He believed that sickness 
  is a result of natural cause and not a product of god’s wrath. He formulated the 
  Hippocratic Oath which outlines the responsibilities of the medical profession 
  up to today.
  Herophilus lived around 200 B.C. He made several discoveries on how the body 
  functions. The main ones were that blood is pumped from the heart through 
  the arteries to other parts of the body, the pulse is vital in revelation of sickness, 
  there exists a relationship between the brains and the nerves and lastly, the 
  brain is divided into many sections, each with its own functions in controlling 
  various parts of the body.
  Thales of Miletus (640 – 610 to 548 – 545 BC ) – He travelled widely and learnt 
  a lot during his travels. Thales brought Phoenician navigational techniques 
  into Miletus. He also revised the calendar, brought Babylonian mathematical 
  knowledge to Greece and used geometry to solve problems such as calculating 
  the height of pyramids and the distances of ships from the shore. Thales studied 
  astronomy in Babylon and came back home and predicted the eclipse of the sun. 
  Pythagoras (569 – 475 B.C). He was a philosopher and mathematician. He 
  studied astronomy and geometry before founding the Pythagorean cult. The 
  cult was devoted to the study of numbers which they saw as concrete. As a 
  mathematician, Pythagoras also investigated the ratios of lengths corresponding 
  to musical harmonies and developed methods of geometric proof. In geometry, 
  he developed the Pythagoras theory or Hypotenuse theorem that is still being 
  

  used today.

  Architecture
  Ancient Greeks excelled in great architectural works. Most of the formulas they 
  invented as early as the 6th Century B.C have informed the world of architecture 
  for the past two millennia. They built temples, theatre and stadiums which are 
  still the envy of the present world. We owe today our theatres and stadium 
  designs to this Ancient civilization.
  Greek architecture still influences many people today. The US Supreme Court 
  design, for example, was influenced by the Parthenon, the Greek temple to the 
  goddess Athena.
  Government and law
  Greeks are credited for introducing and practicing democracy, system of 
  checks and balances in government, equality before the law and active citizen 
  participation in the civic functions of the state. They also brought the issue of 
  political and civil rights which were limited to citizens of a city state. As citizens, 
  people had their duties and responsibilities to the state and fellow citizens 
  clearly spelt out.
  Athens was the first Greek city to set up a democratic government. All free men 
  were members of the government. They passed laws and were allowed to serve 
  on a jury of its 30,000 citizens, 500 were chosen on a yearly basis to run the 
  city. Those chosen were given stipends as token of appreciation for their work. 
  The outstanding Athenian leaders who contributed towards the development 
  of democracy were Solon (early 594 – 508 BC) Pericles (461 – 429 BC) and 
  Alexander the Great (336 – 323 BC).
  Art, music and dance
  Greek art, music and dance have exercised an enormous influence on the 
  culture of the present world. In art they made sculptures and statues of stones 
  marble, limestone and clay. Drinking vessels were made from lumps of gold, 
  silver or bronze, stamped with a geometric design. One of the great sculptors 
  was Phidias who lived during the 400 B.C. 
  He is credited with carving the massive statues of Athena which stood within 
  the Parthenon. He also carved the great statue of the seated Zeus at Olympia, 
  the site of Olympic Games – today listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the 
  World. Other well known sculptors were Praxiteles and Myron who both lived 
  

  in the 300s B.C.

  On music and dance, Greek folk music and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. 
  The Greeks created their art to look natural and realistic. The depictions of 
  nature, humanity and noteworthy events of society were designed to please 
  the public, support civic pride and to reinforce Greek ideals of beauty. 
  The Greeks civilizations as can be seen from these contributions left a rich legacy 
  to the modern world. However, it equally had it flaws. Women and slaves had no 
  political rights. Foreigners were also prohibited from owning land. These made 
  the Greek system to be discriminative by today’s standards.
  Religion
  The Greeks shared a common religion and belief system. They believed in many 
  gods and goddesses. Their belief system was also made up of heroes and myths.
  Greek gods and goddesses had human appearance. They also bore human 
  characteristics and attributes. The deities participated directly in human affairs 
  according to Greek beliefs. In addition, the Greeks believed in oracles to tell the 
  future and to give prophesies.
  Today, religion is common to humanity. It is based on a system of beliefs just 
  as during the Ancient Greek period. Belief in oracles is still practiced in games 
  and sports and many other fields of human endeavour. The belief in existence 
  of gods (or god), life after death, provision of sacrifices and offerings to god, 
  command of divine powers over human life and observance of festivals and 
  rituals in religious life, were evident in the Greek Civilization. We owe these 
  partly to the Greek Civilization.
  Belief in military power of a country
  Sparta was renowned for her military power. She built an army which proved 
  fatal to other Greek city – states and beyond. War was glorified and every effort 
  was made to train boys to serve in the military. Today, all world states have 
  developed their military along almost similar lines. A might of a nation is partly 
  seen through its military capability.
  During training today, like during the Spartan period, body and mind held a 
  central place. The recruits and those in service have their bodies and minds 
  hardened and shaped for war. This is also what took place in Sparta.
  

  

  The saying “all roads lead to Rome” attests to the fact of Rome’s contribution 
  to modern society. They made countless contributions to us in virtually all the 
  fields. Today, we use some of the inventions and innovations. The main ones 
  include:
  Christianity
  Rome allowed Christianity to spread and flourish in her empire. Ideas about the 
  faith spread easily inspite of persecution from some rulers and even citizens. 
  Today, Christianity is one of the major world religions. We owe it partly to some 
  Roman emperors.
  The same can be said on monotheism e.g. emperor Constantine made 
  Christianity legal thus elevating it above other religions. This gave it an upper 
  hand. Rome thus helped spread Christianity to other parts of the world.
  Government
  Representative democracy was reflected in the Roman republican system. 
  Senators represented groups of people thus bringing an element of democracy. 
  The people’s representation injected some checks and balances in the 
  governance process. 
  Power was distributed and not concentrated in one office. This form of 
  government has been emulated by governments in the world today. In a way 
  too, the Roman division of their republic into three branches: the Consuls 
  (who served as judges and army leaders) the Senators (who acted as political 
  advisers) and the Assembly (made up of army members whose role was to 
  approve or reject laws) mirrors the separation of powers found in democratic 
  governments today.
  Like modern democracies, the Romans through their “Twelve Tablets” had 
  something akin to a written constitution. The rules, like today, applied to all 
  citizens alike. They also referred to property, marriage, family, crime, theft and 
  inheritance.
  Architecture
  Architecture is one field in which the Romans made great strides in. Their 
  knowledge and skills have been acquired in the modern world. Their 
  architectural styles were evident in use of improved arches and columns of the 
  Greeks; the rounded domes, sculptures, frescos and mosaics. They also used 
  concrete, mortar and cement. This enabled them to develop some structures 
  which have withstood the test of time such as the pantheon and the colosseum.
  In their architectural work, we are able to witness symbols of their power and 
  creativity in mixing materials and creating masterpieces using new building 
  techniques for visual effect and structure enforcement. 
  These structures were made across rivers, included large networks of 
  underground channels which supplied water to cities and valleys. Later, through 
  the aqueducts, households benefited from indoor plumbing, an efficient sewer 
  system. Central floor heating or hot baths were also spread by the Romans even 
  though they were not inventors.
  Today all the innovations of Romans have made our life easy. Buildings, bridges 
  and harbours and pipeline transport for water are in use in virtually every part 
  of the world. The Roman architectural styles have also been copied in many 
  parts of the world e.g. the US capital building, the Lincoln memorial and most 
  state capitals in the USA.
  Entertainment
  Our idea for mass entertainment came from the Romans. People were 
  entertained in the forum and in the colosseum, Rome’s Amphitheatre which had 
  a capacity of accommodating 60,000 persons. Games were played, sports were 
  held, musical and theatrical performances, public executions and gladiatorial 
  combat performed. The colosseum’s floors also hosted mock naval battles for 
  public watch. Today mass entertainment is a feature of modern humanity.
  Roads
  Roman roads have greatly influenced our modern road construction. Some 
  of these roads are still in use today e.g. via Appia, an old road that connects 
  Rome to Brindisi in southwest Italy. Their highways were straight, plane and 
  resistant to damage. Like today’s highways, these roads use the most direct 
  route to connect cities. In fact, several of the modern roads connecting what 
  were Roman cities have followed routes that were chosen by the Romans.
  Calendar
  The Julian calendar (named after its inventor, Galus Julius “Ceasar”) gave a lot 
  to the modern calendar. (Which was reformed by Pope Gregory 1600 years 
  later). The calendar is still being used the way it was in many Greek Orthodox 
  churches.
  Our modern calendar has retained the names of the months as they were in 
  the Julian calendar. All the months’ names are derived from Latin e.g. January 
  (from “Janus”, god of the beginning of times) February (from “Februa” a Roman 
  festival), March (from “Mars” the god of war), April (from “aspire” meaning 
  “open”, referring to the blossoming of plants in spring), May (from “maia,” 
  goddess of fertility), June (from “Juno”, goddess of women and marriage, hence 
  the expression “June bride”), July (from Julius Ceasar himself), August (from 
  emperor Augustus), September (7th as March was the First month at the time), 
  and, October (8th), November (9th) and December (10th month). The use of 
  

  calendar has remained in today’s society.

  Meal system
  Ancient Romans invented the three-course meal that is popular in the world 
  today. Their meal was made up of starter, main dish and dessert. This tradition 
  was prevalent in the empire. 
  Law
  The modern world has also borrowed a lot from the Roman law. The Justinian 
  Dynasty opened the eyes of the world to the need for legal reform. This had 
  followed the Twelve Tables. But the ascendancy of the Justinian dynasty saw 
  steps being made towards reforming the Roman law. 
  Beginning AD 528, a panel of experts was assembled by the emperor to reform 
  the law. They came up with the codex, an updated collection of the laws. Later, 
  the Digest and the institutes were completed. All these saw the bringing to an 
  end of the legal reforms in AD 534. Together, these writings were called the 
  “Corpus Juris Civilis” the body of civil law”. They have greatly influenced law, 
  first in the western world and secondly, by extension to the whole world. 
  Literature, philosophy and history
  Poetry and use of satire in verse in literature were popular in the Ancient 
  Roman empire. Use of history to achieve nationalistic and patriotic ends was 
  a major feature among Roman historian’s works’ Like today, historians equally 
  criticized aspects of governance or regimes they felt took away the peoples’ 
  liberty. The Romans respected philosophy’s contribution to society. They were 
  guided by Greek philosophical schools. The Romans spread ideas of these 
  philosophies to the areas they controlled.
  Today, the world owes a lot in these three fields to the Romans. Even some of the 
  books they wrote in literature, philosophy and history have been interpreted in 
  other languages and are still being used today.
  Art
  Art was another area where the Romans have left an indelible mark. Uses of 
  realism, idealism and revealing of an individual’s character in a piece of art 
  have their origin in Ancient Rome. Today, art is dominated with these qualities. 
  We can also not forget the idea of beautifying homes with works of art in the 
  modern society. This was also popularized by the Romans. Use of frescoes and 
  mosaic have also their roots in ancient Rome.
  
  Science and mathematics
  This is an area where the world today also owes something from the Romans. 
  Although the Romans generally left scientific research to the Greeks, these were 
  their citizens hence their contributions are treated as Rome’s.
  In Egypt, the Romans left the Hellenistic scientists to exchange their ideas freely. 
  This made scientists like the astronomer – mathematician Ptolemy, to come up 
  with his theory that the earth was the centre of the universe, a mistaken idea 
  that was accepted in the western world for nearly 1,500 years. 
  The Greek doctor Galen made advances in the medical field. He insisted on 
  experiments to prove a conclusion. This medic compiled a medical encyclopaedia 
  which summarized what was known in the field of medicine at the time. This 
  book remained a standard text in the medical profession for more than 1,000 
  years.
  In addition, the Romans, popularized the use of science. They applied geography 
  to make maps, and medical knowledge to help doctors improve public health.
  Currency and trade
  Throughout their reign, the Romans maintained a stable currency and a prosperous international trade. Stability of currency and promotion of international trade are today still vital economic issues.
  
  
  
   
  
  
  
  

  

• UNIT12:CAUSES AND IMPACT OF AMERICAN REVOLUTION

  

  

  A revolution is a fundamental change that sweeps across political, social 
  and economic spheres of life in a given society. A revolution is either gradual 
  (peaceful) or sudden (violent). It occurs in a society not because people want it 
  but due to unbearable circumstances or conditions experienced by the masses.
  Between 1765 and 1774, a revolution broke out in North American colonies 
  as a peaceful political and economic reform movement but later in April 1775 
  embraced a violent approach against London leaders. It had been the same 
  scenario in France French revolutionaries wanted political reform from the 
  Bourbon Monarchy that had ruled France for about 500 years.
  American Revolution of 1776 is recognized as the decline of Modern Times 
  History. It marks the beginning of changes that transformed world evolution 
  during contemporary Epoch. This revolution had been the first to attempt on 
  Absolute Monarchy powers that ruled Europe since the medieval period. 
  Before analysing the causes of the 1776 American Revolution better an overview 
  is made on this part of the world inhabited and ruled up the outbreak of this 
  revolution.
  12.1.1. American settlement
  - Since the 15th century AD (end of the Middle Ages), central and southern 
  America was well known to Europeans through transoceanic voyages 
  discoveries. Christopher Columbus and Amerigo Vespucci reached 
  American coast in 1492 AD. But the rest of the Northern America came 
  to be known after in the 17th century during the European colonisation. 
  This part of America was turned into a settlement and exploitation colony 
  where numerous peoples especially whites from Europe (British, French, 
  Dutch, Spanish, etc.) shared all of its lands.
  ─ The Indians, as the indigenous peoples, lived in the modern Canada;
  ─ The British, numerous, settled along the Northern coast of Atlantic 
  

  ocean in modern United States of America;

  ─ The French occupied Saint Lawrence valley and Louisiana State;
  ─ The Dutch settled for a short time New York;
  ─ The Spanish occupied California, Texas and Florida States;
  ─ The first Black Africans settled America in 1619 where they were 
  used as slaves working on European plantations. Due to this forced 
  labour system, Blacks were scattered from eastern to western coasts 
  of America but most of them settled North and South Carolinas, 
  Virginia, Georgia and Maryland where were working on sugarcane 
  and cotton plantations.
  12.1.2. Creation of the Thirteen North American colonies
  Between 1606 and 1733, the British created in North America thirteen colonies 
  

  depending on the British Crown’s rule.

  

  Those colonies were: Pennsylvania, Massachusetts, Georgia, Virginia, Rhode 
  Island, New Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, Maryland, Connecticut, 
  Delaware, North Carolina and South Carolina.
  Politically and economically, all these colonies had to report to the British 
  crown in London through the British representatives appointed in American 
  and small number of American born local authorities working on behalf of the 
  British.
  

  This situation lasted from the inception of these colonies up 1765 where started 
  peaceful petitions of Americans on the way they were treated on their own 
  land. The harsh rule of the British crown in North America created discontent 
  

  that progressively amounted in a violent revolution of between 1774 and 1776. 

  

  The American Revolution of 1776 broke out during the reign of King George 
  III in England due a number of factors which were economic and political in 
  nature and character.
  12.2.1. Political causes
  The rise of nationalism and liberalism in America in the opening years of 
  18th century: American colonies were not visibly represented in the British 
  administration and British Parliament was in the majority of the British 
  whereas a great number of Americans were so literate and had no participation 
  in political matters.
  The rise of literates’ class and philosophers like Sam Adams and Thomas 
  Jefferson: These ones persuaded all Americans to fight for their freedom
  from the British hands. This determination resulted in American war for 
  independence of 1776.
  Military and financial assistance from France: France sent troops led by 
  General Marquis Delafayette to America with the prime objective of revenging 
  against Britain which from 1756-1763 fought, defeated France and grabbed 
  France colonies of India and Canada. During this assistance, France lost (spent) 
  2000 million French livres as a financial assistance.
  Long distance between Britain and America contributed to the sending of a 
  few British troops in America to put under control all colonies security: This 
  weakness helped a lot American revolutionaries get their independence.
  Taking back of the charter of Massachusetts: This aimed to end American 
  local self-government.
  The effects of Anglo-French war of 1756-63: During this war, France was 
  fighting with Britain over profitable colony of Canada. The war ended with 
  the defeat of France by Britain and taking over Canada. The effect of this was 
  that it weakened Britain financially and encouraged the Americans to revolt 
  against her. Britain also raised taxes to solve financial crisis at home. Americans 
  protested against the tax increment. The role played by revolutionary leaders. 
  The most notable one was George Washington. He organised the minutemen 
  and mobilised foreign support to fight for their independence.
  The character of King George III of England:He came to power in 1760. Unlike 
  the former kings, he wanted to bring American colonies to closer control. In 
  order to achieve this, he introduced a number of harsh laws. He was also so 
  

  rigid that he refused to change the taxation system.

  

  The oppressive rule of the British government: The British leaders such as 
  Greenville, Townshend and Rocking were harsh to the Americans. They did not 
  allow freedoms such as of speech, press and worship. There were no fair trials 
  in courts of law. All these annoyed the Americans.
  The passing of intolerable acts: These included the Stamp Act whereby 
  revenue stamps were put on printed materials and commercial documents like 
  news papers. It was replaced by Townshend Act whereby the British chancellor 
  levied taxes on lead paper, paint, glasses and tea. These were received with 
  negativity by Americans making them to begin a war of independence.
  12.2.2. Economic causes
  Protectionism on American goods imposed by the British King George III:
  This was a strict restriction to Americans for only buying the British-made 
  goods and selling their agricultural products to Britain. This measure prevented 
  Americans from getting new goods from abroad. It resulted in fighting for their 
  trading rights.
  British mint: Any banknotes used in exchange had to bear King George III’s 
  portrait. This hurt more Americans. 
  Financial policy: No American could own land without British Parliament 
  clearance authorization. To own it he had first to submit land request to the 
  British parliament and pay money for that.
  The Boston massacres of 1770: After the Townshend Act, the Americans 
  started shouting and throwing snow and ice to the English troops. The troops 
  responded by firing and killing them at Boston. This is what came to be known 
  as the Boston massacres. It drove the Americans into a war of independence 
  against the British.
  Undemocratic nature of the British leadership: The Americans were not given 
  chance to participate in the politics of their country. This made them inferior. 
  Only the rich were elected to the colonial assemblies as opposed to the poor. 
  This was opposed by the majority hence leading to the revolution.
  Inter-colonial congress at Philadelphia: In 1774, representatives from all 
  colonies met at Philadelphia. It was there where they started preparing for war. 
  They chose George Washington as the leader of the revolution. They trained 
  soldiers known as minutemen and started seeking for assistance from other 
  countries.
  The Boston Tea Party in 1773: This was when the Americans dropped boxes 
  of tea from Britain into water at Port Boston at night. This made the British
  government furious. The government decided to close the Boston harbour. It 
  also punished Americans so as to pay back the tea. This too led to American 
  Revolution.
  Trade monopoly by the British: In America, trade was exclusively done by 
  the British. All European goods imported to the colonies had to pass through 
  England for taxation. The British benefitted while the Americans did not. On 
  top of that, the imports were expensive compared to exports. This exploitation 
  made the Americans to revolt for their independence.
  Other causes were unfair judicial system of Britain and the restriction for 
  colonies to occupy new lands of Ohio and Louisiana.
  12.2.3. Social causes
  ─ The role of political philosophers: These were intellectuals and 
  great thinkers who exposed the wrongs of the British government to 
  the Americans. Philosophers such as Thomas Penn and Patrick Henry 
  inspired and awakened Americans to fight for their independence. 
  They used newspapers such as New York gazette, American Mercury 
  

  and The Boston News-Letter.

  

  Foreign support: The Americans got foreign support from other countries such 
  as France, Germany and Spain. These countries gave Americans military, moral 
  and financial support. This increased the determination of Americans to fight 
  for their independence.
  Religious intolerance: There were religious differences between the 
  Americans and the British. Americans had many religions which were different 
  from the British Anglicans. The British forced Americans to adopt their religion 
  against their will. The protestant religions practiced by the Americans included 
  Lutherans, Puritans, Huguenots and Presbyterians. Americans strongly opposed 
  it thus leading to the revolution.
  To put an end on all of these Intolerable Acts, American colonists headed by Sam 
  Adams later George Washington started fighting in April 1775 by destroying 
  Boston Tea plantation and by dumping into Atlantic Ocean 342 tea sacks 
  downloaded from British trading ships.
  Informed of the situation, the King George III of Britain reacted by sending the 
  British troops to Boston who killed a great number of American colonists on 
  April 19th 1776. This date is known as “Massacres of Boston”.
  However, fighting went on and American feelings grew stronger because the 
  British government seemed unwilling to give in at all (reform its policy on 
  colonies). Finally, on July 4, 1776, representatives of the colonies signed the 
  Declaration of Independence. This increased the king’s anger but the French 
  

  fleet and 6000 troops helped the American colonies win. 

  

  The American Revolution had a great impact on today’s world political, social 
  and economic systems. Let us now look at its effects:
  The revolution led to loss of lives. Many people including soldiers, civilians, 
  Americans, the French and the British died in the war.
  It led to destruction of property such as buildings, roads, bridges and 
  communication lines.
  It led to the inclusion of blacks into Americans citizenship, a privilege which 
  had earlier been denied to them by the British.
  The monopoly of the protestant church was removed and after the revolution. 
  There was freedom of worship among the Americans. It increased religious 
  freedom in all states of America. The citizens were no longer forced to join 
  Protestantism. Many churches came up. Other Americans became Muslims.
  It led to French Revolution due to the effects it had on the French government. 
  For example, there was a financial crisis in France. There was also the spread 
  of revolutionary ideas by the ex-soldiers of the American Revolution such as 
  General Lafayette.
  

  

  Marie-Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette (6 September 
  1757 – 20 May 1834), known in the United States simply as Lafayette, was a French 
  aristocrat and military officer who fought in the American Revolutionary War, 
  commanding American troops in several battles, including the Siege of Yorktown 
  ...
  It led to the granting of independence to the American colonies. At Paris treaty 
  of 1783, the British king recognised the colonies of America to be free, sovereign 
  and independent. The 13 states were now free to join together and become the 
  United States of America.
  There was liberalisation of trade after the American Revolution. The Americans 
  were free to carry out trade without the British monopoly. The British limitations 
  on American trade were removed, allowing the marine merchans to trade freely.
  It created good diplomatic relationship between France and America. This 
  was due to the assistance rendered by the French to the Americans against the 
  British imperialists. France provided Americans with arms and a combat army 
  to serve under George Washington. They also sent a navy that prevented the 
  second British army from escaping from Yorktown in 1871.
  It increased the status of women and subsequent women emancipation. Women 
  now took control of the families and catered for school going children. Men 
  were away fighting for independence. The revolutionary war affected women 
  by placing them in non-traditional roles. As men went off to war, women were 
  left to fill jobs typically fulfilled by men. This in turn changed society by showing 
  the world that women could do what men can do.
  American Revolution increased the status of George Washington for his role in 
  gearing the struggle for independence. During the American Revolution, he led 
  the colonial forces to victory over the British and became a national hero. Its 
  success was attributed to him. He later became the first president of America.
  Other effects included: The creation of a new state; Introduction of a 
  democratic regime or democracy; The 1st American constitution drawing up; 
  Washington, the First USA President’s name, was granted to the capital city of 
  the federal government; Rise of American patriotism; Education improvement; 
  Reinforcement of French prestige and the fall of the British one; Spread of 
  diseases; Decline of British economy; Colonization of Africa; Displacement of 
  people (migration and refugees); New currency (USA Dollar); Improvement 
  of transport in America; Financial crisis in France; Development of strong 
  capitalistic economy in USA; End of trade between Britain and USA; Spread of 
  American culture; Rich people out of the war; Unemployment in America and
  food shortage especially during the course of the struggle for independence. 
  In 1783, a peace treaty was signed, and Britain recognized the thirteen colonies 
  as independent. England did not lose any other colonies, however.
  After the signing of that treaty, as mentioned in the effects above, these colonies 
  tried to organise themselves by making people equal under the law. Besides, they 
  eventually created “a federal Republic that is, a group of separate states, each 
  giving up some governing rights to become united under a central government. 
  Also, under the leadership of George Washington (The 1st President of the 
  United States of America), the Americans after the war drafted a democratic 
  constitution based on the principles of the British.
  The Americans believed in written constitutions and in limiting the powers of 
  government. Besides the federal constitution, all thirteen states had written 
  constitutions that separated legislative, executive and judicial powers and 
  

  included a bill of rights (amendments).

  

• UNIT 13:THE 1789 FRENCH REVOLUTION

  
  
  

  France pursued a monarchical system of government. She was one of the 
  

  dominant powers in Europe. She had enjoyed this status for long. This made 
  

  her the envy of many powers. Her greatest rival was Great Britain. As a country, 
  

  she found herself in great difficulties as shown below:
  

  13.1.1. The Enlightenment period
  

  The age of reason had opened the people’s eyes. In France, where most of the 
  

  philosophers were found, Enlightenment ideas made people to question the 
  

  inequalities of the old regime which still operated on the basis of divine rights 
  

  of kings. The biased treatment by the government of sections of the population 
  

  did not go down well with the majority of the citizens. To them, the favoured 
  

  position of the clergy and nobility went against reason. Therefore, there were 
  

  calls for fair treatment of all classes throughout France.
  

  13.1.2 Colonial wars among European nations
  

  There were increased wars among European countries to acquire colonies in 
  

  different parts of Europe and the Americas. Weak European nations wanted 
  

  to acquire colonies so as to conquer them hence increase their power and 
  

  prestige. Interestingly, on the eve of the French Revolution, Europe was very 
  

  varied. Western Europe was generally more advanced than Eastern Europe. In 
  

  the north, Sweden was the most important power. It controlled Finland and 
  

  some territories in Germany. Denmark in the North was equally powerful. It 
  

  controlled Norway and had a large navy. In Eastern Europe, Russia and the 
  

  Ottoman Empires were the most backward. Russia nursed feelings of territorial 
  

  expansion in the Baltic Sea and Asia. It had, prior to the revolution, allied with
  

  Prussia and Austria to divide Poland among themselves. This was done under a 
  

  Russian ruler, who was a true product of the Enlightenment, Empress Catherine 
  

  II, the Great.
  

  The Turkish (Ottoman) empire held power over the Christian people of southeast Europe (the Serbs, Wallachians, Bulgars, Greeks and others). It also 
  

  controlled Asia Minor and North Africa. Russia wanted lands in this empire. In 
  

  south east Europe, there was the kingdom of Hungary. It controlled modernday republics of Czecholslavia (Moravia and Bohemia), Galicia (today part 
  

  of Poland) Croatia and some territories in Northern Italy. It also controlled 
  

  Belgium. All these territories were controlled by the head of the Hapsburg 
  

  family in what was known as ‘The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation’.
  

  This was a loose grouping of more than 300 states covering modern Germany 
  

  and some areas beyond. Most of these territories, although controlled by 
  

  Germany, were not made up of Germans. Like Russia, it was ruled, by a ‘disciple 
  

  of the Enlightenment’ known as Joseph II when the French Revolution occurred. 
  

  Another powerful empire was Prussia. Like other empires, it had interests of 
  

  colonial acquisition. 
  

  It was interested in territories controlled by Austria and Poland. By the time 
  

  of the French Revolution, Prussia had been under the rule of Fredrick II. He 
  

  died just before the revolution. The powerful European powers even wanted 
  

  territories in Italy, which at this time was still a combination of kingdoms. Spain 
  

  was another great power. It had many colonies in the Newlands. Britain wanted 
  

  these colonies, too. Spain thus formed an alliance with France to keep away 
  

  British advances. 
  

  It, however, fought with Britain from time to time. Portugal was another 
  

  European power. It still had a large colonial empire although it had lost most of 
  

  her colonies to the Dutch. Portugal formed an alliance with Britain to safeguard 
  

  her territorial interests. 
  

  Generally, the period towards the French Revolution came at a time when 
  

  colonial wars among the European states were being experienced. It was 
  

  characterized by war and rivalry.
  

  13.1.3 Political problems in France
  

  France faced numerous problems by the time revolution took place. These 
  

  problems can be traced back to the 17th and early 18th Centuries and some 
  

  even much earlier. The ancient regime had a chaotic legal system. For example, 
  

  in 1789, there still existed 360 different feudal codes of law in different parts 
  

  of the country (there were numerous feudal courts in a town). The government
  

  tried to regulate affairs in over 40,000 townships but things were very slow as 
  

  they were controlled from a central authority – Paris. 
  

  Nearly all powers in national matters were in the hands of the king and his 
  

  personal advisers. The kings were absolute monarchs. They cared less about 
  

  the welfare of the people. The king’s word was law and the state was like his 
  

  personal property. France was thus under an undemocratic and repressive 
  

  regime that cared less about the welfare of the bulk of its population. People 
  

  detested the government but they could do nothing about it. It was just a matter 
  

  of time before they rose up in arms against the regime.
  

  13.1.4. Deterioration in economic conditions
  

  It is estimated that peasants at the time of the revolution were 23 million out 
  

  of a population of 25 million. Most of the peasants were poor and heavily taxed. 
  

  They were thus very discontented and depressed. Most of them lived in the 
  

  rural areas. There were direct taxes on land and households (poll). These were 
  

  collected by government officials. There were also a myriad of indirect taxes. 
  

  The way these taxes were collected was ruthless and inhuman. Many peasants, 
  

  unable to pay, were severely punished. Things were not different for the 
  

  bourgeoisie. Although they mainly lived in towns, they were equally weighed 
  

  down by the heavy taxes. Besides having political grievances, the middle class 
  

  had several economic grievances other than heavy taxation.
  

  The finances of the government during the reign of the King Louis XVI were 
  

  deteriorating. This was of the cost of France’s support to Americans in their 
  

  war of independence (1775–1783). There was extravagance and luxury of the 
  

  court at Versailles which housed the royal family and bad financial management 
  

  made the government expenditure to exceed its income. To address the issue, 
  

  the government resorted to domestic borrowing. It took loans from the nobility, 
  

  the bourgeoisie and the church. The bourgeoisie were unsure whether they 
  

  could get back their money because the government had been bankrupt long 
  

  before 1789. The middle class was further angered by the government’s policy 
  

  to exempt the nobility and the church from taxation.
  

  In the clergy class, the parish priest was just like the peasant. He was poor and 
  

  not entitled to those privileges enjoyed by the higher clergy such as bishops. 
  

  In the army, the same fate befell the ordinary soldier. In a nutshell, before the 
  

  outbreak of the revolution, the French society had serious economic problems 
  

  which made the life of a majority of the population difficult. There was also 
  

  a general economic decline from the 1770s. Later, in 1780 there were bad 
  harvests which made food prices to rise, especially, the bread.
  

  13.1.5. Social problems in France
  

  Many social problems faced the French society before the revolution. 
  

  Segregation in virtually all the fields – government, army and the church were 
  

  the most annoying. There was also abject poverty among the peasant, priests, 
  

  ordinary soldiers and some sections of the middle class. Life to these groups of 
  

  people was very difficult yet the authorities did little to address their problems. 
  

  Poverty brought great hunger, especially in the urban areas. The division of 
  

  people according to classes was another major social issue.
  

  Those who were not favoured felt unwanted. Many were therefore; ready to join 
  

  opposition against the government whenever such an opportunity presented 
  

  itself. 
  

  In spite of these challenges, France, for more than a century, since the early days 
  

  of Louis XIV, had remained the undisputed leader of European civilization. It 
  

  gave Europe its ideas, fashions, language and even its codes of polite behaviour. 
  

  The country enjoyed stability of leadership unmatched by any European 
  

  power; she had a line of kings which with its branches had continued for 800 
  

  years. The country possessed a wealth and a culture far beyond all the other 
  

  European powers.
  

  The success of the American Revolution encouraged French people who wanted 
  

  far-reaching changes in their own nation. Discontent there had been growing 
  

  for a long time.
  

  In fact, France was under the Monarchy that had reigned for over 500 years. 
  

  Monarchs right from Louis XIV to XVI were despotic and French society was 
  

  still divided along feudal lines where inequality might breed discontent.
  

  This was one of the greatest revolutions witnessed in the history of humanity. 
  

  It had ramifications in virtually all sectors of life. Its causes were as varied as 
  

  its consequences.
  

  Its aims were crystallized after it had brought change in the society. This was 
  brought out in the triple watchword of “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”
  
  
  

  The French revolution had both long and short-term causes. Its origins are said 
  

  to have stretched back into the 17th and 18th Centuries.
  

  The outstanding causes were as follows:
  

  The poor political existing government: It had very poor practices. The 
  

  government agenda ran systems that were so chaotic in virtually all areas. It 
  

  closed its doors to political reform, which was taking place in other parts of 
  

  Europe, especially Britain. The king enjoyed absolute power and cared less 
  

  about what took place among the population. Common citizens had no say 
  

  or share in the government. The peasants were underprivileged while the 
  

  educated were unhappy with their exclusion from official position at the head 
  

  of the army, the navy and the diplomatic service.
  

  The influence of the philosophers: The ideas of the philosophers of the 
  

  Enlightenment period had great influence over the middle class and other 
  

  people of the French society. Ideas of key outstanding personalities such as 
  

  Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and Rousseau had a strong impact on the people. 
  

  According to the people, it was time such great ideas were put in practice. This 
  

  was part of the causes of the French revolution.
  

  Example of the American Revolution: America provided a practical example 
  

  of how a revolution could be organized and its benefits. The French rulers 
  

  had supported the Americans against their masters, the British. She did this 
  

  to revenge her loss of colonies in Canada and India to the British during the 
  

  seven-year war (1756–1763). 
  

  When Americans won, the French rulers were happy about the victory. Little 
  

  did they know that it could influence a revolution in France. French soldiers 
  

  who participated in the war were influenced by oppressive democratic ideas. 
  

  They reflected on why the Americans rose up in arms against the British. It 
  

  dawned on them that the conditions back in France were worse and equally
  

  oppressive. Americans rose against heavy taxation, yet the French were also 
  

  heavily taxed by the government.
  

  Bankruptcy of the French government: The French government, as we have 
  

  already observed, had been bankrupt for many years before the revolution. 
  

  This was caused by the luxurious lifestyle of the kings and members of the royal 
  

  family. Exemption of the nobility, higher clergy and -the church from taxation 
  

  led to loss of Canada and India to Britain. French involvement in the American 
  

  War of Independence also contributed to its bankruptcy. All these forced the 
  

  government to live on debts, which were a costly affair altogether. The bankrupt 
  

  government could not provide essential services to its citizens. 
  

  The bankruptcy made successive government ministers for finance to 
  

  advise on taxing the exempted groups: This was first never supported by 
  

  the king (due to opposition from the groups concerned) but the worsening 
  

  economic conditions, made the king to accept the idea in May 1789. To enforce 
  

  the recommendation, a meeting of the estates-general was to be summoned. It 
  

  was this meeting that began a revolution. The third class had to be handled well 
  

  for things to move according to plan. This meant removing some of the burden 
  

  of taxation from their shoulders and putting it onto into those of the first and 
  

  second classes. This was not to be.
  

  Character of King Louis XVI: Louis XVI was weak and indecisive. His personality 
  contributed to the revolution. Louis XVI was inconsistent in his actions.
  
  

  At every stage in the revolution he encouraged reform and then drew back. 
  

  This was dangerous and things were made worse because he was influenced 
  

  by his wife, Marie Antoinette. Being an Austrian, she was viewed with contempt 
  

  because it was the French alliance with Austria which made France to fight in 
  

  the seven-year war, which led to the loss of Canada and India. Marie Antoinette 
  

  had partly contributed to the people’s hatred of her. She was ignorant of the 
  

  need for reform and was unsympathetic to her people’s situation at the time. 
  

  The queen is said to have misadvised the king into making unpopular decisions.
  

  Inflation: There was high inflation which led to increase in the price of various 
  

  goods. 
  

  However, the rise in prices did not have a corresponding increase in salaries. 
  

  The result was widespread poverty among the peasants.
  

  Bad weather of 1788: Climate equally contributed to the revolution. There 
  

  was bad weather in 1788 which ruined the harvest. This eventually raised 
  

  the prices of maize, bread and other foodstuff, bringing about widespread 
  

  starvation. There also followed a severe winter in early 1789, which besides 
  

  the unbearable cold conditions froze all rivers and ports in the country.
  

  The result was even greater distress. Coupled with a treaty France had signed 
  

  with Britain in 1786, which allowed cheap British manufactured goods into 
  

  France in return for corresponding concessions on French wine, there was 
  

  much suffering in the society. Unemployment increased and people moved to 
  

  towns, hoping to get better conditions. These people brought into being the 
  

  characteristic Paris mob of the revolution – idle, desperate, ready to cheer on 
  

  the most extreme measures and destined to sway the fortunes of events on 
  

  several vital occasions.
  

  All these factors jointly contributed to the breakout of the revolution in 1780. 
  

  The process began with the king’s, summoning of the Estates-General meeting 
  

  on 5 May 1789.
  

  13.2.1. The course of the 1789 French Revolution
  

   13.2.1.1. The calling of the Estates General Meeting
  

  It was the first major event in the course of a revolution. It was called upon 
  

  the advice of the financial minister Necker to discuss the social, economic and 
  

  political issues of France whereby people were to present a list of grievances
  (Cahiers des doléances).
  

  These grievances included: lack of a constitution and an elected assembly, need 
  

  to reduce the burdens of taxation, insuring the freedom of press, abolition of 
  

  feudal dues and feudal courts as well as the notorious Lettres de Cachet, ending 
  

  the privileges and exemptions of the clergy and nobles, promotion on merit in 
  

  army and education, confiscation of the Church’s properties.
  

  The point to note is that the grievances of the first and second classes were 
  

  contracting with each other but those of the third Estate were uniform. What is 
  

  important however was that none of the three groups wanted to do away with 
  

  the monarchy but wanted the King’s despotic powers reduced.
  

  When bitter disagreements increased it led to the third Estate to declare itself 
  

  National Assembly under Honoré Gabriel Riquet, Comte de Mirabeau and 
  

  even called upon the clergy and noble to join him.
  

  Significances of the event
  

  It marked the beginning of the French Revolution. This was after the Third 
  

  Estates had declared itself the National Assembly. At this point in time, the 
  

  French revolutionaries got a firm ground to begin to challenge the position and 
  

  powers of the Ancient regime.
  

  It showed weakness of the King Louis XVI. It should be noted that, he failed to 
  

  control the three Estates after disagreements that had risen over the sitting 
  

  arrangement and voting procedure. More weaknesses were shown by Louis 
  

  XVI when he ordered the nobles and the clergy to join the National assembly 
  

  which was established by the members of the Third class.
  

  It showed unity of the Third class members. In fact, it was on May 5th, 1789, when 
  

  King Louis XVI exposed his weakness. On this day, the Third Estate members 
  

  exhibited their unity during the time they were taking the Tennis Court Oath 
  

  on June 20, 1789. On the other hand, the members of the lesser nobility and 
  

  lower clergy showed their disunity to the public when they decided to join the 
  

  National Assembly.
  

  It started the beginning of Parliamentary democracy because for about 175 
  

  years, the Estates General Meeting had never sat, and it just resurrected on 5th
  

  May 1789.
  

  The French Parliament which had passed about 175 years without functioning 
  

  was resurrected. In fact, it was from May 5, 1789 that the National Assembly 
  could regularly meet and discuss different issues that affected France.
  

  It led a foundation stone for the members of the Third Estate to start demanding 
  

  their rights. It was not due to the Estates Meeting, the members of the Third 
  

  class would not have got a chance of forwarding their grievances. 
  

  13.2.1.2. The Tennis Court Oath of June 1789
  

  The King decided to call a meeting of all three classes and for this purpose it 
  

  was necessary to clean the hall. Without any notice, the Third class workers 
  

  closed the hall and then the delegates arrived they were shocked at finding 
  

  the hall closed. With no alternative left, the Third class members proceeded to 
  

  the Tennis court and they took an oath: “Never dissolve until France gets a new 
  Constitution.”
  
  

  On June 20, 1789, in response to a financial crisis in France, representatives of 
  

  the common people gathered at a tennis court at Versailles after the king had 
  

  deprived them of their usual meeting place. They swore not to disband until 
  

  they had drawn up a new constitution, an event known as the Tennis Court 
  

  Oath.
  

  Significance of the event
  

  It showed a deliberate act by the King to deny the Third Estate a chance to use 
  the Hall. It gave them the strength to struggle against the Ancient regime.
  

  13.2.3. The Royal session of 23rd June 1789
  

  The Royal session wall was called on 23rd June 1789 and at this time the King 
  

  had realized the possibility of trouble and was very sad, because the Third class 
  

  refused to follow his orders. In his speech, he announced a number of reforms, 
  

  but made one mistake of ordering the Third class to separate with other classes. 
  

  He also declared that it was illegal for the Third class to call itself the National 
  

  Assembly.
  

   After the King left the Hall with the First and the Second classes’ delegates, the 
  

  Third class’ members seated and when the King ordered through his messenger 
  

  that they should leave the Hall, Mirabeau, the leader of National Assembly 
  

  replied: “Go and tell your Master that we are here by the will of the people, and 
  

  we shall not leave until the point of bayonets.”
  

  Significance of the events
  

  ─ It marked the first victory of the 3rd class members because on 27th
  

  June 1789, the king accepted that the nobles and the clergy should be 
  

  joined to the 3rd class members in constitution making.
  

  ─ The meeting partly marked the end of dictatorship in France.
  

  13.2.4. The Storming of the Bastille on July 14th 1789
  

  Bastille acted as a symbol of despotism of the French aristocracy. It was a 
  

  highest prison of all victims arrested under the king’s royal chits (Lettre-deCachet) following the dismissal of Jacques Necker on 11th July 1789 from being 
  

  a financial controller. The people realized that the king had followed the Queen’s 
  

  advice as usually.
  

  The invaded the French great military depot and hospital at Les invalids where 
  

  they seized arms on the morning of 14th July 1789 and moved on Fortress prison 
  

  of Paris Bastille which was known to contain large quantities of gunpowder. 
  They fought with the guards and forced the prison official to surrender.
  
  

  On July 14, 1789 an angry mob, tired of the oppressive brutality of the French 
  

  monarchy, captured the Bastille, the royal prison in Paris.
  

  Significance of the events
  

  July 14, 1789 became a memorable liberation day in France. This was the day 
  

  on which Bastilles Prison was stormed by the revolutionaries. Besides, up to 
  

  now the 14th July every year is a National day in France and is a public holiday.
  

  After the fall of Bastilles Prison, the Royalist Flag which was white was removed 
  

  and replaced by the tricolour flag of Blue, White and Red. This signified that the 
  

  Ancient regime had begun to experience its downfall and the French revolution 
  

  was swiftly taking control over the French political situation. 
  

  The Royal Guards were replaced by the National Guards after the fall of Bastilles 
  

  Prison under the command of General Marquis de Lafayette. These troops had 
  

  the duty of safeguarding the French revolution and all its successes.
  

  It forced many unsatisfied nobles and clergy into exile in Austria, Russia and 
  

  England and these were later called Emigrés.
  

  Prisoners were released and most of them were detained under the infamous 
  

  law of “Lettre-de cachet”. Immediately after being released, they began killing 
  

  nobles and the clergy.
  

  The revolutionaries formed a new government based at Paris. King Louis was 
  

  simply left in control of Versailles alone. It marked the collapse of dictatorship 
  

  and other forms of torture in the French society. 
  

  13.2.5. The Session of the 4th August 1789
  

  The abolition of feudalism came on the 4th August 1789 when the Assembly 
  

  met at Versailles with the king. The Assembly enacted a decree of abolition of 
  

  feudalism, peasant’s land-lord relationship. Thus, feudal dues and feudal course 
  

  were abolished. The inequality of all classes on taxation was inaugurated or 
  introduced. But the king refused to sign a document denouncing feudalism.
  
  

  French citizens cheer as members of the National Assembly announce the 
  

  decision to abolish the privileges of the nobility. Before the night of August 4, 
  

  1789, was over, the assembly had abolished the feudal system in France.
  

  Significance of the event
  

  Feudal coasts where peasants who had misunderstanding with their land-lord 
  

  were judged from were abolished.
  

  The notorious titles and all laws that oppressed the peasants were abolished;
  

  Lettres-de-Cashet was all abolished.
  

  The meeting marked the destruction of the old order of the Ancient regime.
  

  13.2.6. The declaration of rights of man
  

  After the abolition of feudalism, the National Assembly took the name of the 
  

  Constituent Assembly and was in position to make a Constitution under the 
  

  guidance of Lafeyette. The first Framework of the French Constitution contained 
  

  the declaration of Human Rights as it is introduction and it was formula on the 
  

  model of U.S.A.
  

  The main point of the Constitution was the declaration of the rights of man 
  

  and citizens. It contained such phrases like equality of man before law, liberty, 
  

  and fraternity, freedom of speech, expression and worship. The revolution of 
  

  masses against injustice was a holy duty.
  

  But they made a mistake of leaving the king with too many powers to veto 
  

  (refuse) what had been passed by National Assembly, which powers he used to 
  

  refuse to sign the declaration of rights of man and the decree of the 4th August 
  

  1789, which led to the march of women.
  

  Significance of the event
  

  The declaration of rights of man and citizens brought equality of all men before 
  

  the law in France. No more privileges were to be granted to anybody because of 
  

  the accident of birth right or social status.
  

  The rights that were announced laid a foundation stone for fundamental human 
  

  rights and freedom wide world. It is this context that the 16th article of UNO 
  

  charter about the fundamental rights of man and citizens was extracted from 
  

  the document of August 27, 1789 declaration.
  

  It elevated the status of France in Europe. In fact, France became the point of 
  

  reference as far as the liberation of human race was concerned in Europe and 
  

  beyond. 
  

  The French masses got a chance of participating fully in formulating State 
  

  policies through democratic elections and parliamentary deliberations and 
  

  debates. They also got universal right to vote.
  

  13.2.7. The march of women to Versailles on 5th October 1789
  

  The king’s refusal to sign the decree of 4th August 1789 and the Declaration of 
  

  rights of man plus increased of price of bread and a mobilization from Austria 
  

  led to the march of women whose cries would be the most heard.
  

   On the 5th October 1789, a huge group of women followed by men dressed as 
  

  women began their move from Paris to Versailles aiming at the king reducing 
  

  the price of bread.
  

   When the king was called from his daily game (hunting), he was surprised and 
  

  promised special food for the people of Paris and agreed to sign the Declaration 
  

  of right of man as well as the decree of 4th August 1789.
  

  Significance of the event
  

  This event signified that everybody in France was concerned about the 1789 
  

  French Revolution. Before, women had played an active role, but this round 
  

  they became part of it.
  

  King Louis XVI was compelled to accept and sign the declaration of the rights 
  

  of man and citizens.
  

  The National Assembly was transferred from Versailles to Paris. Versailles 
  

  which had been the strong hold of the Bourbon Monarchy lost its importance 
  

  in favor of Paris that was the bleeding ground and centre of the 1789 French 
  

  Revolution.
  

  King Louis XVI was forced to promise special food relief to the masses. At the 
  

  same time, he also accepted to reduce the price of bread.
  

  It was a great humiliation to the royal family as they were moved from Versailles 
  

  to Paris following day, 6th October 1789.
  

  13.2.8. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
  

  The Assembly went on in its determination to change the position of the Church 
  

  in France. The Pius VI in Rome was not to have any power in Church affairs in 
  

  France. All Bishops and Priests became servants of the State and salaries of the 
  

  High clergy were reduced while those of lower clergy were increased.
  

  Significance of the events
  

  It ends the privileges of the Church in France. Politically, the Pope’s influence in 
  

  France was reduced. The clergy members who refused the above were either 
  

  killed or forced into exile.
  

  13.2.9. The King’s flight to Varennes of 22nd June 1791
  

  As the revolutionary changes increased and became so violent, the king got 
  

  afraid and decided to escape from the country to save himself and his family by
  

  fleeing to Austria in order to join other Emigrés. Unfortunately, the king and his 
  

  wife were identified to Varennes few miles to the French – Austria border and 
  

  brought back to Paris. It was a worst experience for the royal family; they were 
  

  abused, mocked and spat by the mob through each opening.
  
  
  On June 20, 1791, King Louis XVI attempted to escape revolutionary France and 
  flee in disguise with his family to Austria. However, he was caught at Varennes 
  and returned to Paris. Two years later he was executed. 
  Significance of the event
  The flight gave to the new favor of republicanism because King Louis XVI was 
  looked at as a traitor. Many people felt that it was no longer necessary to trust 
  the king with all the powers of the State.
  The revolution was led by the extremists like the Jacobins who led to the Reign 
  of Terror. Other European countries like Austria, Britain and Prussia became 
  scared by event in France and began preparing for the war against the French 
  Revolution.
  13.2.10. The new Constitution of September 1791
  The new constitution was completed by the National Assembly in September 
  1791. According to it, the Assembly was to consist of 745 members and they 
  adopted a system of indirect voting where all men over 25 years paid a tax
  equivalent to a three days work pay and became active citizens. France was 
  divided into Districts which were later divided into Communes. This Constitution 
  made France a Constitutional monarchy, with a monarchy with power limited 
  by written law.
  Still people could not agree over the aims of the Revolution. Once again, 
  they began to fight over control of the government. In 1792 they abolished 
  the monarchy. The following year, in 1793, they executed King Louis XVI by 
  

  guillotine.

  

  During the French Revolution (1789-1799), King Louis XVI of France was tried 
  treated as a traitor and condemned to death. His execution by guillotine, which 
  took place in a crowded plaza in Paris, was a public spectacle. 
  13.2.11. The Reign of Terror 1792-1794 
  In 1793 a new constitution was written. But it was never used. A special 
  revolutionary tribunal, or committee, led by Maximilien de Robespierre took 
  over control of the government. This tribunal began to execute nobles and 
  

  anyone else suspected of being against the Revolution.

  

  Maximilien Robespierre was one of the most controversial figures in the French 
  Revolution. In the cause of fostering democracy, Robespierre helped bring 
  about the Reign of Terror, in which thousands were executed by the guillotine. 
  He eventually met the same fate.
  The wave of killing came to be known as the “Reign of Terror”. Because of it, 
  many people began to oppose Robespierre. In 1794, the leaders who hoped to 
  restore order to the government had Robespierre executed.
  Causes of the reign of Terror
  The death of Mirabeau in April 1791: It is said that if Mirabeau had lived 
  beyond 1791, he would have cooled the violent tempers of the extreme 
  revolutionaries. His death carried the last rags of the ancient regime because he 
  was replaced by extremists like Robespierre who planned the Reign of Terror.
  The resistance of Nobles and Clergy to surrender their privileges: The Nobles 
  and Clergy who refused to surrender their privileges after the March of women 
  

  were intimidated by the revolutionaries, hence the Reign of Terror.

  The threats of Emigrés led to the Reign of Terror: The Emigrés abroad were 
  busy organizing a counter revolution and they had internal collaborators 
  in France, and the Reign of Terror was organized to eliminate these internal 
  collaborators.
  The role of the Paris mob: Economic hardships (problems) in villages forced 
  people to move from villages to towns, and this led to the formation of the Paris 
  mob which was a group of desperate people who were used by Robespierre in 
  the reign of Terror.
  The role of political parties: There were different political parties which were 
  struggling to eliminate their rival parties and they resorted to the politics of 
  killing their rival party leaders like the killing of Danton.
  The foreign invasion: The European countries organized coalition against 
  France, and they invaded and defeated the French troops, and the revolutionary 
  government in France passed the law of suspect, which was extravagantly 
  applied, and whoever was quilt of lack of interest in the revolution was killed in 
  the Reign of Terror.
  The worship of reason of Herbert: By 1793, Herbert and his followers began to 
  worship of reason which led to religious terror where the clergy that protested 
  against the worship of reason and civil Constitution of the clergy were either 
  imprisoned or killed.
  The weakness of King Louis XVI: The king had refused to sign the reforms 
  proposed by the revolutionaries, refused to sign declaration of rights of man, 
  decree of 4th August and expelled Necker. These acts led to the violence during 
  the storming of the Bastilles and March of women.
  The King’s association with Emigrés: The King’s attempt to escape cost all 
  the sympathy that people had to him and this was worsened when they found 
  papers showing the association with Emigrés, indicating that he was a traitor, 
  which led to his execution on Sunday, January 21,1793 and his wife on October 
  16,1793;
  The economic crisis: The economic terror was used to eliminate the 
  businessmen who were hoarding commodities creating economic crisis.
  The Reign of Terror made Robespierre very unpopular and Frenchmen decided 
  to kill him on 28th July 1794, where he was imprisoned and later escaped but he 
  was re-arrested and was killed as criminal. This marked the end of the Reign of 
  

  Terror and a new government was voted and the third Constitution was written. 

  The new government was called the Directory Government and was headed by 
  Five Directors, ruled in France from 1795 to 1799.
  Effects of the Reign of Terror
  It led to the massive loss of lives where above 17 000 people were killed;
  There was destruction of property like building and communication lines;
  There was general economic decline which came as result of unstable political 
  atmosphere which led to unemployment, starvation, inflation etc.;
  It created the fear of being killed by the Paris mob that forced many nobles and 
  clergy to go to exile;
  It caused the downfall of the political parties after the death of Robespierre and 
  led to the formation of the Directory Government in 1795;
  It led to the collapse of the bourbon monarchy which gave chance to France to 
  become a Republic;
  It restored order in France by helping to fight the first coalition that was 
  organized against France;
  It made dictators of the European countries to be more conservative in order 
  to safeguard themselves from the terrorist acts of the France. For instance, Pits, 
  the Prime Minister of Britain expelled the characters that were suspected and 
  passed out the law of treason.
  It paved way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte because it led to the scarcity of 
  army officers giving chance to Napoleon to be quickly promoted.
  It brought war between France and her neighboring countries like Russia, 
  Austria, Russia and England because of they were scared of massive loss of lives 
  and mistreatment of King Louis XVI which would teach a lesson to their people.
  13.2.12. Directory Government, 1795 – 1799
  This was a conservative middle class oriented Government that ruled France 
  from 1795 to 1799. Administration was in the hands of five (5) Directors, each 
  Director rules for one year. The Directors were assisted by a Council of 500 who 
  were persons of age above 30 years and a Council of 250 parsons over 45 years. 
  

  These Councils were responsible for marking and amending the Constitution.

  Problems faced by the Directory Government in France
  The Directory Government that took over the power in France after Reign of 
  Terror had inherited many problems as the following:
  There was a problem of irreligiousness where the French people showed no 
  respect for the Catholic religion.
  There was a confusion situation where people refused to do their activities 
  because of terrorism.
  There was a problem of the hostile Catholic Church that had not yet forgiven 
  the State because of the civil Constitution of the clergy.
  There was a problem of hostile neighboring countries which formed a coalition 
  against France.
  It inherited a situation where the Emigrés abroad were planning a counterrevolution.
  There was a problem of the members of the ancient regime who resurfaced 
  after the Reign of Terror.
  There was a problem of poor poverty characterized by poor agricultural 
  production, stagnant commercial activities and poor communication network.
  There was a problem of financial crisis that had characterized France since the 
  time of King Louis XVI. There was a problem of inflation, which was persistent, 
  increase in the price at general level.
  The Directory Government found there a weak, inexperienced and disorganized 
  army.
  Achievements of the Directory Government
  Although the problems faced, the Directory Government had succeeded to 
  achieve by the following facts:
  It upheld the principle of Parliamentary democracy by creating councils of 
  people which were responsible for marking and amending the Constitution.
  It increased the French military capacity by re-organizing and re-equipping the 
  French army to a very high level of military efficiency with men of rare talents 
  

  like Napoleon Bonaparte.

  It managed to defeat the coalition of Britain, Holland, Prussia and Austria that 
  had been formed against France.
  It brought to an end the Reign of Terror as it banned the Jacobins Party, the 
  masterminded the Reign of Terror.
  It restored Constitutional rule by safeguarding people’s freedoms and rights 
  throughout the 5 years that it was in power.
  It expanded the boundaries of France after the Italian campaign of 1796 – 1797 
  when the French troops defeated Austria in Italy and took some Italian States.
  It destroyed internal opposition as in 1795 when it crushed the Royalist violent 
  demonstrators and the plot organized by François Babeuf.
  It kept alive the spirit of the French Revolution and succeeded in spreading 
  the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity beyond the French 
  borders like in Italy and Germany.
  It started various reforms like centralized system of administration, codification 
  of the French laws and education reforms which were completed by Napoleon 
  Bonaparte.
  It preserved the French Republic established by Directory Government in 1793.
  Weaknesses and failures of the Directory Government
  By 1799, the Directory Government started to show the signs of its weakness 
  despite its success and it gave chance to Napoleon Bonaparte to take over the 
  power as explained below:
  It went against democratic rights by making tax qualification as criteria for one 
  to vote, which denied poor peasants the right to vote.
  It lacked confidence as it over-relied on Napoleon in suppressing internal 
  revolts which increasing Napoleon’s popularity thus made it possible for him 
  to stage a coup d’état in 1799.
  It was characterized by corruption and embezzlement of public funds; it 
  overprinted the currency leading to the inflation, unemployment and famine.
  It failed to reconcile the Catholic Church and the State because the Government 
  encouraged the worship of reason and changed the calendar to contain the 
  

  names of revolutionary events and leaders than of Saints and Jesus Christ.

  It failed to coordinate its Directors and the Legislative Councils reason why 
  some joined Napoleon and they overthrew the Government.
  It failed to defeat the Britain troops during Egyptian Campaign due to the failure 
  of its foreign policy.
  It failed to improve the agricultural and industrial production levels which 
  remained poor being disappointed during the Directory regime.
  It became unpopular due to the return of the Emigrés from the exile and the 
  release of the political prisoners.
  It failed to stamp out all the elements of socialism in France planted by a political 
  club known as “The society of Pantheon” or “The society of equals” started by 
  Francois Babeuf.
  It paved way to Napoleon Bonaparte to rise to power in 1799 who later became 
  the dictator in France with his ambition to become the European Emperor.
  13.2.13. France under Napoleon Bonaparte
  Historical background of Napoleon Bonaparte 
  Napoleon I (1769-1821), was emperor of the French, whose imperial 
  dictatorship ended the French Revolution (1789-1799) while consolidating the 
  reforms it had brought about. One of the greatest military commanders of all 
  

  time, he conquered much of Europe.

  

  Napoleon Bonaparte was the greatest military genius of the 19th century. He 
  conquered most of Western Europe and Egypt for France, while instituting
  reforms in these new territories aimed at guaranteeing civil liberties and 
  improving the quality of life. He crowned himself emperor of France in 1804 
  and introduced reforms intended to unify the revolution-fractured nation. 
  Many of Napoleon’s reforms are still in effect today.
  Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, Corsica, and was given the 
  name Napoleon (in French his name became Napoleon Bonaparte). He was the 
  second of eight children of Carlo (Charles) Buonaparte and Letizia Ramolino 
  Buonaparte, both of the Corsican-Italian gentry. No Bonaparte had ever been 
  a professional soldier. 
  Carlo Bonaparte was a lawyer who had fought for Corsican independence, 
  but after the French occupied the island in 1768, he served as a prosecutor 
  and judge and entered the French aristocracy as a count. Through his father’s 
  influence, Napoleon was educated at the expense of King Louis XVI, at Brienne 
  and the École Militaire, in Paris. Napoleon graduated in 1785, at the age of 16, 
  and joined the artillery as a second lieutenant.
  However, Napoleon’s family background made life difficult for him at school, 
  where he was isolated and lacked good relationship with children from rich 
  family background. He had a miserable life but he did well in mathematics 
  and military science. When he was given permission to go home in 1791, he 
  overstayed and on return to Paris he found out that he had been dismissed. But 
  due to poor artillery officers, Napoleon was called back in the army and became 
  a Lieutenant Colonel.
  In 1795, Napoleon Bonaparte saved the Directory Government from Royalists’ 
  uprising and he was promoted to Brigadier General and married with Josephine 
  de Beauharnais, a daughter of Barras who was the first Director of the Directory 
  Government. 
  By 1797, the Directory Government sent him to Egyptian campaign and thought 
  that he could die there. But while he was there he learnt about the collapse 
  of Directory Government. He returned to Paris where he was welcomed with 
  open hands and organized a coup d’état, known as”The Coup d’état of Brumaire” 
  against the Directory Government with assistance of Abbey Sieyes, Roger Duccus 
  and Barras. He became the leader of France on November 9th, 1799 as the First 
  Consul and opened the new regime of Consulate in France. In 1800, through 
  a referendum he was granted a 10 years term of office, but later in 1804 he 
  

  confirmed himself the life Emperor of France.

  Factors of the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power
  Different factors have contributed to the rise of Napoleon to power included 
  the following:
  The French Revolution stopped discrimination of social class and offered 
  opportunities to talented men like Napoleon, which made him to be quickly 
  promoted in the army, hence his rise to power. 
  The annexation of Corsica Island by France from Italy in 1768, a year before 
  napoleon’s birth by France made him a Frenchmen by birth.
  The exile and death of many officials as a result of French Revolution gave 
  chance to Napoleon to control the army during the Reign of Terror.
  Napoleon used revolutionary ideas of fraternity, liberty and equality. These 
  helped him to build his popularity hence his rise to power.
  Napoleon’s military and political abilities helped him to rise to power. In fact, it 
  was his ability as soldier that he was assigned tasks in campaigns, which made 
  him popular among the French, and was able to rise to power.
  The role played by his brother Lucien Bonaparte who was the president of a 
  Council of 500 members during the Directory Government.
  Napoleon’s marriage to Josephine made him popular among the French. 
  Josephine was a daughter of a principal Director while Napoleon was from a 
  peasant family background. 
  The weaknesses and the failures of the Directory Government created a political 
  vacuum and gave opportunity to a liberator like Napoleon Bonaparte. Actually, 
  the Directory Government was characterized by corruption, embezzlement 
  of funds, financial crisis, unemployment, inflation, famine, devaluation of the 
  currency and over-relying on Napoleon. This situation gave chance to Napoleon 
  to organize a successful coup d’état.
  The success of the famous coup d’état of Brumaire made by Napoleon on 
  

  November 9, 1799 was for Napoleon an opened door to the power in France.

  

  In the coup d’etat of November 9-10, 1799, Napoleon and his colleagues 
  seized power and established a new regime in France—the Consulate. Under 
  its constitution Napoleon, as first consul, had almost dictatorial powers. The 
  constitution was revised in 1802 to make Napoleon consul for life and in 1804 
  to make him emperor
  Napoleon I came to power in France through the 1799 Brumaire coup d’état 
  and ruled up to 1814. 
  In order to consolidate his power in France, he adopted the following 
  policies:
  He declared himself the first Consul on February 1800 with considerable powers 
  of appointment of officials in the army, civil service and local government.
  He abolished the old constitution in 1799 and introduced a new one that 
  

  favored his interests.

  He over centralized powers in his hands and by this policy he dismissed his two 
  colleagues Abbey Sieyes and Ducus Roger who seemed strong.
  He introduced domestic reforms like in education, agriculture and public works 
  among others which won him popularity among the Frenchmen.
  He used his relatives to govern different parts of the empire such as Louis 
  Bonaparte in Holland, Jérôme Bonaparte in Spain and Joseph Bonaparte in 
  Naples among others.
  He allowed the political exiles back to France and in so doing he reduced on the 
  external revolts.
  He built a very strong and powerful army with the major purpose to fight and 
  protected France and her people.
  He put a strict censorship on press whereby he reduced the number of 
  newspapers published in France which kept Public opinion under his control 
  and the masses ignorant.
  He used diplomacy in defeating wars like diplomatic League of Armed Neutrality 
  with Sweden, Denmark, Prussia and Russia which pleased the French who in 
  return supported his regime.
  He kept his army occupied with wars without getting bored which minimized 
  the chances of military insurgences that would have undermined his powers.
  He restricted the teaching of liberal subjects like history, philosophy, literature 
  and political science which he considered as threat to his political career.
  His successful foreign victories like the defeat of the second coalition of Austria, 
  Britain, Prussia and Russia in 1800, won Napoleon great respect especially 
  from the glory seekers who later supported his foreign policies.
  He tolerated the former enemies of French Revolution and avoided revenge 
  against them which reduced the strength of opposition especially from the 
  Royalists.
  Achievements of Napoleon Bonaparte
  After that Napoleon made himself the Emperor of France, he had made the 
  following achievements:
  He signed a Concordat with Pope Pius VII in 1801 where he agreed with the 
  Pope and the Catholic religion became a State religion and this led to the 
  reconciliation of the Church and State.
  He established reforms in education when he re-organized the education 
  system where elementary education was removed and secondary education 
  was promoted. The study of science subjects was encouraged;
  He constructed a good system of transport and communication because during 
  his time many roads, bridges, telegraphic system, railways and canals were 
  constructed.
  He founded a museum which helped in beautifying France.
  He introduced reforms in trade and industry by introducing the new ones and 
  rehabilitating the old ones and he also founded the National Bank to promote 
  trade and commerce.
  He improved agricultural sector by initiating the use of machines and creating 
  peace and stability.
  He increased the food production in order to solve the problem of famine in 
  France which had been inherited from the Directory Government.
  He introduced the code of law known as” Napoleonic Code” where the French 
  laws had been codified and reduced to only five codes which help in maintaining 
  

  law and order

  

  Adopted in 1804 and still in effect, the code of French civil law was named in 
  honor of Emperor Napoleon, who participated in its formulation. The Code 
  Napoléon became the model of law for two jurisdictions in North America—the 
  Canadian province of Québec and the U.S. state of Louisiana.
  He modernized the French army and France had the best army in the whole of 
  Europe. The army was used to maintain law and order and was used against 
  political opponents as well as for expanding the French boundaries.
  He centralized the administration and at the same time consolidated himself to 
  power and he re-organized the administrative structure of France by creating 
  departments headed by Prefects and sub-Prefects. All these officers were 
  appointed by Napoleon.
  He controlled corruption and embezzlement of the public funds and even 
  helped to maintain law and order.
  Impact of Napoleon I on Europe from 1799 to 1814
  Napoleon I succeeded in spreading the French Revolutionary ideas to various 
  parts of Europe especially in Conservative States like Austria, Germany and 
  Italy.
  He established Code Napoléon in which basic human rights were clearly spelt 
  out. This code was adopted in many European States.
  He divided over 200 German states into Rhine Confederation under his control 
  and this brought the Germans near each other later encouraged the German 
  unification.
  He expanded the French size (French Empire) by destroying the old European 
  boundaries where Italy, Poland, Denmark and Germany were all brought under 
  the French control.
  
  
  Napoleon I, emperor of the French, controlled much of Europe, from Spain 
  to Poland, by 1810. In 1812, however, he undertook a disastrous invasion of 
  Russia, and afterward his empire began to fall apart.
  The aggressive policies of Napoleon I gave birth to a period of international 
  cooperation in continental Europe like the 4th coalition formed by Britain, 
  Russia, and Prussia against Napoleon (I) Bonaparte
  During Napoleonic wars like the Peninsular War of 1808 and the Moscow 
  campaign of 1812 over 580 000 people died.
  Napoleon’s Continental System caused economic problems which led to a cute 
  shortage of food, unemployment and inflation in European states like France, 
  Spain, Portugal, Italy and Britain.
  In 1808, Napoleon I imprisoned the Pope Pius VII which caused him a lot of 
  resentment from the Catholics in the entire European continent.
  He overthrew legitimate rulers in the Italian, German, Holland and Spain among 
  others whom he replaced with his brothers.
  Napoleon’s endless wars in Europe caused wanton of destruction of like roads, 
  railways, industries and ships among others.
  
  The factors that had led to the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte
  The Continental system: It was an economic war used by Napoleon to defeat 
  Britain after realizing that his military power cannot fight with the British 
  Naval supremacy. Because of this continental system, he lost support from the 
  Middle class who had put him in power and when they withdrew their support, 
  Napoleon was defeated.
  The Moscow Campaign of 1812: It was a programmed war to attack Russia to 
  teach Tsar Alexander I a lesson for pulling out the Continental System. Napoleon 
  mobilized his troops and on 24th June 1812 he crossed River Niemen. The 
  Russians withdrew and used the “Scorch Earth Policy” in which they destroyed 
  by fire everything that would be used by the advocating French soldiers.
  Napoleon expected victory within 30 days, but it became a prolonged war 
  where Napoleon lost many soldiers (around 300 000) due to guerilla Russian 
  

  attacks and severe winter.

  

  In 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia and by September his forces occupied 
  Moscow. The Russian Tsar ordered the city burned so there would be no winter 
  quarters for the French troops. In October the French retreat from Moscow
  began. The troops suffered from hunger, cold, and constant attack, and many 
  died during the retreat.
  After the defeat from the Moscow Campaign, Napoleon’s armies were too weak 
  so that they could not defeat the 4th coalition against France.
  The failure to defeat Britain: Napoleon failed to defeat Britain in 1789 during 
  Egyptian Campaign and later in 1805 which gave confidence, strength and 
  courage to small countries that had before feared Napoleon and lined with 
  Britain to form the 4th coalition to defeat Napoleon.
  The strength of the 4th coalition: Although Napoleon succeeded in defeating 
  the earlier coalitions directed against France, it should be noted that the 
  strength of the 4th coalition formed (by Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain) 
  against France in 1813 was too strong to defeat Napoleon in 1814.
  The Napoleon’s extreme ambition: Napoleon was never satisfied with his 
  conquests and wished to control the whole of Europe which mad him to be 
  involved in endless and risky wars that he could not manage but ended by his 
  defeat. Napoleon used to say:”I have known the limits of my legs, I have known 
  the limits of my eyes, I have never known the limits of my work”.
  The growth of nationalism among the captured states. Napoleon had brought 
  many nationalities under his control like Prussians, Italians, Spanish and 
  Holland but due to his oppressive rule and over-taxation; the States demanded 
  for their independence from where they got courage to form the 4th coalition 
  that defeated Napoleon.
  The dictatorial administration of Napoleon: He centralized all powers in 
  his hands and killed democracy. His administration was not to be criticized, 
  he set up a secret police and he restored Lettre-de Cachet by which there was 
  imprisonment without trial. All of these made him unpopular leading to his 
  

  downfall.

  Nepotism: Napoleon practiced nepotism which made him unpopular among 
  the people. He mostly favored his relatives, brothers and brothers-in-law in key 
  appointments, in administration, army and in French captured Provinces;
  The vast nature of his empire: Napoleon built a very large empire through 
  his conquests but he failed to effectively control it. A result was a massive 
  opposition against him which left him isolated in 1813 and led to his downfall.
  The imprisonment of the Pope Pius in 1808: The Pope was not agreed with 
  Napoleon on Continental System, and then he decided to imprison Pope Pius. 
  This reduced Napoleon’s popularity among the Catholics in France and whole 
  World. When he was attacked in 1814 by the 4th coalition, the whole catholic 
  Community in Europe did not support him.
  In 1814 Napoleon was forced to give up his throne and he was sent to live out 
  of his on the small island of Elba off the coast of Italy. But he managed to escape 
  with his group together invaded France. For a short, about 100 days, Napoleon 
  again regained as Emperor. 
  The allies finally defeated him in 1815 at the battle of the Battle of Waterloo
  in modern Belgium. They gave the French throne to Louis XVIII and they sent 
  Napoleon to the Saint Helena off the coast of Africa, where he died on May 5th, 
  

  1821.

  

  The French revolution had far- reaching consequences to the French society, 
  Europe and to the rest of the world. Some of these included:
  Loss of lives: Many lives were lost in the confusion that characterized the 
  revolution. At first it targeted the privileged sections of the society. Mobs killed 
  those they felt had in one way or another been responsible for their suffering 
  during the ancient regime. With time, the introduction of the guillotine, saw 
  many perceived to be against the revolution being killed. The guillotine even 
  consumed some of the revolutionaries as rivalry and suspicion hit their camp. 
  Aside from France, counter revolutionaries in other parts of Europe joined the 
  

  war. 

  

  From 1792, Europe was thus enmeshed in war for a generation. Many lives 
  were lost.
  Overthrow of the ancient regime: The reign of Louis XVI came to an abrupt 
  end. This marked true end of the reign of the Bourbon family which had ruled 
  France for over 800 years. The revolutionaries experimented with one form of 
  governance after the other until the Great Napoleon Bonaparte usurped the 
  reign of power thus establishing his rule.
  Spread of revolutionary ideas: Revolutionary ideas spread to other parts of 
  Europe. Everywhere in Europe, people talked of and wanted equality, liberty 
  and fraternity the three things that crystallized in the course of the revolution 
  as its aims. Generally, there was a clamor for democratic ideals. The revolution 
  heralded a period of political liberalism hitherto witnessed in European 
  mainland.
  Promotion of human rights: The declaration of the Rights of man at the 
  infancy stages of the revolution may be looked at as a way of promoting human 
  rights. This is definitely a precursor to human rights as they exist today. As 
  we have observed, the rights asserted the equality of human beings and right 
  of people to rule. In an equal measure, it also brought out the fundamental 
  freedoms: freedom of speech (expression) and choice individual ownership 
  of property, religious rights to minorities, etc. They also vouched for fair trial 
  (justice) and acceptable taxation system. All these are issues that dominate the 
  issue of human rights today. The same can be said on the rule of law. However, 
  the society failed to address the issue of women rights as it gave men rights 
  

  prominence.

  Lawlessness in the society: From 1789 to the time Napoleon Bonarparte came 
  to power on 9 November 1799, there was a state of disorder and discontent in 
  France. There was lawlessness and anarchy in the rural and urban areas alike. 
  Citizens were not subject to any known law as once the Ancient regime had 
  been overthrown, there lacked a centralized system of power. The situation 
  was aggravated by the poor financial situation the country found itself in.
  Delinking of the church from state: There was a strong link between the 
  church and state. As we have already observed, the two institutions were 
  marred married with massive divisions within their ranks. Class system was 
  a common feature in both. The French revolution led to a clear line between 
  the two institutions. The church was now left handling spiritual matters as the 
  state dealt with political, economic and other social issues. The church had its 
  massive estates of land taken over by the government in 1796. Prior to this 
  development, on July 1790, the civil constitution of the clergy which made all 
  clergy servants of the state was promulgated. This development was to later 
  lead to separation of the two institutions as the revolution came to an end. 
  However the state had now reduced the power of the pope in the church in 
  France. It now exerted a lot of power over the institution in France.
  Rise in nationalism: The French Revolution and the war the country waged 
  against other powers, instilled in the French people a strong sense of nationalism. 
  They developed a strong sense of identity. This was in sharp contrast to the prerevolutionary years when people closely identified with their local authorities. 
  The government partly contributed to this new development by rallying citizens 
  to the defense of their country against its enemies. 
  There was a strong sense of nationalism. People attended civic festivals which 
  celebrated the nation and the revolution. A variety of dances, and songs on 
  themes of the revolution and French identity became popular. A song “La 
  Marseillaise” which urges the “children of the father land” to match against the 
  “bloody barrier of tyranny” was so popular that it became the French national 
  Anthem. Its second verse and chorus goes …
  In sum, the revolution encouraged the growth of nationalism in both liberal and 
  authoritarian forms. 
  Promotion of social reforms: The revolutionaries pushed for social reforms 
  and religious toleration. State schools were set up to replace religious ones. 
  Systems were also put in place to help the poor, old soldiers and war widows. A 
  major slave revolt in St. Dominique (Haiti) also made the government to abolish 
  

  slavery in its Carribean Colonies.

  The first in Haiti and the second in France so that property could now be inherited 
  among all immediate heirs equally and not only the oldest son as it used to be 
  the tradition and practice. Attempts were also made to de-Christianize France. 
  The government created a secular (non-religious calendar with 1793 as the 
  first year of the new era of freedom) many religious festivals were also banned 
  and, in its place, came secular celebrations. The social reforms introduced by 
  the revolution outlived it.
  Emergence of new artistic styles. A new grand classical style that echoed the 
  grandeur of Ancient Rome emerged. Among its notable proponents was Louis 
  David. This artist immortalized on canvas such stirring events as the Tennis 
  Court Oath, and later, the coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte. He contributed 
  heavily to the way future generations understood the French Revolution.
  Disorganization of the map of Europe. This was done by France in her expansionist 
  policies and conquering of various states like Spain, Naples, German and the 
  Italian states. 
  Serious financial decline in France. This was due to numerous wars France 
  fought with the rest of Europe. The reign of terror also led to serious financial 
  collapse during the French revolution.
  The 1789 French revolution destroyed Bastilles prison as a symbol of despotism 
  on 14th July.
  It revived the French parliament (National Assembly or Estates general Meeting 
  on May 5th 1789) after 175 years since 1614.
  The revolutionaries succeeded in spreading the French Revolutionaries 
  principles of equality, liberty and fraternity beyond French borders.
  The French Revolutionaries passed a radical law known as “Civil Constitution 
  of the clergy” and brought freedom of worship in France.
  The National Assembly produced a new Constitution in September 1791.
  The French Revolution ended feudal privileges on August 4th 1789 in the 
  Assembly at Versailles.
  Multiparty politics was achieved in France with various political parties or 
  clubs like Jacobins, Girondins, Feuillants, Montagnards and Cordoliers.
  The Royalist Guards had been replaced by National Guards after the Storming 
  

  of the Bastilles on the 14th July, 1789.

  The class divisions had been removed by 1791 as by Declaration of man where 
  all men were declared equal before the law.
  The French Revolution resulted into the terrible loss of lives and destruction of 
  properties.
  The July 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy passed during the French 
  Revolution made the Catholic Church and the State enemies.
  It spoilt the diplomatic relations between France and her neighbors like Prussia, 
  Austria, Russia and Britain due to mistreatment of King Louis XVI.
  The 1789 French Revolution inspired the outbreak of other revolutions like the 
  1830 and 1848 in Europe that left a lot of lives and properties destroyed.
  The French revolutionaries failed to end financial crisis in France which had 
  

  started way back during the Ancient regime.

  

  

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• Topic 14
• Topic 15