General
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UNIT 13:THE 1789 FRENCH REVOLUTION
France pursued a monarchical system of government. She was one of the
dominant powers in Europe. She had enjoyed this status for long. This made
her the envy of many powers. Her greatest rival was Great Britain. As a country,
she found herself in great difficulties as shown below:
13.1.1. The Enlightenment period
The age of reason had opened the people’s eyes. In France, where most of the
philosophers were found, Enlightenment ideas made people to question the
inequalities of the old regime which still operated on the basis of divine rights
of kings. The biased treatment by the government of sections of the population
did not go down well with the majority of the citizens. To them, the favoured
position of the clergy and nobility went against reason. Therefore, there were
calls for fair treatment of all classes throughout France.
13.1.2 Colonial wars among European nations
There were increased wars among European countries to acquire colonies in
different parts of Europe and the Americas. Weak European nations wanted
to acquire colonies so as to conquer them hence increase their power and
prestige. Interestingly, on the eve of the French Revolution, Europe was very
varied. Western Europe was generally more advanced than Eastern Europe. In
the north, Sweden was the most important power. It controlled Finland and
some territories in Germany. Denmark in the North was equally powerful. It
controlled Norway and had a large navy. In Eastern Europe, Russia and the
Ottoman Empires were the most backward. Russia nursed feelings of territorial
expansion in the Baltic Sea and Asia. It had, prior to the revolution, allied with
Prussia and Austria to divide Poland among themselves. This was done under a
Russian ruler, who was a true product of the Enlightenment, Empress Catherine
II, the Great.
The Turkish (Ottoman) empire held power over the Christian people of southeast Europe (the Serbs, Wallachians, Bulgars, Greeks and others). It also
controlled Asia Minor and North Africa. Russia wanted lands in this empire. In
south east Europe, there was the kingdom of Hungary. It controlled modernday republics of Czecholslavia (Moravia and Bohemia), Galicia (today part
of Poland) Croatia and some territories in Northern Italy. It also controlled
Belgium. All these territories were controlled by the head of the Hapsburg
family in what was known as ‘The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation’.
This was a loose grouping of more than 300 states covering modern Germany
and some areas beyond. Most of these territories, although controlled by
Germany, were not made up of Germans. Like Russia, it was ruled, by a ‘disciple
of the Enlightenment’ known as Joseph II when the French Revolution occurred.
Another powerful empire was Prussia. Like other empires, it had interests of
colonial acquisition.
It was interested in territories controlled by Austria and Poland. By the time
of the French Revolution, Prussia had been under the rule of Fredrick II. He
died just before the revolution. The powerful European powers even wanted
territories in Italy, which at this time was still a combination of kingdoms. Spain
was another great power. It had many colonies in the Newlands. Britain wanted
these colonies, too. Spain thus formed an alliance with France to keep away
British advances.
It, however, fought with Britain from time to time. Portugal was another
European power. It still had a large colonial empire although it had lost most of
her colonies to the Dutch. Portugal formed an alliance with Britain to safeguard
her territorial interests.
Generally, the period towards the French Revolution came at a time when
colonial wars among the European states were being experienced. It was
characterized by war and rivalry.
13.1.3 Political problems in France
France faced numerous problems by the time revolution took place. These
problems can be traced back to the 17th and early 18th Centuries and some
even much earlier. The ancient regime had a chaotic legal system. For example,
in 1789, there still existed 360 different feudal codes of law in different parts
of the country (there were numerous feudal courts in a town). The government
tried to regulate affairs in over 40,000 townships but things were very slow as
they were controlled from a central authority – Paris.
Nearly all powers in national matters were in the hands of the king and his
personal advisers. The kings were absolute monarchs. They cared less about
the welfare of the people. The king’s word was law and the state was like his
personal property. France was thus under an undemocratic and repressive
regime that cared less about the welfare of the bulk of its population. People
detested the government but they could do nothing about it. It was just a matter
of time before they rose up in arms against the regime.
13.1.4. Deterioration in economic conditions
It is estimated that peasants at the time of the revolution were 23 million out
of a population of 25 million. Most of the peasants were poor and heavily taxed.
They were thus very discontented and depressed. Most of them lived in the
rural areas. There were direct taxes on land and households (poll). These were
collected by government officials. There were also a myriad of indirect taxes.
The way these taxes were collected was ruthless and inhuman. Many peasants,
unable to pay, were severely punished. Things were not different for the
bourgeoisie. Although they mainly lived in towns, they were equally weighed
down by the heavy taxes. Besides having political grievances, the middle class
had several economic grievances other than heavy taxation.
The finances of the government during the reign of the King Louis XVI were
deteriorating. This was of the cost of France’s support to Americans in their
war of independence (1775–1783). There was extravagance and luxury of the
court at Versailles which housed the royal family and bad financial management
made the government expenditure to exceed its income. To address the issue,
the government resorted to domestic borrowing. It took loans from the nobility,
the bourgeoisie and the church. The bourgeoisie were unsure whether they
could get back their money because the government had been bankrupt long
before 1789. The middle class was further angered by the government’s policy
to exempt the nobility and the church from taxation.
In the clergy class, the parish priest was just like the peasant. He was poor and
not entitled to those privileges enjoyed by the higher clergy such as bishops.
In the army, the same fate befell the ordinary soldier. In a nutshell, before the
outbreak of the revolution, the French society had serious economic problems
which made the life of a majority of the population difficult. There was also
a general economic decline from the 1770s. Later, in 1780 there were bad
harvests which made food prices to rise, especially, the bread.
13.1.5. Social problems in France
Many social problems faced the French society before the revolution.
Segregation in virtually all the fields – government, army and the church were
the most annoying. There was also abject poverty among the peasant, priests,
ordinary soldiers and some sections of the middle class. Life to these groups of
people was very difficult yet the authorities did little to address their problems.
Poverty brought great hunger, especially in the urban areas. The division of
people according to classes was another major social issue.
Those who were not favoured felt unwanted. Many were therefore; ready to join
opposition against the government whenever such an opportunity presented
itself.
In spite of these challenges, France, for more than a century, since the early days
of Louis XIV, had remained the undisputed leader of European civilization. It
gave Europe its ideas, fashions, language and even its codes of polite behaviour.
The country enjoyed stability of leadership unmatched by any European
power; she had a line of kings which with its branches had continued for 800
years. The country possessed a wealth and a culture far beyond all the other
European powers.
The success of the American Revolution encouraged French people who wanted
far-reaching changes in their own nation. Discontent there had been growing
for a long time.
In fact, France was under the Monarchy that had reigned for over 500 years.
Monarchs right from Louis XIV to XVI were despotic and French society was
still divided along feudal lines where inequality might breed discontent.
This was one of the greatest revolutions witnessed in the history of humanity.
It had ramifications in virtually all sectors of life. Its causes were as varied as
its consequences.
Its aims were crystallized after it had brought change in the society. This was
brought out in the triple watchword of “Liberty, Equality and Fraternity”
The French revolution had both long and short-term causes. Its origins are said
to have stretched back into the 17th and 18th Centuries.
The outstanding causes were as follows:
The poor political existing government: It had very poor practices. The
government agenda ran systems that were so chaotic in virtually all areas. It
closed its doors to political reform, which was taking place in other parts of
Europe, especially Britain. The king enjoyed absolute power and cared less
about what took place among the population. Common citizens had no say
or share in the government. The peasants were underprivileged while the
educated were unhappy with their exclusion from official position at the head
of the army, the navy and the diplomatic service.
The influence of the philosophers: The ideas of the philosophers of the
Enlightenment period had great influence over the middle class and other
people of the French society. Ideas of key outstanding personalities such as
Voltaire, Diderot, Montesquieu and Rousseau had a strong impact on the people.
According to the people, it was time such great ideas were put in practice. This
was part of the causes of the French revolution.
Example of the American Revolution: America provided a practical example
of how a revolution could be organized and its benefits. The French rulers
had supported the Americans against their masters, the British. She did this
to revenge her loss of colonies in Canada and India to the British during the
seven-year war (1756–1763).
When Americans won, the French rulers were happy about the victory. Little
did they know that it could influence a revolution in France. French soldiers
who participated in the war were influenced by oppressive democratic ideas.
They reflected on why the Americans rose up in arms against the British. It
dawned on them that the conditions back in France were worse and equally
oppressive. Americans rose against heavy taxation, yet the French were also
heavily taxed by the government.
Bankruptcy of the French government: The French government, as we have
already observed, had been bankrupt for many years before the revolution.
This was caused by the luxurious lifestyle of the kings and members of the royal
family. Exemption of the nobility, higher clergy and -the church from taxation
led to loss of Canada and India to Britain. French involvement in the American
War of Independence also contributed to its bankruptcy. All these forced the
government to live on debts, which were a costly affair altogether. The bankrupt
government could not provide essential services to its citizens.
The bankruptcy made successive government ministers for finance to
advise on taxing the exempted groups: This was first never supported by
the king (due to opposition from the groups concerned) but the worsening
economic conditions, made the king to accept the idea in May 1789. To enforce
the recommendation, a meeting of the estates-general was to be summoned. It
was this meeting that began a revolution. The third class had to be handled well
for things to move according to plan. This meant removing some of the burden
of taxation from their shoulders and putting it onto into those of the first and
second classes. This was not to be.
Character of King Louis XVI: Louis XVI was weak and indecisive. His personality
contributed to the revolution. Louis XVI was inconsistent in his actions.
At every stage in the revolution he encouraged reform and then drew back.
This was dangerous and things were made worse because he was influenced
by his wife, Marie Antoinette. Being an Austrian, she was viewed with contempt
because it was the French alliance with Austria which made France to fight in
the seven-year war, which led to the loss of Canada and India. Marie Antoinette
had partly contributed to the people’s hatred of her. She was ignorant of the
need for reform and was unsympathetic to her people’s situation at the time.
The queen is said to have misadvised the king into making unpopular decisions.
Inflation: There was high inflation which led to increase in the price of various
goods.
However, the rise in prices did not have a corresponding increase in salaries.
The result was widespread poverty among the peasants.
Bad weather of 1788: Climate equally contributed to the revolution. There
was bad weather in 1788 which ruined the harvest. This eventually raised
the prices of maize, bread and other foodstuff, bringing about widespread
starvation. There also followed a severe winter in early 1789, which besides
the unbearable cold conditions froze all rivers and ports in the country.
The result was even greater distress. Coupled with a treaty France had signed
with Britain in 1786, which allowed cheap British manufactured goods into
France in return for corresponding concessions on French wine, there was
much suffering in the society. Unemployment increased and people moved to
towns, hoping to get better conditions. These people brought into being the
characteristic Paris mob of the revolution – idle, desperate, ready to cheer on
the most extreme measures and destined to sway the fortunes of events on
several vital occasions.
All these factors jointly contributed to the breakout of the revolution in 1780.
The process began with the king’s, summoning of the Estates-General meeting
on 5 May 1789.
13.2.1. The course of the 1789 French Revolution
13.2.1.1. The calling of the Estates General Meeting
It was the first major event in the course of a revolution. It was called upon
the advice of the financial minister Necker to discuss the social, economic and
political issues of France whereby people were to present a list of grievances
(Cahiers des doléances).
These grievances included: lack of a constitution and an elected assembly, need
to reduce the burdens of taxation, insuring the freedom of press, abolition of
feudal dues and feudal courts as well as the notorious Lettres de Cachet, ending
the privileges and exemptions of the clergy and nobles, promotion on merit in
army and education, confiscation of the Church’s properties.
The point to note is that the grievances of the first and second classes were
contracting with each other but those of the third Estate were uniform. What is
important however was that none of the three groups wanted to do away with
the monarchy but wanted the King’s despotic powers reduced.
When bitter disagreements increased it led to the third Estate to declare itself
National Assembly under Honoré Gabriel Riquet, Comte de Mirabeau and
even called upon the clergy and noble to join him.
Significances of the event
It marked the beginning of the French Revolution. This was after the Third
Estates had declared itself the National Assembly. At this point in time, the
French revolutionaries got a firm ground to begin to challenge the position and
powers of the Ancient regime.
It showed weakness of the King Louis XVI. It should be noted that, he failed to
control the three Estates after disagreements that had risen over the sitting
arrangement and voting procedure. More weaknesses were shown by Louis
XVI when he ordered the nobles and the clergy to join the National assembly
which was established by the members of the Third class.
It showed unity of the Third class members. In fact, it was on May 5th, 1789, when
King Louis XVI exposed his weakness. On this day, the Third Estate members
exhibited their unity during the time they were taking the Tennis Court Oath
on June 20, 1789. On the other hand, the members of the lesser nobility and
lower clergy showed their disunity to the public when they decided to join the
National Assembly.
It started the beginning of Parliamentary democracy because for about 175
years, the Estates General Meeting had never sat, and it just resurrected on 5th
May 1789.
The French Parliament which had passed about 175 years without functioning
was resurrected. In fact, it was from May 5, 1789 that the National Assembly
could regularly meet and discuss different issues that affected France.
It led a foundation stone for the members of the Third Estate to start demanding
their rights. It was not due to the Estates Meeting, the members of the Third
class would not have got a chance of forwarding their grievances.
13.2.1.2. The Tennis Court Oath of June 1789
The King decided to call a meeting of all three classes and for this purpose it
was necessary to clean the hall. Without any notice, the Third class workers
closed the hall and then the delegates arrived they were shocked at finding
the hall closed. With no alternative left, the Third class members proceeded to
the Tennis court and they took an oath: “Never dissolve until France gets a new
Constitution.”
On June 20, 1789, in response to a financial crisis in France, representatives of
the common people gathered at a tennis court at Versailles after the king had
deprived them of their usual meeting place. They swore not to disband until
they had drawn up a new constitution, an event known as the Tennis Court
Oath.
Significance of the event
It showed a deliberate act by the King to deny the Third Estate a chance to use
the Hall. It gave them the strength to struggle against the Ancient regime.
13.2.3. The Royal session of 23rd June 1789
The Royal session wall was called on 23rd June 1789 and at this time the King
had realized the possibility of trouble and was very sad, because the Third class
refused to follow his orders. In his speech, he announced a number of reforms,
but made one mistake of ordering the Third class to separate with other classes.
He also declared that it was illegal for the Third class to call itself the National
Assembly.
After the King left the Hall with the First and the Second classes’ delegates, the
Third class’ members seated and when the King ordered through his messenger
that they should leave the Hall, Mirabeau, the leader of National Assembly
replied: “Go and tell your Master that we are here by the will of the people, and
we shall not leave until the point of bayonets.”
Significance of the events
─ It marked the first victory of the 3rd class members because on 27th
June 1789, the king accepted that the nobles and the clergy should be
joined to the 3rd class members in constitution making.
─ The meeting partly marked the end of dictatorship in France.
13.2.4. The Storming of the Bastille on July 14th 1789
Bastille acted as a symbol of despotism of the French aristocracy. It was a
highest prison of all victims arrested under the king’s royal chits (Lettre-deCachet) following the dismissal of Jacques Necker on 11th July 1789 from being
a financial controller. The people realized that the king had followed the Queen’s
advice as usually.
The invaded the French great military depot and hospital at Les invalids where
they seized arms on the morning of 14th July 1789 and moved on Fortress prison
of Paris Bastille which was known to contain large quantities of gunpowder.
They fought with the guards and forced the prison official to surrender.
On July 14, 1789 an angry mob, tired of the oppressive brutality of the French
monarchy, captured the Bastille, the royal prison in Paris.
Significance of the events
July 14, 1789 became a memorable liberation day in France. This was the day
on which Bastilles Prison was stormed by the revolutionaries. Besides, up to
now the 14th July every year is a National day in France and is a public holiday.
After the fall of Bastilles Prison, the Royalist Flag which was white was removed
and replaced by the tricolour flag of Blue, White and Red. This signified that the
Ancient regime had begun to experience its downfall and the French revolution
was swiftly taking control over the French political situation.
The Royal Guards were replaced by the National Guards after the fall of Bastilles
Prison under the command of General Marquis de Lafayette. These troops had
the duty of safeguarding the French revolution and all its successes.
It forced many unsatisfied nobles and clergy into exile in Austria, Russia and
England and these were later called Emigrés.
Prisoners were released and most of them were detained under the infamous
law of “Lettre-de cachet”. Immediately after being released, they began killing
nobles and the clergy.
The revolutionaries formed a new government based at Paris. King Louis was
simply left in control of Versailles alone. It marked the collapse of dictatorship
and other forms of torture in the French society.
13.2.5. The Session of the 4th August 1789
The abolition of feudalism came on the 4th August 1789 when the Assembly
met at Versailles with the king. The Assembly enacted a decree of abolition of
feudalism, peasant’s land-lord relationship. Thus, feudal dues and feudal course
were abolished. The inequality of all classes on taxation was inaugurated or
introduced. But the king refused to sign a document denouncing feudalism.
French citizens cheer as members of the National Assembly announce the
decision to abolish the privileges of the nobility. Before the night of August 4,
1789, was over, the assembly had abolished the feudal system in France.
Significance of the event
Feudal coasts where peasants who had misunderstanding with their land-lord
were judged from were abolished.
The notorious titles and all laws that oppressed the peasants were abolished;
Lettres-de-Cashet was all abolished.
The meeting marked the destruction of the old order of the Ancient regime.
13.2.6. The declaration of rights of man
After the abolition of feudalism, the National Assembly took the name of the
Constituent Assembly and was in position to make a Constitution under the
guidance of Lafeyette. The first Framework of the French Constitution contained
the declaration of Human Rights as it is introduction and it was formula on the
model of U.S.A.
The main point of the Constitution was the declaration of the rights of man
and citizens. It contained such phrases like equality of man before law, liberty,
and fraternity, freedom of speech, expression and worship. The revolution of
masses against injustice was a holy duty.
But they made a mistake of leaving the king with too many powers to veto
(refuse) what had been passed by National Assembly, which powers he used to
refuse to sign the declaration of rights of man and the decree of the 4th August
1789, which led to the march of women.
Significance of the event
The declaration of rights of man and citizens brought equality of all men before
the law in France. No more privileges were to be granted to anybody because of
the accident of birth right or social status.
The rights that were announced laid a foundation stone for fundamental human
rights and freedom wide world. It is this context that the 16th article of UNO
charter about the fundamental rights of man and citizens was extracted from
the document of August 27, 1789 declaration.
It elevated the status of France in Europe. In fact, France became the point of
reference as far as the liberation of human race was concerned in Europe and
beyond.
The French masses got a chance of participating fully in formulating State
policies through democratic elections and parliamentary deliberations and
debates. They also got universal right to vote.
13.2.7. The march of women to Versailles on 5th October 1789
The king’s refusal to sign the decree of 4th August 1789 and the Declaration of
rights of man plus increased of price of bread and a mobilization from Austria
led to the march of women whose cries would be the most heard.
On the 5th October 1789, a huge group of women followed by men dressed as
women began their move from Paris to Versailles aiming at the king reducing
the price of bread.
When the king was called from his daily game (hunting), he was surprised and
promised special food for the people of Paris and agreed to sign the Declaration
of right of man as well as the decree of 4th August 1789.
Significance of the event
This event signified that everybody in France was concerned about the 1789
French Revolution. Before, women had played an active role, but this round
they became part of it.
King Louis XVI was compelled to accept and sign the declaration of the rights
of man and citizens.
The National Assembly was transferred from Versailles to Paris. Versailles
which had been the strong hold of the Bourbon Monarchy lost its importance
in favor of Paris that was the bleeding ground and centre of the 1789 French
Revolution.
King Louis XVI was forced to promise special food relief to the masses. At the
same time, he also accepted to reduce the price of bread.
It was a great humiliation to the royal family as they were moved from Versailles
to Paris following day, 6th October 1789.
13.2.8. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy
The Assembly went on in its determination to change the position of the Church
in France. The Pius VI in Rome was not to have any power in Church affairs in
France. All Bishops and Priests became servants of the State and salaries of the
High clergy were reduced while those of lower clergy were increased.
Significance of the events
It ends the privileges of the Church in France. Politically, the Pope’s influence in
France was reduced. The clergy members who refused the above were either
killed or forced into exile.
13.2.9. The King’s flight to Varennes of 22nd June 1791
As the revolutionary changes increased and became so violent, the king got
afraid and decided to escape from the country to save himself and his family by
fleeing to Austria in order to join other Emigrés. Unfortunately, the king and his
wife were identified to Varennes few miles to the French – Austria border and
brought back to Paris. It was a worst experience for the royal family; they were
abused, mocked and spat by the mob through each opening.
On June 20, 1791, King Louis XVI attempted to escape revolutionary France and
flee in disguise with his family to Austria. However, he was caught at Varennes
and returned to Paris. Two years later he was executed.
Significance of the event
The flight gave to the new favor of republicanism because King Louis XVI was
looked at as a traitor. Many people felt that it was no longer necessary to trust
the king with all the powers of the State.
The revolution was led by the extremists like the Jacobins who led to the Reign
of Terror. Other European countries like Austria, Britain and Prussia became
scared by event in France and began preparing for the war against the French
Revolution.
13.2.10. The new Constitution of September 1791
The new constitution was completed by the National Assembly in September
1791. According to it, the Assembly was to consist of 745 members and they
adopted a system of indirect voting where all men over 25 years paid a tax
equivalent to a three days work pay and became active citizens. France was
divided into Districts which were later divided into Communes. This Constitution
made France a Constitutional monarchy, with a monarchy with power limited
by written law.
Still people could not agree over the aims of the Revolution. Once again,
they began to fight over control of the government. In 1792 they abolished
the monarchy. The following year, in 1793, they executed King Louis XVI byguillotine.
During the French Revolution (1789-1799), King Louis XVI of France was tried
treated as a traitor and condemned to death. His execution by guillotine, which
took place in a crowded plaza in Paris, was a public spectacle.
13.2.11. The Reign of Terror 1792-1794
In 1793 a new constitution was written. But it was never used. A special
revolutionary tribunal, or committee, led by Maximilien de Robespierre took
over control of the government. This tribunal began to execute nobles andanyone else suspected of being against the Revolution.
Maximilien Robespierre was one of the most controversial figures in the French
Revolution. In the cause of fostering democracy, Robespierre helped bring
about the Reign of Terror, in which thousands were executed by the guillotine.
He eventually met the same fate.
The wave of killing came to be known as the “Reign of Terror”. Because of it,
many people began to oppose Robespierre. In 1794, the leaders who hoped to
restore order to the government had Robespierre executed.
Causes of the reign of Terror
The death of Mirabeau in April 1791: It is said that if Mirabeau had lived
beyond 1791, he would have cooled the violent tempers of the extreme
revolutionaries. His death carried the last rags of the ancient regime because he
was replaced by extremists like Robespierre who planned the Reign of Terror.
The resistance of Nobles and Clergy to surrender their privileges: The Nobles
and Clergy who refused to surrender their privileges after the March of womenwere intimidated by the revolutionaries, hence the Reign of Terror.
The threats of Emigrés led to the Reign of Terror: The Emigrés abroad were
busy organizing a counter revolution and they had internal collaborators
in France, and the Reign of Terror was organized to eliminate these internal
collaborators.
The role of the Paris mob: Economic hardships (problems) in villages forced
people to move from villages to towns, and this led to the formation of the Paris
mob which was a group of desperate people who were used by Robespierre in
the reign of Terror.
The role of political parties: There were different political parties which were
struggling to eliminate their rival parties and they resorted to the politics of
killing their rival party leaders like the killing of Danton.
The foreign invasion: The European countries organized coalition against
France, and they invaded and defeated the French troops, and the revolutionary
government in France passed the law of suspect, which was extravagantly
applied, and whoever was quilt of lack of interest in the revolution was killed in
the Reign of Terror.
The worship of reason of Herbert: By 1793, Herbert and his followers began to
worship of reason which led to religious terror where the clergy that protested
against the worship of reason and civil Constitution of the clergy were either
imprisoned or killed.
The weakness of King Louis XVI: The king had refused to sign the reforms
proposed by the revolutionaries, refused to sign declaration of rights of man,
decree of 4th August and expelled Necker. These acts led to the violence during
the storming of the Bastilles and March of women.
The King’s association with Emigrés: The King’s attempt to escape cost all
the sympathy that people had to him and this was worsened when they found
papers showing the association with Emigrés, indicating that he was a traitor,
which led to his execution on Sunday, January 21,1793 and his wife on October
16,1793;
The economic crisis: The economic terror was used to eliminate the
businessmen who were hoarding commodities creating economic crisis.
The Reign of Terror made Robespierre very unpopular and Frenchmen decided
to kill him on 28th July 1794, where he was imprisoned and later escaped but he
was re-arrested and was killed as criminal. This marked the end of the Reign ofTerror and a new government was voted and the third Constitution was written.
The new government was called the Directory Government and was headed by
Five Directors, ruled in France from 1795 to 1799.
Effects of the Reign of Terror
It led to the massive loss of lives where above 17 000 people were killed;
There was destruction of property like building and communication lines;
There was general economic decline which came as result of unstable political
atmosphere which led to unemployment, starvation, inflation etc.;
It created the fear of being killed by the Paris mob that forced many nobles and
clergy to go to exile;
It caused the downfall of the political parties after the death of Robespierre and
led to the formation of the Directory Government in 1795;
It led to the collapse of the bourbon monarchy which gave chance to France to
become a Republic;
It restored order in France by helping to fight the first coalition that was
organized against France;
It made dictators of the European countries to be more conservative in order
to safeguard themselves from the terrorist acts of the France. For instance, Pits,
the Prime Minister of Britain expelled the characters that were suspected and
passed out the law of treason.
It paved way for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte because it led to the scarcity of
army officers giving chance to Napoleon to be quickly promoted.
It brought war between France and her neighboring countries like Russia,
Austria, Russia and England because of they were scared of massive loss of lives
and mistreatment of King Louis XVI which would teach a lesson to their people.
13.2.12. Directory Government, 1795 – 1799
This was a conservative middle class oriented Government that ruled France
from 1795 to 1799. Administration was in the hands of five (5) Directors, each
Director rules for one year. The Directors were assisted by a Council of 500 who
were persons of age above 30 years and a Council of 250 parsons over 45 years.These Councils were responsible for marking and amending the Constitution.
Problems faced by the Directory Government in France
The Directory Government that took over the power in France after Reign of
Terror had inherited many problems as the following:
There was a problem of irreligiousness where the French people showed no
respect for the Catholic religion.
There was a confusion situation where people refused to do their activities
because of terrorism.
There was a problem of the hostile Catholic Church that had not yet forgiven
the State because of the civil Constitution of the clergy.
There was a problem of hostile neighboring countries which formed a coalition
against France.
It inherited a situation where the Emigrés abroad were planning a counterrevolution.
There was a problem of the members of the ancient regime who resurfaced
after the Reign of Terror.
There was a problem of poor poverty characterized by poor agricultural
production, stagnant commercial activities and poor communication network.
There was a problem of financial crisis that had characterized France since the
time of King Louis XVI. There was a problem of inflation, which was persistent,
increase in the price at general level.
The Directory Government found there a weak, inexperienced and disorganized
army.
Achievements of the Directory Government
Although the problems faced, the Directory Government had succeeded to
achieve by the following facts:
It upheld the principle of Parliamentary democracy by creating councils of
people which were responsible for marking and amending the Constitution.
It increased the French military capacity by re-organizing and re-equipping the
French army to a very high level of military efficiency with men of rare talentslike Napoleon Bonaparte.
It managed to defeat the coalition of Britain, Holland, Prussia and Austria that
had been formed against France.
It brought to an end the Reign of Terror as it banned the Jacobins Party, the
masterminded the Reign of Terror.
It restored Constitutional rule by safeguarding people’s freedoms and rights
throughout the 5 years that it was in power.
It expanded the boundaries of France after the Italian campaign of 1796 – 1797
when the French troops defeated Austria in Italy and took some Italian States.
It destroyed internal opposition as in 1795 when it crushed the Royalist violent
demonstrators and the plot organized by François Babeuf.
It kept alive the spirit of the French Revolution and succeeded in spreading
the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity beyond the French
borders like in Italy and Germany.
It started various reforms like centralized system of administration, codification
of the French laws and education reforms which were completed by Napoleon
Bonaparte.
It preserved the French Republic established by Directory Government in 1793.
Weaknesses and failures of the Directory Government
By 1799, the Directory Government started to show the signs of its weakness
despite its success and it gave chance to Napoleon Bonaparte to take over the
power as explained below:
It went against democratic rights by making tax qualification as criteria for one
to vote, which denied poor peasants the right to vote.
It lacked confidence as it over-relied on Napoleon in suppressing internal
revolts which increasing Napoleon’s popularity thus made it possible for him
to stage a coup d’état in 1799.
It was characterized by corruption and embezzlement of public funds; it
overprinted the currency leading to the inflation, unemployment and famine.
It failed to reconcile the Catholic Church and the State because the Government
encouraged the worship of reason and changed the calendar to contain thenames of revolutionary events and leaders than of Saints and Jesus Christ.
It failed to coordinate its Directors and the Legislative Councils reason why
some joined Napoleon and they overthrew the Government.
It failed to defeat the Britain troops during Egyptian Campaign due to the failure
of its foreign policy.
It failed to improve the agricultural and industrial production levels which
remained poor being disappointed during the Directory regime.
It became unpopular due to the return of the Emigrés from the exile and the
release of the political prisoners.
It failed to stamp out all the elements of socialism in France planted by a political
club known as “The society of Pantheon” or “The society of equals” started by
Francois Babeuf.
It paved way to Napoleon Bonaparte to rise to power in 1799 who later became
the dictator in France with his ambition to become the European Emperor.
13.2.13. France under Napoleon Bonaparte
Historical background of Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon I (1769-1821), was emperor of the French, whose imperial
dictatorship ended the French Revolution (1789-1799) while consolidating the
reforms it had brought about. One of the greatest military commanders of alltime, he conquered much of Europe.
Napoleon Bonaparte was the greatest military genius of the 19th century. He
conquered most of Western Europe and Egypt for France, while instituting
reforms in these new territories aimed at guaranteeing civil liberties and
improving the quality of life. He crowned himself emperor of France in 1804
and introduced reforms intended to unify the revolution-fractured nation.
Many of Napoleon’s reforms are still in effect today.
Napoleon was born on August 15, 1769, in Ajaccio, Corsica, and was given the
name Napoleon (in French his name became Napoleon Bonaparte). He was the
second of eight children of Carlo (Charles) Buonaparte and Letizia Ramolino
Buonaparte, both of the Corsican-Italian gentry. No Bonaparte had ever been
a professional soldier.
Carlo Bonaparte was a lawyer who had fought for Corsican independence,
but after the French occupied the island in 1768, he served as a prosecutor
and judge and entered the French aristocracy as a count. Through his father’s
influence, Napoleon was educated at the expense of King Louis XVI, at Brienne
and the École Militaire, in Paris. Napoleon graduated in 1785, at the age of 16,
and joined the artillery as a second lieutenant.
However, Napoleon’s family background made life difficult for him at school,
where he was isolated and lacked good relationship with children from rich
family background. He had a miserable life but he did well in mathematics
and military science. When he was given permission to go home in 1791, he
overstayed and on return to Paris he found out that he had been dismissed. But
due to poor artillery officers, Napoleon was called back in the army and became
a Lieutenant Colonel.
In 1795, Napoleon Bonaparte saved the Directory Government from Royalists’
uprising and he was promoted to Brigadier General and married with Josephine
de Beauharnais, a daughter of Barras who was the first Director of the Directory
Government.
By 1797, the Directory Government sent him to Egyptian campaign and thought
that he could die there. But while he was there he learnt about the collapse
of Directory Government. He returned to Paris where he was welcomed with
open hands and organized a coup d’état, known as”The Coup d’état of Brumaire”
against the Directory Government with assistance of Abbey Sieyes, Roger Duccus
and Barras. He became the leader of France on November 9th, 1799 as the First
Consul and opened the new regime of Consulate in France. In 1800, through
a referendum he was granted a 10 years term of office, but later in 1804 heconfirmed himself the life Emperor of France.
Factors of the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power
Different factors have contributed to the rise of Napoleon to power included
the following:
The French Revolution stopped discrimination of social class and offered
opportunities to talented men like Napoleon, which made him to be quickly
promoted in the army, hence his rise to power.
The annexation of Corsica Island by France from Italy in 1768, a year before
napoleon’s birth by France made him a Frenchmen by birth.
The exile and death of many officials as a result of French Revolution gave
chance to Napoleon to control the army during the Reign of Terror.
Napoleon used revolutionary ideas of fraternity, liberty and equality. These
helped him to build his popularity hence his rise to power.
Napoleon’s military and political abilities helped him to rise to power. In fact, it
was his ability as soldier that he was assigned tasks in campaigns, which made
him popular among the French, and was able to rise to power.
The role played by his brother Lucien Bonaparte who was the president of a
Council of 500 members during the Directory Government.
Napoleon’s marriage to Josephine made him popular among the French.
Josephine was a daughter of a principal Director while Napoleon was from a
peasant family background.
The weaknesses and the failures of the Directory Government created a political
vacuum and gave opportunity to a liberator like Napoleon Bonaparte. Actually,
the Directory Government was characterized by corruption, embezzlement
of funds, financial crisis, unemployment, inflation, famine, devaluation of the
currency and over-relying on Napoleon. This situation gave chance to Napoleon
to organize a successful coup d’état.
The success of the famous coup d’état of Brumaire made by Napoleon onNovember 9, 1799 was for Napoleon an opened door to the power in France.
In the coup d’etat of November 9-10, 1799, Napoleon and his colleagues
seized power and established a new regime in France—the Consulate. Under
its constitution Napoleon, as first consul, had almost dictatorial powers. The
constitution was revised in 1802 to make Napoleon consul for life and in 1804
to make him emperor
Napoleon I came to power in France through the 1799 Brumaire coup d’état
and ruled up to 1814.
In order to consolidate his power in France, he adopted the following
policies:
He declared himself the first Consul on February 1800 with considerable powers
of appointment of officials in the army, civil service and local government.
He abolished the old constitution in 1799 and introduced a new one thatfavored his interests.
He over centralized powers in his hands and by this policy he dismissed his two
colleagues Abbey Sieyes and Ducus Roger who seemed strong.
He introduced domestic reforms like in education, agriculture and public works
among others which won him popularity among the Frenchmen.
He used his relatives to govern different parts of the empire such as Louis
Bonaparte in Holland, Jérôme Bonaparte in Spain and Joseph Bonaparte in
Naples among others.
He allowed the political exiles back to France and in so doing he reduced on the
external revolts.
He built a very strong and powerful army with the major purpose to fight and
protected France and her people.
He put a strict censorship on press whereby he reduced the number of
newspapers published in France which kept Public opinion under his control
and the masses ignorant.
He used diplomacy in defeating wars like diplomatic League of Armed Neutrality
with Sweden, Denmark, Prussia and Russia which pleased the French who in
return supported his regime.
He kept his army occupied with wars without getting bored which minimized
the chances of military insurgences that would have undermined his powers.
He restricted the teaching of liberal subjects like history, philosophy, literature
and political science which he considered as threat to his political career.
His successful foreign victories like the defeat of the second coalition of Austria,
Britain, Prussia and Russia in 1800, won Napoleon great respect especially
from the glory seekers who later supported his foreign policies.
He tolerated the former enemies of French Revolution and avoided revenge
against them which reduced the strength of opposition especially from the
Royalists.
Achievements of Napoleon Bonaparte
After that Napoleon made himself the Emperor of France, he had made the
following achievements:
He signed a Concordat with Pope Pius VII in 1801 where he agreed with the
Pope and the Catholic religion became a State religion and this led to the
reconciliation of the Church and State.
He established reforms in education when he re-organized the education
system where elementary education was removed and secondary education
was promoted. The study of science subjects was encouraged;
He constructed a good system of transport and communication because during
his time many roads, bridges, telegraphic system, railways and canals were
constructed.
He founded a museum which helped in beautifying France.
He introduced reforms in trade and industry by introducing the new ones and
rehabilitating the old ones and he also founded the National Bank to promote
trade and commerce.
He improved agricultural sector by initiating the use of machines and creating
peace and stability.
He increased the food production in order to solve the problem of famine in
France which had been inherited from the Directory Government.
He introduced the code of law known as” Napoleonic Code” where the French
laws had been codified and reduced to only five codes which help in maintaininglaw and order
Adopted in 1804 and still in effect, the code of French civil law was named in
honor of Emperor Napoleon, who participated in its formulation. The Code
Napoléon became the model of law for two jurisdictions in North America—the
Canadian province of Québec and the U.S. state of Louisiana.
He modernized the French army and France had the best army in the whole of
Europe. The army was used to maintain law and order and was used against
political opponents as well as for expanding the French boundaries.
He centralized the administration and at the same time consolidated himself to
power and he re-organized the administrative structure of France by creating
departments headed by Prefects and sub-Prefects. All these officers were
appointed by Napoleon.
He controlled corruption and embezzlement of the public funds and even
helped to maintain law and order.
Impact of Napoleon I on Europe from 1799 to 1814
Napoleon I succeeded in spreading the French Revolutionary ideas to various
parts of Europe especially in Conservative States like Austria, Germany and
Italy.
He established Code Napoléon in which basic human rights were clearly spelt
out. This code was adopted in many European States.
He divided over 200 German states into Rhine Confederation under his control
and this brought the Germans near each other later encouraged the German
unification.
He expanded the French size (French Empire) by destroying the old European
boundaries where Italy, Poland, Denmark and Germany were all brought under
the French control.
Napoleon I, emperor of the French, controlled much of Europe, from Spain
to Poland, by 1810. In 1812, however, he undertook a disastrous invasion of
Russia, and afterward his empire began to fall apart.
The aggressive policies of Napoleon I gave birth to a period of international
cooperation in continental Europe like the 4th coalition formed by Britain,
Russia, and Prussia against Napoleon (I) Bonaparte
During Napoleonic wars like the Peninsular War of 1808 and the Moscow
campaign of 1812 over 580 000 people died.
Napoleon’s Continental System caused economic problems which led to a cute
shortage of food, unemployment and inflation in European states like France,
Spain, Portugal, Italy and Britain.
In 1808, Napoleon I imprisoned the Pope Pius VII which caused him a lot of
resentment from the Catholics in the entire European continent.
He overthrew legitimate rulers in the Italian, German, Holland and Spain among
others whom he replaced with his brothers.
Napoleon’s endless wars in Europe caused wanton of destruction of like roads,
railways, industries and ships among others.
The factors that had led to the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte
The Continental system: It was an economic war used by Napoleon to defeat
Britain after realizing that his military power cannot fight with the British
Naval supremacy. Because of this continental system, he lost support from the
Middle class who had put him in power and when they withdrew their support,
Napoleon was defeated.
The Moscow Campaign of 1812: It was a programmed war to attack Russia to
teach Tsar Alexander I a lesson for pulling out the Continental System. Napoleon
mobilized his troops and on 24th June 1812 he crossed River Niemen. The
Russians withdrew and used the “Scorch Earth Policy” in which they destroyed
by fire everything that would be used by the advocating French soldiers.
Napoleon expected victory within 30 days, but it became a prolonged war
where Napoleon lost many soldiers (around 300 000) due to guerilla Russianattacks and severe winter.
In 1812 Napoleon invaded Russia and by September his forces occupied
Moscow. The Russian Tsar ordered the city burned so there would be no winter
quarters for the French troops. In October the French retreat from Moscow
began. The troops suffered from hunger, cold, and constant attack, and many
died during the retreat.
After the defeat from the Moscow Campaign, Napoleon’s armies were too weak
so that they could not defeat the 4th coalition against France.
The failure to defeat Britain: Napoleon failed to defeat Britain in 1789 during
Egyptian Campaign and later in 1805 which gave confidence, strength and
courage to small countries that had before feared Napoleon and lined with
Britain to form the 4th coalition to defeat Napoleon.
The strength of the 4th coalition: Although Napoleon succeeded in defeating
the earlier coalitions directed against France, it should be noted that the
strength of the 4th coalition formed (by Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain)
against France in 1813 was too strong to defeat Napoleon in 1814.
The Napoleon’s extreme ambition: Napoleon was never satisfied with his
conquests and wished to control the whole of Europe which mad him to be
involved in endless and risky wars that he could not manage but ended by his
defeat. Napoleon used to say:”I have known the limits of my legs, I have known
the limits of my eyes, I have never known the limits of my work”.
The growth of nationalism among the captured states. Napoleon had brought
many nationalities under his control like Prussians, Italians, Spanish and
Holland but due to his oppressive rule and over-taxation; the States demanded
for their independence from where they got courage to form the 4th coalition
that defeated Napoleon.
The dictatorial administration of Napoleon: He centralized all powers in
his hands and killed democracy. His administration was not to be criticized,
he set up a secret police and he restored Lettre-de Cachet by which there was
imprisonment without trial. All of these made him unpopular leading to hisdownfall.
Nepotism: Napoleon practiced nepotism which made him unpopular among
the people. He mostly favored his relatives, brothers and brothers-in-law in key
appointments, in administration, army and in French captured Provinces;
The vast nature of his empire: Napoleon built a very large empire through
his conquests but he failed to effectively control it. A result was a massive
opposition against him which left him isolated in 1813 and led to his downfall.
The imprisonment of the Pope Pius in 1808: The Pope was not agreed with
Napoleon on Continental System, and then he decided to imprison Pope Pius.
This reduced Napoleon’s popularity among the Catholics in France and whole
World. When he was attacked in 1814 by the 4th coalition, the whole catholic
Community in Europe did not support him.
In 1814 Napoleon was forced to give up his throne and he was sent to live out
of his on the small island of Elba off the coast of Italy. But he managed to escape
with his group together invaded France. For a short, about 100 days, Napoleon
again regained as Emperor.
The allies finally defeated him in 1815 at the battle of the Battle of Waterloo
in modern Belgium. They gave the French throne to Louis XVIII and they sent
Napoleon to the Saint Helena off the coast of Africa, where he died on May 5th,1821.
The French revolution had far- reaching consequences to the French society,
Europe and to the rest of the world. Some of these included:
Loss of lives: Many lives were lost in the confusion that characterized the
revolution. At first it targeted the privileged sections of the society. Mobs killed
those they felt had in one way or another been responsible for their suffering
during the ancient regime. With time, the introduction of the guillotine, saw
many perceived to be against the revolution being killed. The guillotine even
consumed some of the revolutionaries as rivalry and suspicion hit their camp.
Aside from France, counter revolutionaries in other parts of Europe joined thewar.
From 1792, Europe was thus enmeshed in war for a generation. Many lives
were lost.
Overthrow of the ancient regime: The reign of Louis XVI came to an abrupt
end. This marked true end of the reign of the Bourbon family which had ruled
France for over 800 years. The revolutionaries experimented with one form of
governance after the other until the Great Napoleon Bonaparte usurped the
reign of power thus establishing his rule.
Spread of revolutionary ideas: Revolutionary ideas spread to other parts of
Europe. Everywhere in Europe, people talked of and wanted equality, liberty
and fraternity the three things that crystallized in the course of the revolution
as its aims. Generally, there was a clamor for democratic ideals. The revolution
heralded a period of political liberalism hitherto witnessed in European
mainland.
Promotion of human rights: The declaration of the Rights of man at the
infancy stages of the revolution may be looked at as a way of promoting human
rights. This is definitely a precursor to human rights as they exist today. As
we have observed, the rights asserted the equality of human beings and right
of people to rule. In an equal measure, it also brought out the fundamental
freedoms: freedom of speech (expression) and choice individual ownership
of property, religious rights to minorities, etc. They also vouched for fair trial
(justice) and acceptable taxation system. All these are issues that dominate the
issue of human rights today. The same can be said on the rule of law. However,
the society failed to address the issue of women rights as it gave men rightsprominence.
Lawlessness in the society: From 1789 to the time Napoleon Bonarparte came
to power on 9 November 1799, there was a state of disorder and discontent in
France. There was lawlessness and anarchy in the rural and urban areas alike.
Citizens were not subject to any known law as once the Ancient regime had
been overthrown, there lacked a centralized system of power. The situation
was aggravated by the poor financial situation the country found itself in.
Delinking of the church from state: There was a strong link between the
church and state. As we have already observed, the two institutions were
marred married with massive divisions within their ranks. Class system was
a common feature in both. The French revolution led to a clear line between
the two institutions. The church was now left handling spiritual matters as the
state dealt with political, economic and other social issues. The church had its
massive estates of land taken over by the government in 1796. Prior to this
development, on July 1790, the civil constitution of the clergy which made all
clergy servants of the state was promulgated. This development was to later
lead to separation of the two institutions as the revolution came to an end.
However the state had now reduced the power of the pope in the church in
France. It now exerted a lot of power over the institution in France.
Rise in nationalism: The French Revolution and the war the country waged
against other powers, instilled in the French people a strong sense of nationalism.
They developed a strong sense of identity. This was in sharp contrast to the prerevolutionary years when people closely identified with their local authorities.
The government partly contributed to this new development by rallying citizens
to the defense of their country against its enemies.
There was a strong sense of nationalism. People attended civic festivals which
celebrated the nation and the revolution. A variety of dances, and songs on
themes of the revolution and French identity became popular. A song “La
Marseillaise” which urges the “children of the father land” to match against the
“bloody barrier of tyranny” was so popular that it became the French national
Anthem. Its second verse and chorus goes …
In sum, the revolution encouraged the growth of nationalism in both liberal and
authoritarian forms.
Promotion of social reforms: The revolutionaries pushed for social reforms
and religious toleration. State schools were set up to replace religious ones.
Systems were also put in place to help the poor, old soldiers and war widows. A
major slave revolt in St. Dominique (Haiti) also made the government to abolishslavery in its Carribean Colonies.
The first in Haiti and the second in France so that property could now be inherited
among all immediate heirs equally and not only the oldest son as it used to be
the tradition and practice. Attempts were also made to de-Christianize France.
The government created a secular (non-religious calendar with 1793 as the
first year of the new era of freedom) many religious festivals were also banned
and, in its place, came secular celebrations. The social reforms introduced by
the revolution outlived it.
Emergence of new artistic styles. A new grand classical style that echoed the
grandeur of Ancient Rome emerged. Among its notable proponents was Louis
David. This artist immortalized on canvas such stirring events as the Tennis
Court Oath, and later, the coronation of Napoleon Bonaparte. He contributed
heavily to the way future generations understood the French Revolution.
Disorganization of the map of Europe. This was done by France in her expansionist
policies and conquering of various states like Spain, Naples, German and the
Italian states.
Serious financial decline in France. This was due to numerous wars France
fought with the rest of Europe. The reign of terror also led to serious financial
collapse during the French revolution.
The 1789 French revolution destroyed Bastilles prison as a symbol of despotism
on 14th July.
It revived the French parliament (National Assembly or Estates general Meeting
on May 5th 1789) after 175 years since 1614.
The revolutionaries succeeded in spreading the French Revolutionaries
principles of equality, liberty and fraternity beyond French borders.
The French Revolutionaries passed a radical law known as “Civil Constitution
of the clergy” and brought freedom of worship in France.
The National Assembly produced a new Constitution in September 1791.
The French Revolution ended feudal privileges on August 4th 1789 in the
Assembly at Versailles.
Multiparty politics was achieved in France with various political parties or
clubs like Jacobins, Girondins, Feuillants, Montagnards and Cordoliers.
The Royalist Guards had been replaced by National Guards after the Stormingof the Bastilles on the 14th July, 1789.
The class divisions had been removed by 1791 as by Declaration of man where
all men were declared equal before the law.
The French Revolution resulted into the terrible loss of lives and destruction of
properties.
The July 1790 Civil Constitution of the Clergy passed during the French
Revolution made the Catholic Church and the State enemies.
It spoilt the diplomatic relations between France and her neighbors like Prussia,
Austria, Russia and Britain due to mistreatment of King Louis XVI.
The 1789 French Revolution inspired the outbreak of other revolutions like the
1830 and 1848 in Europe that left a lot of lives and properties destroyed.
The French revolutionaries failed to end financial crisis in France which hadstarted way back during the Ancient regime.
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