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UNIT 4:PREVENTION OF GENOCIDE
4.1.1 Concept of genocide prevention
Prevention is a continuous process that aims at avoiding the occurrence of
something harmful by tackling the causes of the harm prior to it and at each
phase of the process to its occurrence and after. Genocide Prevention is any
action that works toward averting a future genocide.
Since the adoption of the Genocide Convention in 1948 until now, the response
of the governments at the international community level to prevent genocides
and mass killings have been very poor. These poor performances are testified
by a number of tragic situations of genocide since the Holocaust.
The tragedies in Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia and Darfur in Sudan have shocked
the conscience of mankind, and there is a fear that the list may grow even longer
in future, if prevention of genocide is not clarified and taken seriously.
What is absurd is that, while for other tragedies it is generally not easy to
foresee them before they happen and therefore difficult or even impossible to
prevent them, genocide is preceded by factors and clear signs that it may or is
about to happen. That would logically provide enough opportunities to take
measures to prevent those factors from leading to genocide.
Several years before the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda occurred, there
existed factors and signs that showed that a genocide could potentially break
out but it was not prevented.
4.1.2 Factors that may lead to genocide
Genocide is not something that happens overnight because for genocide to
happen there are a number of factors that precede and make it possible. They
create conditions or opportunities for genocide to occur. Hence, one needs to
first understand the process to genocide in order to know what to do, by whom,
at which moment and by which means of preventing it.
The prevention of genocide will not be successful, if the concerned people do
not understand the process to genocide. Many factors have been discussed, but
there is no consensus on a definitive list of signs or elements that are present in
all genocides. The following are some of the factors that may lead to genocide:
Differences in identity: Genocide is not possible where there is no difference
among the population in a given state but this difference itself cannot lead to
genocide if not combined with other factors;
Difficult life due to economic problems (poverty): Being poor itself does
not make genocide possible but it certainly creates a favourable environment
to other associated problems that may contribute to the process to genocide;
Deprivation or inequalities in the allocation of resources: When this
inequality is based on the differences in racial, ethnicity grounds, meaning,
when some groups are given more privileges than others or when a group is
totally excluded from accessing the resources, it may create tensions that may
lead to other problems that may soon or later lead to genocide;
Political problems: in many cases the origin of the genocide is the political
dominance of one group over other groups. The dominant group may intend
to eliminate other groups in order to have the guarantee of continuation of
dominance. In reaction, the underprivileged group may feel discriminated and
plan to get to power by any means. In both cases, they tend to use a war which
might be itself another factor leading to genocide;
Armed conflicts: the existence of armed actors has served as a motivation
and excuse for human rights violations, including killings, arbitrary arrest
and discrimination committed against the civilian population that the armed
actors claim to represent. Refugees from the persecuted side may also become
warriors determined to overthrow the government in place in order to recover
their rights (like having a home land);
Human rights violations and impunity: genocide is always preceded by
successive human rights violations and by impunity. In Rwanda, the culture
of impunity of perpetrators of human rights violations based on ethnicity that
characterized the colonial and post-colonial periods played a leading role in the
genocide against the Tutsi that occurred in 1994. The episodes of unpunished
massacres committed against the Tutsi “ethnic” group in 1959, 1963-1964,
1973, 1990-1993, did not only pave the way to genocide against them, but
also contributed to its magnitude in that it made the public participation high
because of the then assurance that no prosecution would follow. The role of the
elites and leaders in denying the enjoyment of human rights to some groups
and in the impunity before and during armed conflicts is also an important
factor.
4.1.3 Practices leading to genocide
During the process to genocide some special practices reinforce the divisions.
Based on different studies, the practices are as follows:
Social categorization
People are classified into “us and them” by ethnicity, race, religion, or nationality:
Germans and Jews, Hutu and Tutsi. In Rwanda, during the colonisation,
researchers measured for instance the people’s height and the length of their
noses. And then everyone was classified as Tutsi, Hutu or Twa.
Identities cards were issued to each individual mentioning the ethnicity. It may
not be deduced that this policy was meant to incite Hutu to commit genocide
against the Tutsi, but this permanent line put between the groups and the
implications related to that, contributed to the antagonism between the two
groups that later, combined with other things, led to genocide.
Discrimination/classification
The social categorization which gives the basis for defining groups may be
followed by the exclusion of some groups, intensified by the injustice in the
allocation of resources as well as the injustice on how the participation in
decision making process is distributed. Since these practices of discrimination
against some targeted groups are either done by state leaders or supported by
them, they grow and lead to other phases that may lead to genocide.
Dehumanization
Dehumanisation is a denial of the humanity of others and a step that permits
killing with impunity. This genocidal ideology “dehumanises” members of a
group and justifies violence against it. Victims are not considered as belonging
to the same human race as the oppressors. The targeted group is often likened
to a disease, microbes, cockroaches, infections or a cancer in the body. That is
what explains why during the genocide, bodies of victims are often mutilated to
express this denial of humanity.
Dehumanisation is an important phase in the process that leads to genocide
because ideologically, the perpetrators claim to purify the society as a
justification. So, the ideology grows deeper to convincing one group that another
deserves nothing but death and this is a legitimization to kill. The availability of
the dehumanising ideology is important in the process to genocide but may not
be enough to cause genocide if it is not followed by other actions.
Propaganda for the elimination of targeted group (to which stage this fact could
be linked in Staton categorization)
For the dehumanisation to have its effect, it needs propaganda to spread out
the hate ideology done either by leaders themselves, the authorised who are
supported by them. This is an important phase in the whole process because
it helps the elite members of the eliminating group to disseminate the
dehumanising ideology and to bring other members of that group to believe
in that hatred. This is an important motivating factor to take part actively in
killings. A prominent example of the hate media in Rwanda during the 1990s
is the famous Kangura newspaper as well as the Radio Television Libre des
Mille Collines (RTLM).
Preparation
This phase is when some possible acts liable of making genocide are performed.
They include writing lists of victims, creation and training of militia, purchase
and distribution of arms to be used.
Massacre of the target group members
In many cases, genocide is always preceded by killings targeting a given group
or individuals belonging to that group in different places. Genocide may also
be preceded by killings of moderate people because, of not supporting the
extermination of the targeted group.
Extermination (genocide)
This is the phase when the genocide is executed. It is when the intent to destroy
the targeted group can be seen from what is happening on the ground. When
killings are sponsored by the state, the armed forces often work with militias to
kill like the Interahamwe in Rwanda during the Genocide
In the case of the genocide against the Tutsi, the main actors were: the interim
government, local administration, security forces, militia, the media, civil
society organizations (churches included), the population and the international
community.
Denial and impunity of genocide
During and after every genocide, the perpetrators always find a way of denying
their crime. They try to justify the killings, and to blame the victims, claiming
that their own behaviours brought about the killings. In Rwanda, killers alleged
that Tutsi were helping rebels of RPF, and they used this to justify the mass
killing of innocent Tutsi. The denial of genocide is not only the destruction of
the truth about the genocide by negating or minimising it, it is also a potential
cause of its repetition.
4.2.1. Prevention of genocide at primary level
Genocide is not something that happens overnight or without warning.
Genocide requires organization and constitutes in fact a deliberate strategy and
one that has been mostly carried out by governments or groups controlling
the state apparatus. Understanding the way genocide occurs and learning to
recognise signs that could lead to genocide are important in making sure that
such horrors do not happen again.
Since genocide is a process, prevention of genocide would mean to tackle it at
a very early stage. The prevention at the primary level consists of measures
aiming at creating an environment that reduces the risk of its escalation. At this
phase the aim is to put in place measures that may pre-empt the start of the
harm. This means preventive measures that may avoid the occurrence of the
harm by tackling its root causes. Prevention will therefore include the adoption
of measures that not only prohibit the harm but also put in place mechanisms
that ensure the prevention of that harm.
On international level, the focus in upstream prevention is determining which
countries are at the risk. This is mainly done using risk assessments which are
quite accurate predictors. Numerous models have been developed, each looking
at different factors such as differences in identity, difficult conditions due to
economic problems, sharing of available resources, democracy and respect of
human rights.
Among other things to consider when assessing and addressing the risk of
genocide is looking at structural and institutional frameworks in the country
including domestic legislation, an independent judiciary and an effective police
force to protect people.
By using risk assessments (Early Warning System), policy makers, civil society
organisations and the UN must take appropriate measures to stop the situation
from evolving into genocide.
When the primary preventive measures are unsuccessful, then the need to take
other measures may arise.
4.2.2. Prevention of genocide at secondary level
Prevention of genocide at this secondary level is necessary in two situations.
Firstly, in case a state has not adopted measures at the primary level and
secondly, in case the measures adopted before did not prevent the risks of
genocide from developing.
The secondary prevention takes place when a genocide is already taking
place. At this level, many genocidal actions are observed, such as hatred,
intolerance, racism, ethnic cleansing, torture, sexual violence, disappearances,
dehumanizing and public discourse.
The main focus is to end the genocide before it progresses further and claims
more lives. Measures tailored to the situation are taken in order to prevent the
risk from materialising or the situation from becoming worse.
This level of prevention may involve military intervention of some sort,
especially when it is in an armed conflict context. But there is a debate about
the effectiveness of this military intervention whereby some claim that military
intervention promotes rebel groups or that it is too expensive for the lives it
saves. They prefer peaceful prevention because it saves lives and does not
require costly intervention for example (MINUAR, MONUSCO).
4.2.3. Prevention of genocide at tertiary level
When the measures at the secondary level fail or have never been taken and
the mass killings start, measures at the tertiary level are needed in order to
respond to this final phase of the genocide. Tertiary prevention focuses on
avoiding genocide in future by rebuilding, restoring he community and dealing
with all the consequences to repair the damage caused
Rwanda is an example of the failure of international community to intervene. In
1994, with the presence of United Nations (UN) peace keepers, it was possible to
stop the genocide against the Tutsi, but because of various politico-diplomatic
reasons, these peace keepers were obliged to go back to their countries and let
Tutsi die in the hands of the perpetrators.
Tertiary prevention takes place during and after the genocide has ended. Its
focus is on preventing genocide in the future, thus re-building and restoring
the community. In other words, the tertiary prevention level also deals with
all consequences in order not only to repair the damage but also to avoid the
reoccurrence of the harm.
In concluding, it is important to say that prevention is a continuous process
which involves several actions at different levels which involve the individuals,
government, and international community.
The first challenge is related to lack of certainty that the presence of factors
at different phases may lead to genocide and the second is the uncertainty
on whether the preventive measures to be taken can prevent it. Sometimes it
is better to highlight the key aspects in the text where needed for more facts
visibilty.
Regarding the first challenge, it must be said that the certainty from the existing
factors and risks at early phases that they will to genocide may be difficult to get,
given the fact that the genocide is planned by those in power. Even at advanced
phases, the degree of certainty of occurrence may still not be there. The process
to genocide cannot be understood as an exact science. That is why it may be
argued that the answer to the lack of certainty may be negative. Before taking
preventive measures, one cannot wait until there is certainty that genocide will
happen.
In fact, by the time this is clear, it might be too late to prevent genocide from
happening and too difficult to do it without causing other problems. The
analogy with the prevention of environmental damage which does not require
full scientific certainty can help to understand the uncertainty of the occurrence
of genocide. The fact that there may not be a linear process to genocide that is
identical everywhere is a big challenge.
4.4.1. The role of the international community
The poor record in preventing genocides forced the United Nations to
conceptualize ways of deterring the crime while “recognizing and fully
respecting the sovereignty of States.” The then UN Secretary - General Kofi
Annan took important measures which inspired many programs in the field
of genocide prevention. He identified a Five Point Action Plan to end genocide:
Prevent armed conflict, which usually provides the context for genocide;
Protect civilians in armed conflict, including the mandate for UN peacekeepers;
End impunity through judicial action in both national and international courts;
Gather military information and set up an early warning system; Take quick
and decisive action along a continuum of steps, including military action.
Annan created the Office of the Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide,
later changed to the Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide and Mass
Atrocities (SAPG). The mandate of the SAPG is to:
a. Collect existing information, in particular from within the United
Nations system, on massive and serious violations of human rights and
international humanitarian law of ethnic and racial origin that, if not
prevented or halted, might lead to genocide;
b. Act as a mechanism of early warning to the Secretary - General, and
through him to the Security Council, by bringing to their attention
potential situations that could result in genocide;
c. Make recommendations to the Security Council, through the Secretary
General, on actions to prevent or halt genocide;
d. Liaise with the United Nations system on activities for the prevention of
genocide and work to enhance the United Nations capacity to analyse and
manage information relating to genocide or related crimes.
With the introduction of Responsibility to protect people in 2001, the
international community has taken significant steps towards greater awareness
of escalating situations and employing a tempered preventive mechanism
which views intervention as a last resort.
According to this international norm signed by all member states of the UN,
any nation has the right to intervene if a state fails to protect its citizens from
genocide or other crimes. This means that state sovereignty can be violated for
the protection of a population if the state is unable or unwilling to do it. This
norm has enabled the international community to step in more easily for the
prevention of genocide. However, there has been some question of the abuses
of this norm as an excuse to intervene or create regime changes. Also there are
still difficulties when intervention is discussed but it fails to give an answer to
who should intervene and what are the constraints to such intervention.
4.4.2 Availing different mechanisms for prevention of genocide
At regional level
Role of the African Union (AU). It is significantly more engaged in the region.
It has set up mechanisms related to conflict prevention, early warning and
preventive diplomacy, peace-building, intervention and humanitarian action,
and disaster management.
The intervention of Eastern Africa Standby Force (EASF). This force was created
by the decision of the Summit of the African Union held in July 2004 in Addis
Ababa to deal with the possible outbreak of genocides and peace in Africa.
All countries have to put in place measures related to genocide prevention
especially where they occurred.
All countries have not put in place measures related to genocide prevention.
Only those who have experienced that tragedy seem to be aware more than
others and Rwanda is in that case. In the aftermath of genocide, measures have
been taken to face the immediate consequences and to prevent genocide from
happening again.
In the case of Rwanda, the Constitution of Rwanda chapter III, article 10 commits
to upholding the following fundamental principles and ensuring their respect:
1. Prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, fighting against
denial and revisionism of genocide as well as eradication of genocide
ideology and all its manifestations;
2. Eradication of discrimination and divisionism based on ethnicity, region
or on any other ground as well as promotion of national unity;
3. Building a State governed by the rule of law, a pluralistic democratic
Government, equality of all Rwandans between men and women
Laws punishing the crime of genocide and the genocide ideology have been
elaborated. Special organ to monitor and implement these principles has been
created, the National Commission for the Fight against Genocide established
by Law Nº09/2007 of 16/02/2007. Its mission is “to prevent and fight against
Genocide, its ideology and overcoming its consequences”.
Keeping alive the memory of past acts of genocide. In case of Rwanda, genocide
against the Tutsi Memorials are kept and are extremely important in prevention
of Genocide in Rwanda. Therefore, it is imperative that the genocide against the
Tutsi and all other acts of genocide elsewhere in the world be remembered.
It is imperative that the genocide against the Tutsi and all other acts of genocide
elsewhere in the world be remembered. The second one is to educate people
for sustainable peace and prevention of genocide using memorials.
Then the prevention of genocide should be done in educational setting. The
country of Rwanda has included the prevention of genocide and peace education
as a cross cutting issue in the programmes that have to be taught at all levels of
education from primary to tertiary levels.
Other measures of prevention of genocide encompass effective arrest, trial
and punishment of those who have committed genocide. The implementation
of these measures requires the existence of the early and effective functioning
of the International Criminal Court, the use of national courts with universal
jurisdiction, and the creation of special international tribunals to prosecute
perpetrators of genocide. That is why the International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda (ICTR) was set up in Arusha, Tanzania, began operating in 1995, after
a UN Security Council resolution 955 of November 8, 1994.
At national level, the country of Rwanda had put in place Gacaca court which is
a traditional justice system based on telling truth, in the eradication of impunitythat lead to genocide against Tutsi in 1994.
1. Do you agree or disagree with the above quotation of the UN General
- Secretary Ban Ki-moon. Comment on your position.
2. Evaluate three initiatives made by the Government of Rwanda
to prevent the reoccurrence of genocide both at national and
international levels.
3. To what extent does lack of an institution in charge of assessing the
factors that can lead to genocide be a challenge to the prevention of
genocide?
4. Read carefully the following extracts:
Text 1:
“The first thing I can tell them [other Rwandan children] I can explain that
ethnic or skin color is not very important in this world. We must live together
without discriminating against any person because we don’t choose what we
are. That is why I preferred to forgive rather than revenging”!A genocide survivor
Text 2:
“We were walking with many other refugees near Ruyenzi, across the
river from Kigali. The road was so crowded with people. I was with my
grandmother. As I was walking, I heard a voice of a woman crying, and
screaming from a child. I looked to the side and saw a lady with a baby. I
asked my grandmother to stop, to go and see what is happening with the
lady. But my grandmother didn’t want to go, saying, “If we go there, they will
kill us.” And then I went down off the road alone, but other people continued
on. The mother was lying on her side with the child lying on top of her. She
was around one year, because she couldn’t walk. I was thinking, “Of course
this mother will die, but at least I can rescue this child. I never had a sister. If
I rescue her, she will be my sister.” My grandmother said, “Make sure that you
don’t ask me for anything to help you.” I said, “I will take her; if I die, she will
die. If she doesn’t die she will be my sister.” But my grandmother said, “You
should not walk close to us, because we may be killed. Walk behind us, with
a little distance between us and you. ”I was very, very committed. We kept
going; I was carrying the baby on my back up until we got to Zaire”.
Source: Aegis Trust Archives
Questions
1. After reading text 2, if it was you, what would you have done when the
grandmother prevented the young girl to go down off the road to see
the child? Justify your position.
2. By comparing text 1 and 2 explain how the measures taken by the
main characters can help to prevent genocide from happening again
in Rwanda. You can use direct quotes from the text. Do you agree that
visit of genocide memorial has a role in genocide prevention? Justify
your answer.
3. Write an essay in no more than 300 words on the importance of
genocide commemoration.
4. Imagine a genocide memorial you can create in your home community.
Describe what you can put in the memorial and explain how it canhelp to prevent further genocide.
Unit Summary
In this unit, the focus is put to prevention to genocide crime. Indeed, the concept
means in general a continuous process that aims at avoiding the occurrence
of something harmful by tackling the causes of the harm prior to it and at
each phase of the process. Concerning genocide, prevention is any action that
works toward averting a future genocide. However, since the adoption of the
Genocide Convention in 1948 until now, the response of the governments at
the international community level to prevent genocides and mass killings have
been very poor. These poor performances are testified by a number of tragic
situations of genocide since the Holocaust. The tragedies in Cambodia, Rwanda,
Bosnia and Darfur in Sudan have shocked the conscience of mankind, and there
is a fear that the list may grow even longer in future. Normally, genocide is
preceded by factors and clear signs that it may or is about to happen. In the
case of Rwanda, several years before the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda
occurred, there existed factors and signs that showed that a genocide could
potentially break out but it was not prevented. The unit explores a big number
of those factors and give tentative solutions and measures to better prevent
(primary, secondary and tertiary levels) it from Rwanda society and elsewherearound the world.