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- Social Studies for ECLPE Y2 SB File Uploaded 2/11/21, 14:01
UNIT 7 THE FIRST, SECOND REPUBLICS AND THE 1990-1994 LIBERATION WAR
Key unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to examine the
achievements and the failures of the First and the
Second Republics and describe the causes and courseof the liberation war.
7.1.1. Achievements of the 1st Republic (1962-1973)
The independence of Rwanda was won on 1st July 1962 from Belgian
colonization; then, since 1962 up to 1973, Rwanda was under the First
Republic under Kayibanda Gregoire as the president. Under this period, some
achievements and political institutional changes were recorded.
• The Constitution
In 1962, Rwanda under the Republican form of government acceded to
independence without a well formulated constitution. The vote for constitution
took place during the meeting of November 23rd, 1962. The final text was signedon the following day, i.e. on 24th November 1962- by 40 Members of Parliament.
Source: https://www.facebook.com/pg/GregoireKayibanda/about/
• The government
By independence, Rwanda had also a government headed by a President of the
Republic and a Parliament.
• The National Assembly
The Parliament supervises the action of the President of the Republic and
his government. Under the 1st Republic, there were three legislatures elected
respectively in 1961, 1965 and 1969 until the dissolution of the Parliament
following the July 5th, 1973 Coup d’état.
• The Supreme Court
The Supreme Court was instituted in the first Constitution of the Republic ofRwanda.
• Economic evolution under the First Government
The regime of the First Republic managed to make some modest achievements
on economic perspective. The First Republic inaugurated some financial
institutions like banks which helped to finance a few factories and industrial
companies. The National Bank was established in January 1964, the commercial
Bank in 1962, and the “Banque Rwandaise de Développement” or the RwandaDevelopment Bank in 1968.
Source: https://twitter.com/ClaudeKabengera/status/1026801081823752193
Source: http://rwanda-corporate-review.blogspot.com/
The Rwanda Development Bank had a mission to solve the problem of financing
industrial companies. In fulfillment of this mission, the Rwanda Development
Bank financed several industries.
In the sector of infrastructure, some projects had been conceived to macadamize
all the road axes linking the country to the outside world in the frame-work of
the five-year development plan (1966-1971). In order of priority, the followingroads were to be macadamized:
-- Kigali- Gatuna;
-- Kigali-Rusumo;
-- Kigali- Butare; and-- Ruhengeri- Cyanika.
In addition to this achievement, there was the construction of the Rusumo
Bridge at the Akagera River linking Rwanda and Tanzania and that of the
Bridge over Nyabarongo River.
In the sector of rural development, the emphasis was placed on the reclamation
of marshlands in order to improve agricultural production and the distribution
of improved seeds and plants in some parts of the country. Besides, there was
introduction of new crops like rice. In terms of animal production, some
cattle dips were put in place to fight ticks which attack cows.
• Socio-cultural evolution
• Education system
In the sector of education and health, the First Republic managed to make some
but very few achievements. Since its existence the regime of the First Republic
strived to give free education services.
A ‘’double-intake” system was introduced in primary schools during the
academic year of 1969 - 1970. This system meant that every teacher had
two groups of pupils to teach: one group in the morning and the other in the
afternoon.
However, the increase in intake for pupils resulting from the double-session
program had problems. These included inadequate teaching staff who were
not well qualified, poor teaching content which was not appropriate to the
realities on the ground and finally, there was lack of school materials such as
books, chalk, dusters. Even the state of school buildings was appalling.
In order to overcome the above problems, the government took the following
actions:
-- As early as 1963, more qualified teachers were urgently trained by putting
in place a training period of two years for trainers of trainers;
-- A “pedagogic training centre” was set up in order to improve the quality
of head teachers who were destined to become inspectors after six
months of internship. This was done in the perspective of reorganizedprimary education at provincial level in various sectors;
-- Opening of 12 audio–visual centres by the Gitarama Radio School in
favour of radio teaching programs for uneducated rural children in a 4
years program.
-- Creation of a special post- primary cycle for girls to replace the 8 former
post primary domestic training colleges (3 years in boarding school)
for “privileged” young girls.
-- Training of headmistresses and female teachers in women technical
schools (2 years’ terminal cycle after ordinary level) in Nyanza, Mubuga
and Remera;
-- In 1971 - 72, the number of secondary schools increased from 24 to 63;
-- For boys, some of those schools offered ordinary level orientation,
diversified upper levels, technical secondary studies in agriculture,
veterinary, medical training, etc. lower teacher – training education and
finally professional education;
-- As for girls, who had been marginalized for a long time in terms of
education, a common cycle of orientation, diversified upper levels, lower
teacher–training education, middle education and social, medical and
domestic training were introduced.
It should be reminded that at the time of independence, the country of
Rwanda was not well equipped in terms of secondary schools. It possessed
few secondary schools such as Groupe Scolaire of Astrida in Butare, Kicukiro
Government Technical School in Kigali, Saint Andrew College in Kigali, Christ
the King College, etc.
During this period, there was not any for higher education. In fact, the first
university was opened on November 3rd 1963 in Rwanda. The initiative
to establish higher education finally was born during the First Republic. It
was started by a Canadian priest called Levesque as Rector with 50 students
distributed in three faculties: medicine, arts and sciences. It also operated a
school called Ecole Pratique des Langues Modernes (Practical School of ModernLanguages) and a Higher School for Nursing.
Source:https://talloiresnetwork.tufts.edu/national-university-of-rwanda-rwanda/
On 17th October 1971, after eight years of sustained hard work, UNR had 471
students, 250 of whom 18 had graded as doctors in medicine. This was a big
achievement for UNR. This University was launched in Butare (Huye District
today) with the assistance of two countries: Switzerland and Canada.
By 1971-1972, the number of students had reached 470. The Higher Institute
of Education (Institute Pédagogique National (IPN) was started in 1966.
• Health sector
In health sector, the First Republic also tried to make some efforts. The focus
was put on the construction of new dispensaries whose number increased from
67 to 142 in 1972.
To take care of disabled children, a centre for physically handicapped children
was built at Gatagara and another Psychiatry Centre for the people with mental
disability was built at Ndera. This centre known as CARAES Ndera is run by
the Gand Brothers of Charity. Regarding preventive medicine, vaccination
campaigns were initiated between 1965 and 1970.
7.1.2. Achievements of the Second Republic
After the coup d’état of 1973, Rwanda went through the different political
changes under the leardership of the president Juvenal Habyarimana. He ruledthe country from 1973 up to 1994 through a Party State MRND.
Source:https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=304_634x517.jpg&exph =
517&expw =634&q= habyarimana+ juvenal&simid = 607998000554577436 &s electedIndex=1
• Creation and institutionalization of MRND
The “Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement” (MRND)
or National Revolutionary Movement for Development was created two years
after the coup by the President Juvénal Habyarimana. It was set up in order to
fill the vacuum created by the dissolution of PARMEHUTU government on 5th
July 1975.
It was “Party State” whose objective was to unify, stimulate and intensify all
efforts of all Rwandan people with a view to enhancing economic, social and
cultural development in an atmosphere of national peace and unity. In 1977,
the Commission for Administration and Institutional Affairs of MRND prepared
a new constitution. In October 1978, the constitution was adopted by the
Government and the MRND Central Committee. On the 20th of December 1978,
the new Constitution was adopted by the population in a referendum with a
reported 89% of the casted votes. At the same time Habyarimana was elected ina universal suffrage as President of Rwanda at an alleged 99% majority.
Source: http://www.memorialdelashoah.org/rwanda/fiches/carte-membre-mrnd-fiche222.
Article 7 of the Constitution made Rwanda a single party State under the
MRND and made each citizen a member of it from birth. In reality, this was
the establishment of a One Party political system. The President of MRND
party had to be the sole presidential candidate and all Rwandan citizens were
automatically members of MRND. The new Constitution abolished the National
Assembly and replaced it with Conseil National de Développement (CND) or
National Development Council (NDC).
• Institutionalization of Communal work (Umuganda) and
facilitation by MRND
In order to consolidate its power and its grip on the country, the MRND
regime resorted to two methods of rural mass mobilization and recruitment
of supporters in the entire country. These were communal work (Umuganda)
and facilitation (gushyushya Urugamba) both of which were inspired by the
SalongoandSakayonsa bands from Zaire’s MPR (MouvemenetPopulaire de la
Révolution).
Communal work and facilitation were political instruments aimed at controlling
the population and ensuring its support to the regime. During the facilitation
process, the founding President was idolized, praised and glorified with slogans
like “Prezida fondateri, Ramba, Sugira, Sagamba, Tera imbere, Turagushyigikiye!”
These slogans transcended everywhere during such functions. The president
was a cult leader of sorts. That politics of controlling the population in order toensure its allegiance only brought about rivalry.
• Ethnic and Regional balance
The Second Republic was basically made of Hutus who originated from the
central and southern parts of the country. This policy established regional
quota according to ethnic groups. These quotas were based on the criterion of
proportional representation according to population as far as education and
employment in the public service and private sector were concerned.
The so-called policy of “Equilibre ethnique et regional dans le service et dans
l’enseignement” or “ethnic and regional balance” prevented the best performers
to join the education field, the army, the police and other posts which they
deserved or wished to join. The policy marginalized the Tutsis as well as the
Hutus from other districts apart from Gisenyi and Ruhengeri.
• Economic evolution
The 1974 - 1982 period was a very important phase of economic growth
because of favorable rates of exports. On the one hand, there was an increase in
coffee exports, and on the other hand foreign aid also increased.
Concerning infrastructure development, the five following infrastructures were
put in place by the Second Republic:
-- Asphalting of several roads which reached a distance of 888.5 Km by
1989;
-- Construction of several buildings to serve as offices for different Ministries
and hospitals as King Faisal Hospital;
-- Extension of electricity network;
-- Construction of Kanombe Airport;
-- Construction of Amahoro National Stadium.
From 1980 to 1987, the country enjoyed an economic growth due to a
combination of positive external and internal factors like good climatic
conditions, increase in prices of coffee, tea and minerals and a considerableexternal capital coming into the country.
Source: https://paliagnes-rwanda.skyrock.com/1875726937-L-aeroport-de-Kanombe.html
Source: https%3a%2f%2fconstructionreviewonline.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2018%
• Socio - cultural evolution
• Health sector
Under the Second Republic, many attempts were made like the expansion of the
health sector, the dispensaries were transformed into health centers and more
medical personnel were trained. Health centers increased from 32 in 1974 to
50 in 1975.
The government of Rwanda had also put in place a policy which aimed at creating
nutritional centers in order to educate parents of nutritional diets and hygiene
through creation of nutritional centres within the Health centres in such a way
as to simultaneously achieve curative care and preventive education, includingvaccination, nutrition, maternal and child protection.
Source:https://twitter.com/easteco_org/status/997186271570223104
Another achievement registered in the health sector was in 1979 that the
Rwandan Government established the Broad-Based Vaccination Programme
(PEV/BVP) whose objective was to reduce infant mortality through vaccination
against certain targeted diseases: tuberculosis, whooping cough, tetanus, polio,
measles and diphtheria.
In1987, the Rwandan Government established the National Programme for
the Fight against AIDS (PNLS) whose objective was to control, prevent, reduce
and conduct research on AIDS. In the same year the Government launched
the National Programme for Fight against Malaria (PNLM) and in 1989, the
Programme for Acceleration of Primary Health Care (PASSP) was put in place.
This programme aimed at encouraging the participation of the population in
self-sponsorship and management of health services in their health centres.
• Education
In this sector, some achievements were attained such as:
-- The construction of new primary and secondary schools and many
reforms have been made at all levels of education in Rwanda;
-- In 1978 – 1979, the system of primary education teaching was revised. The
primary cycle changed from 6 years to 8 years. Training in professional
skills was introduced in Primary 7 and P8, and Kinyarwanda became alanguage of instruction from P1 up to P8.
-- At the secondary education level, the Ordinary Level was reduced and
specializations sections now started in the Second year of secondary
education. But this reform failed due to the following reasons:
• Lack of teaching aid materials;
• Lack of qualified teachers in various newly introduced subjects in the
new curriculum;
• Lack of appropriate evaluation methods for the reform.
Therefore, in 1991, there was the revision of this reform where the primary
education cycle was brought back to 6 years.
At University level, the national Institute of Education for Teacher Training
was fused with certain department of the National University of Rwanda. The
creation of the new campus at Nyakinama in the 1980 – 1981 was a result of
this fusion. The duration of studies in the Faculties of Arts and Education wasreduced from 5 to 4 years.
7.2.1 Failures of the first Republic
Through the coup d’état of the 4th – 5th July 1973, the First Republic was at its
downfall. This was caused by long standing failures that even dated from its
beginning. Many factors were responsible for this downfall.
• Institutionalization of discrimination against Tutsi
From 1959 onwards, the Tutsi population was targeted, causing hundreds of
thousands of deaths, and a population of almost two million Rwandan people
were living in the Diaspora for almost four decades. The First Republic, under
President Grégoire Kayibanda, institutionalized discrimination against Tutsi
and periodically used massacres against the Tutsi. The following are examples:
-- Names of “undesirable “Tutsi civil servants were hung on notice boards
on the same day, in the night of 26th and 27th February 1973;
-- Orders for Tutsis to leave establishments were formulated everywhere in
the same manner;
-- No province was spared and all Tutsis were affected.
• Regionalism
In 1965, the PARMEHUTU managed to win every seat of the National Assembly.
However, in spite of this achievement, this political party was experiencing
since 1963, considerable internal tensions.
An example is the purge which began in February 1973 were initially provoked
by students, but also encouraged – or perhaps led – by the authorities. Along
with PARMEHUTU, the authorities aimed at uniting the regime by defining a
common enemy. Northern soldiers (particularly Alexis Kanyarengwe, the Chief
of Police, who was from Ruhengeri) who, in turn, wished to cause a political crisis,
also targeted the Tutsi population. In fact, the purges, which initially consisted
in posting lists of Tutsi students and staff, asking them to leave universities and
companies, later evolved beyond the control of the central authorities. They
came to bear certain demands, both social (general resentment of the rich) and
regional (opposition between the south and center of the country on the one
hand, and the north on the other).
Consequently, Grégoire Kayibanda punished several northern dignitaries
by dissociating them from the jobs and locations associated with wielding
power: Alexis Kanayarengwe was appointed director of the Nyundo seminary;
Major Nsekalije was assigned to a tea cooperative in Byumba. All the general
secretaries of the government ministries were replaced, as well as nine of the
ten préfets. It seemed the divide between the south and the north was firmly
established.
During the months of February – March1973, purges were organized in
schools and in the administration against the Tutsi population. Tutsi students
in lists posted in all secondary school institutions and universities
and signed ‘Mouvement des Étudiants’ (‘Students’ Movement’) or ‘Comité de
Salut Public’ (‘Committee of Public Safety’), were under threat and had to flee
from these institutions.
Need for constitutional amendment
Another factor that contributed to the fall of the First Republic was the need for
constitutional amendment which was voted on May 18th, 1973 by the National
Assembly. This amendment increased the duration of presidential terms of
office from five to seven years, and allowed Grégoire Kayibanda to stand for a
third term. Even though, the National Assembly supported the amendment of
the constitution, the country was already divided according to the two main
regions: north and south; the first willing to take the power and the last wanting
to maintain it.
When it came the time of voting this report, Members of parliament were not
unanimous. On the contrary, they were divided into two camps. There were
those who sympathized or supported that report and these who were against it.
The supporters of the report were punished by being suspended from decision
making organs of the Party and were even prevented from contesting the
legislative elections of 1969. To safeguard the Constitution, the senior officers
of the National Army carried out a coup d’état that put to end the regime of the
First Republic.
The 5th July 1973 Coup d’état
The blow for the downfall of the First Republic was the coup d’état of 1973
carried out by 11 senior officers of the national army commanded by Major
General Juvenal Habyarimana. Such other senior officers were Lieutenant
Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe, Majors Aloys Nsekarije, Major Benda Sabin,
Major Ruhashya Epimaque, Major Gahimano Fabien, Major Jean Népomuscène
Munyandekwe, Major Bonaventure Ntibitura, Major Serubuga Laurent, Major
Buregeya Bonaventure and Major Simba Aloys. This team was called “Comrades
of the 5th July”.
On this day, the high command of the National Guard made a national declaration
to the population; mentioning the following points:
Mr. Kayibanda is discharged of his duties as president of the Republic.
Major general Juvénal Habyarimana will assume the constitutional prerogativeof head of state.
The government has been forced to retire and is temporarily replaced by a
“committee for peace and national unity” composed of 11 officers and presided
over by Major General Juvénal Habyarimana, until total re-establishment of
peace in the country.
The national assembly is dissolved.
Political activities are forbidden throughout the entire territory of the Republic.
The various organs of the party are dissolved.
Rights and liberties are guaranteed by the 24th November constitution, with the
exception of 16 articles which have been suspended.
7.2.2. Failures of the Second Republic
• Lack of freedom of speech and press
The Second Republic was against the freedom of speech and press. This was
justified by intimidation and imprisonment suffered by anyone who attempted
to criticize this Regime of the Second Republic. For instance, on September 18th,
1990 the trial of the priest André Sibomana, who was the director of the bimonthly
publication Kinyamateka, and three of his journalists opened in Kigali
after the publication of articles denouncing corruption in the government in
this newspaper. On July 3th and 6th, 1990 the Cour de Sûreté de l’État (State
Security Court) had Vincent Rwabukwisi, the editor-in-chief of Kanguka and
Hassan Ngeze, the editor-in-chief of Kangura arrested. The first was accused of
having interviewed Umwami Kigeri V Ndahindurwa in exile in Nairobi and of
plotting with refugees, and the second of having breached the peace.
• Economic crisis
The economic improvement was fragile towards the end of the 1970-1980. This
was due to an economic crisis which became worse during 1980-1990. It was
especially from 1984-1986 that the crisis exacerbated and reached its highest
point during 1990-1993. This economic was caused by many factors.
At home, internal factors of structural nature like the reduction in agricultural
production and failure to control population growth, weighed negatively on the
economic situation. Therefore, this led to a fall in domestic resources.
In January 1990, one-sixth of the Rwandan population was affected by famine
which killed 250 people, according to the government. In 1991, Rwanda signed
an agreement with the World Bank to implement a Structural Adjustment Plan
(SAP) which led to the devaluation of the Rwandan franc on two occasions: its
value fell by 40 % in November 1990, then again by 15 % in June 1992. Though
the SAP was only partially implemented, the main effect of the devaluation was
skyrocketing inflation, which reached 19.2 percent in 1991.
• The imprisonment and killing of the politicians of the First
Republic
Nevertheless, during the two years that followed, the former ‘barons’ of the
First Republic were assassinated or imprisoned. During the following years
(between 1974 and 1977), 58 people – individuals who were close to Grégoire
Kayibanda and public figures of the First Republic – were assassinated upon
orders from Théoneste Lizinde, Chief of Security at the Interior Ministry.
According to some sources, the repression affected up to 700 people.
• Institutionalisation of ethnic and regional balance or quota
system
The Regime of Habyrimana was not a model of democracy as its leaders claimed.
The regime coerced and aligned people behind political option within a single
party system and partisan politics based on ethnic and regional segregation.
The regime had created the Rukiga-Nduga conflicts which were characterised
by the exclusion of Tutsi and Hutu of Nduga from schools and main posts of the
direction of the country.
This policy was in fact applied in all sectors of the National life and it constituted
a serious violation of human rights. It undermined the regime of the Second
Republic significantly as it was seriously contested by the democratic forces
which militated for change and it ended up leading to the downfall of MRND
regime in 1994.
• Centralisation of the power in the hands of a small group of people
“Akazu”
Between 1985 and 1990 most of administrative positions were reserved for
Hutus in a tacit quota system. In fact, power was held by elites from the north of
the country, in contrast with the ‘pro-southern’ orientation of the First Republic.
One-third of the 85 most important governmental positions were given to
persons born in the préfecture of Gisenyi. One of the main power centres was
known as the Akazu meaning “from one single household” and was organized
around Agathe Kanziga – Juvénal Habyarimana’s wife – and her brothers.
• The exaggerated glorification of the personality of Habyarimana
As years went by, President Habyarimana started developing a personality cult.
This was done through mobilisation and glorification of the President and his
political party using animation and his portrait which was everywhere in publicand private surroundings.
• Increasing of dictatorship
Frankly speaking, before the outbreak of the liberation war, the Habyarimana
regime had already become a totalitarian regime. There was a single political
party the Revolutionary National Democratic Movement (MRND) and all the
powers were concentrated in the hands of a small group of family members of
President Habyarimana. No single decision could be made whatsoever without
prior approval and/or blessings of the dictator’s consent.
• Mismanagement of refugees’ problem Refusal of their return
The problem of refugees in Rwanda dated from 1959 with the mass killing
which was organized against the Tutsi. This problem was differently managed
by the two Republics.
In June-July 1989, the Central Committee of MRND, the highest decisionmaking
body in the Habyarimana regime examined the problem of Rwandan
refugees scattered around the world, especially in the neighbouring countries.
As a solution, the Central committee resolved that the refugees cannot return
massively into the country. The Central Committee strongly advocated that
refugees should find a way of integrating themselves into their respective
countries of asylum. According to the Central Committee, Rwanda was
overpopulated and incapable of receiving and accommodating her own people
back. Only those who had the capacity to cater for themselves, it was decided,
should apply individually for consideration to repatriate.
This position of President Habyarimana and his Government prompted the
refugees to call for an International Conference in Washing in August 1988 in
which they rejected this position and reaffirmed their inalienable right to return
to their homeland, and this led to the National Liberation War on October 1st,
1990 hence leading to the downfall of the Second Republic during 1990-1994during liberation war.
7.3.1. Causes of the liberation war of 1990-1994 in Rwanda
• The long and hard life in exile
The events of 1959 has led to the exile of many Rwandans who left the country
after the unrest period marked by violence and massacres of the members of
the political party Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR) and against the Tutsi
in general. Such violence was committed by some members of the Parti du
Mouvement de l’Emancipation Hutu (PARMEHUTU) supported by Belgian
authorities. The resistance organised by refugees’ groups called Inyenzi and
their efforts to return home were in vain. In exile, refugees had very bad living
conditions in refugee camps and single young adults struggled to get a better
life. Such bad living conditions coupled with lack of employment and good
education in hosting countries pushed them to think of a solution to return
home.
• The regionalism and ethnic based divisionism
Both, the First Republic (1962-1973) and the Second (1973-1994) Republic
maintained and institutionalised “ethnic” labels (Hutu, Tutsi, Twa) in identity
cards and the quota system. As a result, ethnic and regional equilibrium had
to be respected in different sectors such as administration, enrolment in
secondary and tertiary schools and in the army.
During the First and Second republics, hatred against Tutsi was reinforced; very
political crisis was blamed on Tutsi who were treated as scapegoats. This case
was raised when refugees’ troops called Inyenzi attacked Rwanda in 1963 and
later before the 1973 Habyarimana’s coup d’Etat against Kayibanda’s regime.
• The refusal of return for Rwandan refugees
Since 1959 and under the First Republic, the Tutsi ran away from the violence
and mass killing organized against them; they did so because they had to save
their lives. Generally, they ran towards church missions, schools and other
places considered as safe to protect them from danger. Others decided to leave
the country as soon as possible to look for asylum in neighbouring countries.
Although the Government of Rwanda had since 1964 requested that refugees
be settled in their countries of asylum, it did almost nothing to help them. On
the contrary, its policy consisted of making life for them very difficult in those
countries. The Rwandan embassies watched refugees closely in their countries
of asylum.
In 1966, President Kayibanda prevented refugees to claim their properties. In
1975, President Habyarimana put in place a decree stating that Tutsi refugees’
assets should become public properties. This decision was due to the refusal of
political leaders who did not want to return the land to its owners.
The 1990 – 1994 Liberation War was inevitable insofar as the problem of the
refugees was left pending, while the living conditions in the countries of asylum
became unbearable.
Refugees aspiring to return home
• The intimidation and killing of opponents
The Second republic did not accept and tolerate any opposition. Any person who
tried to oppose it was jailed. Even if political assassinations were not frequent
they existed. For instance, the deaths of the former Chief Editor of Kinyamateka
newspaper, Father Sylvio Sindambiwe and Felicula Nyiramutarambirwa, former
member of the MRND Central Committee are believed to have been planned by
the regime. Thus, the 1990 – 1994 Liberation War was organized in order to
fight against such injustice in the country.
• The increase of dictatorship in Rwanda
During the Second Republic, only a single political party, MRND was allowed to
operate as it was stipulated by the 1978 constitution. In practice, the powers
were concentrated in the hands of a small group of people from the President’s
family and his family in-law called Akazu. No single important decision could be
made without prior approval of the President and his MRND.
• Mismanagement, corruption and embezzlement of public fund
By 1977, the foreign aid funds considerably increased a year to finance diverse
projects undertaken with a lot of amateurism. These big projects of “integrated
development” failed and left nothing tangible to the farmers. These projects
distorted the Rwandan economy: excessive debts, corruption, negligence of
subsistence crops for the benefit of the exportable farm produce (coffee and
tea), stressed disparities between the capital city and the countryside, etc. and
in January 1990, one-sixth of the Rwandan population was affected by a famine.
• Rwandan Diaspora rejected by neighboring countries
The majority of Rwandan refugees were deprived from all political rights. The
authorities in these countries openly said that they had had enough of Rwandan
refugees, had been hospitable enough and it had high time they returned to
their countries. An example was the president of Uganda Obote who expelled
Rwandan refugees in 1982. When they tried to enter Rwanda, they were pushed
back into Uganda. Because they had nowhere else to go, many of them decided
to drown themselves in the Akagera River.
7.3.2. The course of the 1990 – 1994 liberation war in Rwanda.
Rwandan refugees benefited from Ugandan crisis of the 1980s. Three young
Rwandans namely Fred Gisa Rwigema, Paul Kagame and Sam Byaruhanga
joined Yoweri Kaguta Museveni’s guerrilla war with an idea of using a military
option to liberate Rwanda. Due to the persecution of Kinyarwanda-speaking
people living in Uganda and their expulsion by Milton Obote’s regime in the
1980s, other young Rwandans decided to join the Museveni’s guerrilla war in
order to acquire experience that would help them to wage an armed struggle toforce their return to Rwanda.
The beginning of the Liberation War.
The Liberation War was launched by RPF Inkotanyi and its armed wing, the
Rwandese Patriotic Army on October 1, 1990 led by late Major General Fred
Gisa Rwigema. When the war started in 1990, the RPF could count on about
3,000 well trained soldiers of various grades. This army was composed of notonly male but also female combatants.
The RPF first launched an attack in Umutara on 1st October, 1990; but this attack
was not successful because of the death of Late Major General Fred Rwigema on
October 2, 1990. After being pushed from Umutara, the RPF resorted to using
guerrilla tactics in the northern region of Rwanda.
• Attack on Ruhengeri (January 1991)
On the morning of January 23, 1991, the RPA attacked the Town of Ruhengeri.
The Rwandan forces in the area were taken by surprise and were mostly unable
to defend themselves against the invasion. One of the principal RPA targets in
Ruhengeri was Ruhengeri prison1. The RPA stormed the buildings, and the
prisoners were rescued and several of them were recruited into the RPA. Some
political prisoners such as Théoneste Lizinde, Stanislas Biseruka and Brother
Jean Damascène Ndayambaje were also released from prison.
On 29th March 1991, the first negotiations between the RPF and the government of
Rwanda started shortly after the RPF seized Byumba.
In july 1992, a ceasefire was negotiated and signed in the Arusha Peace
Agreement was signed between the RPF and the Habyarimana Government.
An organization of African unity force known as GOMN (Grouped’Observation
Militaires Neutres/ Neutral Military Group of Observers) was put in place toobserve the ceasefire.
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File%3AAICC_Arusha.jpg
On November 15th, 1992, Habyarimana took an about turn and declared that
what had been partially negotiated and agreed upon between his regime and
the RPF was mere piece of paper rubbish and openly expressed congratulations
to the Interahamwe killer militia of his MRND party on the massacres they had
just committed especially in the Northern part of the country. That way, he had
made the ceasefire rather fragile by fragile by flagrantly violating its terms
and working null and void. In reaction to those massacres, the RPF launched
an offensive attack on the 8th of February 1993 which saw them capturing a
large part of the country especially in the northern region. In fact, the RPF
were nearing the gates of Kigali, the capital because they reached Rutongo. But
soon after, due to the International pressure to resume negotiations, the RPF
returned to its former positions around Kinihira.
On 4th August 1993, the Arusha Agreement was signed. It was a political
compromise for power sharing between the Government and the RPF but on
the 10th of September 1993, the “Broad-based Transition Government” failed
to make off because Habyarimana refused to swear in the new government andparliament in which RPF was to be part of.
After the signing of Arusha Agreement in December 1993, the French military
detach that was in Rwanda left and a UN intervention force arrived.
Source: https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/206929
Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_Civil War.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_Civil War.
7.3.3. The effects of the 1990 – 1994 liberation war in Rwanda
• The loss of lives and destruction of properties
Since the war started, there was increase of insecurity in Rwanda. In some
areas, the reaction of the Habyarimana’s government was to attack and kill
the Tutsi population of the interior of the country. For instance, from 1991 to
1993, there the massacre of Abagogwe social group in retaliation against an
RPA attacks. The similar killings were also done in Kibirira, Bugesera, Kibuye,
Murambi and in Umutara. These killings were also seen by some analysts as a
strategy of strengthening the Habyarimana regime in difficult conditions and
uniting all Hutu against a same enemy
• Destruction of infrastructures properties
By this war, some public infrastructures like offices, roads and bridges,
specifically in the northern regions of Rwanda were destroyed. Besides, the
private properties were also destroyed like houses and shops.
• The decline of the Rwandan economy
The war and the pressure on Habyarimana’s regime led to the collapse of the
Rwandan economy. The prices of main export commodities such as coffee
decreased at the international market thus the country witnessed a hard
economic situation. Besides, foreign aid decreased and the Rwandan francs lostits value.
Main sectors of economic activities declined and Rwandans’ financial conditions
worsened. In fact, because of the war, the North corridor was closed and this led
to the stoppage of commercial exchange with Uganda. The war also increased
the military expenditure of the Government of Rwanda and the military
expenses kept impoverishing the country.
• Displacement and exile of many people.
Due to the fighting during the 1990 – 1994 liberation war; more than one
million Rwandans fleeing the battle fields were displaced inside the country
and they were not working. These Rwandans were in great need of shelter, food
and other basic needs to use in their daily life. At the end of the war, Government
officials, soldiers and militia fled to the DRC, Tanzania and Burundi taking withthem millions of civilians. Thousands of them died of water-borne diseases.
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_
Apart from the negative effects brought by the Liberation war fought from 1990
to 1994, on the other side, this war also brought positive results to the Rwandan
society as stated in the following paragraphs.
-- Restoration of national unity: Thanks to the liberation war won by RPF,
many achievements were made in the matter of building the national
unity like equal justice, peace and security, end of segregation, etc.
-- Fighting against the public malpractice: The RPF Inkotanyi aimed at
fighting against the corruption, favoritism and embezzlement as they
were the result of the liberation war.
-- Establishment of the democracy: The liberation war helped to establish
a true democracy; the people have the rights to choose their leaders at all
levels of public institutions.
-- Improvement of the image of Rwanda: The 1990 - 1994 liberation
war contributed to the improvement of the righteous image of the
country. Rwandans are well-known all over the world as a good example
of reconciliation, people living together on the same land, victims and
criminals, after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.
-- Promotion of good diplomatic relations with other countries: By the
end of the 1990 – 1994 liberation, the country promoted international
relations based on mutual respect, cooperation and mutual economic
exchange. This helped the country to reduce economic and politicaldependency towards foreign countries.
