• UNIT 6:DIGNITY AND SELF-RELIANCE




               
    6.1.1. Home-grown solutions (initiatives) 
    Home -Grown Initiatives (HGIs) are Rwanda’s brain child solutions to economic 
    and social development. They are practices developed by the Rwandan 
    citizens based on local opportunities, cultural values and history to fast track 
    their development. Being locally created, HGIs are appropriate to the local 
    development context and have been the bedrock to the Rwandan development 
    successes for the last decade. 
    HGIs are development/governance innovations that provide unconventional 
    responses to societal challenges. They are based on: 
    ─ National heritage/legacy 
    ─ Historical consciousness 
    ─ Strive for self-reliance 
    HGIs include Umuganda (community work), Gacaca (truth and reconciliation 
    traditional courts), Abunzi (mediators), Imihigo (performance contracts), 
    Ubudehe (community-based and participatory effort towards problem solving), 
    Itorero and Ingando (solidarity camps), Umushyikirano (national dialogue), 
    Umwiherero (National Leadership Retreat) and Girinka (One cow per Family 
    program). They are all rooted in the Rwandan culture and history and therefore 
    easy to understand by the communities.
    Self-reliance: This is a state of being independent in all aspects. The 
    independence could be social, political or economic.
    6.1.2. Abunzi – Community mediators
    The word “abunzi” can be translated as “those who reconcile” or “those who 
    bring together” (from verb kunga). In the traditional Rwanda, abunzi were men 
    and women for their integrity and were asked to intervene in the event of conflict. 
    Each conflicting party would choose a person considered trustworthy, known 
    as a problem-solver, who was unlikely to alienate either party. The purpose of 
    this system was to settle disputes and also to reconcile the conflicting parties 
    and restore harmony within the affected community. 
    Abunzi can be seen as a hybrid form of justice combining traditional with modern 
    methods of conflict resolution. The reintroduction of the Abunzi system in 2004 
    was motivated in part by the desire to reduce the accumulation of court cases, 
    as well as to decentralise justice and make it more affordable and accessible for 
    citizens seeking to resolve conflicts without the cost of going to court. Today, 
    Abunzi is fully integrated into Rwanda’s justice system.
    a. Conflict resolution through community participation 
    Historically, the community, and particularly the family, played a central role in 
    resolving conflicts. Another mechanism for this purpose was inama y’umuryango 
    (meaning ‘family meetings or gatherings) in which relatives would meet to find 
    solutions to family problems. Similar traditions existed elsewhere, such as the 
    “dare” in Zimbabwe. These traditional mechanisms continue to play important 
    roles in conflict resolution regarding land disputes, civil disputes and, in some 
    instances, criminal cases. 
    The adoption of alternative dispute resolution mechanisms in Rwanda emerged 
    from the recognition of a growing crisis in a judiciary where it had become 
    almost impossible to resolve disputes efficiently and in a cost-effective manner. 
    The Government of Rwanda concluded that modern judicial mechanisms of 
    dispute resolution were failing to deliver and so the decision was taken to 
    examine traditional mediation and reconciliation approaches as alternatives. 
    By doing so, it would not only help alleviate the pressure on conventional 
    courts but also align with the policy objective of a more decentralised justice 
    system. In addition, the conflict resolution mechanisms rooted in Rwandan 
    culture were perceived as less threatening, more accessible and therefore more 
    intimate. Those who referred their cases to Abunzi were more comfortable 
    seeking mediation from within their community, which afforded them a better 
    understanding of the issues at hand. 
    b. Establishment of the mediation committees ( Abunzi committe)
    In 2004, the Government of Rwanda established the traditional process of 
    abunzi as an alternative dispute resolution mechanism. 
    Established at the cell and sector levels, abunzi primarily address family disputes, 
    such as those relating to land or inheritance. By institutionalizing Abunzi, low 
    level legal issues could be solved at a local level without the need to be heard in 
    conventional courts. Citizens experiencing legal issues are asked to first report 
    to abunzi, cases not exceeding 3,000,000 Frs (for land and other immovable 
    assets) and 1,000,000 Rwf (for cattle and other movable assets). Cases of these 
    types can only be heard in a conventional court if one party decides to appeal 
    the decision made at the sector level by the mediation committee.
    As the Abunzi system gained recognition as a successful method to resolve 
    conflict and deliver justice, the importance of providing more structure and 
    formality to their work increased. Consequently, the abunzi started receiving 
    trainings on mediating domestic conflicts and support from both governmental 
    and non-governmental organizations to improve the quality of their mediation 
    services.

    6.1.3. Gacaca – Community courts
    The word gacaca refers to the small clearing where a community would 
    traditionally meet to discuss issues of concern. People of integrity (elders and 
    leaders) in the village known as inyangamugayo would facilitate a discussion 
    that any member of the community could take part in. Once everyone had 
    spoken, the inyangamugayo would reach a decision about how the problem 
    would be solved. In this way, Gacaca acted very much as a traditional court. 
    If the decision was accepted by all members of the community, the meeting 
    would end with sharing a drink as a sign of reconciliation. If the parties were 
    not happy with the decision made at Gacaca, they had the right to take their 
    case to a higher authority such as a chief or even to the king.
    One aspect particular to traditional Gacaca is that any decision handed down 
    at the court impacted not only the individual but also their family or clan as 
    well. If the matter was of a more serious nature and reconciliation could not 
    be reached, the inyangamugayo could decide to expel the offenders or the 
    members of their group from the community. 
    The most common cases to come before Gacaca courts were those between 
    members of the same family or community. It was rare for members of other 
    villages to be part of the courts and this affirmed the notion of Gacaca as a 
    community institution. 
    Colonisation had a significant impact on the functioning of Gacaca and in 1924 
    the courts were reserved only for civil and commercial cases that involved 
    Rwandans. Those involving colonisers and criminal cases were processed under 
    colonial jurisdiction. While the new justice systems and mechanisms imported 
    from Europe did not prohibit Gacaca from operating, the traditional courts saw 
    far fewer cases. During the post colonial period, the regimes in power often 
    appointed administrative officials to the courts which weakened their integrity 
    and eroded trust in Gacaca. 
    The Genocide against the Tutsi in 1994 virtually destroyed all government and 
    social institutions and Gacaca was no different. While Gacaca continued after 
    the Genocide, its form and role in society had been significantly degraded. 
    a. Contemporary Gacaca as a home-grown solution 
    Contemporary Gacaca was officially launched on June 18, 2002 by President 
    Paul Kagame. This took place after years of debate about the best way to give 
    justice to the survivors of the Genocide and to process the millions of cases that 
    had risen following the Genocide. 
    Contemporary Gacaca draws inspiration from the traditional model by 
    replicating a local community-based justice system with the aim of restoring 
    the social fabric of the society. In total, 1,958,634 genocide related cases were 
    tried through Gacaca. The courts are credited with laying the foundation for 
    peace, reconciliation and unity in Rwanda. The Gacaca courts officially finished 
    their work ten years later on June 18, 2012.

    Gacaca first began as a pilot phase in 12 sectors across the country one per 
    each province as well as in the City of Kigali. After the pilot, the courts were 
    implemented across the country and the original Organic Law No. 40/2000 
    (January 26, 2001) was replaced by the Organic Law No. 16/2004 (June 19, 
    2004) which then governed the Gacaca process.
    b. The aims of the contemporary Gacaca 
    ─ Expose the truth about the Genocide against the Tutsi 
    ─ Speed up genocide trials 
    ─ Eradicate impunity 
    ─ Strengthen unity and reconciliation among Rwandans 
    ─ Draw on the capacity of Rwandans to solve their own problems. 
    These activities were carried out at three levels of jurisdiction: the Gacaca 
    Court of the cell, the Gacaca Court of the Sector, and the Gacaca Court of appeals. 
    There were 9013 cell courts, 1545 Sector courts and 1545 Courts of Appeal 
    nationwide. 
    According to the statistics given by National service of Gacaca Courts, the Gacaca 
    Courts were able to try 1,958,634 cases of genocide within a short time (trials 
    have begun on to 10/3/2005 in pilots sectors). This is on irrefutable evidence 
    of the collective will and ability of Rwandans to overcome huge challenges of 
    their country and work for its faster development basing on “ Home grown 
    solutions”
    6.1.3 Girinka Munyarwanda- One Cow per Poor Family Programme
    The word girinka (gira inka) can be translated as “may you have a cow” and 
    describes a centuries’ old cultural practice in Rwanda whereby a cow was 
    given by one person to another, either as a sign of respect and gratitude or as a 
    marriage dowry. 
    Girinka was initiated in response to the alarmingly high rate of childhood 
    malnutrition and as a way to accelerate poverty reduction and integrate 
    livestock and crop farming. 
    The programme is based on the premise that providing a dairy cow to poor 
    households helps to improve their livelihood as a result of a more nutritious 
    and balanced diet from milk, increased agricultural output through better soil 
    fertility as well as greater incomes by commercialising dairy products. 
    Since its introduction in 2006, more than 203,000 beneficiaries have received 
    cows. Girinka has contributed to an increase in agricultural production in 
    Rwanda - especially milk products which have helped to reduce malnutrition 
    and increase incomes. The program aimed at providing 350,000 cows to poor 
    families by 2017.
    a. Traditional Girinka 
    Two methods, described below, come under the cultural practice known as 
    gutanga inka, from which Girinka is derived.

    Kugabira: Translated as “giving a cow”; such an act is often done as a sign of 
    appreciation, expressing gratitude for a good deed or to establish a friendship. 
    Ubuhake: This practice established a relationship between the donor and 
    beneficiary. An informal but highly valued social contract was established 
    which was fulfilled through the exchange of services such as cultivating the 
    farm of the donor, looking after the cattle or simply vowing loyalty.
    For centuries the cow has been considered as a symbol of prosperity in Rwanda 
    and was used in barter trade before colonisation. For these reasons, the whole 
    chain of social relationships across the country has been built around cattle for 
    generations. This remains true up-to-date. 
    The 20th century experienced a dramatic shift in the social understanding of 
    what it meant to own cattle in Rwanda. Before colonisation, there was little 
    distinction between cattle keepers and those who cultivated. Herders and 
    cultivators often worked together to achieve greater agricultural production. 
    During this time while owning cattle was associated with being rich, herders 
    and cultivators alike faced the challenges of drought, poor soil fertility and the 
    country’s topography. The arrival of colonisation, however, brought a change 
    in these understandings and cultural practices. The cow was used to divide 
    Rwandans along “ethnic” lines and cattle became a symbol of elitism and a 
    commodity reserved only for a portion of the country’s people.
    While significant progress had been made since the genocide in improving the 
    livelihoods of its people, Rwanda continued to face high levels of poverty and 
    childhood malnutrition. It was with these indicators in mind that Girinka was 
    established in 2006. 
    b. Contemporary Girinka 
    Girinka was introduced in 2006 against a backdrop of alarmingly high levels of 
    poverty and childhood malnutrition. The results of the Integrated Household 
    Living Conditions Survey 2 (EICV 2) conducted in 2005 showed rural poverty 
    at 62.5%. The Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) and Nutrition Survey showed that 28% of Rwanda’s rural population were 
    food-insecure and that 24% of the rural population were highly vulnerable to 
    food insecurity. 
    The survey showed that in some parts of the country (such as Bugesera), up to 
    40% of the households were food insecure. The Demographic Health Survey of 
    2005 indicated that 45% of Rwandan children under the age of five had moderate chronic malnutrition and 19% had severe chronic malnutrition. At that 
    time, 90% of the Rwandans lived in households that owned some farming land
    and more than 60% of the households cultivated less than 0.7 hectares of land, 
    according to the EICV2. It was these factors that provided the catalyst for the 
    Girinka programme.
    c. The objectives of the Girinka programme 
    ─ Reducing poverty through dairy cattle farming. 
    ─ Improving livelihoods through increased milk consumption and 
    income generation. 
    ─ Improving agricultural productivity through the use of manure as 
    fertilizer. 
    ─ Improving soil quality and reducing erosion through the planting of 
    grasses and trees. 
    Promoting unity and reconciliation among Rwandans based on the cultural 
    principle that if a cow is given from one person to another, it establishes trust, 
    respect and friendship between the donor and the beneficiary. While this was 
    not an original goal of Girinka, it has evolved to become a significant aspect of 
    the program. 
    The program is structured in two phases. First, a community member 
    identified as someone who would greatly benefit from owning a cow is given a 
    pregnant dairy cow. That person benefits from its milk and manure production. 
    Beneficiaries are then obliged to give the first born female calf to another 
    worthy beneficiary in their community. This is known as the ‘pass on’ principle, 
    or kuziturirana/kwitura.

    Girinka has been described as a culturally inspired social safety net program 
    because of the way it introduces a productive asset (a dairy cow) which can 
    provide long-term benefits to the recipient. Approved on 12 April 2006 by 
    Cabinet decision, Girinka originally aimed to reach 257,000 beneficiaries; 
    however, this target was revised upwards in 2010 to 350,000 beneficiaries by 
    2017. The Government of Rwanda was initially the sole funder of the Girinka 
    program, but development partners have since become involved in the program. 
    This has led to an increase in the number of cows being distributed. 
    Girinka is one of a number of programs under Rwanda’s Vision 2020, a set of 
    development objectives and goals designed to move Rwanda to a middle income 
    nation by the year 2020. By September 2014 close to 200,000 beneficiaries had 
    received a cow.
    6.1.4 Imihigo – Performance contracts
    The word Imihigo is the plural Kinyarwanda word of umuhigo, which means to 
    vow to deliver. Imihigo also include the concept of guhiganwa, which means to 
    compete among one another. Imihigo practices existed in pre colonial Rwanda 
    and have been adapted to fit the current challenges of the Rwandan society. 
    a. Traditional Imihigo
    Imihigo is a pre-colonial cultural practice in Rwanda where an individual sets 
    targets or goals to be achieved within a specific period of time. The person must 
    complete these objectives by following guiding principles and be determined to 
    overcome any possible challenge that arises. Leaders and chiefs would publicly 
    commit themselves to achieving certain goals. In the event that they failed, 
    they would face shame and embarrassment from the community. Definitions 
    however vary on what constitutes a traditional Imihigo. Some have recalled it 
    as having a basis in war, where warriors would throw a spear into the ground 
    while publicly proclaiming the feats they would accomplish in battle.
    b. Contemporary Imihigo 
    Imihigo were re-initiated by Rwanda’s President, Paul Kagame, in March 2006. 
    This was as a result of the concern about the speed and quality of execution 
    of government programs and priorities. The government’s decentralisation 
    policy required a greater accountability at the local level. Its main objective 
    was to make public agencies and institutions more effective and accountable 
    in their implementation of national programs and to accelerate the socioeconomic development agenda as contained in the Vision 2020 and Economic 
    Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) policies as well as the 
    Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
    Today, Imihigo are used across the government as performance contracts and 
    to ensure accountability. All levels of government, from the local district level 
    to ministries and embassies, are required to develop and have their Imihigo 
    evaluated. Members of the public service also sign Imihigo with their managers 
    or head of institution. 
    While Imihigo are now widely used across government, it first began at 
    the district level. When developing its Imihigo, each local government 
    administrative unit determines its own objectives (with measurable indicators) 
    taking into account national priorities as highlighted in the national as well as 
    international strategy and policy documents such as the MDGs, Vision 2020, 
    EDPRS, District Development Plans (DDPs) and Sector Development Plans 
    (SDPs). The Imihigo, at both planning and reporting phases, are presented 
    to the public for the purpose of accountability and transparency. The mayors 
    and province governors also sign the Imihigo or performance contracts with 
    Rwanda’s President committing themselves to achieving set objectives. The 
    Imihigo process ensures the full participation and ownership of citizens 
    because priorities are developed at the grassroots level. 
    Between 2006 and 2009 a limited evaluation process took place whereby the 
    best ten performing districts from across the nation were reviewed (two from 
    each province and the City of Kigali). Each province and the City of Kigali would 
    rank the performance of their districts with the top two then communicated to 
    the national evaluation team. This team then conducted their own review and 
    ranked them from 1-10. This approach suffered from significant limitations 
    including the fact that it was not possible to objectively compare the performance 
    of all districts because while one province may have had better performing 
    districts than another, this system did not allow that to be discovered.
    Due to these shortcomings, a nation-wide district Imihigo evaluation exercise 
    was conducted in 2010 for all the thirty districts. A national evaluation 
    committee with technical expertise and experience conducts this process.

    Undertaken by a multi-sector team of experts from government, the private 
    sector and civil society institutions, the first Imihigo evaluation was launched 
    on May 11, 2010 and completed on June 17, 2010. The evaluation exercise was 
    significant because it was the first time that the Government of Rwanda had 
    thoroughly assessed the degree to which district priorities and targets were 
    realised against their Imihigo. The exercise acknowledged key achievements 
    and challenges in the areas of planning, implementation, reporting and 
    communication. 
    c. Principles and objectives of Imihigo 
    Imihigo are guided by the following principles: 
    Local: Each district decides what goes into its Imihigo. However, alignment with 
    national priorities is required. 
    Ambitious: Pledges are made to achieve only what has not already been gained 
    or achieved. 
    Excellence: Imihigo is about outstanding performance. 
    Imihigo aims at: 
    ─ Speeding up implementation of the local and national development 
    agenda. 
    ─ Promoting accountability and transparency; 
    ─ Promoting result-oriented performance.
    ─ Instilling innovation and encourage competitiveness. 
    ─ Engaging stakeholders (citizens, civil society, donors, private sector, 
    etc) in policy formulation and evaluation.
    ─ Promoting zeal and determination to achieve set goals. 
    ─ Instilling the culture of regular performance evaluation. 
    d. Imihigo preparation process 
    Imihigo and action plans are used by the Government of Rwanda to define 
    goals, targets and objectives. While different in their purpose, the two tools are 
    interlinked. The action plan is a set of activities to be achieved within a set time 
    period, usually a period of one year. Imihigo are a subset of the action plan 
    showing priority activities to be used as a performance measure. The action 
    plan may contain any number of activities of a routine nature such as payment 
    of salaries whereas Imihigo define targets that have a significant impact on 
    economic development, poverty reduction, good governance and social welfare. 
    When Imihigo are developed, the Rwandan Government leaders are advised 
    to ask some key questions before including activities in Imihigo. Activities 
    that answer positively to the questions outlined below are given priority 
    consideration. 
    1. Will the activity impact positively on the welfare of the local population 
    (water access, transport, energy access, schools, etc.)? 
    2. Does it create jobs for the local population? 
    3. Does it create income generating opportunities for the population /local 
    government? 
    4. Does it have an impact on poverty reduction? 
    5. Is it a priority for the residents in the area? 
    6. Does the activity have synergy with development of other areas (an 
    activity may have potential to impact development in neighbouring 
    areas)? 
    7. Is the activity sustainable or are the results sustainable?
    8. Is there ownership from the local population for the activity? 
    9. Does it help to achieve the national targets and is it linked to the national 
    and international priorities, programs or policies (MDGs, EDPRS, Vision 
    2020)? 
    10. Can the activity produce quality results/outputs with minimum 
    resources? 
    11. Can it improve the way services are delivered or reduce costs? 
    12. Does the activity promote social cohesion (unity and reconciliation)? 
    13. Does the activity reduce social disturbances (insecurity, drug abuse, 
    prostitution, environmental degradation, conflicts, corruption, etc.)? 
    14. Does it address key cross cutting issues (gender, HIV/AIDS, environment, 
    social inclusion and youth)? 
    15. Has the source of funds for implementation been determined? 
    16. Is it realistic and can it be achieved? 
    Imihigo is the result of a participatory process of identifying and implementing 
    priorities from the grassroots to the national level. In the process of identifying 
    priorities, each level demonstrates its contribution to the achievement of the 
    development goals. The table below describes who prepares Imihigo from the 
    individual to provincial level. 
    Step 1: Identification of national priorities by the central government 
    Each ministry identifies national priorities to be implemented at local levels 
    for which they have earmarked resources that they will transfer to local 
    governments. 
    Consultation on the following policies and programs occurs: 
    Vision 2020. 
    Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS). 
    Government of Rwanda programs and policies. 
    National Leadership Retreat and National Dialogue resolutions.
    Cabinet resolutions.
    Three Year Medium-Term Expenditure Framework (MTEF)
    Five Year District Development Plan (DDP).
    Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). 
    Seven Year Government Program. 
    Where they do not have earmarked resources, line ministries identify how the 
    resources, whether financial or non-financial, can be mobilised (both national 
    and local).The central government consolidates the priorities paying special 
    attention to areas of quick wins and synergy while avoiding duplication. 
    Step 2: Communication of national priorities to the local government 
    The list of central government priorities is communicated and discussed with 
    local government leaders at a forum of central and local government leaders. 
    Step 3: Identification of local priorities 
    District leaders consult their District Development Plans (DDPs). Consultative 
    meetings with different stakeholders are held at province/Kigali City, districts, 
    sector, cell and village levels to discuss and consolidate the emerging priorities. 
    Step 4: Preparation and approval 
    Firstly, districts consult their respective DDPs and national priorities as 
    communicated in the forum/meeting between central and local governments. 
    Secondly, local and national priorities at district level are consolidated. Thirdly, 
    the draft (for district and province/City of Kigali) is discussed with Quality 
    Assurance Technical Team (from the Ministry of Local Government and 
    Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning). Fourth, priorities are presented 
    to stakeholders. Finally, priorities are approved. 
    The Quality Assurance Technical Team was set up to assist the districts and 
    provinces/Kigali City in preparing tangible Imihigo that respond to national 
    targets. The Quality Assurance Technical Team is composed of members of the 
    Imihigo evaluation team, the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO), the Ministry of 
    Local Government (MINALOC) and Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning 
    (MINECOFIN) as well as all sector ministries that are part of decentralization 
    including:
    ─ Ministry of Health 
    ─ Ministry of Education 
    ─ Ministry of Agriculture
    ─ Ministry of Infrastructure 
    ─ Ministry of Trade and Industry 
    The team gives regular feedback to district planners during the process of 
    preparing Imihigo. District leaders across Rwanda are asked to prepare plans 
    that are realistic, take into account the cost of delivering services as well as the 
    available resources. To make sure that proper monitoring and evaluation can 
    be conducted, indicators, targets and outputs must be clearly identified in the 
    planning process. 
    e. Monitoring and evaluation 
    A full evaluation of Imihigo takes place once a year. Evaluation teams are 
    established to carry out the process in all districts (each province and the City of 
    Kigali). The terms of reference for the team are distributed to all team members 
    beforehand to ensure proper understanding of the exercise. 
    The evaluation team is made up of people with skills in planning, monitoring 
    and evaluation (this might include a director general, coordinators and experts). 
    Objectivity is also assessed to make sure that any person with potential bias is 
    excluded from the team. 
    The methodology for the evaluation (including scoring) is developed and 
    communicated to local government in advance of the evaluation exercise. The 
    evaluation used is a standard template developed against the Imihigo of each 
    district. 
    After analysing the Imihigo reports received from the districts, the evaluation 
    team conducts field visits to specific activities for verification and assessment 
    purposes. 
    After the field visits and verification of selected activities, the team scores/ 
    assesses performance against Imihigo targets and provides a written report.



       
    f. Reporting 
    Districts report their Imihigo progress to the provincial level on a monthly basis. 
    Reporting to the national level is completed quarterly (in line with the timelines 
    of the EDPRS). An assessment of the progress in implementing Imihigo is done 
    after six months, while a full evaluation is done at the end of each fiscal year. The 
    assessment and evaluation of Imihigo is conducted by the National Evaluation 
    Team whose composition is shown in the table above.
    6.1.5 Itorero - Civic education
    a. Introduction
    Itorero was an educational institution where Rwandans would learn Language, 
    Patriotism, Social Studies, Sports, Creative Arts, Martial Arts, good governance, 
    the spirit of courage, integrity, and synergy while dealing with challenges 
    because Intore would never give way to defeat so that should be the very legacy 
    we hand over to our posterity. This program was reintroduced in 2007 as an 
    appropriate tool of achieving the goals of all Visions and enhance sustainable 
    development through Rwandan culture values. Participants were encouraged 
    to critically discuss, explore and analyse Rwandan cultural values with the aim 
    of instilling its values, which would in turn give them the lifelong foundation in 
    the way they mirror their social environment, shape their conduct, tune their 
    mind-set, their way of doing things, and mound their social interaction. 
    b. Traditional Itorero program 
    As a traditional school, itorero trainers planned daily activities according to 
    different priorities. The common belief was that intore were different from the 
    rest of the community members, especially in matters of thoughts, expression 
    and behaviour they were expected to be a role model in social relations, quick 
    thinkers and knowledgeable. Each Itorero included participants of various age 
    groups and had its own unique name. The best performer (Indashyikirwa) 
    would receive cows or land as award.
    The tradition of Itorero provided formative training for future leaders. These 
    community leaders and fighters were selected from intore (a person trained 
    through Itorero. Itorero was found at three levels of traditional governance: 
    the family, the chief, and the king’s court. At the family level, both girls and 
    boys would be educated on how to fulfil their responsibilities as defined by 
    the expectations of their communities. For example, the man was expected to 
    protect his family and the country, while the woman was expected to provide 
    a good home and environment for her family. Adults were also asked to treat 
    every child as their own in order to promote good behaviour among children
    At the chief level, a teenage boy was selected by either his father or head of the 
    extended family to be introduced to the chief so that he could join his Itorero. 
    Selection was based on good behaviour among the rest of his family and his 
    community. 
    At the king’s court level, the person selected to join this highest level of Itorero 
    could either be the son of a man who went through the king’s Itorero or a young 
    man who distinguished himself while in the chief’s Itorero. The king could also 
    select the young man who would join his Itorero based on his own observations 
    of the candidate in action. 
    Both the chief and king’s itorero trainings lasted for long periods of time to 
    test the perseverance of the participants. Those who performed well would 
    be rewarded with cows, allowed to return home and get married, or were 
    nominated to various national duties. Intore who lead/represent others were 
    called Intore zo ku mukondo, which translates as the ‘frontline Intore’. 
    From 1924 to 1994, Itorero was banned by the colonial rule and further by 
    the post-independence regimes. Itorero lost its significance which resulted in 
    distortions of the Rwandan culture and breakdown of Rwandan social fabric, 
    mutual support and selfless service to the nation. The Itorero during and after 
    the colonial period were different in the sense that they focused on singing and 
    dancing only. These distortions are indubitably among the main causes of the 
    1994 Genocide against the Tutsi which devastated the Rwandan society.
    c. Contemporary National Itorero program
    In the aftermath of the Genocide against the Tutsi, the Government of Rwanda 
    reintroduced Itorero in view of societal transformation. This HGS translated as 
    Civic Education Program, was adopted following the top leadership retreat in 
    February 2007. 
    The Government of Rwanda established the National Itorero Commission 
    (Reference: Law N0 41/2013 of 26/06/2013) as public Institution with the 
    objective of build a patriotic Rwandan who has values and taboos of the Rwandan 
    culture and who has Ubutore culture. The commission was entrusted with 
    developing a program that allowed all Rwandans from diverse backgrounds 
    to undertake personal development and contribute to the wellbeing of the 
    communities where they live or that they serve. The Itorero program provides 
    opportunities for participants to enhance positive values, build a sense of 
    responsibility through patriotism and gain professional knowledge.
    Itorero operates on the following structure namely “Ingamba” in 
    Kinyarwanda
    1. Children of 0-5 years old called Ibirezi/Nursery, 
    2. Children of 6-12 years old (Imbuto)/Primary level, 
    3. Children of 13-18 years old (Indirira)/Secondary level 
    Those groups be trained through Itorero at Village and school level with 
    intention to help them grow up and become responsible citizens. 
    • Compulsory National Service (Urugerero) is designed for those between 
    the ages of 18 and 35 (Indahangarwa)/University & Professionals 
    levels who have completed secondary education. 
    • Other years old Ingobokarugamba/Professionals 
    • From 56 years old and above (Inararibonye/Experts) 
    Those groups are given the opportunity to do so according to their professional 
    backgrounds. 
    Rwandan citizens living abroad also join Itorero program and a number 
    of young Rwandans living abroad participate in Itorero indangamirwa 
    course in Rwanda
    • Non-nationals desiring to participate and provide service to the 
    country can also do so. 
    • University graduates and retired people who participated in Urugerero 
    before and wish to do so again are also given the opportunity to join 
    Itorero. 
     Curriculum/content/Program
    The curriculum content for Itorero ry’igihugu is unique to Rwanda since it is 
    based on principles of intore and values peculiar to the Rwandan culture while 
    Urugerero (National Service) on the other hand, has much in common with 
    what takes place in other countries. Different curricula have been developed to 
    suit the program’s varied participants. 
    The values at the core of contemporary Itorero are unity, patriotism, selflessness, 
    integrity, responsibility, volunteerism and humility. 
    1. Unity: The state of being joined together to form one unit. A genuine 
    vehicle of “the same wisdom, the same vision of the world, and the 
    perception of political life
    2. Patriotism: Love and allegiance to the nation and the government of the 
    Republic of Rwanda
    3. Selflessness: the renunciation of one’s own interests in favour of the 
    interests of others. The spirit of not putting one’s self first but being 
    willing to give one’s time and resources for the benefit of others.
    4. Integrity: the act of consistency of actions, values, methods, measures, 
    principles, expectations and outcome.
    5. Responsibility: the obligation and authority to take the necessary 
    actions to ensure success. The obligation for the proper custody, care, 
    and safekeeping of resources entrusted to the possession or supervision 
    of an individual.
    6. Volunteerism: Volunteering is the practice of people working for a 
    particular cause without payment for their time and services. It is the 
    desire to undertake by choice and free will a task or work for the benefit 
    of the wider community beyond the volunteer’s immediate family and 
    friends
    7. Humility: defined as a disposition to be humble; a lack of false pride. 
    This attribute increases one’s willingness to listen to others.
    Contemporary Itorero includes 5 major activities in each Itorero session:




    Participants performing practical exercise (Umukorongiro) simulating the 
    exercises of moving people from a certain living condition to another one.
    Civic or political component of the training included an Introduction to the 
    Legacy of Rwanda in general and a history of the liberation struggle in particular, 
    National strategy for transformation and African development


    Participants
    Participating in Itorero is the right of every Rwandan, regardless of status and 
    social group.
    Training is adapted for the group participating in Itorero relevant to their 
    profession, age and category. For example, Local leaders, Student within 
    Country and living abroad, journalists, veterinary and agronomist, drivers, 
    electriciticians, teachers, education professionals, health workers… have been 
    trained on activities, service delivery, good governance and so on.



    6.1.6. Ubudehe – Social categorisation for collective action and mutual support
    Ubudehe refers to the long-standing Rwandan practice and culture of collective 
    action and mutual support to solve problems within a community. It is one 
    of Rwanda’s best known Home Grown Solution because of its participatory 
    development approach to poverty reduction. In 2008, the program won the 
    United Nations Public Service Award for excellence in service delivery. Today 
    Ubudehe is one of the country’s core development programs.
    a. Traditional Ubudehe
    The origin of the word Ubudehe comes from the practice of preparing fields 
    before the rainy season and finishing the task in time for planting. A community 
    would cultivate clear the fields together to make sure everyone was ready for 
    the planting season. Once a community had completed Ubudehe for everyone 
    involved, they would assist those who had not been able to take part, such as the 
    very poor. After planting the partakers gathered and shared beer. Therefore, the 
    focus of traditional Ubudehe was mostly on cultivation. It is not known exactly 
    when Ubudehe was first practiced, but it is thought to date back more than a 
    century. 

    Ubudehe was an inclusive cultural practice involving men, women and members 
    of different social groups. As almost all members of the community took part, 
    the practice often led to increased solidarity, social cohesion, mutual respect 
    and trust. 
    Colonisation and the introduction of a cash-based economy weakened the 
    practice of Ubudehe as some members of the community were able to recruit 
    some people to perform agricultural works for payment. While this trend 
    occurred across the country, in some places Ubudehe was still practiced until 
    the 1980s. 
    b. Contemporary Ubudehe 
    Contemporary Ubudehe is a poverty reduction initiative by the Government of 
    Rwanda which provides communities with the skills and support necessary to 
    engage in problem solving and decision making for their development. This 
    programme was conceived through a set of meetings of political, social, legal 
    and religious leaders between 1998 and 1999 known as the Urugwiro Debates. 
    These gathering discussed the most pressing issues concerning national 
    reconstruction after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. The Urugwiro 
    Debates prioritised policies and programs that promoted collective action and 
    that upheld the principles of decentralisation. 
    After Urugwiro Debates, Ubudehe was reintroduced into Rwandan life in 2001 
    as a way to better involve communities in their development by setting up 
    participatory problem solving mechanisms. The program helps citizens to use 
    local institutions to achieve goals set by the community. 
    The program was seen as a way to strengthen democratic processes and good 
    governance through greater community involvement in decision making 
    process. In this regard, Ubudehe creates opportunities for people at all levels of 
    the society, especially the village level, to interact with one another, share ideas, 
    create institutions and make decisions for their collective development.
    Ubudehe has its roots in the Participatory Poverty Assessment (PPA) whereby 
    citizens would self identify as poor or otherwise according to a set of criteria. 
    The objective of the PPA was to help community groups and some poor 
    households to create their own problem solving strategies. 
    c. Evolution of Ubudehe 
    The programme was reinstituted and launched in a pilot phase in Butare 
    prefecture (known today as Huye) by the Ministry of Finance and Economic 
    Planning and the Ministry of Local Government in 2001. The pilot covered
    all 769 cellules in the prefecture. The pilot was carried out as a way for the 
    government to test the methodology of Ubudehe as well as to demonstrate its 
    potential for nationwide adoption. After a positive assessment at the end of the 
    two year pilot, Ubudehe was rolled out nationally. 
    The national roll out of Ubudehe took place between 2004 and 2006 as the 
    programme was officially adopted as a national policy overseen by the Ministry 
    of Local Government. 
    Ubudehe took place between 2007 and 2012. This was at the same time as 
    an administrative restructure which saw the creation of 14,837 villages 
    (Umudugudu) as the lowest level of government organisation. In 2011-12, 
    Ubudehe was conducted in ten districts and in 2012-13 Ubudehe was conducted 
    in 15 districts.
    The Government of Rwanda planned to carry out Ubudehe in the 20 districts by 
    2014. 
    How Ubudehe works 
    a. Identifying and analysing the problems facing the community and 
    determine a priority problem to be addressed. Planning the activities 
    and resources needed for addressing the prioritized problem through a 
    collective action plan (Ubudehe). 
    b. Putting in place a system to manage the identified collective action. 
    c. Assisting people to classify the level and type of poverty that exists in their 
    community and reach a common understanding of this classification. 
    d. Drawing up the social map of the cell showing the names of household 
    heads, their social category (different categories are again decided by the 
    people themselves) and development infrastructure.
    e. Helping communities define their development priorities by bringing 
    communities together to discuss and decide upon the most effective 
    and efficient ways to achieve poverty reduction and their development 
    priorities. 
    f. Helping communities establish ways of funding their development plans, 
    at a group and individual level. 
    To achieve these aims, participating villages across Rwanda come together over 
    a period of four to seven days (at times convenient to the community such as 
    after farming activities) to complete the Ubudehe process. This process takes 
    place at the beginning of the financial year. 

    Meetings are chaired by the President of the local Ubudehe Committee and the 
    village leader. They usually last for three hours each day. Ubudehe takes place at 
    both the umudugudu (village) and household level through similar processes. 
    The management committee, elected by the community, local technicians, local 
    authorities and other stakeholders approve the execution of the collective 
    action and engage to safeguard and respect the principles of collective action. 
    After this process, funds are made available to support the identified Ubudehe 
    collective action.

    At the household level, one household is chosen to undergo the Ubudehe process 
    to assist it in overcoming poverty. The purpose of singling out one household is 
    to provide the community with a model that can be followed. The household’s 
    coping strategies are analysed before the following process is undertaken 
    with the assistance of trained Ubudehe facilitators. A compatibility test is then 
    carried out by people of integrity in the community (inyangamugayo) to make 
    sure that the retained strategy is appropriate and will be of good use to the 
    household. The household members finally accept and sign for the funds that 
    are accorded to them. They agree that the funds supporting the execution of 
    their strategy will have a rotating character. 
    A key part of Ubudehe is the residents of a community defining the levels of 
    poverty that exist in their village. This process takes place every two years and 
    the information is used to decide development priorities as well as who should 
    benefit from other social security programs and Home Grown Solutions such as 
    Umuganda and Girinka.
    Traditionally, at the end of a successful harvest, the community would come 
    together to celebrate at an event known as Umuganura. Everyone would 
    bring something from his/her own harvest for the celebrations. This event 
    would often take place once the community’s sorghum beer production was 
    completed. 
    6.1.7 Umuganda – Community work
    In simple terms, the word Umuganda means community work. In traditional 
    Rwandan culture, members of the community would call upon their family, 
    friends and neighbours to help them complete a difficult task. 
    Umuganda can be considered as a communal act of assistance and a sign of 
    solidarity. 
    In the period immediately after independence in 1962, Umuganda was only 
    organised under special circumstances and was considered as an individual 
    contribution to nation building. During this time, Umuganda was often referred 
    to as umubyizi, meaning ‘a day set aside by friends and family to help each 
    other’. 
    On February 2, 1974, Umuganda became an official government programme 
    and was organised on a more regular basis – usually once a week was in charge 
    of overseeing the program. Local leaders at the district and village level were 
    responsible for organising Umuganda and citizens had little say in this process. 
    Because penalties were imposed for non-participation, Umuganda was initially 
    considered as forced labour.
    While Umuganda was not well received initially, the programme recorded 
    significant achievements in erosion control and infrastructure improvement 
    especially building primary schools, administrative offices of the sectors and 
    villages and health centres. 
    After the Genocide, Umuganda was reintroduced to Rwandan life in 1998 as part 
    of efforts to rebuild the country. The programme was implemented nationwide 
    though there was little institutional structure surrounding the programme. 
    It was not until November 17, 2007 with the passing of Organic Law Number 
    53/2007 Governing Community Works and later on August 24, 2009 with Prime 
    Ministerial Order Number 58/03 (determining the attributions, organisation, 
    and functioning of community work supervising committees and their relations 
    with other organs) that Umuganda was institutionalised in Rwanda. 
    Today, Umuganda takes place on the last Saturday of each month before noon. 
    For Umuganda activities to contribute to the overall national development, 
    supervising committees have been established from the village level to the 
    national level. These committees are responsible for organising what work is 
    undertaken as well as supervising, evaluating and reporting what is done.
    Rwandans between 18 and 65 are obliged to participate in Umuganda. Those 
    over 65 are welcome to participate if they are willing and able. Expatriates 
    living in Rwanda are also encouraged to take part. Those who participate in 
    Umuganda cannot be compensated for their work – either in cash or in kind. 
    Today close to 80% of the Rwandans take part in monthly community work. 
    Successful projects have been developed for example the building of schools, 
    medical centres and hydro-electric plants as well as rehabilitating wetlands 
    and creating highly productive agricultural plots.

    While the main purpose of Umuganda is to undertake community work, 
    it also serves as a forum for leaders at each level of government (from the 
    village up to the national level) to inform citizens about important news and 
    announcements. Community members are also able to discuss any problems 
    they or the community are facing and to propose solutions together. This time 
    is also used for evaluating what they have achieved and for planning activities 
    for the next Umuganda a month later.
    6.1.8 Umwiherero – National leadership retreat
    Umwiherero, translated as retreat, refers to a tradition in Rwandan culture 
    where leaders convene in an isolated place in order to reflect on issues affecting 
    their communities. Upon return from these retreats, the objective is to have 
    identified solutions. On a smaller scale, this term also refers to the action of 
    moving to a quieter place to discuss issues with a small group of people. 
    (The first National Leadership Retreat was held from 10th to 17th January 
    2004at Akagera Game Lodge in Kayonza District. It gathered Senior Officials 
    such as ministers, permanent secretaries, provincial governors, Mayor of City 
    of Kigali as well as representatives from the private sector)
    Now, the Government of Rwanda is drawing on this tradition to reflect on, and 
    address the challenges the country faces on an annual basis. 
    Umwiherero is annuary organised by the Office of the Prime Minister in 
    parterniship with the Office of the President. The President chairs Umwiherero 
    during which presentations and discussions centre on a broad range of 
    development challenges, including economics, politics, justice, infrastructure, 
    health, education and others. Contemporary Umwiherero was intended for 
    senior public officials but has evolved to include leaders from the private sector 
    as well as civil society. 
    Since its inception, organisers of Umwiherero have adopted numerous initiatives 
    to improve the implementation of resolutions agreed upon at each retreat. 
    By 2011, these efforts resulted into noticeable improvements in planning, 
    coordination, and accountability leading to clear and more concise priorities. 
    In 2011, six priorities were identified, down from 174 in 2009, allowing for 
    more effective delivery and implementation of Umwiherero resolutions.

    6.1.9 Community Policing
    When Rwanda National Police (RNP) was established in 2000, it adopted 
    the community policing strategy to build ties and work closely with members 
    of the community to fight crime. Since then, the department for Community 
    Policing has reduced crime throughout the country. The department is run on 
    a philosophy that promotes proactive partnerships with the public to address 
    public safety issues such as social disorder and insecurity. 
    Traditionally, the police respond to crime after it occurs. On top of that, the 
    police cannot always be everywhere and, therefore, relies on routine patrols, 
    rapid response to calls for service, arrests and follow-up investigations.
    Community Policing, therefore, was adopted to encourage citizens to participate 
    in crime-solving. It is focused on the prevention of crime and disorder, by 
    partnering with the public to increase police visibility in all communities so as 
    to solve, prevent and reduce crime. 
    Community Policing enables the police to engage citizens in reporting incidents 
    or to use volunteers to provide timely reports that help in anti-crime operations. 

    This strategy has improved police response to crime, because many reports are 
    now provided by community members. This shows that they trust the police. 
    The police now serve the citizens professionally and ensure that they have a say 
    in the security of their communities.

    The culturally based policies have contributed a lot in helping getting some 
    socio-economic solutions that were not possible to get otherwise.
    6.2.1 Contribution of Abunzi
    As the abunzi system gained more recognition as a successful method to resolve 
    conflicts and deliver justice, the importance of providing more structure and 
    formality to their work increased.
    During the fiscal year ending June 2017 for example, mediation committees 
    received 51,016 cases. They were composed of 45,503 civil cases representing 
    89.1% and 5,513 penal cases received before the amendment of the law 
    determining organization, jurisdiction, and competence and functioning of 
    mediation committees. A total of 49,138 cases equivalent to 96.3% were 
    handled at both sector and cell levels. 38,777 (76.0%) cases received by 
    mediation committees were handled at cell level, 10,361 (20.3%) cases were 
    mediated at sector level whereas only 3.6% were undergoing at the end of the 
    year. The number of cases received by mediation committees increased at the 
    rate of 30.9% over the past three years.
    The Rwanda Governance Board (RGB) conducted an investigation into public 
    perceptions of some of the benefits of Abunzi in comparison to ordinary courts. 

    Those surveyed highlighted the following positive attributes:

     The reduction of time spent to settle cases (86.7%).
    ─ Reduction of economic costs of cases (84.2%);
    ─ The ability to mitigate conflicts between litigants (80.1%).
    ─ The participation of citizens in the mediation process (67.3%) 
    and freedom to choose a judge by the complainant and defendant 

    (56.7%)

    The best practices from mediation committees are as follows:
    Pre-hearing counselling: Before cases are heard, mediators call on both 
    complainant and defendant to emphasize the importance of social cohesion 
    and conflict resolution through community mediation. In some instances, both 
    parties may opt to withdraw the case at this point and come instead to a mutual 
    agreement. In other cases, litigants are more inclined to accept, rather than 
    appeal, the mediation decision as a result of the counseling.
    Reduced social distance between parties and mediators: Since mediators 
    are members of the same community from which disputants come, the latter 
    feel less intimidated and more comfortable expressing themselves during those 
    sessions, whether in public or in camera.
    Integrity over legal literacy: Most of the participants insisted that the question 
    of integrity, which determine the selection of mediators, confer more “trust and 
    confidence” in the committees and fostered an environment in which justice 
    prevailed.
    • Parties’ freedom to choose mediators:This was another factor highlighted 
    by participants who felt that the freedom to choose mediators helped 
    ensure equal treatment during mediation and reduced the likelihood 
    of corruption.
    • Win-Win approach: During mediation, Abunzi avoid referring to either 
    party as “winner” or “loser” as these words could create resentment 
    and further contribute to the atmosphere of conflict. The goal of these 
    mediations is to find lasting solutions through reconciliation, hence 

    the avoidance of such words

    6.2.2 Contribution of Gacaca courts
    Gacaca courts officially finished their work on June 18, 2012 and by that time 
    a total of 1,958,634 genocide related cases were tried throughout the country. 
    As earlier mentioned Gacaca is credited with laying the foundation for peace, 

    reconciliation and unity in Rwanda.

      

    6.2.3 Impact of Girinka
    Girinka has led to a number of significant changes in the lives of the poorest 
    Rwandans. The impact of the program can be divided into five categories 
    including: (1) agricultural production, (2) food security, (3) livestock ownership, 
    (4) health outcomes, (5) unity and reconciliation.
    Agricultural production
    Girinka has contributed to an increase in agricultural production in Rwanda, 
    especially milk products. Milk production has risen due to an increase in the 
    number of cows in the country and because beneficiaries have received cross 
    breeds with better productive capacity than local cattle species. Between 2000 
    and 2011, milk production increased seven fold allowing the Government of 
    Rwanda to start the One Cup of Milk per Child program in schools. Between 
    2009 and 2011, national milk production increased by 11.3%, rising to 372.6 
    million liters from 334.7 million liters. Over the same period, meat production
    increased by 9.9%, according to the Government of Rwanda Annual Report 
    2010-2011. The construction of milk collection centres has also increased and 
    by February 2013, there were more than 61 centres operational nationwide 
    with 25 more due to be completed by the end of 2013.
    Most of the beneficiaries produce enough milk to sell some at market, providing 
    additional income generation. The manure produced by the cows increases 
    crop productivity, allowing beneficiaries to plant crops offering sustenance and 
    employment as well as a stable income. Girinka has also allowed beneficiaries 
    to diversify and increase crop production, leading to greater food security.
    Food Security
    According to the Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis and 
    Nutrition Survey (CFSVA) conducted in March/April 2012, almost four in five 
    (79%) or about 1,717,000 households had acceptable food consumption and 
    could be considered food secure. Others either had poor food consumption 
    (82,000 households, representing 4% of all the households) or borderline food 
    consumption patterns (378,000 households, 17%), adding up to a total of 21% 
    of food insecure households in Rwanda. These figures show a 7% decrease 
    in food insecure households since 2006 at which time the figure was 28% 

    according to the CFSVA report of 2006

    Livestock ownership
    The Third Integrated Household Living Conditions Survey (EICV III) of 2012 
    indicated that 4% of all Rwandan households received a cow under the OneCow per Poor family policy. The highest rate was seen in the Eastern Province 
    (7%). Animal production and the integration of livestock into smallholder 
    farming is a key contributor to food security. Animal products are a good source 
    of proteins and lipids and, in times of crisis, livestock functions as a shock 
    absorber, contributing to the resilience of poor households.
    According to the CFSVA and Nutrition Survey 2012, 70% of all households in 
    Rwanda own some type of livestock. Results of the EICV III of 2012 showed 
    that in comparison to 2005/2006, higher proportions of households are now 
    able to afford cattle at 47% nationally (up from 34%). The survey also showed 
    that the percentage of livestock-owning households owning cattle increased to 
    47.3% in 2012, up from 34.4% in 2005/2006.
    Health outcomes
    While Girinka cannot be credited with single-handedly for improving the health 
    outcomes across Rwanda, the program has certainly played a part in reducing 
    the level of malnutrition across the population, among children under five 
    years. According to the Demographic Health Survey of 2010, the percentage of 
    stunted children fell from 51% in 2005, to 44% in 2010, and the percentage of 
    underweight children fell from 18% to 11%.
    Unity and Reconciliation 
    Girinka has played a significant role in post genocide reconstruction in Rwanda. 
    During the colonial period, the cow was used to divide Rwandans along ethnic 
    lines and cattle became a symbol of elitism and a commodity reserved only for 
    a portion of the country’s people.
    Girinka has changed what it means to own cattle in Rwanda. While the symbolism 
    of prosperity is still attached to the cow, by giving cattle to the poorest in society, 
    the program has helped to end the divisive perception surrounding owning 
    cattle. The ‘pass on’ component of Girinka, whereby a recipient gifts the first 
    born calf to a neighbour, has helped to rebuild social relationships which had 
    been destroyed during the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. This is because 
    the giving of a cow to someone or “Gutanga Inka” translated as “sealing a bond 
    of friendship” remains a cultural practice owned, understood and valued by 

    Rwandans.

    6.2.4 Contribution of Imihigo
    Swere completed including roads and bridges, hospitals and health centres, 
    classrooms and toilet facilities, houses for vulnerable people, modern markets, 
    selling points, drying grounds, street lighting and housing development in 
    urban areas, trading centres and administrative offices. There was great 
    improvement in distribution of electricity and water in both urban and rural 
    areas. In addition, there was evidence in most districts of small scale factories 
    being started, especially those involved in agro-based products being initiating.
    Greening and beautification: Reasonable effort was made to plant grass 
    and flowers at most public buildings such as district, sectors and cell offices, 
    schools, health and trading centres. In other places, especially at district level, 
    pavements were laid. 
    Rural settlement (imidugudu): There was a general improvement in 
    mobilizing citizens to build in areas set aside for communal villages. This was 
    accelerated by setting up basic infrastructure like roads, water supply and 
    power. The eradication of grass thatched houses and the construction of houses 
    for vulnerable people was also a contributing factor to this success.
    6.2.5 Contribution of Itorero
    The contribution of Itorero as a home-grown solution towards good governance, 
    self-reliance and dignity is observed through Itorero activities described above.
    Ubutore culture, self reliance and dignity among Rwandans instiled and 
    promoted structures of Intore were elected from villages up to sector levels in 
    2009. Later on in 2012, Itorero ry’Igihugu was officially launched in primary 
    and secondary schools. From November 2007 up to the middle of September 
    of 2017, National Itorero Commission had a total of 2.502.000 trained Intore 
    nationwide. Those mentored are the ones who go down to mentor in villages, 
    schools, and at various Itorero for specific groups. 
    Impact of Itorero at village level to resolve social, economic and financial 
    challenges through“amasibo” groups.
    Impact of induction week by welcoming new students into their respective 
    High Institutions of Learning in order to continue familiarizing those students 
    with Rwandan culture values as way to enhancing civic education; namely 
    patriotism, integrity, self-reliance and hardworking just to mention few.
    Instilling the culture of unity, truth and hard work among Rwandans: 
    in 2009, Itorero ry’Igihugu was launched in all districts of the country. Each 

    district’s regiment presented their performance contracts at that colourful 
    ince its introduction, Imihigo has been credited with improving accountability 
    and quickening the pace of citizen centred development in Rwanda. The 
    practice of Imihigo has now been extended to the ministries, embassies and 
    public service staff.
    Once the compilation of the report on Imihigo implementation has been 
    completed, the local government entity presents it to stakeholders including 
    citizens, civil society, donors and others. After reviewing the results, 
    stakeholders are often asked to jointly develop a way forward and this can be 
    done by utilising the Joint Action Development Forums (JADF)

    Since the inception of Imihigo in 2006, the following results and best practices 
    were observed:
    SACCOs (Savings and Credit Cooperatives) and payment of teachers’ salaries 
    and arrears: Good progress was made in mobilising citizens to join SACCOs 
    and reasonable funds were mobilised. Although most of the SACCOs obtained 
    provisional licenses from the National Bank of Rwanda to operate as savings
    and credit cooperatives, they needed to mobilise more member subscriptions 
    in order to realise the minimum amount required to obtain full licenses. Most of 
    all SACCO at the sector level needed adequate offices. In addition great efforts 
    were made to ensure that teachers were paid their monthly salaries on time.
    Nine Years Basic Education (9YBE): All districts evaluated made substantial 
    progress in classroom construction, made possible by the willingness of the 
    community to play a role in the districts’ development programmes, particularly 
    Imihigo. This was as a result of awareness raising campaigns and mobilisation 
    efforts to encourage citizens to own their development activities.
    Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme (VUP): Programmes implemented 
    under VUP substantially improved the welfare of citizens and facilitated the 
    implementation of government policies such as SACCO, terracing and road 
    construction.
    Community assemblies (Inteko z’Abaturage): The function of Community 
    Assemblies was reasonably understood, taking place once a month to resolve 
    various community problems. This was evidenced by the fact that very few 
    unresolved problems reached the district level. 
    Citizen participation and ownership of government programmes: Most 
    of the citizens contacted during the field visits were aware of, and actively 
    participated in government programs especially the health insurance scheme, 
    SACCOs, 12YBEs, Girinka and adult literacy. Citizen participation in the Imihigo 
    process was especially visible in rural areas. 
    Health statistics such as those of maternal and child mortality, accessibility 
    of maternal and child care, and accessibility to health insurance (Mutuelle de 
    Santé) revealed improved levels of health care for Rwandans.
    Land use consolidation: Through programs such as Umuganda, TIG (Travail 
    d’Intérêt Général, meaning community service done by prisoners) and the one 
    village one product program, selected crops such as wheat, Irish potatoes, 
    coffee, tea, and beans were cultivated extensively.
    Improvement of agricultural production: Significant efforts were made by 
    the districts in mobilizing and advising farmers on how to improve farming, 
    notably among which was land use consolidation (maize, rice, coffee, tea, 
    cassava, potatoes, banana and beans) which helps to guarantee national food 
    security.
    Infrastructure development: A significant number of infrastructure projects
    were completed including roads and bridges, hospitals and health centres, 
    classrooms and toilet facilities, houses for vulnerable people, modern markets, 
    selling points, drying grounds, street lighting and housing development in 
    urban areas, trading centres and administrative offices. There was great 
    improvement in distribution of electricity and water in both urban and rural 
    areas. In addition, there was evidence in most districts of small scale factories 
    being started, especially those involved in agro-based products being initiating.
    Greening and beautification: Reasonable effort was made to plant grass 
    and flowers at most public buildings such as district, sectors and cell offices, 
    schools, health and trading centres. In other places, especially at district level, 
    pavements were laid. 
    Rural settlement (imidugudu): There was a general improvement in 
    mobilizing citizens to build in areas set aside for communal villages. This was 
    accelerated by setting up basic infrastructure like roads, water supply and 
    power. The eradication of grass thatched houses and the construction of houses 
    for vulnerable people was also a contributing factor to this success.
    6.2.5 Contribution of Itorero
    The contribution of Itorero as a home-grown solution towards good governance, 
    self-reliance and dignity is observed through Itorero activities described above.
    Ubutore culture, self reliance and dignity among Rwandans instiled and 
    promoted structures of Intore were elected from villages up to sector levels in 
    2009. Later on in 2012, Itorero ry’Igihugu was officially launched in primary 
    and secondary schools. From November 2007 up to the middle of September 
    of 2017, National Itorero Commission had a total of 2.502.000 trained Intore 
    nationwide. Those mentored are the ones who go down to mentor in villages, 
    schools, and at various Itorero for specific groups. 
    Impact of Itorero at village level to resolve social, economic and financial 
    challenges through“amasibo” groups.
    Impact of induction week by welcoming new students into their respective 
    High Institutions of Learning in order to continue familiarizing those students 
    with Rwandan culture values as way to enhancing civic education; namely 
    patriotism, integrity, self-reliance and hardworking just to mention few.
    Instilling the culture of unity, truth and hard work among Rwandans: 
    in 2009, Itorero ry’Igihugu was launched in all districts of the country. Each 
    district’s regiment presented their performance contracts at that colourful 
    ceremony marked by cultural festivals. Each district’s Intore regiment publically 
    announced its identification name. At the national level, all the 30 district Intore 
    regiments comprised one national Itorero, but each district regiment has its 
    identification name. Each district regiment can have an affiliate sub-division 
    which can, in turn, also have a different identification name. There is also 
    Itorero for Rwandans in Diaspora that has the authority to develop its affiliated 
    sub-division.
    In order to enable each Intore to benefit and experience change of mindset, 
    each group chooses its identification name and sets objectives it must achieve. 
    Those projected objectives must be achieved during or after training, and this is 
    confirmed by the performance contracts that necessarily must be accomplished. 
    With this obligation in mind, everyone also sets personal objective that in turn 
    contributes to the success of the corporate objectives.

    Instill among youth, fraternity, patriotism and participation in National 
    programmes through National Service/Urugerero program: Plans to 
    implement Urugerero (National Service) started towards the end of 2012 and 
    the actual implementation started in 2013. Despite this short time, however, 
    Urugerero program has started to yield impressive results. Students who 
    completed Secondary School since 2012 went through Itorero mentorship. 
    Upon the completion of the prescribed course, participants were given the 
    certificates, but later on they had to undergo practical exercise of Urugerero 
    non residential and Residential National service since 2017 and organized
    through various activities designed to promote social cohesion and community 
    wellness in particular and boost national development in general.
    Intore contributed to activities related to the Volunteer Services in National 
    Development Programmes. In the Rwandan culture, “volunteerism” means 
    rendering a sacrificial and selfless service out of love either to a national 
    cause or to a needy neighbour. According to the policy of Itorero ry’ Igihugu, 
    volunteerism refers to any unpaid communal work, voluntarily undertaken in 
    the service of the nation. 
    Volunteerism is reflected in various community works such as: Umuganda, 
    Ubudehe and contributions to a common cause. Other voluntary activities 
    include those of community mediators, various councils, community health 
    workers, Community Policing Committees/CPCs, Red Cross volunteers, etc. 
    6.2.6 The contribution of Ubudehe
    Ubudehe has been recognised internationally as a highly successful 

    development program. In 2008, Ubudehe was awarded the United Nations 
    “Better Management: Better Public Service” Award.
    One of the most significant impacts of Ubudehe is the way in which it has 
    transformed citizens’ engagement with their own development. Much of the 
    twentieth century in Rwanda was characterised by centralised planning and 
    delivery of services with little or no involvement from local communities. 
    Ubudehe has changed this and, coupled with decentralisation efforts, has 
    changed the way Rwandans participate in decision making processes that affect 
    their lives. Ubudehe has achieved almost nationwide coverage and communities 
    across Rwanda are now actively involved in developing their own social maps, 
    visual representations and collection of data to the extent of poverty in their 
    village. 
    This information is used to determine national development objectives against 
    which the national government and its ministries are held accountable.
    The way through which Ubudehe has brought communities together for collective 
    action based on their own priorities is also considered a major achievement 
    of the programme. The provision of a bank account to each community has 
    enabled thousands of communities to lead actions such as purchasing livestock, 
    undertaking agriculture activities, building clean water facilities, classrooms, 
    terraces, health centres as well as silos for storing produce. In 2006-2007, 
    9,000 communities undertook different projects through Ubudehe and in 2007-
    2008 that number rose to 15,000. 2010 saw over 55,000 collective actions by 
    communities with the assistance of 30,000 Ubudehe facilitators.
    At least 1.4 million people, around 20% of the population, have been direct 
    beneficiaries of Ubudehe. Between 2005 and 2008, around 50,000 people were 
    trained on Ubudehe concepts and procedures. This has resulted in a greater 
    level of skills available to the community at the local level helping Ubudehe to 
    be more effective.
    6.2.8 Contribution of Umuganda
    Umuganda is credited with contributing to Rwanda’s development, particularly 
    in the areas of infrastructure development and environmental protection. 
    Common infrastructure projects include roads (especially those connecting 
    sectors), bridges, heath centres, classroom construction (to support the nine 
    and twelve12) Years of Basic Education programs), housing construction for 
    poor and vulnerable Rwandans (often to replace grass-thatched housing) and 
    the construction of local government offices and savings and credit cooperative 
    buildings.




    Environmental protection projects undertaken include tree planting and 
    terracing to fight erosion, wetland rehabilitation, renewable energy construction 
    and crop planting.
    From 2007 to 2010/11, the activities valuated at 26,397,939,119 Rwf consisted 
    mainly of the construction of houses for vulnerable people, roads, classrooms 
    for the Nine Year Basic Education Programme (9YBE), health centres, public 
    offices, tree planting, terracing and other infrastructures to protect against 
    erosion. 
    To measure the impact of Umuganda and encourage greater participation, the 
    Government of Rwanda introduced the National Umuganda Competition in 
    2009. The aim of the competition is to create awareness of the best projects 
    carried out, award communities that have completed good initiatives and to 
    encourage communities to plan properly and maintain what they have achieved.
    The competition includes all levels of Rwandan society from the village up to 
    the national level. The best activity in each district is awarded with a certificate 
    and funding for future projects, and the best three projects in each province 
    are awarded prizes. The best three projects from across Rwanda are awarded 
    a cash prize of between US $1,500 (1,200,000 RWF) and $2,300 (1,840,000 RWF).
    Umuganda is also credited with assisting in reconciliation and peace building 
    in Rwanda. This is because neighbours are brought together to build their 
    community and can discuss problems and solve them collectively.
    6.2.9 Impact of Umwiherero

    For a few days every year, leaders from all arms of Government come under one 
    roof to collectively look at the general trajectory the country is taking and seek 
    remedies to outstanding problems. Initially, Umwiherero had been designed 
    exclusively for senior public officials but it has evolved to include leaders from 
    the private sector as well as civil society. Provided under the constitution, 
    Umwiherero is chaired by the Head of State and during this time, presentations 
    and discussions centre on a broad range of development challenges including 
    but not limited to the economy, governance, justice, infrastructure, health and 
    education.
    Since its inception, organizers of Umwiherero have adopted numerous innovative 
    initiatives to expedite the implementation of resolutions agreed upon at each 
    retreat. Since then, the results are quantifiable. These efforts have resulted in 
    noticeable improvements in planning, coordination, and accountability leading 
    to clearer and more concise priorities.
    As discussions go deep in exposing matters affecting the wellbeing of the people 
    of Rwanda, poor performers are reprimanded and those who delivered on their 

    mandate are recognized



    Umwiherero provides a platform for candid talk among senior officials. For 
    example, an official raises a hand to mention his/her superior who is obstructing 
    a shared development agenda. The said superior is then given a chance to 
    explain to the meeting how he/she intends to resolve this deadlock. The retreat 
    sets a scene for every leader to be held accountable. Ultimately, this provides an 
    opportunity for leaders to forge a better future for Rwanda. The organization, 
    implementation and outcomes of Umwiherero have vastly improved and 
    significant achievements recorded. 
    The focus has been to make number of key priorities that makes it easier for 
    meaningful discussions and effective implementation. The retreats are also 
    credited with significantly improving coordination and cooperation between 
    government ministries and agencies. This time round, priorities might not be 
    just small in number, but much more challenging and tougher.
    6.2.10 Contribution of Community Policing
    The Rwanda Governance Scorecard produced by the Rwanda Governance Board 
    in 2016, presented results from a nationwide survey, which indicated that 92
    per cent of the citizens trust the Police. This is an indicator of professional 
    services, discipline and partnership. It is when the community and the police 
    work together for their common good that citizens will trust the police. 
    Once the citizens trust the officers, they will provide them with information to 
    help prevent or solve crimes and to arrest criminals. 
    This has enabled the police to serve communities better and to fulfill its mission 

    of making the people living in Rwanda feel safe and secure.

           

    6.3.1 Challenges of Abunzi 
    Some of the challenges encountered during the implementation of Abunzi are:
    Inadequate legal knowledge: While most mediators acknowledged that they 
    received training session on laws, they expressed a desire to receive additional 
    training on a more regular basis to enhance their knowledge of relevant laws.
    Insufficient mediation skills: Mediators also expressed a desire to receive 
    additional training in professional mediation techniques in order to improve 
    the quality and effectiveness of their work.
    Lack of permanent offices: In some areas, mediation committees do not always 
    have workspace reserved for them and must share space with the staff from 
    cells and/or sectors offices; this sharing can sometimes result in the loss or 
    mix-up of case files.
    Incentives: A number of mediators complained that the incentive promised to 
    them and their families in the form of “mutuelle de santé” (health insurance) 
    was not always forthcoming.
    Transportation for field visits: Mediators complained about not always being 
    able to afford transportation to perform site visits when reviewing cases. While 
    each chairperson at the appeal level received a bicycle, it has been recognised 
    that field visits for all mediators have been very difficult in some cases. This can 
    result in delays in the mediation process. 
    Communication facilities: To perform their duties, mediators must communicate 
    among themselves or with other institutions, but they are not given a 
    communication allowance. This proves problematic at times and can lead to 
    financial stress for some when they are obliged to use their own money to 
    contact for instance litigants and institutions.
    6.3.2 Challenges of Gacaca courts 
    Below are challenges faced during implementation of Gacaca.
    At the beginning of the data collection phase at the national level, 46,000 
    Inyangamugayo representing 27.1% of the total number of judges, were 
    accused of genocide. 
    This led to their dismissal from Gacaca courts. Leaders, especially in the local 
    government, were accused of participating in genocide constituting a serious 
    obstacle to the smooth running of Gacaca. In some cases, there was violence 
    against genocide survivors, witnesses and Inyangamugayo.
    Serious trauma among survivors and witnesses manifested during Gacaca 
    proceedings. In some cases, there was a problem of suspects fleeing their 
    communities and claiming that they were threatened because of Gacaca. In 
    some cases there was corruption and favouritism in decision making.

    6.3.3 Challenges of Girinka 
    The following are the major challenges faced by the Girinka programme:
    In some cases, the distribution of cows has not been transparent and people with 
    the financial capacity to buy cows themselves were among the beneficiaries.This 
    issue was raised at the National Dialogue Council. (Umushyikirano) in 2009 
    and eventually resolved through the cow recovery programme. This program 
    resulted in 20,123 cows given to unqualified beneficiaries (out of a total of 

    20,532 wrongly given) redistributed to poor families.

    A lack of feed factories in the country has hindered efforts to properly feed some 
    of the cattle affecting their health and productivity. The Ministry of Agriculture 
    worked with investors who have shown interest in building feed factories in 
    Nyagatare, Kayonza and Kicukiro. In some instances, the cost of management 
    inputs has been high and, in some districts, there has been a delay in utilisation 
    of earmarked fund.
    Decentralisation of the programme has helped address this. Provision of 
    additional services (especially veterinary services and artificial insemination) 
    has been limited in some cases due a shortage of skilled staff with relevant 
    training. This has affected the cows’ milk production and the ‘pass on’ system.
    With regards to bank loans, some farmers received cows that were overpriced. 
    As a resolution, farmers who were overcharged are required to pay the bank 
    the actual cost of the cow only through a new contract with the difference paid 
    by those who were responsible for over costing.
    Poor management by inexperienced farmers has increased the mortality for 
    some cows. A shortage of land requires an intensification program in cattle 
    management practices which can sometimes have adverse impacts on the 
    cows such as increase in disease prevalence. To address this, beneficiaries now 
    receive training about modern farming practices prior to receiving their cow.
    6.3.4 Challenges of Imihigo 
    While Imihigo have provided the Government of Rwanda and citizens with a way 
    to hold leaders to account, some challenges listed below have been identified 
    from the 2010-2011 evaluation report:
    There is a planning gap especially on setting and maintaining logic and 
    consistency: objectives, baseline, output/targets and indicators.
    Setting unrealistic and over-ambitious targets by districts was common. Some 
    targets were not easily achievable in 12 months. For example, construction of 
    a 30 km road when no feasibility study had been conducted or reducing crime 
    by 100%.
    In some districts low targets were established that would require little effort 
    to implement. The practice of consistent tracking of implementation progress, 
    reporting and filing is generally still weak. Some targets were not achieved 
    because of district partners who did not fulfil their commitments in disbursing 
    funds - especially the central government institutions and development 
    partners. There is a weakness of not setting targets based on uniqueness of 
    rural and urban settings.
    Setting targets that are beyond districts’ full control was observed: For 
    example, construction of stadiums and development of master plans whose 
    implementation is fully managed by the central government. There was 
    general lack of communication and reporting of challenges faced that hindered 
    implementation of the committed targets.
    6.3.5 Challenges of Itorero 
    During its implementation, Itorero faced a series of challenges including:
    a. Insufficient budget compared to workload.
    b. Small number of personnel;
    c. Staff compensation low compared to workload; 
    d. National service program not reflected in Districts plan;
    e. Training sites at districts and provincial level still missing;
    f. Some partners not owning Itorero activities (not yet included activities 
    relating to the promotion of Ubutore culture in their planning). 
    g. Low understanding of the role of Itorero especially at the village level.
    6.3.6 Challenges of Ubudehe 
    The major challenges of Ubudehe can be divided into categorisation and project 
    implementation:
    Categorisation
    In some cases, village members have preferred to be classified into lower 
    poverty levels as a way to receive support from social security programs such 
    as health insurance and Girinka. To overcome this, household poverty level 
    categorisation takes place publically with all heads of households and must be 
    validated by the village itself.
    If community members dispute the decision made by their village, they are 
    entitled to lodge a complaint and appeal in the first instance to the sector level. 
    The Ubudehe Committee at the sector level conducts a visit to the household 
    and either upholds or issues a new decision. If community members remain 
    unhappy with the decision, they can appeal in the second instance to the district 
    level. The final level of appeal is to the Office of the Ombudsman at the central 
    government level.
    Project implementation
    The major challenges of project implementation are with the community 
    choosing a project and then completing the project.
    Communities sometimes have difficulty to define the problems affecting their 
    development and struggle to know how best to prioritise the projects and 
    select the most crucial project to execute. Challenges also sometimes arise 
    when communities are required to choose one household to act as a model for 
    the village. This can be a point of contention because that household receives 
    significant resources to carrying out its Ubudehe development plan.
    To overcome these challenges, the programme has increased training provided 
    to communities on how to select and prioritise projects. In deciding which 
    household will be the model for the village, the community is required to vote 
    which helps members support the decision.
    At the household level it has been observed that some beneficiaries have 
    struggled to manage the funds or resources they received. In some cases, 
    households spent the money on things other than their project or sold the 
    livestock they received. To overcome this challenge, the Ubudehe Committee 
    at the village level has been tasked to provide regular follow up and support.
    6.3.7 Challenges of Umuganda
    The challenges faced by Umuganda fall into two broad categories: planning and 
    participation. In some areas of the country, poor planning has led to unrealistic 
    targets and projects that would be difficult to achieve without additional 
    financing. 
    To address this challenge, the team responsible for Umuganda at the Ministry 
    of Local Government has run trainings for the committees that oversee 
    Umuganda at the local level. These trainings include lessons on monitoring 
    and evaluation, how to report achievements, the laws, orders and guidelines 
    governing Umuganda as well as responsibilities of the committee. 
    In urban areas, participation in Umuganda has been lower than in rural areas.
    So in order to overcome the issues of low participation rates in some areas 
    of the country, especially in urban areas, an awareness raising campaign is 
    conducted through documentaries, TV and radio shows to inform Rwandans 
    about the role Umuganda plays in society and its importance. 
    A mobilisation strategy is also currently being devised which includes ideas 
    about how to streamline the laws and policies governing Umuganda so that 
    they are more easily understood. This is also to ensure that they are in line with 
    the National Community and Local Development Strategy. The City of Kigali is 
    also embarking on a process to find the best ways to encourage those living in 
    urban areas to take part in Umuganda.
    The Ministry of Local Government has begun a partnership with South Korea to 
    learn from the community work practice there known as Saemual Undong. This 
    is part of attempts to learn from the best practices all over the world as well as 
    share Rwanda’s experience with other countries.

    6.3.8 Challenges of Umwiherero 
    The first four years of Umwiherero saw questionable results. The organisation 
    of the retreat was often rushed, objectives were poorly defined, and few tangible 
    results could be measured.
    This led the establishment of the Strategy and Policy Unit in the Office of the 
    President and the Coordination Unit in the Office of the Prime Minister. At the 
    same time, the Ministry of Cabinet Affairs was set up to improve the functioning 
    of the Cabinet. These two newly formed units were tasked with working 
    together to implement Umwiherero. While the first retreat organised by the two 
    new teams suffered from similar problems to previous retreats, improvement 
    was noticeable.
    Following Umwiherero in 2009, Minister of Cabinet Affairs served as head of 
    the newly formed steering committee tasked with overseeing the retreat. The 
    steering committee was comprised of 14 team members. Alongside the steering 
    committee, working groups were set up to define the priorities to be included 
    on the retreat agenda. This process was overseen by the Strategy and Policy 
    Unit who developed a concept paper with eleven priority areas to be approved 
    by the Prime Minister and the President.
    Since that time the organisation, implementation and outcomes of Umwiherero 
    have vastly improved and significant achievements have been recorded. 
    The focus on a small number of key priorities has made it easier for meaningful 
    discussions to be had and for effective implementation to take place. For 
    example, the number of national priorities agreed upon by participants fell from 
    174 in 2009 to 11 in 2010 and to six in 2011. The retreats are also credited with 
    significantly improving coordination and cooperation between government 
    ministries and agencies.
    6.3.9 Challenges of Community policing
    While the Community policing is helping the police to address security related 
    problems, every district faces its unique challenges, but in general common 
    challenges are:
    a. Increase of drug abuse and gender based violence;
    b. The issue of human trafficking in Rwanda;
    c. The persistence of home assaults and prostitution becoming a threat to 

    security everywhere.

        

    Unit summary
    This unit focuses basically to home grown solutions initiatives. It intends to 
    contribute to instill various innovations taken by the country in order to improve 
    and speed economic progress. These are all related to historical background 
    and Rwanda society genuine and impactfull issues. Among them we can state 

    ubudehe, umuganda, girinka munyarwanda, kwigira, community policing etc…




    

    UNIT 5:RIGHTS, DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONSUNIT:ORIGIN, RISE AND DECLINE OF WEST AFRICAN EMPIRES