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UNIT11:CONTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE MODERN SOCIETY
Explore above picture (Parthenon) and answer the following questions:
1. Identify the form of art Parthenon of Athens represents?
2. Identify its artist, location and period?3. Discuss its influence today?
Human evolution has informed changes in human development. What is
civilization? Where did it begin? And how does it explain where humanity finds
itself today? These questions have been posed by humanity itself for many
years. We will attempt to provide answers to them in this chapter.
The word “civilization” comes from the Latin word ‘civis’ which means a city.
Therefore, civilization is a way of a group of people that entails their various
way of life such as culture, dressing and food. Civilization is life of human
beings, in cities and towns. Urban dwellers had to have rules or laws to live by,
someone to govern them, someone to make them or see them work together,
urban dwellers must also exchange goods.
The earliest civilizations began along the banks of great rivers in warm
countries where the soil was fertile. Examples of such rivers were the Nile in
Egypt (which gave us the Egyptian Civilization), the Tigris and Euphrates in
Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia) and the Indus river (which gave us the Indus
Valley civilization). In these valleys, a variety of crops grew hence keeping
hunger at bay. This enabled people to have time to study the things on earth
and heavenly bodies in the sky.
Two civilisations developed in Europe at different times but immediately
one after the other. The Greek Civilisation preceded the Roman one. The
development of these civilizations happened from around 1750 B.C to AD 500.
Each of these civilisations brought high levels of development and organisation
to the human society at the time. Their ideas were to be later useful to humanity
hence forming the background to its development today.
From the ancient times to today, the Greeks have called their land Hellas while
they call themselves Hellenes. The names Greek and Greece were used to
describe them later on by the Romans. Superiority of Roman Civilisation made
their names to stick.
Greece is to be found in a rocky, mountainous southward extension of the
Balkans, on the east of Mediterranean Sea. On one side, the eastern shore lays
the Aegean Sea. The Ionian Sea, facing Italy, is on the western side. To the south,
across the Sea of Crete from the portion of Greece known as the Peloponnesus,
is to be found the large island of Crete. The whole country is stunning and
very beautiful. It has over one thousand islands, the sea, the mountains andnumerous fertile green valleys.
Only 20 percent of Greece is suitable for agricultural production. Most of the
high mountains ranging into 6000 feet, narrow fertile valleys and small to
medium size but fertile plains such as those of Thessaly and Boeotia are usable
for agriculture. Rivers are small and sometimes dry up during summer thus
making farming a challenge. Nevertheless, most of her climate is mild and
favourable for cultivation of crops such as wheat, olive and grape vines that
could support the population of ancient times. As during the Ancient times,
today, the hills and mountains provide pasture to goats, sheep and cattle.
Greece was founded on conquest. The area witnessed invasions from time to
time from around 1900 BC. By the beginning of the eighth century B.C, The
Greek Civilization had taken shape. But it was not until the 4th Century BC
that it became the common cultural currency of the Mediterranean and Near
Eastern worlds. This was the time of the conquests of Alexander the Great’s
empire.
Greece was invaded by various groups at different times. The decedents of these
groups were the ones who were later to be known as the Greeks. They settled in
the peninsula and evolved an unusual system of government for themselves on
the hills and rocky coasts which gradually developed into city states.
Cretans
Their entry into the Peninsula began around 2500 BC and was first done by
Cretans. One of their ancient kings was known as Minos. Theirs was therefore
known as Minoan civilization, named after their king. The civilization was
mainly concentrated along the Aegean Sea. These people are described to have
lived well had hot and cold running water, bathrooms and possessed elaborate
furniture.
They are also said to have protected their valuables with metal locks and keys.
Their houses are also said to have had plastered interiors which were decorated
with paintings called frescoes, a technique of painting on wet plaster still in use
even today.
Cretans are further said to have been fond of dancing, boxing, racing and bull
leaping among other sports. Lastly, they are described to have been slender,
short and had dark curly hair and been a very peaceful community who were
among the earliest sea traders in the region. Trade what was thus brought themto the shores of main land Greece.
Archeans
After the Cretans were the Achaeans who arrived about 2000 B.C. These groups
came to dominate the trade and government of the area. Near the Sea, they
met and interacted with the Cretans thus giving rise to a new civilisation called
Mycenaean. This civilisation was marked by constructions of walled cities and
development of bronze goods. They occupied Knossos around 1400 BC and
ruled it until 1100 B.C. hence making them rule the whole of the Aegean area.
Later the Bronze – Age civilizations of the Mycenaens were acquired by later
groups. One of the outstanding groups was the Dorians. They invaded the area
and overran Knossos around 1100 BC.
Dorians
The Dorians invaded Greece from the North and drove the Myceanaens off to
Asia. At around the same time, another linguistic and religious subgroup known
as Ionians reached the area. Around the 5th Century the Ionians and Dorians
engaged in intensive rivalry in Greece.
The Ionians mainly inhabited the city of Athens and even prohibited the
Dorians from entering their sanctuaries. There was thus tension between the
groups even though they interacted in various ways to give forth to the Greek
Civilisation between 1000 BC and 800 BC.
The Greek city states that existed in the area during their civilisation included:
Athens, Sicyon, Megara, Corinth, Thebes, Chalccis, Eretria, Boetia, Argolis,
Phoxcis and Thessaly, Arcadia, Archaea, Aetolia.
These cities were involved in various wars. Examples of such wars are:
─ Peloponnesian war (431 – 404 BC); and─ Corinthian war (395 – 386 BC)
The Roman Civilisation grew along the Tiber River in central Italy. It was mainly
first concentrated in the city of Rome. This was after the Romans, conquered
the Greeks in 146 BC. They founded the city in 753 BC.
According to legend, this was done by two twin brothers – Romulus and Remus
who were abandoned on the Tiber River as infants and raised by a she-wolf.
The two decided to build the city. By the end of the Fourth Century BCE. the city
was already the dominant power on the Italian peninsular.
For five centuries thereafter, Rome’s power steadily increased. By the first
century CE, it controlled Greece and most of her colonies, as well as most of
Western Europe. It expanded her hegemony in these areas through conquest.
Rome also managed to take control of the powerful North African city of
Carthage hence uniting the entire Mediterranean region. She also controlled
the Mediterranean Sea.
At the peak of its powers, her empire covered Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, Syria –
all to her East. To her west were Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco and Spain, Portugal,
France, Switzerland, Belgium and England. She managed to Conquer all these
lands.
Rome’s development was greatly influenced by the geography of the Italian
peninsular. The area had excellent marble and small quantities of lead, tin,
copper, iron (on the island of Elba) and silver in its extensive coastline. There
were few good harbours, most of which faced the west away from Greece and
the Near East. Ancient Italy, nonetheless, was well endowed with large forests.
It had more fertile land than ancient Greece. However, it was more exposed
to invasion. Invaders entered it easily, as the Alps posed no effective barrier
to invaders from central Europe. To make matters worse, Italian low lying
coastline opened it to invaders from the sea. All these made the Romans, from
an early time in their settlements, to be absorbed in military pursuits to defendtheir own conquests against the invaders.
The geography of the Italian Peninsular made possible the rise of Rome. The
peninsular extends about 750 miles from north to south with a width of about
120 miles. It is centrally located in the Mediterranean. The city of Rome is in
the centre of Italy. This central location made Rome to expand, first in Italy, and
later in the lands around the Mediterranean Sea.
Italy’s location made it easier to unify than Greece. The Peninsular is not broken
up into small, isolated valleys. The Apennine Mountains formed a ridge from
north to south and divides the country into west and east. Italy was equally
blessed by having broad, fertile plains, both in the north under the shadow of
the Alps, and in the west, where the Romans settled. The fertile lands supportedher growing population. Rome was built on seven hills and was easily defensible.
Occupation of Rome
The earliest settlers in the Italian peninsular arrived in prehistoric times. From
as early as 1000 to 500 BC the area was already settled. Three groups inhabited
the region and eventually battled for its control. These were: the Latins, the
Greeks and the Etruscans. The Latins were farmers and livestock keepers. They
wandered into Italy across the Alps around 1000 BC These people settled along
the Tiber river valley in a region they called Latium. They are credited with
building the first settlement at Rome. This was a cluster of wooden huts on
Palatine Hill, one of the seven hills in the city. Other main hills were Esquiline
and Quirinal. The Latins were the first Romans.
Next to invade the area were Greek settlers. They arrived and settled in the area
between 750-600 BC. They brought with them elements of their civilisation.
They established about 50 colonies on the coasts of southern Italy and Sicily.
Their cities became prosperous and commercially active. They taught the
Romans farming, especially how to grow grapes and olives.
Unlike Latins and Greeks, the Etruscans (or Rasenna as they called themselves
before they were given the name Etruscans) were native to northern Italy.
These people were skilled in metal works and engineering. They exerted
a great influence on the Roman Civilisation. This was especially in writing,
(where the Romans, adopted their alphabet) and which had been borrowed
from the Greeks) architecture (where they influenced Rome’s architecture,
especially the use of the arch). The Romans are also said to have borrowed
religious ideas from both the Greeks and the Etruscans e.g. from the Etruscans,
they borrowed rituals which they believed helped them to win the favour of the
gods. The Etruscans are also the ones who built the city of Rome and even gave
the Romans their dress – the toga and short cloak. The Romans also borrowed
their military organisation.
The Romans, from the Greeks, even took Greek gods but changed their names
e.g. Zeus became Jupiter, while Hera, the queen god, became Juno. They also
gave Rome its artistic and cultural models through their sculpture, architectureand literature.
11.3.1. The distinctive elements of the Greek Civilizations
The Greek Civilization permeated virtually every aspect of the human life. It
marked a complete refinement of its predecessors, which are Egyptian and
Mesopotamian civilizations. Some of its elements were:
A common language
All the Greece islands spoke an identical language known as Greek. They were
thus able to communicate easily with one another. The common language also
brought feelings of togetherness among the islands’ inhabitants. Greeks had
forgotten their diverse backgrounds. All of them considered themselves as one
race. They regarded non-Greeks as barbarians- men and women whose speech
was to them meaningless noise.
The Greek language gave them a great advantage. It was something of superb
beauty and clarity. The people closely associated settlement in city states with
it. Greek was spoken and written. The language was also used for instruction in
both private and public functions. The Greeks also had a common alphabet. This
formed the basis of the Greek language. In the 8th Century BC, they adopted a
simpler alphabet from the Phoenicians.
Settlement in cities
City states were a major feature of the Greek Civilization. Greeks lived in cities
which were all independent of each other. Each city and the farms around it
formed a separate state called a polis. Sometimes a city sent out a band of its
citizens to find a daughter city elsewhere. The new city was quite independent
of its parent city, although naturally it had close ties with the latter.
By the 8th and 7th Centuries BC, cities were built almost everywhere throughout
Greece. All these cities were independent. The city-states forged alliances with
one another. Each city state was proud and jealously guarded its independence.
This made them to be characterized by battle and shifting alliances. Cooperation
among them also took place. The citizens were very patriotic. Where the enemy
was non-Greek, the other city states came to the defense of their counterpart.
The city-states governed themselves differently. Sometimes they had kings for
example at Sparta. Other cities were led by a self-imposed strong man who
ruled the way they wanted. Such a leader is known as a tyrant. Sometimes the
nobleman ruled, and this was called an aristocracy. Sometimes all the citizens
took part in the government. This was called a democracy. It was practiced in
Athens. All adult male assembled together to discuss issues of interest to their
polis. Other forms of government in the city states were: monarchy, oligarchy
and aristocracy.
Ancient Greek city of Athens
In city states were found the asty (city itself) with its watchtower, the agora
(public square/market place) and surrounding rural- agricultural lands referred
to as the chora. The asty was the business, political, religious and social centre
of the entire community while the Chora provided the food to both the villages
and to the city.
Participation in games
In Ancient Greek, there was a strong belief that athletic competitions were a way
to please the gods and honour the dead heroes. Greeks therefore participated
in the Olympic games from 776 BC. During the games, fighting city-states even
suspended wars between them to allow the competitions to go on.
The games were held after every four years. They attracted some 40,000 Greeks
into the stadium built in Olympia. The games were dedicated to the god Zeus,
father of the gods. The games lasted for more than five days.
Games events included foot races, wrestling, boxing, jumping, javelin, discus
throwing and chariot-riding. Athletes were proud of their bodies and emphasized
physical fitness. A greek by the name Myron, made a famous marble sculpture
of a discus thrower around 450BC. This sculpture survives in the Roman copy
of the Greek Bronze. The most celebrated event during the Olympic Games was
known as the pentathlon. It was considered the supreme contest of athletic
skill. Winners were crowned with a wreath of olive leaves, a coveted Olympic
prize. The wreath of olives awarded the candidate was considered sacred toZeus.
The Greek Olympic Games came to an end in 393 AD. They were banned by a
Christian Roman Emperor. He saw them as pagan practices. But fifteen hundred
years later, the games were revived through the efforts of a French baron, Pierre
de Coubertin, who was inspired by the ideals of the Ancient Greeks. In 1896, the
first modern Olympic Games were held in Athens, Greece. Since then, the games
have been a major event in the history of sports in the world.
Belief in gods and goddesses
Ancient Greeks were very religious. They believed in gods and goddesses. They
had a common religion based on twelve chief gods and goddesses. These deities
were thought to live on Mt. Olympus, the highest mountain in Greece.
The gods and goddesses include the following:
Zeus – the chief god and father of the gods
Athena – goddess of wisdom and craft
Apollo – god of the sun and poetry
Aphrodite – goddess of love and beauty
Poseidon – brother of Zeus and god of the seas and earthquakes
Hades – the god of the underworld – where the spirits of the dead went
Nemesis – god of vengeance
Nike – goddess of victory
Apollo - god of archery, music, poetry, prophecy, medicine and later on god of
the sun.
Although the twelve gods and goddesses were common to all Greeks, each citystate usually singled out one of the twelve Olympian gods as its guardian e.g.
Athena was the patron goddess of Athens, for example. Each polis also had its
own local gods. These local gods remained vital to the community as a whole.
Important elements in the Greek religion were rituals and festivals. The Greeks
wanted the gods and goddesses to look favorably upon their lives and activities.
This was what informed these religious practices.
Artistic heritage
The Greeks attached a lot of importance to artistic expressions. Their arts have
greatly influenced the standards taken by those of other European groups.
Human beings were the subject matter of ancient Greeks’ art. In them, people
were presented as objects of great beauty. It was based on the ideals of reason,
moderation, balance and harmony in all things.
Greek art was shown in their unique architecture and sculptures. Here, they
went to great lengths to show their expression of beauty. Some of these works
still stand today. On architecture, their artistry was visible in the temples they
built for their gods and goddesses. An example was the famous building built
in the fifth century BC, the Parthenon. This temple was built between 447 and
432 BC under the supervision of Ictinus and Calibrates as the master builders.
The temple covered 23,000 square feet.
It was dedicated to Athena, the patron goddess of Athens. The temple was also
dedicated to the glory of Athens and the Athenians. It shows the principles
of classical architecture: the search for calmness, clarity, and freedom from
unnecessary detail. The Parthenon still stands on the Acropolis in Athens. Its
classical beauty and symmetry symbolize the power and wealth of the Athenian
empire. The temple was decorated with statuary and beliefs by the sculptor
Phidias.
They also made sculptures and statues. Their sculptors showed relaxed
attitudes. Most of their faces were self-assured, their bodies flexible and smooth
muscled. They were life-like as the figures bore natural features.
The sculptors shown their ideal standards of beauty. Most were informed by
Doryphoros, a known sculptor at the time, who operated on the theory that
use of ideal proportions, based on mathematical ratios found in nature, could
produce an ideal human form, beautiful in its perfected features. The figures
were graceful, strong and perfectly formed. Their faces showed neither laughter
nor anger, only serenity. Sculptors also tried to capture the grace of the idealized
human body in motion. They valued order, balance and proportion in the works.
Love of philosophy
In the Greek society, there were thinkers who challenged the belief that events
were caused by the whims of gods. Instead, these thinkers, used reason and
observation to establish the causes of things. They were known as philosophers
or lovers of wisdom.
The philosophers explored many subjects from mathematics and music to
logic (rational thinking). Some were interested in ethics and morality. Through
reason and observation, the thinkers believed that, they could discover lawsthat governed the universe.
They based their philosophy on two assumptions:
─ The universe is put together in an orderly way, and subject to absolute
and unchanging laws;
─ People can understand these laws through logic and reason.
Greek philosophers were divided into two. There were those who questioned
people’s unexamined beliefs and ideas of justice, and other traditional values.
These were known as the sophists. The most famous of them was Pytagoras.
He took a position questioning the existence of the traditional Greek gods.
Pythagoras also argued that there was no universal standard of truth, saying
‘Man (the individual) is the measure of all things …’ These ideas were considereddangerous and radical.
Marble portrait bust from the Archaeological Museum, Athens. Socrates (469-399 BC)
is considered to be the intellectual father of modern Western philosophy. His method of
enquiry was to enter into a penetrating discussion with his companions, questioning the
nature of knowledge itself in pursuit of absolute truths. Socrates himself wrote nothing,
but versions of his conversations are recorded in the written works of his pupils Plato and
Xenophon. Socrates’ pursuit of true knowledge brought him into conflict with the piety
laws of his native Athens, where his eventual prosecution led to enforced suicide. (Photoby Ann Ronan Pictures/Print Collector/Getty Images)
Plato (428-348 BC) was a Classical Greek philosopher and founder of the Academy of
Athens, the first university of the western world. Along with his teacher Socrates and his
student Aristotle, Plato is considered to have set the grounds for Western philosophy andto have influences the thinking of many modern philosophers.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath, a student of Plato and
teacher of Alexander the Great. His writings cover many subjects, including physics,
metaphysics, poetry, theater, music, logic, rhetoric, linguistics, politics, government,
ethics, biology, and zoology. Together with Plato and Socrates, Aristotle is one of the
most important founding figures in Western philosophy. Aristotle’s writings were the
first to create a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality
and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.
Then there were critics of the sophists. One of their harshest critics was Socrates.
Socrates believed that absolute standards did exist for truth and justice. He
however, encouraged Greeks to go further and question themselves and their
moral character. But like the sophists, his ideas were considered radical and
poisonous. He was later sentenced to death over the same. Others were Plato (a
student of Socrates) and Aristotle (a student of Plato).
Literature and drama
Athens led the other Greek city states in literature and drama. The latter was
made up of both tragedy and comedy. Epic and lyric were other literary forms
in the Greek world of literature. Drama is said to have developed out of the
choruses that chanted lyrical poems also known as Odes, to the god Dionysius.
A group of citizens judged the plays and awarded the winner a simple prize:
a wreath of ivy. The plays were partly acted and partly chanted. Action was
limited as emphasis was on the story and its meaning. Greek literature began
with the epics of Homer, whose stirring tales inspired later writers.
The drama was closely tied to the political and religious life of the state, which
sponsored it. The Dionysian odes were improved by adding characters and
chorus into them, making them conversational, hence being able to bring
human conflict on the stage.
In the drama, staging remained simple. There were two or three characters
(all male) wearing masks, with a chorus of twelve to fifteen members chanting
commentary on the action. Dialogue was in verse, and movements were slow,
solemn and formal, punctuated by music and dance; but the emotional impact
of tragic drama could be overwhelming.
Aristotle is credited with the introduction of definition and explanation of the
nature of tragedy. He declared that the purpose of tragedy was to inspire pity
and fear in the audience, and so to purge these emotions through a catharsis.
Comedy, on the other hand, was even more directly a form of direct political
commentary. It also addressed themes such as sex, farming, the good old days,
the nightmare of politics, the oddities of religion and the strange manners ofthe town, among others.
Prose was another literary genre that emerged in Ancient Greek. The people,
from the fifth century, began to express philosophical and political ideas
through prose. This symbolized the increasing functional literacy of mostly, the
Athenians. It was in this background that later major literary achievements, by
Plato and Aristotle, were to emerge.
Drama held a vital position in the public life of Athens that citizens were
sometimes paid to attend the plays, just as they were paid to hold public office.
As part of their civic responsibility, wealthy citizens bore the cost for producing
the plays.
Writing of History
We owe the discipline of History to the Ancient Greeks. At first, History was
part of literature until Herodotus campaigned for its separation from literature.
The Greeks applied observation, reason, and logic in understanding the human
past. Herodotus was the pioneer in this hence he is often referred to as the
Father of History. According to Thucydides, history was to be written in an
accurate, factual and impartial way. He also vouched for the use of eye witness
accounts in writing in this discipline.
Trade
Ancient Greeks were also seamen and traders. They traded with the neighbouring
lands in a variety of goods. The Greek city states also traded with each other.
Trade made the city states to be rich and prosperous.
In sum, the Greeks were ahead of other people in virtually all fields. Little wonder,
Cicero, the Roman scholar is quoted saying that “in all branches of learning, the
Greeks are our masters”. He made this statement in the first century B.C. It still
holds today. Even in medicine, astronomy and other sciences, they made their
footprints. The Greek Civilization spread to other parts of the world through
education (literacy), trade and conquest. They built their civilization from the
wide array of resources which abounded in their environment. A few examples
were marble, limestone, copper and silver. Coupled with the bounty of the sea,
and fertile land, they had a lot of wealth and food which supported their strong
and growing population.
The Greeks were united by geographic region, language, religion, economics
and common customary practices. However, they remained divided politically
into the scores of the independent city states. Loyalty was first and foremost tothe city state before it extended to the more remote ideal of Hellas.
Architecture
Like other ancient communities, the Romans paid attention to architecture.
Their architecture borrowed a lot from the Greek and Etruscans ones. They
also introduced new designs and materials in their works. The Romans, for
example, pioneered the use of concrete in construction. Roman architectural
works were hence an improvement over the earlier Greek ones.
Roman civil engineering and building construction technology became
developed and refined. Some of what they built have remained to date for
example, the Pantheon (with one of the largest single span domes in the world),
a building still found in the business district of the present city of Rome. There
was also the Colossium, a theatre which could accommodate 50,000 spectators.
The pantheon was a temple of all Roman gods.
Roman architectural developments were found in virtually all the cities under
its control and influence. A few examples are: the Verona Arena in Verona
Italy; Arch of Hadrian in Athens, Greece; Temple of Hadrian at Ephesos in
Turkey; a theatre at orange in France and Lepcis Magna in Libya among others.
The architectural works were visible in palaces, stadiums, temples, private
dwellings, villas, public buildings and hydraulics. Roman architectural works
emphasized grandeur. Roman Aqueduct at Segovia, Spain
Romans are known to have experimented with the dome and pioneered in the
building of amphitheaters, public baths, and race courses. In the empire, public
buildings were of massive proportions and solid construction.
Roman architecture made use of rows and columns and rectangular buildings.
They also used curvilinear forms (forms based on curved lines): the arch, vault,
and dome. Combined with concrete, the curvilinear forms saw the Romans
building massive building by their times.
Closely related to architecture was road construction. They made big strides
in this area even though they did little in science. Engineering was thus their
strength. The Romans built magnificent roads and bridges some of which have
survived to date. Aqueducts brought water into Rome from nearby hills. The
water was used for drinking and bathing. It also served as sewage system.
Law
The early Roman republic had a written code of law which was heavily based
on custom. It was known as the ‘Twelve Tables or tablets. They were written to
make the interpretation of the law objective. Work of writing the law begun in
451 B.C. It involved a group of ten officials. Upon finishing the work, the laws
were carved on twelve tablets or tables and hung in the Forum (market place).
These laws became the basis for future Roman law. They were based on the
spirit of equality of all citizens to the law. Every individual had thus a duty to
protect the law.
Through the universal laws, they were able to establish standards of justice
that applied to all people. The standards of justice brought by the Romans
included principles that were recognizable by people. An individual was
regarded innocent until proved guilty. Every suspect was allowed to face his or
her accuser and himself or herself before a judge who was expected to weigh
the evidence carefully before making a verdict. The Roman law was based on
the following principles:
─ All persons had the right to equal treatment under the law.
─ A person was considered innocent until proven guilty.
─ The burden of proof rested with the accuser rather than the accused.
─ A person should be punished only for actions, not thoughts.
─ Any law that seemed unreasonable or grossly unfair could be set
aside.
Government
From the earliest times, the Romans had distrust of Kingship and of a sole ruler.
This was due to the lessons they learned from their experience with Etruscans.
As a result, the Romans devised a complicated system of government.
In the Roman republic, the chief executive officers were the consuls and praetors.
Two consuls, chosen every year, ran the government and led the Roman army
into battle. In 366 BC., a new office, that of praetor was created. The occupant
oversaw civil law. A counsel’s term was only one year, and once elected, he could
not be elected again for ten years. One counsel could also overrule or veto the
others’ decision.
The senate was made up of a select group of about 300 land owning men who
served for life. It begun by serving as an advisory body to government officials.
Later, by the 3rd Century BC., it got the force of law. Senators each year, elected
from the patrician class two consuls. The power of the consuls was thus checked
by the senate. Consuls’ power was further checked by limitation of terms. They
could only serve for one term. Membership to the senate was for life.
There were also a number of assemblies in the Roman republic. It was
organized by classes based on wealth. This assembly was fixed in such a way
that the wealthiest citizens always had a majority. It elected the chief officials
and passed laws.
The senate was allowed during war, to elect a dictator, or a ruler who enjoyed
complete control over government. The consuls chose him before the senate
elected. Each Roman dictator was granted power to rule for six months. After
the expiry of the time, the dictator had to give up power and go back to his
former duties. This governmental set-up made Roman writers to boast by
about 275 B.C. that they had attained a balanced government. This was because
there was a blend of monarchy, Aristocracy and democracy. They believed that
mixture gave them the best features of all kinds of governments.
When Rome became an empire, from the reign of Octavian, Senate gave him the
honorific title of emperor. He became known as emperor Augustus. This marked
the beginning of the Roman Empire. From the date, Roman rulers adopted the
name of emperor. But like before, they exercised the very powers as during the
period of consulship.
Social organization
The family held a central place in the Roman society. By law and custom, power
at the household was vested exclusively in the eldest man, known as the ‘pater
familias’ or the father of the family. This individual had absolute authority over
the family. He controlled all family property. He could sell a member of his
household into slavery or even kill any member of the family without penalty.
The father was equally the individual who protected the family, spoke on behalf
of the family in public assemblies or in law courts. He also acted as the family’s
chief priest.
Roman women were in charge of the day to day management of their families.
Generally in Rome, women enjoyed more freedom than in the Greek society.
They had right to own property and testify in court. They also often provided
advice to their husbands on business and politics.
All members of the family and by extension the clans, were supposed to uphold
the principles of their ancestors, a set of traditions known mos maiorum.
Traditions were considered sacred and were products of many years of
experience.
The Roman society was divided into classes. At the top was a group of families
which claimed that their ancestors had been parts or “fathers” who had founded
the city of Rome. These families were privileged and belonged to a class known
as the patrician. They claimed that due to their ancestry, they had the right to
make laws for Rome and its people.
The other class which brought together common farmers, artisans and
merchants formed the plebeians. They were citizens with a number of rights,
including the right to vote. However, they were considered to be below the
patricians. In the Roman society thus, birth and not merit or wealth, was the
sole determinant of an individual’s social and political status. Voting when the
Republic was founded in 509 BC was exercised by the patricians and plebeians.
Slaves, women and children were not allowed to vote.
On food, the Romans observed very simple dietary practices. They usually ate
the first meal of the day at around 11 O’clock. It consisted of bread, salad, olives,
cheese, fruits, nuts and cold meat which had been left over from the previous
night’s meal. They also had other meals such as breakfast and dinner.
Education
Formal schooling begun around 200 BC. In most of the Roman Empire, pupils
began to learn at around age six and spent the next six to seven years in school.
They learnt basics of reading, writing and counting. By age twelve, they were
introduced to learning Latin, Greek grammar and literature after which, they
undertook training for public speaking. Romans highly valued oratory. Good
orators commanded respect from the rest of the society. It was for this reason,
that one of the objectives of education and learning, was becoming an astute
orator.
Language
The Romans’ native language was Latin. This was a form of Italic language in the
Indo-European family. There were several forms of Latin spoken in the empire.
Silver Age Latin was the most popular. The language’s alphabet originally came
from the Greek one.
Greek was spoken by the well-educated elite. Most of the literature studied
by Romans was in Greek. Latin in this area was mostly used by the Roman
administrators and soldiers. Eventually, Greek replaced Latin as both the official
written and spoken language of the eastern empire. The western empire used
Latin. Later Latin was to spread in various dialects to Western Europe as a
distinct Romance language hence giving birth to Portuguese, Romania, French,
Italian and Spanish.
Literature
Roman literature, like, its religion, was greatly inspired by the Greeks’. The
earliest were historical epics which told the early history of Rome e.g. Augustus
sponsored the historian, Livy, to document the history of Rome from its founding
to the rule of Augustus. He did this in 142 Roman style books. Generally, Latin
literature took many forms.
The expansion of the empire culminated to expansion in the type of literally
works. Writers began to produce poetry, comedy, history and tragedy. Some of
these works have survived in today e.g. “Histories” of Tacitus, Julius Ceasers’
“Gallic wars” and Livy’s “History of Rome”.
During the reign of Augustus, the literature of the time is generally referred to
as works of the Golden Epic. Most literature of the “Golden Age” were vigorous,
affirmative and uplifting. It mainly served political and propaganda ends.
Whereas that of the silver age was characteristically less calm and balanced. Its
effects are said, to have derived more often from self-conscious artifice. Most
were intended to entertain than instructor uplift the mood of the reader.
Visual art
Roman art was greatly influenced by Etruscans – especially in portrayal
of political issues. Greek art also influenced Roman art from the 3rd BCE. It
surpassed the influence the Etruscans had exerted on the Romans. Many Roman
homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists.
With time the Romans came up with their own styles. Some remarkable ones
were: “Incrustation” in which the interior walls of houses were painted to
resemble coloured marble. A second style involved painting interiors as open
landscapes, with highly detailed scenes of plants, animals and buildings.
The Romans learned the art of sculpture from the Greeks. From the knowledge,
they were able to create realistic portraits in stone. Much of the Roman art was
practical in purpose. It was intended for public education.
The Roman artists were especially good in creating mosaics. These were
pictures or designs made by setting small pieces of stone, glass, or tile onto a
surface. Most villas, the country houses of the wealthy, had at least one coloured
mosaic. Romans also made good works of painting. Most of the wealthy people
had bright, large murals, called frescoes, painted directly on their walls.
Music
The society in Rome recognised and appreciated the vital role played by music
in life. In the entire empire. They graced both private and public events with
music. There was music during nightly dining and in military parades and
maneuvers. Romans used a variety of musical instruments in their songs. Some
of the main ones included; tuba, cornu, aulos, askanles, flute, panpipes, lyre,
lute, cithara, timpani, drums, hydraulis and the sistrum.
Economy
In Imperial Rome, agriculture was the main economic activity. All else depended
on the industry. About 90% of the population engaged in farming. Most people
survived on produce from their farms. Additional food stuffs (when needed)
and luxury items for the rich were obtained through trade.
From the time of Augustus reign, a silver coin called a denarius, was used as
a medium of exchange. Existence of a common currency made commercial
transactions throughout the empire. The coins often carried the likeness of
the emperor or depicted a Roman achievement. A standard system of coinage
developed in 269 BCE.
Transportation when carrying out trade was made easy by the existence of
the Mediterranean Sea. Ships from the east travelled along the sea under the
protection of the Roman’s navy. Trade made cities on the eastern Coast of the
Mediterranean to expand and become rich. Examples of these cities were:
Corinth, Ephesus and Antioch.
Apart from water transport, the empire had a good network of roads. Roads
linked various places in the empire. The roads were originally built by the
Roman army for military purposes. The most important were the silk roads,
named for the overland routes on which silk from China reached the Romans.
Other luxury goods also passed through the same routes. There were numerous
trade goods which changed hands in the empire.
Religion
The earliest Romans worshipped powerful spirits or divine forces, called
Mumina. These spirits were thought to reside in everything around them.
Closely related to these spirits were the Lares, for each family.
Interactions with the Greeks and Etruscans made the Romans begin to associate
the spirits with human like forms and individual personalities. The spirits now
got Roman names and were honoured through rituals. People expected the gods
and goddesses to give them favour and ward off misfortunes from their midst.
In the empire, the state and religion were linked. The deities were symbols of
the state. Individuals were expected to honour them in private rituals and intheir homes. Priests also conducted public worship ceremonies in temples.
Polytheism or belief in more than one god, thrived in the Roman Empire. Among
the most important gods and goddesses were Jupiter (father of the gods), Juno
(Jupiter’s wife who supposedly watched over women), Minerva (goddess
a wisdom and of the arts and crafts) and Vesta (goddess of home). Emperor
worship also came with the creation of the institution.
It became part and parcel of the state religion of Rome. Priests were appointed
to work for the governor. Their religion depended on knowledge and the correct
practice of prayer, ritual and sacrifice. They also never placed great emphasis
on rewards and punishments after death.
But unlike the Greeks, the Romans revered their ancestors, their “household
gods” included deceased members of a lineage who were worshipped in order
to ensure a family’s continued prosperity.
Each home had a household shrine at which prayers and libations were offered
to the family deity. The Romans looked on their gods to bestow upon their
households, city and empire, with the blessings of prosperity, victory and
flexibility.
There was religious toleration in the Roman Empire. This witnessed varied
religious traditions. People were expected to honour Roman gods and
acknowledge the divine spirit of the empire and upon meeting these conditions,
they had freedom to observe their other religious practices as they pleased.
Sports
In the ancient city of Rome, there was a place called the campus. Here, Roman
soldiers conducted drills. Later the campus became Rome’s track and field
playground. Other urban centres in the empire copied the campus in their
centres and military settlements. The youth in the urban centres, assembled
in the campus to play, exercise and perform inappropriate acts. These acts
included: jumping, wrestling, boxing and racing, riding, throwing and swimming.
In the rural areas, people also participated in fishing and hunting. Women were
prohibited from partaking of these activities.
There were several ball games which could be found in Ancient Rome. These
included: dice (Tesse-rae or tali) Roman Chess (Latrunculi) Roman Checkers
(Calculi), tic-tac-toe (Terni Lapilli) and Ludus duodeeim Scriptorum and Tabula.
Philosophy
Roman philosophy heavily borrowed from its Greek predecessor. Two major
philosophical schools – Cynism and stoicism – derived from Greek religion and
philosophy became prominent in the Roman empire in the 1st and 2nd Century
A D. These two philosophies were fairly merged in the early years of the Roman
Empire.
The two philosophies expressed negative views on civilization, something which
was reflected in their adherants way of life. Cynicism upheld that civilization
was corrupt and people needed to break away from it and its trappings while
stoicism, on the other hand, taught that one must surrender all earthly things
and assist others.
Apart from the three philosophical schools we have mentioned above, there was
also Epicureanism. The most renowned of its Roman exponents was Lucretius
(98-35B C). He expresses the view that everything is a product of mechanical
evolution, including human beings and their habits and beliefs. He nonetheless
admitted the existence of the gods but saw them as living in eternal peace,
neither creating nor governing the universe.
Lucretius and Cicero led the other Roman philosophers in advancing Greek
thought in the Roman Empire. Their teachings resonated well with the upper
classes. Cicero wrote in a rich and elegant Latin prose style that has never been
surpassed. His prose became a standard for composition and has been up to
today.
Militarisation
The Roman society was highly militarised. Citizenship for provincials could
be obtained after 25 years of military service. The army doubled as an army
corps of engineers. They built roads and other forms of infrastructure such as
aqueducts.
Rome fought mercilessly with its neighbours. It had most of its male population
pass through military service. This made it a highly militarized state. Even
leaders had to have passed through the military to be accepted to lead. Political
career of an individual could only commence after ten years of service in the
military.
The Roman Civilisation spread to all the lands they controlled. This happened
through trade and conquest. Its location along the Mediterranean region
enabled people to pursue their commercial interests while their military
nature, allowed them to register victories in their enemies’ camps. Once they
had brought an area to their fold, the Roman administrators helped to spreadtheir civilisation in the areas.
Sports
In sports we owe to the Greeks the Olympic games which are held after every
four years. The games are today a global event which attracts teams from
various nations in different parts the World.
Literature
Greeks pioneered drama as a form of entertainment. They performed plays
which explored the struggles made by individuals to free themselves from the
imperfections in their characters. The playwrights balanced their tragedies
with comedies that poked fun at the important and the disliked. Some of the
outstanding playwrights included:
Aristophanes added his genius by using satire and comedy to make his points
about society and politics of the time.
Hommer believed to have been two people with the name to have written the
Iliad and the Odyssey.
Sappho brought lyric poetry as a genre.
Aeschylusintroduced ideas of dialogue and interacting characters to playwrighthence inventing drama.
Sophocles brought irony as a literacy technique.
Plato introduced philosophy in literature through his dialogues.
Writers valued and preserved much of the knowledge and writings of the past
in libraries such as Alexandria, the most famous in the world.
Athenians led other Greek city states in literary appreciation. They are famous
for their love and appreciation of literature especially poems and plays. The
world today has borrowed heavily from their rules and habits for writing,
reaching and theatre arts performance. Some of their plays are still being
performed in different parts of the World today.
History
The Ancient Greeks are credited with developing history as a distinct discipline
of study. Prior to this, history was considered to be part of literature. Herodotus
constructed a narrative of the Persians wars using critical methods and
interpretative framework. Later, Thucydides (460 – 400 B .C) used scientific
methods in writing the History of the Peloponnesian war. He used the analytic
methods borrowed from science and philosophy in writing the history so as to
produce ‘an exact knowledge of the past as an aid to the interpretation of the
future.’
Philosophy
Philosophy is the study of nature and meaning of the universe and of human life.
The Greeks believed in rational explanation for the existence of the universe or
wise people. They believed that truth was relative and depended on how one
argued his or her case out notwithstanding whether what was at stake was
truthful or false.
The philosophers tried to understand humanity’s relationship to nature, the
gods, individual to another and between the individual and the groups of human
society. Some of the most renown philosophers of ancient Greece are. Socrates,
Plato, Aristotle, Zeno, Epicurious.
Science and Mathematics
Greeks made most pronounced legacy in science and mathematics. Various
personilities made numerous contributions. A few examples include:
Aristarchus of Samos living around 200 B.C. discovered that the earth and the
other planet revolved around the sun.
Eratosthenes discovered that the earth is spherical.
Euclid around 300 B.C, in his school at Alexandria, borrowed from the
ideas of other scientists from Mesopotamia and Greece and developed the
basic principles of geometry. Later other Greek mathematicians developed
trigonometry. In schools today, students still study Euclid geometry. Euclid also
noted that light travels in straight lines and described the law of reflection.
Archimedes (287 -212 BC). He was a student of Euclid. He developed various
laws of physics. His discoveries included: the principle of determining specific
gravity and the basic principle of the modern conveyor belt. He is also said to
have known the use of the pulley system and the lever and once used them to
pull a loaded ship out of the sea and brought it to the beach. Today, there is even
a screw pump which bears his name. Archimedes also defined a spiral.
Hero living in Alexandria, around 100 BC made a long list of inventions some of
which includes a fire engine and steam engine.
Hippocrates is known today as the father of medicine. He believed that sickness
is a result of natural cause and not a product of god’s wrath. He formulated the
Hippocratic Oath which outlines the responsibilities of the medical profession
up to today.
Herophilus lived around 200 B.C. He made several discoveries on how the body
functions. The main ones were that blood is pumped from the heart through
the arteries to other parts of the body, the pulse is vital in revelation of sickness,
there exists a relationship between the brains and the nerves and lastly, the
brain is divided into many sections, each with its own functions in controlling
various parts of the body.
Thales of Miletus (640 – 610 to 548 – 545 BC ) – He travelled widely and learnt
a lot during his travels. Thales brought Phoenician navigational techniques
into Miletus. He also revised the calendar, brought Babylonian mathematical
knowledge to Greece and used geometry to solve problems such as calculating
the height of pyramids and the distances of ships from the shore. Thales studied
astronomy in Babylon and came back home and predicted the eclipse of the sun.
Pythagoras (569 – 475 B.C). He was a philosopher and mathematician. He
studied astronomy and geometry before founding the Pythagorean cult. The
cult was devoted to the study of numbers which they saw as concrete. As a
mathematician, Pythagoras also investigated the ratios of lengths corresponding
to musical harmonies and developed methods of geometric proof. In geometry,
he developed the Pythagoras theory or Hypotenuse theorem that is still beingused today.
Architecture
Ancient Greeks excelled in great architectural works. Most of the formulas they
invented as early as the 6th Century B.C have informed the world of architecture
for the past two millennia. They built temples, theatre and stadiums which are
still the envy of the present world. We owe today our theatres and stadium
designs to this Ancient civilization.
Greek architecture still influences many people today. The US Supreme Court
design, for example, was influenced by the Parthenon, the Greek temple to the
goddess Athena.
Government and law
Greeks are credited for introducing and practicing democracy, system of
checks and balances in government, equality before the law and active citizen
participation in the civic functions of the state. They also brought the issue of
political and civil rights which were limited to citizens of a city state. As citizens,
people had their duties and responsibilities to the state and fellow citizens
clearly spelt out.
Athens was the first Greek city to set up a democratic government. All free men
were members of the government. They passed laws and were allowed to serve
on a jury of its 30,000 citizens, 500 were chosen on a yearly basis to run the
city. Those chosen were given stipends as token of appreciation for their work.
The outstanding Athenian leaders who contributed towards the development
of democracy were Solon (early 594 – 508 BC) Pericles (461 – 429 BC) and
Alexander the Great (336 – 323 BC).
Art, music and dance
Greek art, music and dance have exercised an enormous influence on the
culture of the present world. In art they made sculptures and statues of stones
marble, limestone and clay. Drinking vessels were made from lumps of gold,
silver or bronze, stamped with a geometric design. One of the great sculptors
was Phidias who lived during the 400 B.C.
He is credited with carving the massive statues of Athena which stood within
the Parthenon. He also carved the great statue of the seated Zeus at Olympia,
the site of Olympic Games – today listed as one of the Seven Wonders of the
World. Other well known sculptors were Praxiteles and Myron who both livedin the 300s B.C.
On music and dance, Greek folk music and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry.
The Greeks created their art to look natural and realistic. The depictions of
nature, humanity and noteworthy events of society were designed to please
the public, support civic pride and to reinforce Greek ideals of beauty.
The Greeks civilizations as can be seen from these contributions left a rich legacy
to the modern world. However, it equally had it flaws. Women and slaves had no
political rights. Foreigners were also prohibited from owning land. These made
the Greek system to be discriminative by today’s standards.
Religion
The Greeks shared a common religion and belief system. They believed in many
gods and goddesses. Their belief system was also made up of heroes and myths.
Greek gods and goddesses had human appearance. They also bore human
characteristics and attributes. The deities participated directly in human affairs
according to Greek beliefs. In addition, the Greeks believed in oracles to tell the
future and to give prophesies.
Today, religion is common to humanity. It is based on a system of beliefs just
as during the Ancient Greek period. Belief in oracles is still practiced in games
and sports and many other fields of human endeavour. The belief in existence
of gods (or god), life after death, provision of sacrifices and offerings to god,
command of divine powers over human life and observance of festivals and
rituals in religious life, were evident in the Greek Civilization. We owe these
partly to the Greek Civilization.
Belief in military power of a country
Sparta was renowned for her military power. She built an army which proved
fatal to other Greek city – states and beyond. War was glorified and every effort
was made to train boys to serve in the military. Today, all world states have
developed their military along almost similar lines. A might of a nation is partly
seen through its military capability.
During training today, like during the Spartan period, body and mind held a
central place. The recruits and those in service have their bodies and minds
hardened and shaped for war. This is also what took place in Sparta.
The saying “all roads lead to Rome” attests to the fact of Rome’s contribution
to modern society. They made countless contributions to us in virtually all the
fields. Today, we use some of the inventions and innovations. The main ones
include:
Christianity
Rome allowed Christianity to spread and flourish in her empire. Ideas about the
faith spread easily inspite of persecution from some rulers and even citizens.
Today, Christianity is one of the major world religions. We owe it partly to some
Roman emperors.
The same can be said on monotheism e.g. emperor Constantine made
Christianity legal thus elevating it above other religions. This gave it an upper
hand. Rome thus helped spread Christianity to other parts of the world.
Government
Representative democracy was reflected in the Roman republican system.
Senators represented groups of people thus bringing an element of democracy.
The people’s representation injected some checks and balances in the
governance process.
Power was distributed and not concentrated in one office. This form of
government has been emulated by governments in the world today. In a way
too, the Roman division of their republic into three branches: the Consuls
(who served as judges and army leaders) the Senators (who acted as political
advisers) and the Assembly (made up of army members whose role was to
approve or reject laws) mirrors the separation of powers found in democratic
governments today.
Like modern democracies, the Romans through their “Twelve Tablets” had
something akin to a written constitution. The rules, like today, applied to all
citizens alike. They also referred to property, marriage, family, crime, theft and
inheritance.
Architecture
Architecture is one field in which the Romans made great strides in. Their
knowledge and skills have been acquired in the modern world. Their
architectural styles were evident in use of improved arches and columns of the
Greeks; the rounded domes, sculptures, frescos and mosaics. They also used
concrete, mortar and cement. This enabled them to develop some structures
which have withstood the test of time such as the pantheon and the colosseum.
In their architectural work, we are able to witness symbols of their power and
creativity in mixing materials and creating masterpieces using new building
techniques for visual effect and structure enforcement.
These structures were made across rivers, included large networks of
underground channels which supplied water to cities and valleys. Later, through
the aqueducts, households benefited from indoor plumbing, an efficient sewer
system. Central floor heating or hot baths were also spread by the Romans even
though they were not inventors.
Today all the innovations of Romans have made our life easy. Buildings, bridges
and harbours and pipeline transport for water are in use in virtually every part
of the world. The Roman architectural styles have also been copied in many
parts of the world e.g. the US capital building, the Lincoln memorial and most
state capitals in the USA.
Entertainment
Our idea for mass entertainment came from the Romans. People were
entertained in the forum and in the colosseum, Rome’s Amphitheatre which had
a capacity of accommodating 60,000 persons. Games were played, sports were
held, musical and theatrical performances, public executions and gladiatorial
combat performed. The colosseum’s floors also hosted mock naval battles for
public watch. Today mass entertainment is a feature of modern humanity.
Roads
Roman roads have greatly influenced our modern road construction. Some
of these roads are still in use today e.g. via Appia, an old road that connects
Rome to Brindisi in southwest Italy. Their highways were straight, plane and
resistant to damage. Like today’s highways, these roads use the most direct
route to connect cities. In fact, several of the modern roads connecting what
were Roman cities have followed routes that were chosen by the Romans.
Calendar
The Julian calendar (named after its inventor, Galus Julius “Ceasar”) gave a lot
to the modern calendar. (Which was reformed by Pope Gregory 1600 years
later). The calendar is still being used the way it was in many Greek Orthodox
churches.
Our modern calendar has retained the names of the months as they were in
the Julian calendar. All the months’ names are derived from Latin e.g. January
(from “Janus”, god of the beginning of times) February (from “Februa” a Roman
festival), March (from “Mars” the god of war), April (from “aspire” meaning
“open”, referring to the blossoming of plants in spring), May (from “maia,”
goddess of fertility), June (from “Juno”, goddess of women and marriage, hence
the expression “June bride”), July (from Julius Ceasar himself), August (from
emperor Augustus), September (7th as March was the First month at the time),
and, October (8th), November (9th) and December (10th month). The use ofcalendar has remained in today’s society.
Meal system
Ancient Romans invented the three-course meal that is popular in the world
today. Their meal was made up of starter, main dish and dessert. This tradition
was prevalent in the empire.
Law
The modern world has also borrowed a lot from the Roman law. The Justinian
Dynasty opened the eyes of the world to the need for legal reform. This had
followed the Twelve Tables. But the ascendancy of the Justinian dynasty saw
steps being made towards reforming the Roman law.
Beginning AD 528, a panel of experts was assembled by the emperor to reform
the law. They came up with the codex, an updated collection of the laws. Later,
the Digest and the institutes were completed. All these saw the bringing to an
end of the legal reforms in AD 534. Together, these writings were called the
“Corpus Juris Civilis” the body of civil law”. They have greatly influenced law,
first in the western world and secondly, by extension to the whole world.
Literature, philosophy and history
Poetry and use of satire in verse in literature were popular in the Ancient
Roman empire. Use of history to achieve nationalistic and patriotic ends was
a major feature among Roman historian’s works’ Like today, historians equally
criticized aspects of governance or regimes they felt took away the peoples’
liberty. The Romans respected philosophy’s contribution to society. They were
guided by Greek philosophical schools. The Romans spread ideas of these
philosophies to the areas they controlled.
Today, the world owes a lot in these three fields to the Romans. Even some of the
books they wrote in literature, philosophy and history have been interpreted in
other languages and are still being used today.
Art
Art was another area where the Romans have left an indelible mark. Uses of
realism, idealism and revealing of an individual’s character in a piece of art
have their origin in Ancient Rome. Today, art is dominated with these qualities.
We can also not forget the idea of beautifying homes with works of art in the
modern society. This was also popularized by the Romans. Use of frescoes and
mosaic have also their roots in ancient Rome.
Science and mathematics
This is an area where the world today also owes something from the Romans.
Although the Romans generally left scientific research to the Greeks, these were
their citizens hence their contributions are treated as Rome’s.
In Egypt, the Romans left the Hellenistic scientists to exchange their ideas freely.
This made scientists like the astronomer – mathematician Ptolemy, to come up
with his theory that the earth was the centre of the universe, a mistaken idea
that was accepted in the western world for nearly 1,500 years.
The Greek doctor Galen made advances in the medical field. He insisted on
experiments to prove a conclusion. This medic compiled a medical encyclopaedia
which summarized what was known in the field of medicine at the time. This
book remained a standard text in the medical profession for more than 1,000
years.
In addition, the Romans, popularized the use of science. They applied geography
to make maps, and medical knowledge to help doctors improve public health.
Currency and trade
Throughout their reign, the Romans maintained a stable currency and a prosperous international trade. Stability of currency and promotion of international trade are today still vital economic issues.
