Topic outline

  • General

  • UNIT 1 INTERNAL LANDFORM PROCESSES

    By the end of this unit, the student-teacher should be able to examine the

    internal processes responsible for the evolution of different relief landforms.

    Landforms are natural features on the surface of the earth that change over
    time due to endogenic (internal) and exogenic (external) processes.
    Endogenic processes occur as a result of internal forces within the earth
    especially due to heat and pressure. They lead to the occurrence of faulting,
    folding and vulcanicity that result into the formation of different landforms.

    These landforms are later modified by exogenic processes like weathering

    and mass wasting to form other landforms on the surface of the earth.

    1.1. Faulting
    1.1.1. Meaning of faulting
    Faulting is an endogenic process whereby the rocks of the crust are fractured and
    displaced. This is caused by intense heat and pressure that accumulate within
    the earth interior leading to formation of compression and tensional forces.
    These forces may displace the bed rock for a few centimeters or hundreds of
    kilometers.

    1.1.2. Types of faults
    Faults are categorized based on the relative movement between the blocks
    on both sides of the fault plane. This movement can be vertical, horizontal or
    oblique.

    1. Normal faults occur when tensional forces act in opposite directions
    and cause one slab of the rock to be displaced up and the other slab
    down. The tensional forces pull the earth’s crust apart from the central

    point.

    2. Reverse faults are created when the rock above the fault plane (hanging
    block) moves up relative to the rock below the fault plane. This is caused

    by compression forces

    3. Strike or tear fault. These are formed when rocks on either side of the
    fracture slip past each other. These types of faults produce horizontal
    displacements. They are usually found along boundaries that are sliding

    past each other.

    1.1.3. Landforms associated with faulting
    Faulting has a significant effect on landscape. It has led to the formation of
    various landforms as explained below.

    1. Block mountains
    A block mountain is also referred to as a horst mountain. It refers to the upland
    bordered by faults on two or more sides. A block mountain is formed when a
    fault block, bounded by normal faults is uplifted high enough to become a faultblock
    mountain. Examples of Block Mountains include;

    Mt.Rwenzori in Uganda, Usambara in Tanzania

    2. Rift valley
    A rift valley is an elongated depression bounded by fault scarps on either sides.
    It is characterized by a flat floor and steep slopes called escarpments. There
    are three theories responsible for the formation of a rift valley. They include;

    Tensional, compressional and differential movement theories.

    According to tensional theory, cracks develop and ultimately the central block
    subsides, leaving the side blocks hanging with steep sides. The cracks are
    caused by tensional forces that drag the crustal rocks in different directions.

    The best example of a rift is the great East African rift valley

    3. Grabens or fault basins

    These are depressions that are formed on the rift valley floor due to secondary
    faulting. They are later filled with water to form fault or rift valley lakes. These
    lakes vary in size, depth and salinity. They tend to be relatively small and deep.
    Good examples of rift valley lakes include; Lake Tanganyika, Kivu, Edward,

    Albert, Baringo and Turkana in East Africa.


    4. Fault guided valleys

    These are valleys or depressions located along a single fault. Tear or strike
    faulting causes horizontal movement and shattering of rocks along the line of
    movement. This means that such rocks are easily eroded. Rivers flowing across
    such a region take advantage of the weak rocks and erode them hence forming
    fault guided river valleys.

    Examples are River Aswa in Uganda and Kerio in Kenya


    Fault scarps

    A fault scarp is a steep slope which develops when the earth’s crust is subjected
    to faulting. When one slab slips down relative to the other. These scarps
    are later subjected to denudation processes. Examples include; Butiaba in

    Uganda,Chunya and Manyara in Tanzania,Mau and Nandi in Kenya.


    1.1.4. The impact of faulting on human activities

    • Faulting has led to creation of attractive scenery which attracts tourists.
    These attractions range from Block Mountains, rift valley lakes,
    escarpments and many others. These tourist bring foreign exchange
    which is important to stimulate economic development.

    • Faults have also led to the formation of waterfalls and rapids. These
    form potential sites for Hydropower generation that is instrumental
    for industrial development.

    • Faulting resulted into the formation of rift valley lakes like Tanganyika,
    Edward, Kivu etc. These act as fishing grounds that provide fish rich in
    proteins. Besides, these lakes help in climate modification around the
    area where they are found.

    • Rift valley floor is extensively flat. This facilitates a number of land use
    activities like settlement and mechanized agriculture. This common
    around Towns like Nakuru, Naivasha, and Kasese.It has also promoted
    urbanization of Gisenyi in Rwanda.

    • Faulting has also promoted mining as some rift valley lakes contain
    minerals like salt like Magadi and Katwe. There are also huge deposits
    of soda ash in Lake Magadi in Kenya. The presence of these mineral
    deposits has stimulated industrial activities in these areas.

    1.1.5. Main fault areas
    Fault areas are mainly located in the following regions of the world:
    • East Africa: Faulted areas in East Africa extend from Mozambique in the
    South to the Red Sea in the North and from Malawi through Tanzania
    and Burundi, then Rwanda to Uganda and Kenya.

    • Western Europe: Many faulted areas are in deep oceanic parts of the
    Atlantic Ocean in Western Europe.

    • The Rhine Rift Valley extends along the border of North East France
    and South West Germany.

    • The Western Coast of North America, which includes the San Andreas
    Fault of California.

    • The Alpine fault region in New Zealand in the Far East

    • The North Western highlands of Scotland and the Guadalquir valley of

    Spa.

    1.2.1. Folding
    When a body of rock, especially sedimentary rock, is squeezed from the sides
    by tectonic forces, it is likely to fracture and/or become faulted if it is cold and
    brittle, or become folded if it is warm enough to behave in a plastic manner.

    The nomenclature and geometry of folds are summarized on the diagram
    below. An upward fold is called an anticline, while a downward fold is called
    a syncline. In many areas it’s common to find a series of anticlines and synclines,
    although some sequences of rocks are folded into a single anticline or syncline. A
    plane drawn through the crest of a fold in a series of beds is called the axial
    plane of the fold. The sloping beds on either side of an axial plane are limbs. An
    anticline or syncline is described as symmetrical if the angles between each of
    limb and the axial plane are generally similar, and asymmetrical if they are
    not. If the axial plane is sufficiently tilted that the beds on one side have been

    tilted past vertical, the fold is known as an overturned anticline or syncline.

    1.2.2. Types of folds
    Folds appear in different shapes and sizes. Some are large and others are small.
    There are many types of folds. They are characterized according to their shape
    and angle.

    Symmetrical folds
    If the axial plane along which a fold occurs is vertical, the resulting fold is a
    symmetrical fold. The crests of the fold are called anticlines and the troughs are

    called synclines.

    Asymmetrical folds
    This is a type of fold where one side is steeper than the other and tilted. It is
    called asymmetrical because the force causing the bend was stronger one side

    than the other.

    Overfold or overturn fold forms where there is intense compression and
    the limbs dip in the same direction. Compression forces cause upper part to

    override the lower part.

    Recumbent fold. This is associated with very high degree of folding. The layers

    are overturned to the extent that the limbs are horizontal.

    1.2.3. Warping:


    1.2.3.1. Definition, types and causes of warping.

    Warping involves a gentle deformation of the crust affecting a considerable
    area. This is caused by sinking conventional currents which pull the earth’s
    crust towards the core leading to a saucer shaped depression in the center.
    There are two types of warping namely; down warping and upwarping.

    i. Down warping occurs where the sinking currents drag down part of the
    lower crust. Therefore, the crustal layers bend inwardly to form a basin. This
    created East African major basins of Victoria, Kyoga and Muhazi in Rwanda.

    ii. Upwarping: during down warping, the outer part of the crust layers tends to
    move upwards. This is commonly caused by isostatic movements associated
    with upward movement. It produced the upland regions and other uplands

    elsewhere in the world


    When an area is affected by both down warping and up warping, the combined

    effect is called Broad warping.

    1.2.3.2. Landforms associated with warping.
    The process of warping led to the formation of the following landforms
    Plateaus. This is an extensive upland part of the earth crust which is almost
    flat at the top. Most areas in Rwanda were affected warping. Other examples of

    plateaus include Jos plateau, Guinea highlands and Ahagger.

    Bain. A basin is a large and extensive depression on the surface of the earth. It

    is formed due vertical downward movement of the earth crust.

    Examples of basins include inland basins like Congo, Chad and Amazon basins.
    When a basin is filled by water, it forms lakes like Lake Victoria, Kioga in Uganda,
    Muhazi and Mugesera in Rwanda.

    Plains are extensive areas of generally flat relief. They are normally found on

    the coastlines where warping greatly affected these areas.

    1.3. Vulcanicity


    1.3.1. Definition of vulcanicity
    Vulcanicity is one of the processes that are indirectly linked with faulting. When
    the earth’s crust develops a line of weakness, the already mobile and molten
    rocks under intense pressure from overlying rocks will overflow through this
    line of weakness (fault) and move upwards from the mantle into the earth
    crust. The process of movement of this magma from the deeper layers of the
    crust into or on top of the crust is referred to as vulcanicity. If this magma cools
    inside the bedding planes it leads to formation of intrusive volcanic features.
    vulcanic features or volcanic features. Vulcanicity therefore refers to the process

    through which intrusive and extrusive features are formed.t

    Figure 1. 18: Vulcanicity: intrusive and extrusive features

    1.3.2. Extrusive volcanic features
    Extrusive volcanic features are landforms of vulcanicity that are formed when
    magma reaches the earth surface. There are various landforms resulting from
    extrusive volcanic:
    1. Volcanoes: volcanoes are conical or dome shaped features built when
    magma escapes through the vent or fissure on to the earth surface. The
    magma rises in a vent from a reservoir of magma from the mantle. These
    materials accumulate around the vent and repeated eruptions and
    accumulations lead to the building up of volcanoes. The size and shape
    depends on the nature of materials erupted and the mode of eruption.
    Therefore, there are different types of volcanoes ranging from small
    conical hills to vast mountains.

    Types of volcanoes
    i. Composite cone or strato volcanoes
    Composite volcanoes, sometimes called stratovolcanoes, are typically deepsided,
    symmetrical cones of large dimension built of alternating layers of lava
    flows, volcanic ash, cinders, blocks, and bombs and may rise as much as 8,000
    ft above their bases.

    Most composite volcanoes have a crater at the summit that contains a central
    vent or a clustered group of vents. Lavas either flow through breaks in the
    crater wall or from fissures on the sides of the cone. Lava, solidified within the
    fissures, forms dikes that act as ribs which greatly strengthen the cone.

    The essential feature of a composite volcano is a conduit system through which
    magma from a reservoir deep in Earth’s crust rises to the surface. The volcano
    is built up by the accumulation of material erupted through the conduit and
    increases in size as lava, cinders, and ash are added to its slopes. Examples of
    composite cones include Kilimanjaro in Tanzania, Birunga in Northern Rwanda,

    Longonot in Kenya and many others.

    ii. Ash and cinder cones
    A cinder cone is a steep conical hill of loose pyroclastic fragments, such as
    either volcanic ash, or cinder that has been built around a volcanic vent. The
    pyroclastic fragments are formed by explosive eruptions or lava fountains from
    a single, typically cylindrical, vent. As the gas-charged lava is blown violently
    into the air, it breaks into small fragments that solidify and fall as either cinders,
    or scoria around the vent to form a cone that often is symmetrical; with slopes
    between 30–40°; and a nearly circular ground plan. Most cinder cones have a

    bowl-shaped crater at the summit.

    iii. Basic lava cones or shield volcanoes

    These are also called basalt domes. Shield volcanoes derive their name from
    their distinctive, gently sloping convex slopes that resemble fighting shields.
    They are formed from basic lava which is very fluid and mobile. It is therefore
    able to flow a long distance before solidifying. They are formed from several
    fluid basaltic lava flows that erupt non-explosively. Such flows can easily spread
    for a long distance from feeding volcanic vents. The volcanoes formed are very
    low in height with gentle slopes. Examples include Mt. Marsabit and Tukuyu in

    Tanzania.

    1. Volcanic plug or neck

    A volcanic plug is a hill resulting from differential weathering and erosion
    between the former feeder tube of a volcano and its surrounding rocks.

    A volcanic plug, also called a volcanic neck or lava neck, is a volcanic landform
    created when lava hardens within a vent on an active volcano. When forming,
    a plug can cause an extreme build-up of pressure if volatile-charged magma
    is trapped beneath it, and this can sometimes lead to an explosive eruption.
    If a plug is preserved, erosion may remove the surrounding rock while the
    erosion-resistant plug remains, producing a distinctive landform. Examples are
    in Tororo, Uganda, Alekilek on Mt. Napk, Batian and Nelion on Mt. Kenya and

    Mawenzi on Mt. Kilimanjaro.

    2. Crater: This is a volcanic depression on top of the volcano. There can be
    a ring
    crater or explosive crater in circular shape when a crater is filled by water, it
    forms a Crater Lake. Examples of crater lakes in Rwanda are found on Kalisimbi,

    Muhabura and Bisoke volcanoes.

    3. A caldera: This is a wide depression that usually forms on top of a
    volcanic mountain due to explosive secondary eruption. When a caldera
    is filled with water, a Caldera Lake is formed. A typical example of dry

    caldera is Ngorongoro Caldera in Tanzania

    1.3.3. Intrusive feature
    Intrusive landforms are formed when magma cools within the crust. The
    intrusive activity of volcanoes gives rise to various forms. These features occur
    beneath the crust and may be exposed to the surface after the overlying rock is
    removed by erosion. They include the phaccoliths, laccoliths, volcanoes, dyke,

    lapoliths and sills.

    1. Batholiths. These are large rock masses formed due to cooling down and
    solidification of hot magma inside the earth. They appear on the surface
    only after the denudation process remove the overlying materials.
    Batholiths form the core of huge mountains and may be exposed on

    surface after erosion. These are granitic rocks.

    2. Laccoliths. These are large dome-shaped intrusive bodies connected by
    a pipe-like conduit from below. These are basically intrusive counterparts

    of an exposed domelike batholith.

    3. Lapoliths. When the lava moves upwards, a portion of the same may
    tend to move in a horizontal direction wherever it finds a weak plane. It
    may get rested in different forms. In case it develops into a saucer shape,

    concave to the sky body, it is called Lapoliths.

    4. Phaccoliths: A wavy mass of intrusive rocks, at times, is found at the
    base of synclines or at the top of anticline in folded igneous country. Such
    wavy materials have a definite conduit to source beneath in the form
    of magma chambers (subsequently developed as batholiths). These are

    called the Phaccoliths.


    5. Sills. These are solidified horizontal lava layers inside the earth. The
    near horizontal bodies of the intrusive igneous rocks are called sill or
    sheet, depending on the thickness of the material. The thinner ones are

    called sheets while the thick horizontal deposits are called sills.

    6. Dykes. When the lava makes its way through cracks and the fissures
    developed in the land, it solidifies almost perpendicular to the ground.
    It gets cooled in the same position to develop a wall-like structure. Such

    structures are called dykes.

  • UNIT 2 EXTERNAL LANDFORM PROCESSES (WEATHERING AND MASS WASTING)

    By the end of this unit the student-teacher should be able to demonstrate an
    understanding of the different features resulting from the external processes

    and their relationships with the human activities.

    2.1. Weathering


    2.1.1. Definition of Weathering

    When rocks are formed, they are strong, consolidated and cohesive. With time
    however, this strength, consolidation and cohesiveness reduces and hitherto
    consolidated rock particles loosen and the rocks start to break down. When this
    happens, we say that the rock has been weathered down. Weathering therefore
    is an external process in which rocks are decayed or disintegrated in situ. The

    term situ means in one place without motion.

    2.1.2. Types and processes of weathering.
    Weathering is caused by physical, chemical and biological processes hence the
    three types of weathering as described below

    2.1.2.1. Physical/Mechanical weathering
    This is a type of weathering where by rock are broken down into small pieces
    without changing their chemical composition. What changes is only the physical
    size but they maintain their chemical properties. It is mostly influenced by
    temperature changes. Physical weathering takes the following forms:

    i. Exfoliation. In arid regions, such as hot deserts, rock surfaces heat up rapidly
    when exposed to the sun and the surface layers expand and break away. At
    night when temperature falls rapidly the same layers contract and more
    cracks develop. In time the layers of rocks peel off and fall to the ground. This
    process is called exfoliation. Exfoliation results into formation of exfoliation
    domes. Exfoliation domes occur in areas of with exposed granite like in
    Mubende, Kitgum in Uganda, Kongwa, Serengeti, Iringa and Songea. More

    pronounced ones are found in Kalahari, Sinai and Egyptian deserts.

    An exfoliation dome with screes peeled off after mechanical weathering process
    ii. Block disintegration

    This is a type of weathering in which a rock is disintegrated not in small particles
    as in exfoliation but in blocks. It is common in exposed plutonic rocks like
    granite because these rocks develop cracks and joints as they cool down. After
    exposure to thermal heating and cooling, the rock expands and cools along the
    already developed cracks and they will be widened. Eventually the rock will fall
    apart in blocks hence block disintegration. This type of weathering produces

    granitic tors or inselbergs. Examples are Bismark rock in Mwanza, Tanzania.

    Fig. showing blocks of rocks broken down along their joints
    iii. Frost shattering. This type of weathering is experienced in areas that fall
    below freezing point. In East Africa, they are found on mountain peaks
    of mountain Kenya, Kilimanjaro and Rwenzori. Rainwater or snow-melt
    collects in cracks in the rocks. At night the temperatures drops and the water
    freezes and expands. The increases in volume of the ice exerts pressure on
    the cracks in the rock, causing them to split further open. During the day
    the ice melts and the water seeps deeper into the cracks. It is this expansion
    in these cracks that makes rock particles to break off as screes and rock to

    disintegrate.

    Plants and Animal action can also cause physical weathering as their roots grow.
    Seeds of plants or trees can grow inside rock cracks where soil has collected.
    The roots then put pressure on the cracks, making them wider and eventually

    splitting the rock. Even small plants can cause this kind of weathering over time.

    Animals that burrow underground, such as moles, gophers or even ants, can
    also cause physical weathering by loosening and breaking apart rocks. Dens
    and tunnels are signs of this type of weathering. Other animals dig and trample
    rock on the Earth’s surface, causing rock to slowly crumble apart. This process
    exposes new parts of the rock to the elements, making them susceptible to
    other types of weathering, such as chemical weathering

    2.1.2.2 Chemical weathering
    • Chemical weathering is the weakening and subsequent
    disintegration of rock by chemical reactions. These
    reactions include oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation. These
    processes either form or destroy minerals, thus altering the nature
    of the rock’s mineral composition. Temperature and, especially,
    moisture are critical for chemical weathering; chemical weathering
    of rock minerals generally occurs more quickly in hot, humid climatic
    regions

    • Carbonation is the process of rock minerals reacting with carbonic
    acid. Carbonic acid is formed when water combines with carbon
    dioxide. Carbonic acid dissolves or breaks down minerals in the rock.
    The effect of carbonation on limestone rocks can be summarized using

    the equation below:

    • Oxidation is the reaction of rock minerals with oxygen, thus changing
    the mineral composition of the rock. When minerals in rock oxidize,
    they become less resistant to weathering. Iron, a commonly known
    mineral, becomes red or rust colored when oxidized.

    • Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction caused by water. Water changes
    the chemical composition and size of minerals in rock, making them
    less resistant to weathering. For example, when feldspar mineral is
    completely hydrolyzed, clay minerals and quartz are produced and
    such elements as K, Ca, or Na are released.

    • A hydrolysis reaction of orthoclase (alkali feldspar), a common mineral
    found in igneous rock, yields kaolinite, silicic acid, and potassium.

    • Hydration is the absorption of water into the mineral structure. This
    causes the rock to expand in size. This expansion reduces the
    cohesiveness of the rock particles hence internal stress is caused in the
    rock and therefore the rock crumbles. A good example of hydration is the
    absorption of water by anhydrite, resulting in the formation of gypsum.
    Hydration expands volume and also results in rock deformation.

    • Solution. This is more-less a physical-chemical weathering process
    which does not change the physical structure of the rocks very much.
    This is a process by which soluble rock particles are dissolved and
    weathered away in a solution form. Water being the major solvent, it
    can dissolve soluble rocks and therefore form a solution. This therefore
    reduces the size of the rock e.g. rock salt (calcium chloride) and calcium
    bicarbonate are easily weathered in solution.

    2.1.2.3. Biological weathering
    This involves the weakening and subsequent disintegration of rock by plants,
    animals and other living organisms. Growing plant roots can exert stress or
    pressure on rock. Although the process is physical, the pressure is exerted by
    a biological process (i.e., growing roots). Biological processes can also produce
    chemical weathering, for example where plant roots or microorganisms
    produce organic acids which help to dissolve minerals.

    Burrowing animals like rodents and termites can move rock fragments to
    the surface, exposing the rock to more intense chemical, physical, and biological
    processes and so indirectly enhancing the process of rock weathering.
    Although physical, chemical, and biological weathering are separate processes,

    some or all of the processes can act together in nature

    2.2.1. Climate
    This is the most important factor affecting weathering of rocks. The extent of
    weathering is dependent on the climate of the area. There are two factors that
    influence weathering, namely Temperature and Rainfall. For example chemical

    weathering is highly pronounced in areas with high rainfall which facilitates

    processes like carbonation, hydration and solution. Physical weathering by frost
    action is most likely in cold climate where freeze and thaw occur alternately
    during the cold weather.

    In this case again precipitation is the main factor. In the absence of water ice
    cannot form and frost action is not possible. Hence an effective frost action
    occurs in the cold moist climate. At higher temperatures chemical reactions are
    likely to take place faster. Chemical reactions in most cases need water which
    is a reactant in hydration and carbonation. Water is also the medium in which
    the reaction can take place. Exfoliation process also occurs due to temperature
    fluctuations during day and night.

    2.2.2. Relief
    Relief refers to the nature of the landscape or topography and it has a direct
    impact on weathering.in mountainous regions, the windward side receive high
    rainfall and as such, chemical weathering is dominant on this slope. However,
    due to arid conditions on the windward slope, physical/mechanical weathering
    is more dominant on this slope.

    Slope - On steep slopes weathering products may be quickly washed away by
    rains. On gentle slopes the weathering products accumulate. On gentle slopes
    water may stay in contact with rock for longer periods of time, and thus result
    in higher weathering rates

    2.2.3. Nature of the rock
    We know, the chemical properties of a rock depend on the mineral composition
    to a great extent. Mineral in a rock may readily react with acids, water or oxygen
    causing considerable weathering. For example, limestone can get severely
    acted upon by even very mildly acidic rainwater. Granite on the contrary mostly
    containing silica remains unaffected by such agents.

    2.2.4. The impact of living organisms
    Plants and animals have a great role to play in rock disintegration and decay.
    Plants add certain chemicals such as nitric acid which chemically weather
    away the rocks. Their roots also break the rocks as they expand. Therefore, the
    thicker and bigger the vegetation, the faster will rocks disintegrate.

    Animals also cause weathering in different ways, for example big animals like
    elephants trample on rocks causing weathering. Man through his activities like
    agriculture can cause weathering. Decaying animals release certain acids like
    ammonia, lactic acid and urea which react with and weaken rocks.

    2.2.5. Time
    Since a rate is how fast something occurs in a given amount of time, time
    is a crucial factor in weathering. Depending on the factors above, rates of
    weathering can vary between rapid and extremely slow, thus the time it takes
    for weathering to occur and the volume of rock affected in a given time will
    depend on slope, climate, and animals

    2.3. Weathering in the humid tropical regions and the
    resultant landforms
    Humid tropical climate is characterized by high rainfall and temperature of up to
    1500mm and 25 centigrade degrees respectively. This climate however has got
    some periods of drought. Due to amount of rainfall especially during the rainy
    season, chemical weathering processes are common. These include, hydration,
    solution, oxidation and carbonation. During the dry season when temperatures
    are high and rainfall is low, physical weathering processes become pronounced.
    These include, exfoliation, block disintegration, crystallization etc.

    The combined humid and dry conditions of tropical climate lead to the formation
    of the following landforms:

    • Exfoliation domes: these are smooth and round topped hills found in
    regions that experience alternate heating and cooling during the day
    and night respectively. This will result in the top layer peeling off in
    form of screes leaving a dome shaped structure,

    • Laterites: these are hardpan soil (duricrust) produced by concentration
    of oxides in the soil giving it a red deep appearance,

    • Grikes: these are landforms found in chemically weathered limestone
    rocks. Chemical weathering especially carbonation weathers down the
    surface of these rocks to produce deep and narrow groves called grikes;

    • Clints: these are formed together with grikes. These are round ridges
    that separate the two grikes;

    • Stalactites: these are protrusions found on a roof of a chemically
    weathered limestone cave. As water enters the limestone rock, it
    dissolves some of its materials whose solution starts to leak from the
    roof of the cave. Later when water evaporates, it leaves behind a column

    of hard rock connected to the roof of the cave called a stalactite;

    • Stalagmites: these are formed together with stalactites. Whereas
    stalactites are connected on the roof of the cave, stalagmites are formed
    on the base of the cave and therefore protrude upwards. They are
    formed from the accumulation of leaking calcium carbonate solution.
    When this calcium carbonate evaporates, it leaves this limestone rock
    called a stalagmite.

    • Pillars: these are formed within the weathered limestone rocks. When
    a stalactite joins with a stalagmite in a limestone cave, they finally

    make a pillar.

    • Limestone Gorge: this is a deep narrow gorge produced when the roof
    of the cave collapses.it is therefore a depression with almost vertical
    sides that is drilled into the roof of the cave as the cave collapses.

    • Dry valley: these are valleys in which there are no streams flowing.
    Rivers flowing from non-limestone area may finally enter limestone
    rocks, which are very permeable and may disappear underground only
    to reappear on ground again at the end of the limestone rocks. Within
    limestone permeable rocks where the river disappears, remains a

    former valley where the river disappeared deep down as a dry valley.

    Mass wasting is sometimes called mass movement or slope movement. Mass
    wasting is defined as the large movement of rock, soil and debris downward due
    to the force of gravity. In other words, the earth’s outer crust is being ‘wasted’
    away on a ‘massive’ scale and falling to lower elevations. It is different from
    erosion because in erosion, water physically transports away the soil particles
    but in mass wasting, water does not wash away the soil but assists the slope to

    slide under gravity.

    Mass wasting can be categorized under three major types, namely;

    • Slow flowage (creep ) processes
    • Rapid flowage processes
    • Slide processes

    2.5.1. Slow flowage
    These are mass wasting processes which move slowly and are also called creep
    movements. They are very slow in their motion and they may occur without
    being noticed unless a very keen observation of certain features is made. They
    include/

    i. Soil creep - the very slow, usually continuous movement of regolith down
    slope. Creep occurs on almost all slopes, but the rates vary. Evidence for
    creep is often seen in bent trees, offsets in roads and fences, and inclined
    utility poles.

    ii. Solifluction - flowage at rates measured on the order of centimeters per
    year of regolith containing water. Solifluction produces distinctive lobes on
    hill slopes. These occur in areas where the soil remains saturated with water
    for long periods of time.

    iii. Rock Glaciers - a lobe of ice-cemented rock debris (mostly rocks with ice
    between the blocks) that slowly moves downhill.
    iv. Talus creep - this is the down slope movement of mainly screes that are
    relatively dry.it moves almost in the same way as soil creep and it occurs
    under tropical and temperate climate.

    2.5.2. Rapid flowage processes
    These include the following
    i. Earth flows: this refers to the movement of saturated soil and other debris
    on steep slopes under the influence of gravity. They usually occur after a
    heavy down power where the rainwater thoroughly lubricates the clayish
    materials making it easy to flow down along the rock beneath when friction
    is thoroughly reduced. A sudden movement will occur and the weathered
    lubricated materials flow rapidly down the slope.

    ii. Mud flows: this refers to the movement of semi-liquid mud with
    unconsolidated gravel and boulders. They move very fast to a speed of more
    than 15km/hr.

    iii. Debris avalanches: this refers to the sudden downfall of materials embedded
    in the ice or glacier on mountain slopes under the influence of gravity. The
    fact that slopes are very steep and there is enough rain to soak the slopes
    makes avalanches run faster than other rapid flowage processes.

    2.5.3. Slide processes
    They are collectively called landslides. They are very fast and many often involve
    dry materials. They occur on steep slopes. They include the following:

    i. Rock slump. This is a type of slide whereby downward rotation of rock occurs
    along a concave-upward curved surface. The upper surface of each slump
    block remains relatively undisturbed, as do the individual blocks. Slumps
    leave arcuate scars or depressions on the hill slope. Slumps can be isolated
    or may occur in large complexes covering thousands of square meters. They
    often form as a result of human activities, and thus are common along roads
    where slopes have been over steepened during construction. They are also
    common along river banks and sea coasts, where erosion has under-cut the

    slopes. Heavy rains and earthquakes can also trigger slumps.


    ii. Rock falls occur when a piece of rock on a steep slope becomes dislodged
    and falls down the slope. Debris falls are similar, except they involve a
    mixture of soil, regolith, vegetation, and rocks. A rock fall may be a single
    rock or a mass of rocks, and the falling rocks can dislodge other rocks as they
    collide with the cliff. Because this process involves the free fall of material,
    falls commonly occur where there are steep cliffs. At the base of most cliffs

    is an accumulation of fallen material termed talus.

    iii. Rock slides and debris slides result when rocks or debris slide down a preexisting
    surface, such as a bedding plane, foliation surface, or joint surface
    (joints are regularly spaced fractures in rock that result from expansion
    during cooling or uplift of the rock mass). Piles of talus are common at the
    base of a rock slide or debris slide. Slides differ from slumps in that there is
    no rotation of the sliding rock mass along a curved surface.

    iv. Debris slide. This occurs in the same way as slumping except that under
    the debris slide, only unconsolidated particles (debris) slide. Hence, it is the

    rolling of unconsolidated earth debris from a vertical or overhanging face.

    2.6. Causes of mass wasting, effects of mass wasting,
    measures to control mass wasting.

    2.6.1. Causes of mass wasting
    Mass wasting is caused by both physical and human factors.

    2.6.1.1. Physical factors
    i. Slope gradient. Mass wasting is caused by gravitation pull of the slope. The
    gradient of the slope determines the rate at which materials move downslope
    under the influence of gravity.

    ii. Types of rocks. The nature of the rock has a great influence on mass
    movement. Rocks differ in terms of texture, permeability, joints and structure,
    for example, if an impermeable rock underlies a permeable one, it is very
    probable that the permeable rock on top will get properly soaked and will
    slide off a permeable one causing landslides.

    iii. Climate. Climate influences landslides in a number of ways. In areas where
    rainfall is high, the rate of weathering is rapid and this facilitates mass
    wasting to take place. Areas that receive low rainfall, the rate of weathering
    is low and hence limited mass wasting. Some areas which undergo freezing
    and thawing, frost heaving is common which trigger of rock debris and
    avalanches.

    iv. Earth movements like earthquakes and tremors trigger of mass movement.
    When such tremors come and find already a steep slope, heavy and lubricated
    slope, it will shake it and the debris will be forced to slide.

    2.6.1.2 Human activities
    i. Construction of transport and communication routes. Mass movement
    is common on sides of road and railway cuttings especially in hilly and
    mountainous areas. The vibrations caused by the moving traffic together
    with the pull of gravity trigger off rock falls and movement of debris. Road
    and railway construction also leaves rocks hanging hence rendering them
    susceptible to movements

    ii. Deforestation. This is the destruction of forests especially natural
    vegetation. Tree roots bind soil particles together and firm. In many parts
    of the world, trees have been destroyed through agriculture and settlement
    activities. This leaves the soils bare and exposed to weathering process that
    facilitates mass movement of rocks and soil.

    iii. Mining and quarrying. Mining and quarrying lead to formation of steep
    slopes which trigger off mass wasting. In addition, explosives used to blast
    rocks cause vibrations that break the rocks which makes them prone to mass
    wasting.

    iv. Overgrazing. Grazing of large herds of animals can cause some tremors
    on slopes and hence causing slope failure. This occurs on slopes which are
    already overloaded especially in national parks
    v. Poor cultivation methods: Poor cultivation methods such as ploughing up
    and down hill slopes induce movement e.g. in Kondoa district of Tanzania.
    This is exacerbated by the presence of steep slopes. Cultivation also involves
    the remove of the protective cover of the vegetation hence leading to mass
    movements.

    2.6.2. Effects of mass wasting


    Mass movement has been on increase in most areas of East Africa. This has had
    both economic and social effects on the people in this region. Some of these
    effects include the following:

    i. Loss of life and property: For example, in May 2018, a landslide buried 18
    people in Rwankuba sector Karongi District in Western Rwanda. Landslides
    also destroy property like settlements which are buried during the mass
    movement.

    ii. Destruction of agriculture land and crops. When sliding occurs, the would
    be land for agriculture is destroyed. Besides, the top fertile soil is swept away
    leaving bare scars on hill slopes unfavorable for agriculture. Crops can also
    be destroyed in the process of mass movement.

    iii. Destruction of infrastructure especially roads, bridges, electric
    transmission poles etc. which are buried by rock debris hindering transport
    and communication along these routes. This is common in steep slope areas
    of northern and western Rwanda.

    iv. Loss of vegetation. Mass movements particularly landslides lead to the
    destruction of valuable forest resources. These are totally buried and

    destroyed.

    2.6.3. Measures to control mass wasting
    i. Afforestation and re-afforestation. This increases the cohesiveness of
    rocks. Roots of trees bind the soil particles together. Afforestation program
    is being encouraged in all districts of Rwanda.

    ii. Use of better methods of farming which encourage slope stability
    like terracing and contour ploughing are being practiced in all hilly and
    mountainous areas of northern and western Rwanda. Terracing involves the
    cutting of slopes into a series of steps on a steep slope. This reduces the

    steepness of the slope hence controlling movements.

    iii. Sensitization and mass education of people about avoiding any
    activities that might trigger mass movement like settlement on steep slopes
    and agriculture activities. This can help people to avoid any practices that
    might cause mass wasting.

    iv. Engineering works on steep slopes should respect slope stability. For

    example, need to construct embankments on the roadsides.

    END UNIT ASSESSMENT




  • UNIT 3 ROCKS

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to explain the
    mode of formation of rocks and assess the economic

    importance of rocks

    3.1. Rocks: definition, types and characteristics


    3.1.1. Rocks: definition
    A rock by definition is any aggregate of one or more minerals existing in
    a solid state.it may be consolidated such as granite limestone and coal or
    unconsolidated such as sand or clay. A given rock is always composed of more
    than one minerals. However, a few varieties consist almost one mineral. Rocks
    therefore form a composition of minerals be soft or hard that make up the earth
    in a solid state

    3.1.2. Types of the rocks and their characteristics
    Rocks can be classified according to their mode of formation and according to
    their age. The classification of rocks according to their mode of formation
    gives three categories: igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks and metamorphic
    rocks.

    3.1.2.1 Igneous rocks
    Igneous rocks are also called fire formed rocks. They are formed when molten
    material called magma cools and solidifies. Magma is a molten rock formed in
    the interior of the earth. It is formed when rocks deep underground melts due to
    intense hot temperatures and pressure inside the earth. The hot temperatures
    are generated by radioactivity and geochemical reactions. As magma flows and
    cools different types of igneous rocks are formed.
    Igneous rocks are further divided into three categories namely, plutonic,
    hypabyssal and volcanic rocks.

    i. Plutonic if magma cools into large masses of rock deep in the earth crust,
    the process is slow and the resultant rocks are compact in texture and highly
    crystallized. These are called plutonic rocks examples include granite diorite
    and gabbro.

    ii. Hypabyssal rocks: These are formed when molten material rises along lines
    of weakness and cracks in the country rocks and cools near the earth surface
    .In this case, cooling is more rapid than in the case of plutonic rocks. Medium
    sized crystals are formed for example quartz and dolerite

    iii. Volcanic rocks: When magma is poured on the surface of the earth, volcanic
    rocks are formed. They cool rapidly to form small crystalled rocks e.g.
    rhyolite, andesite, basalt and obsidian rocks. On the other hand, pyroclasts
    consist of igneous materials but fragmented in nature. They were thrown of
    volcanic vent and fragments of solid lava, cinders ash and dust.

    Characteristics of igneous rocks
    • They are usually made of two or more minerals
    • They are light or dark coloured
    • They are fine grained or glassy so they do not have strata or layers
    • They do not contain fossils (fossils are remains of plants and animals
    fixed in rocks)
    • The number of joints increases upwards in any igneous rock.
    • Igneous rocks are mostly associated with volcanic activities and are
    mainly found in the volcanic zones. That is why they are also called

    volcanic rocks.

    3.1.2.2. Sedimentary rocks
    According to the mode of formation, sedimentary rocks comprise three types
    namely mechanically, chemically and organically formed sedimentary rocks.

    i. Mechanically formed sedimentary rocks: as soon as rocks are exposed to
    the ground they begin to be to be broken down by erosion and weathering
    processes .The broken minerals are carried by wind, streams or ice and finally
    deposited as sediments. This group includes a variety of either course or fine
    textured rocks formed by compaction and cementation of sediments such as
    sand, sit, clay and gravel. They are further cemented by calcareous, siliceous
    or ferruginous materials to consolidate the materials. Examples of such
    rocks include, shale, clay, mudstone, sand stones, tillites, and conglomerates.

    ii. Chemically formed sedimentary rocks: This type of sedimentary rocks
    are formed when dissolved materials precipitate out of salt water after
    evaporation. All water falling on the earth surface as rain contains salts
    in solution. The salts may be precipitated by direct evaporation of water,
    chemical interaction or by release of pressure where underground water
    reaches the surface. The deposition of calcium on beds of streams like Lake
    Magadi in Kenya, Lake katwe in Uganda is a familiar example. Salt pans also
    exist in Narok, Taita, and Samburu. Stalactites and stalagmites in limestone
    areas are also examples of chemically formed sedimentary rocks.

    iii. Organically formed sedimentary rocks: These are formed from the
    accumulation of dead remains of living organisms. As remains of plants
    and animals continue to accumulate, pressure in them continues to build
    and finally they solidify and form a rock. Good examples of this type of
    sedimentary rocks include coral reefs which forms as a result of accumulation
    of skeletons of sea creatures called coral polyps. When these creatures die,
    they sink down to the sea bed where their shells are broken up, compressed,
    cemented and together to form rocks. Another familiar example of organic
    sedimentary rock is coal. It consists mainly of carbon derived from masses
    of plant matter that accumulate in the forested swamps millions of years
    ago. Due to lack of oxygen in swampy water, the plants did not decay but
    solidified into coal.

    Characteristic of sedimentary rocks
    • They have flat or curved surfaces
    • Particle size may be the same or may vary
    • They usually have pores (spaces) between pieces
    • Sedimentary rocks are the product of other rocks that were already
    formed.
    • They appear in the form of layers or strata.
    • Sedimentary rocks are found over the largest surface area of the
    earth.
    • Sedimentary rocks have various minerals because they are a product
    of different sources
    • Most of the sedimentary rocks allow liquids and gases to pass through
    them (permeable and porous).
    • Sedimentary rocks are characterized by different sizes of joints.
    • Sedimentation units in the sedimentary rocks having a thickness of

    greater than one centimetre and are called beds.

    Figure 3. 2: Sedimentary rocks

    3.1.2.2. Metamorphic rocks
    Metamorphic rocks were once igneous or sedimentary rocks, but have been
    changed (metamorphosed) as a result of intense heat and/or pressure within
    the Earth’s crust. They are formed as a result of exposure to conditions different
    from those under which they were formed. Heat within the earth interior is
    generated through radioactivity and geo-chemical reactions. Magma moving
    from deep in the earth crust towards the earth surface also generates heat
    which leads to metamorphism. When this heat comes into contact with rocks,
    serious effects occur on rocks eventually changing their chemical and physical
    properties. ‘meta’ means change and ‘morphic’ means form. Hence metamorphic
    rocks are those whose form has changed. There are there forms metamorphism
    namely thermal, dynamic and thermal dynamic metamorphism.

    i. Thermal metamorphism which occurs due to heat changes the rock
    structure for example sandstone changes into quartzite, limestone changes
    into marble

    ii. Dynamic metamorphism occurs when pressure is subjected to rocks. This
    pressure occurs due to earth movements leading to compressional and
    tensional forces. This led to the formation of shale and phyllite.

    iii. Thermal dynamic metamorphism. This where changes are brought about
    by a combination of both heat and pressure. In this case coal or organic
    matter is changed into graphite by both heat and pressure. Slate turns into
    schist when subjected to both heat and pressure.
    Characteristics of metamorphic rocks

    • They are formed from igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks or any other
    metamorphic rocks
    • They have alternate bands of light and dark minerals
    • They rarely have openings
    • They do not split easily
    • Some are made up of just one mineral, for example, marble

    • They have a different texture from the original rock.

    3.2.1. Positive impact of rocks
    i. Soil formation: when rocks weather down, they produce soils of varying
    fertility. Igneous rocks especially volcanic soil when weathered produce
    fertile soils that promote agriculture. Sedimentary rocks along river valleys
    and lowlands have weathered to produce fertile soils supporting rice growing
    in swampy areas.

    ii. Minerals: rocks are mined to provide minerals used in various purposes. For
    example gold and diamonds are deposited rocks that are mined in igneous
    rocks, marble is mined from metamorphic rocks, sand and limestone from
    sedimentary rocks. These minerals have supported economic development
    through foreign exchange earned through their export.

    iii. Building and construction materials: rocks both sedimentary,
    metamorphic and igneous provide building materials like sand, and building
    stones. Cement used in construction of buildings and roads is extracted from
    limestone which is a sedimentary rock. Bricks, tiles and other decorative
    stones are got from rocks. Besides, some rocks are also quarried to construct
    roads, and other infrastructure.

    development. The slopes of these mountains are cool and suitable for
    settlement.

    v. Tourism development: rocks have formed relief landforms which provide a
    fascinating scenery and as a result, they have attracted tourism in these areas.
    Good examples are inselbergs, volcanic plugs, stalactite and stalagmites,
    exfoliation domes and coral reefs

    vi. Source of Energy : some energy sources like lignite coal, bituminous coal,
    anthracite coal and natural gas are extracted in sedimentary rocks around
    the world. These minerals have been instrumental in spurring development
    where they are discovered.

    vii. Chemical industries: some rocks have got chemicals like salts, nitrate,
    phosphates and potash and Sulphur. These chemical are used in making
    the manufacturing of dyes, fertilizers and medicines

    3.2.2. Negative impact of rocks
    • The fertility of soils depends on the nature of parent rock from which
    it is weathered. When certain rocks are weathered, they produce
    poor infertile soils which are porous in nature and cannot enhance
    agriculture. A good example is quartz that weathers to give rise to
    sandy soils.

    • Weathered limestone rock produce poor soils with limited water
    retention capacity which limits farming
    • Some rocks are very hard and brittle and they cover extensive areas.
    These rocks discourage mechanical agriculture because they destroy
    farm implements like tractors. Some massive lava flows are also
    difficult to break using ordinary farming tools hence rendering farming
    activities difficult.
    • Engineering and construction works are also rendered difficult by
    some hard igneous rocks like batholiths, dykes and sills. In some places,
    breaking these rocks to pave way for road construction may require
    use of explosives which is very expensive.
    • Rocks also limit surface drainage in some areas. When a rock is
    permeable, it leads to the absence of drainage features like rivers,
    swamps or wetlands. This is because as it rains, water percolates
    through the permeable rocks and sinks in deeper layers of the crust.
    Such areas always lack streams or rivers. This is rampant in porous
    volcanic areas.
    • In other places especially limestone areas, some rivers disappear
    leading to the emergence of dry valleys.

    iv. Climate modification: igneous rocks form highlands like Mt. Kilimanjaro,
    Birunga, Drakensberg etc. These highlands receive heavy orographic rainfall
    which has supported a dense population through agriculture activities on
    slope of these mountains. Heavy rains in these highlands has supported

    growth of forests. These forests are very important in stimulating economic

    • It is also important that the quality of water depends on the nature of
    the rock through which a stream flows. In some places water tends to
    be hard because of the presence of soluble calcium carbonate.
    • High mountains formed from volcanic rocks act as barriers to rainfall
    on the leeward sides.
    • These dry conditions on the leeward side of the highland make
    agricultural activities difficult.
    • In some places, rocks have created a negative impact especially where
    different types of landslides have occurred. Rock fall involving the
    falling of large boulders and rock slide have caused accidents, blocked

    roads and sometimes have led to loss of life and property.


  • UNIT 4 SOILS

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to explain the
    processes responsible for soil formation, causes and
    effects of soil erosion, and suggest measures for soil

    conservation.

    Soil is defined as the thin upper layer of earth in which plants grow, a black or
    dark brown material typically consisting of a mixture of organic remains, clay,
    and rock particles. Soil is one of humankind’s most important natural resources
    because all food production and many other human activities depend on it.
    Soil formation is influenced by both natural and human factors. They are parent
    rock, climate, living organisms, topography, human activities and time. They
    are described below.

    4.1.1 Parent rock
    The parent rock is the rock material that breaks down to form soil particles.
    Parent rocks differ in terms of structures; some are hard while others are soft.
    Therefore, they are weathered at different rates. The rate of weathering of a
    parent rock also differs according to whether it has or does not have joints.
    Joined rocks are more susceptible to weathering and readily break down to
    give rise to soil particles.

    The colour of the parent rock also determines the rate at which it absorbs heat,
    expands and contracts and therefore breaks down. Soil formation is likely to be
    faster on dark coloured rocks, compared to shiny ones which reflect heat. The
    composition of a rock directly determines the nature of the soil nutrients. For
    example, a quartz rock leads to the formation of sandy, porous soils, while a
    limestone rock leads to the formation of soils rich in lime. Weathering of laterite
    yields thin skeletal and poor laterite soils.

    4.1.2 Climate
    Through elements of climate mainly rainfall and temperature, climate
    influences the soil formation. Rain provides water which is the prerequisite
    for chemical weathering processes which leads to rock decomposition hence
    the formation of soils. Furthermore, high temperatures speed up the rate of
    chemical reactions. Because of this, soil formation in hot climates is faster than
    in cold regions.

    4.1.3 Relief or topography
    Topography also affects soil formation. It determines the rate of erosion of the
    surface rocks. Steep slopes are often more susceptible to erosion than gentle
    ones. This implies that there is a more rapid loss of nutrients on steep slopes
    compared to gentle ones. This explains why only shallow, skeletal soils can
    form on steep slopes. Although steep slopes are associated with thin soils,
    they are also associated with rapid rates of soil formation because the rate of
    exposure of the parent rock to agents of weathering is high. Gentle slopes tend
    to have deep, mature and well developed soils because the rate of removal of
    soils is low and the rate of deposition is high. Flat landscapes are susceptible to
    leaching therefore; poor soils tend to develop over such environment.

    4.1.4 Living organisms
    Vegetation and the activities of animals and bacteria determine the organic
    content of soil, along with all that is living in soil (algae, fungi, worms, and
    insects). The chemical composition of the vegetation contributes to the acidity
    or alkalinity of the soil solution. For example, broadleaf trees when decomposed
    tend to increase alkalinity whereas needle-leaf trees tend to produce higher
    acidity. Also decay of plants and animals supply the soil in humus and nutrients.
    Animals contribute to soil development through breaking down of vegetation
    and rocks into small particles that form the soil. The figure below represents

    the diversity of life in fertile soil that contributes to soil formation and recycling.

    4.1.5 Time

    All of the identified natural factors in soil development (parent rock, climate,
    biological activity, and topography) require time to operate. If the parent
    rock has been exposed to weathering for a long time soil formation will be
    complete compared to another rock that has been exposed to weathering for
    a comparatively shorter period. This implies that the longer the duration of
    interaction, the more developed and mature the soils will be.

    4.1.6 Human activities
    Human intervention has a major impact on soils: The use of fertilizer changes
    the natural properties of soils. Farming activities by use of heavy machinery
    causes soil compaction. This hinders water seepage and consequently soil
    development is hindered. Man cuts the vegetation (deforestation) hence
    reducing humus formation and consequently affecting the type of soil that
    develops. Mining activities allow water to percolate deeply hence weathering
    the bedrock. Reclamation of land leads to formation of waterlogged soils e.g.
    peat soil. Construction works and settlement require cementing and tarmacking
    of the foundations. This reduces soil permeability and water seepage thus

    limiting chemical weathering of the parent rock and premature soils.

    4.2.1 Causes of soil erosion
    4.2.1.1 Human made causes

    • Overgrazing
    This is the major cause of erosion in pastoral areas; it is caused due to
    overstocking of domesticated animals like cattle, sheep and goats.When these
    animals eat plants over a long time, they expose areas of soil which are often
    subsequently removed by wind or rain action, bush burning or over cultivation.

    • Deforestation
    Because of population increase, there is great pressure on forests in order to
    get cultivable land and land for settlement. The high demand for fire wood and
    charcoal both in rural and urban areas has posed a great threat on the natural
    forests. This has led to wide scale deforestation hence exposing the soil to rain
    and surface run off which erodes away the top soil.

    • Bush burning
    It is done in the dry season in nomadic areas, with the aim of improving the
    quality of pasture which will grow during the next rainy season. This instead
    destroys the soil cover, makes the soil exposed to all agents of erosion.

    • Over-cultivation of the land
    Ploughing disrupts the soil. Every year, the world population increases by
    93 million people and they need more food. Therefore, farmers plough more
    fields to produce more food. This increases pressure on our soil resources.
    Ploughing soil is the mechanical turning and loosening of soil to improve it
    for crops. Ploughing) soil removes the plant cover that holds soil particles in
    places, leaving soils open to wind and water erosion. This makes the land lose
    its fertility and becomes exhausted.

    • Rapid population increase
    Today there is population explosion in most areas of the world especially in less
    developed countries. There is massive human pressure on land, vegetation in
    search of food, this leads to the removal of vegetation cover which accelerate
    soil erosion.

    • Uphill and downhill cultivation
    This refers to cultivation of strips of land up and down a slope. In this kind of
    ploughing, fields are longer up and down a slope than they are across the slope.
    This provides an open ground, long enough for runoff to gather momentum
    enough to erode soil. These strips become man-made channels which can be
    enlarged into gullies by surface run-off.

    • Construction works
    Through the construction of roads, railways and housing complexes, reasonable
    forest areas are cleared. This produces gorges, quarry sites, and steep sided
    hills are dissected by roads and railways. This thus accelerates the speed of
    runoff and exposes the soils to agents of erosion.

    4.2.1.2 Natural causes
    • Heavy rainfall
    This is common in hilly areas where the speed of surface run off is high than
    infiltration . Rain drop stake away the top soils to the valleys.
    • Drought
    The current climatic change has resulted into limited vegetation ornovegetation
    cover. This makes the soil to be exposed to the agents of erosion (wind and
    moving water).

    • Winds
    Wind takes away the top soil in areas with limited vegetation cover and trees
    which would act as wind breakers. This is common in arid and semi- arid areas

    which experience high temperature and too much sunshine.

    River and wave action
    Shore lines of lakes and oceans as well as banks of rivers are eroded by the
    waves and running water respectively. This accelerates the rate of erosion

    • Steep slopes
    This has accelerated the rate of surface run off hence leading to soil erosion in
    highland areas in the world.

    4.2.2 Effects of soil erosion
    The following are the effects of soil erosion:

    • Limited mechanized agriculture
    The use of modern machines like tract or sis made difficult because of gullies
    which affect their movement in farms, this in turn affects crop production.

    • Destruction of crops


    Soil erosion destroys crops on farm yards. The eroded materials destroy the
    wind erosion destroys the growing crops especially in hilly areas and at times
    transport them to the lower valleys. This is common in the northern province

    of Rwanda.

    • Low soil productivity
    Soilerosionleadstothelossofsoilnutrientswhichinturnaffectstheyields.
    ThebaresoilinHilly slopes can no longer support crop production.
    • Famine
    Soilerosionleadstovegetationdestructionandthisaffectsrainfallformation.
    Thisphenomenon
    limits agricultural productivity hence famine.
    • Change of the Landscape
    It changes the landscape appearance and natural beauty of the areas affected

    because of presence of landslides, gullies and rills.

    • Siltation
    The eroded materials at times are deposited on people’s land or along riverbanks.
    Such silt displaces people and destroys their property. This is common in flat
    lands adjacent to hilly areas.
    • Flooding
    Floods cause great damages on communities and individuals. As most people
    are well aware,the immediate impacts of flooding include loss of human life, and
    damage to property, destruction of crops, loss of livestock, and deterioration of

    health conditions owing to waterborne diseases.

    • Destruction of transport system
    Roads are greatly destroyed because of soil erosion that results into gullies.
    These gullies are caused by surface run off in the affected areas. This limits
    movement of people, goods and services and requires urgent rehabilitation.
    This affects government ‘s budget.
    • Desertification
    Soil erosion depletes the vegetation cover which would act as a source of

    convection rainfall. Thus causes semi-arid conditions of climate to develop.

    The following are areas of severe soil erosion:
    • Mountains and highlands with very steep slopes
    Surface water run off occurs whenever there ise xcess water on a slope that can
    not be absorbed In to the soil or is trapped on the surface. Reduced infiltration
    due to soil compaction, crusting or Presence of steep slopes increases the run
    off. Run off fromagricultural land is greatest during rainy months when the

    soils are typically saturated.

    The steep relief accelerates the rate of surface runoff hence leading to soil
    erosion. This is common in volcanic and hilly areas. Severe erosion occurs in
    these areas because the speed of surface runoff is too high and takes away the
    top soil.

    • Glaciated highlands
    Moving ice and glacier on the major highlands carries away large quantities or
    eroded soil in form of moraine. This is deposited at the base of mountain and
    on out wash plains. Severer erosion by glaciers and melt water is common on
    most high and steep glaciated mountains.

    • Desert and semi-desert areas
    Soil erosion, is severe in desert areas because of limited vegetation cover. Very
    strong winds blow off the unconsolidated soil and attaches it from the ground.
    Soil is relocated elsewhere by strong winds where it is carried and deposited in

    other areas. This phenomenon is common in desert areas.

    • Soil conservation: it refers to the prevention of soils from erosion,
    degradation or loss of fertility while soil management refers to all the
    measures put in place to ensure proper use of soils in a sustainable
    manner.

    Soil erosion and depletion are the major threats to soil as a resource.
    Therefore, sound farming techniques must be employed to prevent soil
    erosion and impoverishments, and to ensure that agriculture is more
    profitable in the world, the following should be done:

    • Mulching: This method consists of covering the bare ground with
    a layer of organic matter such as straw. This helps to maintain soil

    moisture and limit rapid evaporation.

    Figure 4. 47: Mulching

    • Crop rotation: This is done to avoid the effects of monoculture and
    add mineral salts to soil, hence improving soil cohesion and reducing

    soil erosion.

    • Contour ploughing: This method prevents excessive soil loss, as
    gullies are less likely to develop and also reduce run-off so that plants
    receive more water. Row crops and small grains are often planted in
    contour pattern so that the plants can absorb much of the rain, and
    erosion is minimized

    • Terrace farming: This method is practically used on the steep slopes
    to avail enough flat land to grow. It is best way to reduce surface run off

    and soil erosion.

    Terracing - Agro-forestry
    • Intercropping method. It consists of growing different crops in
    alternative rows and sown at different periods to protect the soil from
    rain-wash.

    • Fallowing: Sometimes it is very important to allow a farmland to rest
    or lie fallow, so that the natural forces can act on the soil. Fallowing also
    increases the sub-soil moisture and improves the general structure of
    the soil.

    • Zero grazing: Reducing the number of animals grazing in an area
    according to the carrying capacity of land.

    • Afforestation: It is a process of planting trees in a virgin land without
    any trees to create a forest. Trees as wind breaks are planted and they
    reduce the speed of wind hence reducing soil erosion.

    • Growth of cover crops: This is used in gentle area to reduce splash
    erosion and surface run off e.g. the growth of Pumpkins and Yams in
    Buganda.

    • Education and mass mobilization: this can be done through education
    of farmers and pastoralists about the causes and effects of soil erosion,
    and how to avoid them. This should also be done through agricultural

    seminars, radio programs, and demonstration farms.

  • UNIT 5 WEATHER AND CLIMATE IN THE WORLD

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to appreciate
    the importance of the atmosphere, weather and the
    impact of climate on the environment and human

    activities in the world.

    5.1.1. Definition of atmosphere, weather and climate

    i. Atmosphere
    The atmosphere is a mixture of gases surrounding the earth and retained by
    the force of the earth’s gravity. It is an envelope of gases surrounding the earth.
    It contains the gases that support all forms of life on earth. This envelope of air
    is dense at the sea level. It thins out with increase in altitude.

    ii. Weather
    Weather can be defined as the state of the atmosphere at any given time. This
    state is about temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction,
    moisture, cloud cover, precipitation, and sunshine. Weather keeps changing all
    the time. The change is from hour to hour and day to day.

    Weather is also defined as the condition of the atmosphere at a particular place
    over a short period. Weather changes from time to time. The weather can be
    windy, cloudy, sunny, hot etc. Elements of weather include temperature, rainfall,
    humidity, air pressure, sunshine, winds and cloud cover. Weather involves the
    behavior of all above elements at a place and a particular time.

    Weather is measured from a weather station. A weather station is a place
    where the elements of weather are measured and recorded. Some of weather
    recording instruments like thermometers are kept in a Stevenson screen, which
    is special double boarded, louvered and wooden box in which thermometers,
    are hung at weather station. Steven screen is designed in special way as follow:

    • It is painted white to reflect heat,
    • It is placed on stands about 120 cm above the ground. This is to ensure
    that air pressure is measured or to tap freely the moving wind,
    • It has louvers (wooden) to protect the thermometers from direct sun
    rays and allow free circulation of air,
    • It is made of wood because wood is a poor conductor of heat,
    • The roof is double boarded to prevent the sun’s heat from reaching
    inside the screen,
    • It is placed away from buildings or tree shades,
    • The screen is also placed on grass covered surface to minimise radiation

    from the earth’s surface.

    Weather recording instruments include:


    III. Climate

    Climate is an average weather conditions of a place measured, recorded,
    studied and analyzed over a long period of time 30-35 years. It is measured
    by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric
    pressure, precipitations, wind speed and direction.

    The elements of weather and climate: Weather and climate are made
    up of many elements. The main ones are temperature, precipitation, wind,
    atmospheric humidity, clouds, sunshine and atmospheric pressure.

    5.1.2 The structure of the atmosphere
    The atmosphere is a mixture of various gases surrounding the earth. It
    provides all gases that are essential for sustaining all life forms on the earth.
    Based on temperature variation, the atmosphere is made up of four layers: the

    troposphere, the stratosphere, the mesosphere and the thermosphere.


    The structure of the Atmosphere

    i. Troposphere
    This is the lowest layer of atmosphere, extending from the earth’s surface to a
    height of about 8 km at the poles and 18 km at the equator. Temperature, within
    this layer, generally falls by 0.650 per 100m of ascent with increasing altitude
    up to the upper limit, the tropopause. The troposphere is the most important
    because all the elements of weather and weather phenomena occur in this
    layer (e.g. evaporation, condensation, and precipitation of different forms like
    fog, cloud, dew, frost, rainfall, snowfall, thunder, lightning, atmosphere storms,
    etc.). This layer contains about 75% of gaseous mass of the atmosphere, most
    of water vapour, aerosols and pollutants.

    Briefly, troposphere is characterized by the following:
    • It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.
    • The upper limit of the troposphere is called the tropopause.
    • The temperature decreases with altitude at the rate of 6.5°C per 1km/
    1000m
    • The atmospheric pressure decreases also with altitude and reaches to
    100 millibars and 250 millibars over the equator and poles respectively
    at tropopause.
    • It lies between 10 km and 20 km above the sea level.
    • All weather phenomena occur in this layer. These are evaporation,
    condensation and precipitation. Condensation is the conversion of
    vapour or gas into a liquid of different forms. Precipitation is water
    that falls to the ground as rainfall, snow or hail.
    • The height of tropopause is 17 km over Equator and 9 to 10 km over
    the poles.
    • The higher one goes, the cooler it becomes. The decrease in temperature
    with height is called the environmental Lapse rate.
    • The reasons why temperature decreases in troposphere with height:
    • Effect of terrestrial radiation: The earth emits back parts of the solar
    radiation into the atmosphere. The radiation definitely reduces as the
    distance away from the ground increases.

    • The effect of adiabatic compression: The atmospheric pressure
    is highest on the surface and reduces away from the surface. The
    atmospheric pressure compresses air molecules and increases
    molecular activity. The air molecules in high pressure surface regions

    give high temperature than the areas high in atmosphere.

    The role of man activities: Industrialization, bush burning, the use of
    automobiles increase temperature on the earth.
    • Solid nature of the earth stores more heat than the atmosphere
    • Abundance of water vapor in the atmosphere which absorb heat
    than high troposphere.

    ii. Stratosphere:
    The stratosphere is the layer which is extending from 16 to 50 km above the
    sea level.
    It is characterized by the following:
    • There is increase of temperature due to absorption of ultraviolet solar
    radiation by ozone layer and lesser density of air and the presence of
    many solid components (dust, smoke, ash, salt) which act as obstacles
    to solar radiation.

    • There is nearly absence of weather phenomena because of dry air and
    rare occurrence of clouds.
    • The lower portion of the stratosphere having maximum concentration
    of ozone is called ozonosphere, which is confined between the heights
    of 15 to 35 km from sea level. Depletion of ozone would result in the
    rise of temperature of the ground surface and lower atmosphere.
    The main causes of ozone destruction are halogenated gases called
    chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs: chlorine, fluorine and carbon). Ozone layer
    depletion results to global warming, acid rain, melting of continental
    glaciers and rise in sea level, skin cancer, poisonous smoke, decrease in
    photosynthesis, ecological disaster and ecosystem instability.
    • The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as stratopause.

    iii. Mesosphere
    • The mesosphere extends between 50 km and 80 km.
    • Temperature decreases as height increases. In fact, the rise of
    temperature with increasing height in the stratosphere stops at the
    stratopause.

    • The temperature decreases in altitude because this layer is almost
    empty of components which would capture solar radiation.
    • At the uppermost limit of the mesosphere (80 km), the temperature
    drops at -80° C and may go down as low as - 100° C to -133° Celsius at

    mesopause.

    • This layer is characterized by very low air pressure ranging between
    1.0 millibar at 50 km altitude representing stratopause, and 0.01
    millibars at the mesopause (between 90 and 100 km).

    iv. Thermosphere
    It extends from 80 km to 640 km. It is composed of Ionosphere and Exosphere.
    a. The ionosphere consists of the following ionized layers:
    • D layer: reflects low-frequency radio waves but absorbs medium and
    high-frequency waves. Being closely associated with solar radiation, it
    disappears as soon as the sun sets.
    • E layer: The E-layer is also called the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. It
    reflects the medium and high-frequency radio waves. It is much better
    defined than the D layer. It is produced by ultraviolet photons from the
    sun rays interacting with nitrogen molecular. This layer also does not
    exist at night.
    • Sporadic E-layer: This layer occurs under special circumstances. It
    is believed that this sporadic layer is caused by meteors and by the
    same processes that cause aurora lights. This layer reflects very high
    frequency radio waves.
    • E2 layer is generally found at the height of 150 km and is produced due
    to the reaction of ultra-violet solar photons with oxygen molecules.
    This layer also disappears during the night times.
    • F layer consists of two sub-layers e.g. F1 and F2 layers (150 km-380
    km) are collectively called the Appleton layer. These layers reflect
    medium and high frequency radio waves back to the earth.
    • G layer (400 km and above) most probably persists day and night but
    is not detectable.

    b. The exosphere represents the uppermost layer of the atmosphere.
    The density becomes extremely low. The temperature reaches 5568° C
    at its outer limit, but this temperature is entirely different from the air
    temperature of the earth’s surface as it is never felt. The atmosphere
    above the ionosphere is called the outer atmosphere and it is made of

    exosphere and the magnetosphere.

    5.2.1. Composition of atmosphere
    Basically, the atmosphere is composed of three major constituents, namely:
    gases, water vapour, and aerosols. These constituents of the atmosphere
    are either permanent (Nitrogen Oxygen, Argon, Carbon dioxide, hydrogen,
    neon, Helium, Krypton, ozone and Xenon) or temporary constituents include
    solid (dust, smoke, salt and volcanic ash), liquid (water vapour) and gaseous.
    i. Gases

    The main gases are shown in the table below:



    The following are the most important components of the atmosphere:

    1. Nitrogen, which is about 78.1% of the total gases. Nitrogen is for all life
    forms. It is an important part of amino acids which make up proteins.
    Nitrogen (N) is one of the building blocks of life: it is essential for all
    plants and animals to survive. Nitrogen (N2) makes up almost 78.1%
    of our atmosphere. Humans and most other species on earth require
    nitrogen in a “fixed,” reactive form.

    Life depends on nitrogen, which is a basic ingredient in amino acids that
    make up all proteins. While a substantial percentage of the atmosphere
    is comprised of nitrogen gas, it must be processed into a soluble form.
    This is done via a nitrogen cycle that occurs in the soil. Then plants and
    the animals that eat them can obtain dietary nitrogen.

    Plants with nitrogen deficiencies look weak. Their leaves, which should
    be healthy and green, may look wilted and yellow. Animals and people
    get dietary nitrogen by eating protein-rich foods like milk, eggs, fish, beef
    and legumes. Nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are found in amino
    acids, which are the main structures of every protein.

    The nitrogen cycle involves:
    • Transfer of atmospheric nitrogen into soils (known as nitrogen
    fixation);
    • Mineralization, nitrification and transfer of nitrogen from soils to
    plants.
    • Denitrification and return of nitrogen to the atmosphere. It helps the
    oxygen in combustion; it also helps indirectly in oxidation of some
    elements.

    2. Oxygen: This makes up 20.9% of gases in the atmosphere. The molecular
    oxygen (O2) mostly occurs up to the height of 60 km in the lower
    atmosphere. It is produced through photosynthesis. This is the process
    by which green plants use sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to make
    their own food. It is one of the main elements that make up air, and it is
    necessary for the survival of all plants and animals e.g. animals breathe
    in oxygen.

    3. Carbon dioxide represents 0.03% of the total atmospheric gases. The
    gaseous carbon (CO2) plays two significant roles:
    • Carbon dioxide helps in the process of photosynthesis where carbon,
    hydrogen, and oxygen are combined by the autotrophic green plants
    of terrestrial and marine ecosystem. This is assisted by sunlight that
    enables the formation of the organic compounds.

    • Carbon dioxide is transparent to incoming shortwave solar radiation. It
    is opaque to outgoing long wave terrestrial radiation. It is evident that
    carbon dioxide is most significant greenhouse gas. The concentration
    carbon dioxide increases due to the anthropogenic activities, namely
    the burning of fossil fuels and wood and deforestation which lead to
    probable climate change through global warming.

    4. Ozone (O3): It is defined as “a three-atom isotope of oxygen (O3) or
    merely a triatomic form of oxygen (O3). It is formed with the separation
    of (O2). Then, these separated oxygen atoms (O) are combined with
    Oxygen molecules (O2) and thus ozone (O3) is formed. It is a life-saving
    gas because it filters the incoming shortwave solar radiation and absorbs
    ultraviolet rays. Therefore, the ozone layer protects the earth from
    becoming too hot. It is known as the earth’s umbrella to all organisms
    in the biospheric ecosystem against their exposure to ultraviolet solar
    radiation. The highest concentration of ozone is between the altitudes of
    12 km and 35km in stratosphere; the said zone is also called ozonosphere.

    5. Water vapour: Liquid water turns into vapour through the process
    of evaporation. The content of water vapour decreases with the
    altitude in the atmosphere. More than 90% of the water vapour in the
    atmosphere is found up to a height of 5 km. The moisture content in the
    atmosphere creates clouds, fogs, rainfall, frost, snowfall and other forms
    of precipitation.

    6. Aerosols: These are suspended solid particles and liquid droplets. These
    particles are from various sources like volcanic eruptions, desert dust,
    spores and pollen. The concentration of these particles decreases with

    increasing altitude in the atmosphere.

    5.2.2. Importance of the atmosphere
    The atmosphere is important for the following reasons:

    • It protects living things from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. This
    role is played by the ozone layer.

    • The atmosphere protects the earth from receiving too much radiation
    from the sun and reduces its harmful effects.

    • It helps to regulate the heat during the day and night. On earth,
    however, molecules in the atmosphere absorb the sun’s energy as it
    arrives, spreading that warmth across the planet. The molecules also
    trap reflected energy from the surface, preventing the night side of the
    planet from becoming too cold.

    • The Earth’s atmosphere protects and sustains the planet’s inhabitants
    by providing warmth and absorbing harmful solar rays.
    • The atmosphere traps the sun’s energy and sends off many of the
    dangers of space.
    • It provides the various gases that are useful to living things. These
    include oxygen.
    • It provides precipitation that helps to sustain life on earth.
    • The atmosphere is made of gases that are essential for photosynthesis
    and respiration, among other life activities.
    • The atmosphere is a crucial part of the water cycle. It is an important
    reservoir for water and the source of precipitation.
    • The atmosphere moderates Earth’s temperature because greenhouse
    gases absorb heat.
    • Atmosphere contains the oxygen and carbon dioxide, which living
    things need to survive.

    • The atmosphere also serves an important purpose as a medium for
    the movement of water. Vapour evaporates out of oceans, condenses
    as it cools and falls as rain. Hence, providing life-giving moisture to
    otherwise dry areas of the continents. Without an atmosphere, it
    would simply boil away into space, or remain frozen in pockets below
    the surface of the planet.

    • The atmosphere separates the earth from the space and thus, hot

    meteors do not hit the ground all the time.

    Climates are classified according to the average and the typical ranges of
    different variables, most commonly temperature and precipitation. There are
    three world climatic zones. These are: Tropical, Temperate and Cold zones.

    5.3.1. Tropical zones
    5.3.1.1 Equatorial climate.
    Equatorial climate is also called tropical wet climate or tropical rainforest
    climate. It is found along the equator extending from 5° to 10° South and North
    latitudes. Along the Eastern margin of continents, it spreads to 15° - 25° of
    latitudes. This type of climate is found specifically in the following regions:

    • The Amazon River Basin in South America
    • The Congo Basin and Guinea coast in Africa
    • Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines Islands in South-Eastern Asia
    • Eastern and Central America (parts of Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua,
    Honduras, British Honduras and Guatemala), some islands in the
    Western Colombia
    • Coastal lowlands of Eastern Brazil

    • Eastern Madagascar.

    Climatic characteristics of equatorial region

    • This climatic region is located within 5° North to 10° South of the
    Equator.
    • The average monthly temperatures are over 18°c. However, many
    places record average monthly temperatures of 24° to 27°c.
    • The Equatorial regions lie in a belt where the winds are light. It is a
    low-pressure belt.
    • The annual range of temperature is very small (the difference between
    the highest and the lowest temperatures) varies from 5°to 8°c.
    • The equatorial regions get heavy precipitation throughout the year.
    Many areas receive 2000 mm of the rain per year. The annual average
    rainfall in the equatorial climate is nearly 2500 mm.
    • There is a large amount of cloudiness.
    • Conventional rainfall is received, and it is usually accompanied by
    thunderstorms.
    • High temperatures and heavy rainfall encourage growth of natural
    vegetation. There are evergreen dense forests.

    Below there is an example of Singapore weather station:

    Singapore weather station


    5.3.1.2 Tropical marine climate
    It is found on the East coasts of regions lying between 10° N and 25° N and
    10° S and 25° S of the equator. These areas come under the influence of onshore
    Trade Winds. Examples are East coast of Brazil, the Eastern coastlands of
    Madagascar, Mexico, Nicaragua, Guatemala, Venezuela, the lowlands of Central
    America, West Indies, the coast of Queensland (Australia) and the southern

    islands of the Philippines.

    Climatic characteristics of Tropical maritime/maritime climate
    • The annual temperature range is about 8°c.
    • Temperatures reach 29°c during the hot season while it is about 21°c
    during the cold season,
    • Annual rainfall varies from 1000 mm to 2000 mm.
    • Rainfall received is both convection and orographic brought by onshore
    Trade Winds.
    • Humidity is high throughout the year.
    • Sea breezes lessen the effects of the heat.
    • Tropical maritime climate is good for tree growth. The lowlands have

    tall and evergreen trees.

    Cameroon weather station


    5.3.1.3 Tropical continental climate
    This climate occurs between 5° N and 15° N and 5° S and 15° S. It is in West,
    East and Central Africa, South America, parts of the Deccan plateau (India) and

    the areas to the north and east of the Australian Desert.


    Tropical continental climate
    Climatic characteristics of Tropical continental climate
    • Heavy convectional rainfall is mainly in the summer.
    • Annual rainfall is about 765 mm.
    • In some regions, the offshore winds are strong and hot. An example is
    the Harmattan of West Africa.
    • Humidity is high during the hot, wet season.
    • Summers are hot (32° C) and winters are cool (21° C).
    • The annual temperature range is about 11°C. The highest temperatures
    occur just before the rainy season begins. This is in April in the northern
    hemisphere and October in the southern hemisphere.

    5.3.1.4 Savannah climate (Tropical wet-and-dry climate
    This is located between 5° and 20° latitudes on either side of the Equator. It is
    found in Latin America. These are the Llanos of the Orinoco Valley including

    Colombia and Venezuela, the Guyana Highlands and the Campos of Brazil.

    In Africa, it is found in the South of the Congo basin, the Southern part of
    Democratic of Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania,
    Uganda, Botswana, South-Western Madagascar, Central Nigeria, Southern

    Kenya, Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast.

    Savannah Tropical climate

    Climatic characteristics of Savannah Tropical climate
    • High temperature of around 20°c.
    • The annual range of temperature is greater than in the equatorial
    regions. It is over 3° but not more than 8°c.
    • Total annual average precipitation varies from 1000 mm to 1500 mm.
    Much of the rain falls during the summer.
    • The vegetation is grasslands with scattered trees and bushes.

    5.3.1.5 Tropical desert climate
    Most of these deserts lie between 15° to 35° N and S. The hot desert climate is
    found in the following deserts: Atacama (the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile
    in South America), the Namib and Kalahari deserts of coastal Angola and South
    West Africa, interior part of Botswana and South Africa, the great Australian
    desert, the Sahara and the Arabian deserts, the Iranian desert, the Thar desert

    of Pakistan and India, California (USA) and the deserts of Northern Mexico.


    Tropical desert climate
    Characteristics of Tropical desert climate
    • Hot deserts have the highest temperatures recorded.
    • They have cloudless skies and little or no water vapour.
    • The daily ranges of temperature vary between 22° to 28° C. In rare
    cases, the diurnal range may be as high as 41.7° C.
    • The annual average precipitation is less than 250 mm.
    • Relative humidity is high.
    • There is little plant cover.

    Below is an example of Khartoum (Sudan) weather station:


    5.3.1.6 Tropical Monsoon Climate

    This is found in areas with seasonal land and sea winds. On-shore summer winds
    blowing from over tropical warm Oceans bring about heavy precipitation. Offshore
    winds from over the land make the weather dry during winter.
    Monsoon climate is found in the coastal areas of Eastern and Southern Asia.
    These places include India, Burma, Bangladesh, Indo-china, Southern China,
    and Philippines, Taiwan, Japan and Korea.

    In tropical Africa, it is found along the South-West coast of West Africa. These
    areas include the coasts of Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast.
    Other areas are the Northeast coast of Latin America from the mouth of Orinoco
    River in Eastern Venezuela through Guyana, Surinam and French Guyana to the
    North-Eastern part of Brazil. The North coasts of Puerto Rico and the Dominican

    Republic in the Caribbean Islands which have a mild monsoon climate.


    Tropical monsoon climate
    Characteristics of Tropical monsoon climate
    • High temperatures (32°c) in the hot season (summer) and low
    temperatures (15°c) in the cold season (winter).
    • High annual range of temperatures of about 17°c.
    • Summers receive high rainfall of up to 2500 mm.
    • The winters are dry.
    • There is a reversal of winds. In one season they blow from sea to land
    (onshore). These bring heavy rainfall. In the other season, they blow

    away from the sea (offshore), such come along with little rain.

    5.3.2 Temperate zone
    5.3.2 1 Mediterranean Climate
    Mediterranean climate is found between 30°and 40°N and S of the equator. This
    is on the western sides of the continents. This climate is found in five regions of
    the world:

    • North of the Mediterranean Sea from Portugal to Turkey and beyond
    in the Iranian Highlands, Morocco, Northern Algeria, and Tunisia, and
    North of Bengasi in Libya.
    • The central and Southern California coast in the United States of America.
    • Central Chile.
    • The Cape Town area of South Africa, and

    • Southern Western coasts of Australia.

    Mediterranean climate.
    Characteristics of Mediterranean climate

    • The average temperature of the coldest month is between 4.4°C and
    10°c. That of the hottest month is between 21° C and 27°c.
    • The mean annual temperature ranges are between 11°and 17°c.
    • The average annual precipitation is between 350 and 750 mm.
    • There is rain in winter while the summers are dry.
    Below there is an example of Algiers (Algeria) weather station:

    Algiers (Algeria) weather station

    5.3.2 2 Temperate Maritime Climate
    This type of climate is found between 40° and 65° N and S of the equator. These
    are regions to the West of continents.

    It is mainly found in Western Europe including Great Britain, North Western
    France, Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and Norway.

    In North America, it is found along the West coast up to 60° N of the equator.
    It borders the Sub-Arctic climate of Canada and Alaska. In Europe, it extends
    along the west coast of Norway to 68° N.

    In the Southern Hemisphere, it is found to the Southwest coast of Chile,
    Southeast coast of Australia, the islands of Tasmania and New Zealand.

    Below there is an example of Brest (France) weather station:

    Brest (France) weather station



    Temperate maritime climate
    Characteristics of Temperate Maritime climate
    • Temperatures are influenced by the warm Ocean currents.
    • This climate has cool summers and mild winters.
    • The annual range of temperature is about 7° C.
    • Average temperatures in summer are between 15° C and 18° C. Winter
    temperatures range between 11° and 17° C.
    • In Europe, the lowlands receive an average precipitation of 500 mm to
    850 mm. On the windward side, it is between 2500 mm and 3750 mm.

    5.3.2.3 Continental Temperate climate
    This type of climate occupies a large part of the United States of America. In
    Europe, it is found in Romania and Bulgaria. It occupies the lower Danube Valley.

    In Eastern Asia, it is found in North China bordering the yellow Sea, North and

    South Korea, and Northern Honshu in Japan.


    continental temperate zone
    • Temperate continental climates are found on continents in the Northern
    Hemisphere between 40o-70o
    • Climate in these areas is controlled by the fact that they are not located
    near Oceans where temperatures are moderate.
    • Temperate continental climates are also called micro thermal climates,
    because they are located away from the Oceans. These climatic zones
    experience the extremes of temperatures.
    • Summers are warm and can be very humid while winters are cold with
    snowstorms and blustery winds.
    • The annual average temperatures are around 100 C.

    5.3.3 Cold zone
    5.3.3.1 Polar and Tundra climate
    The Tundra climate is found in the northern hemisphere beyond 60° N of the
    equator. These are areas to the North of Asia and Canada. It also occurs on the
    coast lands of Greenland. Polar climate is found in Greenland, interior of Iceland

    and in the Antarctica.


    Polar and Tundra climate
    Characteristics of Tundra climate
    • The average annual rainfall is 250 mm.
    • Precipitation is in the form of snow in winter and rainfall in summer.
    • Humidity is low because of low temperatures.
    • Winter temperatures are low. They range from - 29°c to 4°c. Summer
    temperatures average about 10°c.
    • Vegetation consists of mosses, lichens and dwarf trees and shrubs. It is
    called tundra vegetation.
    Characteristics of Polar climate
    • Temperatures are always low. They are below 0°c, which leads to snow.
    • Precipitation mainly occurs in summer. It averages between 100 mm
    and 250 mm.
    • Winters are associated with one continuous night. Summers are one
    continuous day.
    • Blizzards are common. These are snowstorms with high winds.
    Visibility is low.

    • There is hardly any vegetation. This is because of snow and ice cover.

    5.3.3.2 Mountain climate
    This type of climate is found in the mountain ranges of the world. These include
    Mt. Kenya, the Ethiopian Highlands and the Alpine ranges of Europe. Others are
    the North Western part of Rwanda, especially over volcanic region, the Andes
    of South America and the Rockies of North America.

    Characteristics of Mountain climate
    • High rainfall on the windward slopes. It is less on the leeward slopes,
    • Orographic rainfall is received,
    • Pressure and temperature decrease with altitude,
    • But if the mountains are high enough, there is a height at which
    maximum precipitation occurs and above which it decreases,
    • It is also characterized by strong local winds (mountain and valley

    breezes).


    Climate influences the distribution of population. This is because of temperature

    conditions, amount of precipitation and length of crop growing season.

    The relationship between climate and human activities is summarized below:
    i. Human activities in equatorial regions: Heavy rainfall and high
    temperatures support growth of forests. The main human activities are
    lumbering and agriculture. Lumbering is the cutting down of trees and
    making them into timber. Crops such as coffee grow well in this type of
    climate. Tourism is also developed in this area due to natural forest.

    ii. Human activities in savanna climate: This type of climate is good for
    agriculture and dairy farming. There is enough grass for the animals. Growing
    of vegetables is done in this type of climate.

    iii. Human activities in desert climate: The high temperatures and low
    rainfall are not supportive for agriculture. Animal keeping is also not well
    developed only camels, goats and sheep are kept in such type of climate.
    Furthermore, it is only around the oases that some farming is done. An
    oasis is a fertile spot in the desert where water is found. Growing of crops
    is done by irrigation. However, mining activities are done in some deserts
    for instance gold is extracted in West Australia; diamonds in the Kalahari
    and petroleum in Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran and Iraq.

    iv. Human activities in temperate climate: This type of climate is suitable
    for agriculture and livestock keeping. Most developed countries are in this
    type of climate. These zones have high population.

    v. Human activities in polar climate: The main activities in this zone are
    the fishing, hunting of seals in Greenland and tourism in Arctic Circle. Few
    people are found here.
    vi. Human activities in mountain climates: Due to rainfall in the windward,
    the main activities in this zone are agriculture (maize, wheat, coffee, and

    pyrethrum), tourism, animal rearing and mineral exploitation.


  • UNIT 6 NATURAL VEGETATION OF THE WORLD

    Key unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to appreciate
    the distribution of different types of vegetation in

    the world.

    Vegetation refers to a community of plants which grow in an area and which
    gives it distinct character. In biological terms, vegetation is known as “flora”,
    that is all vegetation types growing on land and in water. The world vegetation
    communities are in two categories: forests and grasslands. They are distributed
    according to the vegetation zones and they include tropical, temperate, tundra,

    desert, mountain and aquatic/marsh or mangrove vegetation.

    6.1. Tropical forests and their characteristics


    Tropical vegetation develops within the tropics. Tropical vegetation can be sub
    -divided into three, but related groups. These include equatorial rainforests,
    tropical monsoon forests and tropical mountain forests.

    6.1.1. Equatorial forests
    The equatorial rainforests grow within the tropics between 10 °N and 10 °S
    near the equator. Equatorial rainforests are sometimes called “rainforest” and
    equatorial rain forests cover only a small part of the earth’s surface, which is
    about 6% of the earth’s surface. They are situated in Amazon basin in South
    and Central America, Congo basin in Central Africa, Malaysia and Burma in the
    west to Malaysia, West Africa coastal belt (Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Liberia

    and Central Africa Republic).


    Equatorial rainforests are characterized by the following:
    • They are evergreen, since the forests receive heavy rainfall throughout
    the year with no clear distinct seasons.
    • They grow buttress roots in order to support their enormous sizes.
    • The major tree species in equatorial are hardwood tress which are
    characterized by long gestation period.
    • The vegetation in equatorial regions are characterized by different
    canopies or layers.
    • Equatorial rainforests are dominated with valuable tree species such
    as mahogany, ebony, green heart and redwood.
    • The forest floor receives only 2% of the sunlight. This has led to the
    existence of little undergrowth.
    • The trees are very tall (35 m - 40 m) with a very dense and thick
    canopy. The result is that the canopy blocks most of the sunlight falling
    on them depriving the plants under them of sunlight. Therefore, the
    trees in Equatorial rainforests become tall due to competition for light.
    • Most trees are broad-leaved evergreen. This allows excessive rates of
    transpiration in equatorial rainforests.
    • Trees grow in mixed stands. The different species are scattered all over
    the forest.
    • There is high accumulation of undergrowth. This is due to the existence

    of canopies the limit the penetration of light to reach the ground.

    6.1.2. Tropical Monsoon forests
    The Tropical Monsoon Forests beyond the equatorial region between 10 0and
    250 north, and south of the equator. Burma, Thailand, the Indo-China region,
    parts of India, East Java, parts of northern Australia, small parts along the

    southern west coast of West Africa especially in Senegal and low land.

    Tropical monsoon forests are characterized by the following:

    • The trees possess trunks that they use to store water during the dry
    seasons.
    • The tropical monsoon forests can grow up to 30 metres in height.
    • Trees possess long tap roots that penetrate into the ground to access
    groundwater. In order to sustain plants’ growth, especially during the
    dry winter season when there is unreliable rainfall.
    • Tropical monsoon forests shade off their leaves during the dry seasons
    in order to minimize water loss.
    • Trees have broad leaves due to sufficient rainfall (2000 mm) received
    during the wet season.
    • Tropical monsoon forests contain valuable hard wood tree species
    such as the teak and sandalwood.
    • Tree canopy from 25 to 30 m tall and grow closely together to form a
    continuous canopy layer. Epiphytes and lianas and parasitic plants are

    found on the canopy.

    6.1.3. Mountain tropical forests
    The tropical mountain forests are mainly located at a high altitude in the
    mountains and usually vary largely along the slopes of Himalayas Mountain
    and East Africa Mountain peaks of Rwenzori, Kenya and other good are located
    in Cameroon Mountains, Central Africa and Ethiopia Highlands. At the altitude
    trees grow in plenty of higher slope between 1,500 meters to 3,500 meters and
    dominate the mountain forest, the evergreen trees like Teak, Bamboo and can

    grow abundantly and dominate the natural vegetation.

    Mountain forests have the following characteristics:
    • Mountain forests grow broad leaves and they are evergreen;
    • Mountain forests grow thick under growth;
    • The forests contain giant evergreen trees that grow on the windward
    slopes of the mountain;
    • The main tree species are characterized by long gestation period;

    6.2 Temperate forests
    The temperate forests are categorized into 3 categories that include: deciduous

    forests, Mediterranean forests and coniferous forests.

    The characteristics of temperate forests.
    • With high levels of precipitation, humidity, and a variety of deciduous
    trees.
    • Temperate trees are trees that lose their leaves in winter.
    • Trees shed their leaves in fall and bud new leaves in spring when
    warmer temperatures and longer hours of daylight return.
    • Temperate forests are the tall evergreen trees dominating the regions.
    • Redwood trees are the tallest in the world, reaching heights above 360
    feet.
    • The most prominent tree in temperate forest is the Douglas fir, that
    growing 280 feet tall.
    • Temperate forest the mature species of cedar and spruce trees typically
    exceed 200 feet.
    • Epiphytes are mostly species of mosses and ferns that live on the
    branches and trunks of trees, especially the broad-leafed maples.
    • Temperate forests have many species of large ferns inhabit the shady
    forest floors.
    • Temperate forests can get from 60 to 200 inches of precipitation

    annually.

    6.2.1. Mediterranean forests
    The Mediterranean forests are located mainly in south-west America, Spain,
    Italy, France, Australia, Mediterranean Sea, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and
    Central Chile. Mediterranean forests grow also well on the tip of South Africa

    near Cape Town.

    The characteristics of Mediterranean forests are:
    • Trees species in the Mediterranean deciduous forests have broad
    leaves.
    • Mediterranean vegetation is characterized by open and evergreen
    woodlands.
    • Mediterranean vegetation has impassable thicket with thin and waxy
    leaves.
    • The scrubs are known by different names in different localities e.g.
    Maquis in southern Europe, Chapparal in California, Fymbos in South
    Africa, Mallee shrub in Australia, Mattoral in Spain and Macchia in Italy.
    • There is inadequate undergrowth.
    • There is generally composed of broadleaf trees, such as the oak and
    mixed sclerophyll forests.
    • dense vegetation composed of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, bushes,
    and small trees usually less than 2.5 m (about 8 feet)
    • Tall trees and growing in regions lying between 30° and 40° north and
    south latitudes.
    • Trees, even fully grown, are often stunted.
    • Woody, evergreen shrubs or small trees prevail, having developed
    various strategies of growth and usage of available water during the
    dry period.
    • Mediterranean deciduous tree species have a long gestation period.
    • Mediterranean plants have long taproots to reach underground water,
    called “Xerophytic Plants”.
    • Mediterranean trees adapt themselves to dry summers with the help
    of their thick barks and wax coated leaves, which help them reduce
    transpiration

    6.2.2. Coniferous forests / Taiga Forest
    The coniferous forests are located. They are pretty much across North America,
    Europe, and Asia, usually extending from 50˚ to 60˚N. The coniferous forest is
    the largest terrestrial vegetation covering about 17% of Earth’s land area. Canada,
    Russia, and Scandinavia are almost entirely covered by these coniferous forests. The
    vegetation is identified by its climate, which occurs almost exclusively in the high

    latitudes of the northern hemisphere.

    The characteristics of coniferous forests are:
    • The coniferous forests consist of tall, softwood evergreen trees.
    • The limited species of trees and these trees are evergreen and grow
    apart from each other;
    • The coniferous tree species grow tall, straight and contain few branches.
    • The type of these coniferous forests grow in pure stands;
    • Trees are conical shaped with needle shaped leaves. These include chir,
    pine, cedar are the important variety of trees in these forests;
    • The tree species often grow to a height of over 30m (100ft) tall;
    • Coniferous tree species grow shallow roots and able to collect enough
    water from top soil;
    • Roots are shallow enable to absorb the nutrients and water on the top
    soil;
    • Adapted in harsh winter even the ground is frozen, little water is
    available still can survive;
    • Leaves are small, narrow and often needle with the capacity of reducing
    transpiration

    6.2.3 Deciduous forests
    Deciduous forests grow well within the latitude of 40° N and 60°N and 30° S
    and 50oS of the equator. Deciduous forests can be found in the eastern half of
    North America, and the middle of Europe. There are many deciduous forests
    in Asia. Some of the major areas that they are in are southwest Russia, Japan,
    and eastern China. South America has two big areas of deciduous forests in
    southern Chile and Middle East coast of Paraguay. There are deciduous forests

    located in New Zealand and southeastern Australia also.

    The characteristics of deciduous forests are:
    • These regions experience seasonal changes. Trees shed their leaves in

    the dry season to conserve water.

    • Deciduous forests are characterized by existence of epiphytes, which
    include mosses.
    • Trees like sandalwood, teak, ebony, bamboo, etc. are the common trees
    found here.
    • Deciduous forests have a short growing gestation
    • Deciduous forests grow in pure stands.
    • Deciduous forests require low sunshine supply.
    • There are at times hard wood forests species such as maple, oak, beech

    and hazel.

    6.3. Grasslands
    Grasslands include two types: tropical grasslands and grasslands in temperate

    zone.

    Tropical grasslands are commonly known as savannah vegetation. Tropical
    grasslands grow well within altitude of 50 N and 15o N and 50 S and 15o S of
    the equator. Tropical grasslands grow well in Africa, South America specifically
    in Campos in Brazil”. They can also be found in Guyana, Australia, Eastern
    Madagascar and India. Tropical grassland is divided into two groups: Savanna
    and steppe.

    i. Savannah humid
    Savannah humid forests grow well in regions with average rainfall total at
    high 1000 mm per year. Mambo woodlands of central Tanzania as examples
    of savannah woodlands in East Africa. Other examples of savannah humid also

    found in Madagascar, Indian subcontinent, south East Asia and New Guinea.

    The characteristics include the following:
    • The trees species are deciduous, and shade leaves during the dry
    periods.
    • The vegetation’s are mostly shrub and short grass.
    • The species of trees such as baobab and acacia are mostly common in
    area.
    • The trees grow in arrangement of constant cover.
    • The grass can grow very tall, about 3 to 4 meters in height, which is
    also known as “elephant Grass”.
    • Near riverbanks and water holes, trees are and which are deciduous in
    nature, e.g. Acacia, baobab, etc.
    • The vegetation is characterized by undergrowth of mainly shrub and
    short grasses.
    • The acacia tree species in the savannah woodlands form small umbrella
    –like tops
    • The trees species are deciduous and shade –off leaves during the dry
    season.
    • The tree species such as the acacia and baobab are more dominant in
    savannah humid.
    • Plant has yellow or white flowers and can grow over six feet tall.
    • The non-thorny trees, baobab, candelabra, and the Jackal berry tree are
    found on the African grasslands.

    ii. Steppe/ Savannah dry
    Savannah dry covers almost half the surface of Africa (central Africa) and large
    areas of Australia, South America, and India. Climate is the most important
    factor in creating a savanna. Savannas are always found in warm or hot climates
    where the annual rainfall is from about 50.8 to 127 cm (20-50 inches) per year.
    It is crucial that the rainfall is concentrated in six or eight months of the year,

    followed by a long period of drought when fires can occur.

    The main characteristics of Savannah dry are:
    • Trees may facilitate grass growth by improving the biophysical or
    biogeochemical conditions for herbaceous growth.
    • The trees grass growth through direct competition for water, light and
    nutrients.
    • The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support
    an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.
    • Annual herbaceous plants die completely at the end of the growing
    season or when they have flowered and fruited, and they then grow
    again from seed.
    • The vegetation consists of tall grasses and scattered trees.
    • The grasses are usually two meters high or more.
    • The trees are mainly found near watercourses. The main types of tree
    species are acacia;
    • Some trees lose their leaves in the dry season.
    • Some plants have thick barks and thorny leaves to reduce water loss.
    The Savannah dry /steppe are associated with various economic activities
    include hunting, fruit of gathering, rearing of animals, settlement patterns,
    agriculture and gazetting of national park and game reserves.

    6.3.2 Grasslands in temperate zone
    Temperate grasslands are known by different names in various regions.
    “Prairies” in North America; “Pampas” in South America (Argentina), “Downs”
    in Australia “Velds” in South Africa and “Steppes” in Europe. These are found
    in the mid- latitudinal zones and in the interior part of the continents. Central
    Asia from Black Sea to Central Russia, North Central USA and Southern Canada,

    South-East Australia, Southern Africa and Argentina.

    The characteristics of temperate grasslands are:
    • Grass lands found here are short and juicy, which is suitable for cattle
    feed.
    • Maize and wheat are grown in large amount that is why this area is
    known as “bread basket” of the world.
    • The steppes form largest segment of the temperate grassland biome.
    Steppes are divided into: Forest steppes, Meadow steppes, grass
    steppes.
    • America Prairies are divided into three sub regions: tall grass prairie,
    mixed grass prairie and short grass prairie.
    • Based on rainfall, the Pampas in South America (Argentina) are divided
    into two types: humid pampas in the eastern part and Sub-humid
    pampas in the Western part of Argentina.
    • Velds in South Africa are sub-divided into three types: themed veld
    (altitude varies between 1500-2000m), Sour veld and Alpine veld
    (2000-2500) of the Drachenberg mountain.
    • Dows growing in Australia are divided into three types: temperate
    tall grasslands found in eastern coast of New south Wales to Victoria
    and Tasmania. Temperate short grasslands found to the north of the
    temperate tall grassland region. Xerophytic grasslands developed in
    the interior lands of New South Wales and Queensland where semiarid
    climate prevails.
    • Canterbury grasslands are extended especially over the eastern and

    the central part of New Zealand.

    6.4. Desert Vegetation



    Desert vegetation grows in
    desert covering the countries of Saudi Arabia, Iraq,
    Iran Syria and Israel, Atacama Desert (Peru and Chile), southern California in
    USA, Sonora in Mexico and Victoria in Australia. Desert Vegetation is separate

    into two types, namely hot desert and cold desert vegetation or Tundra.


    6.4.1. Hot desert vegetation
    Hot deserts are located between the latitudinal belts of 15°-30° in North
    America, South Asia, south and Central America, Africa and Australia. Hot desert
    vegetation is very hot throughout the year. The rainfall is unreliable as the trade

    wind blocks the rainfall and natural vegetation is very poor in the desert region.


    Hot desert vegetation is characterized by the following:
    • They have small leaves, with sunken or restricted openings, pale,
    reflective and leaves.
    • Plants found there are very less with succulent stems, long roots and
    leaves.
    • The desert trees shade off its leaves during the dry season to minimize
    on water loss from the excessive temperature.
    • Desert vegetation types especially the tree species grow long taproots
    to tap the necessary water deep in the underground water table.
    • The main vegetation growing, here is mainly thorny acacia, bushes
    euphorbia and turfed coarse grasses.
    • Some desert vegetation types grow no leaves in order to avoid excessive
    water loss through evapotranspiration.

    6.4.2. Cold desert vegetation
    The cold vegetation is located in high, flat areas, called plateaus, or mountainous
    areas in temperate regions of the world. Temperate regions lie between the
    Polar Regions and the tropics. Like other types of desert, cold deserts get very
    little rain or snow and are mainly in the in North Canada, North Russia, North

    Sweden and Finland islands in Arctic Ocean.

    The major characteristics of cold desert vegetation include the following:
    • The plants are widely scattered.
    • The main plants are deciduous, most having spiny leaves.
    • Large amount of snowfall in winter (and sometimes in summer).
    • Short, wet moderately warm summers.
    • Mean average winter temperature - 2 to 4º C.
    • The vegetation receives a mean annual precipitation ranges from 90
    and 260 mm.
    • Good drainage to leach out most of the salt.
    • The burrowing habit also applies to carnivores like the badger, kit fox,
    and coyote.
    • Several lizards do some burrowing and moving of soil. Deer are found

    only in the winter.



    Tundra vegetation is the coldest of all the vegetation and the term tundra is
    derived from a Finnish word “tunturi” which means “treeless plain”. It is among
    the harshest type of vegetation are found in the arctic region on top of mountains
    where the climate is cold and windy, rainfall is limited. Therefore, the tundra

    regions are covered the areas of Alaska, Russia and some parts of Canada.

    The characteristics of tundra vegetation are as follows:
    • There is very low variety of trees.
    • The vegetation arrangement is simple.
    • The season of growth and reproduction is short.
    • The drainage system is nearly limited.
    • The nutrients and the energy here is in the form of dead and organic

    material.

    Mountain vegetation is categorized into two type’s namely tropical mountain
    vegetation and temperate mountain vegetation.

    6.6.1. Tropical Mountain vegetation
    Mountain vegetation has a variety of vegetation ranging from tropical to
    temperate types. On type Mountain slope, various vegetation types show
    clear demarcation zones. The savannah vegetation rows from at the foothills,
    followed by the layer of tropical rainforests, bamboo forests, mountain heath
    and moorland and rest is bare rock. For instance, mountains: Mt. Kenya,
    Aberdares, Kilimanjaro, Mt. Meru, Mt. Elgon, Mt. Cameroon, Mt. Ruwenzori,

    Virunga, Simien Mts. and Bale Mts.

    The characteristics of mountain vegetation
    • It grows in clearly demarcated zones from the foothills to the summit.
    • Mountain vegetation are dominated by tussock grasses and stands of
    giant rosette.
    • The mountain heath and moorlands grow between the bamboo forests
    and the snow – line or bare rocks.
    • The tree species, mainly of the lower canopy, are the wild olive.
    • Soils in the mountains are mostly are very young and fertile favors the
    growth of threes.
    • Mountainous areas, the decrease in temperature with increasing
    altitude leads to the corresponding change in natural vegetation.
    • The wet temperate forests are suitable between 1000 and 2000 mm.
    • Between 1500 and 3000 mm, temperate forests containing coniferous

    trees like pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar.

    6.6.2 Temperate mountain vegetation
    Temperate mountain vegetation grows well in High Mountain of temperate
    regions, and temperate mountain vegetation grows best between 350 N and
    600 N of the equator. Temperate mountain vegetation also is found in Alps in
    Western Europe, in Norway, Sweden and Finland and the Rocky Mountain

    slopes in California and British Columbia and Andes in South America.

    Zonation temperate mountain vegetation
    They are characterized by the following:
    • Temperate mountain vegetation contains both deciduous and
    coniferous plant species such as poplar, birch, oak and elm.
    • The vegetation arranges itself on the slope in clear demarcated zones.
    • Some trees species grow a thick bark in order to store enough water
    for use during the winter season.
    • Tree species shade –off their leaves when temperature drops below 6°
    C in winter.
    • Tree species especially the coniferous forests adapt themselves to the
    climatic conditions by growing tiny needle-like leaves.
    • Tree species become shorter and more dispersed towards the zones

    containing meadow.

    6.7. Aquatic, marsh and Swamp vegetation


    1. Mangrove vegetation grow in marshy, swamp areas along the coast
    of East Africa specifically in Kenya and Tanzania, Deltas of the Ganga,
    Mahanadi, Ganga Brahmaputra delta in India, and evergreen vegetation
    grows along the coastal margins between 5o N and 5oS of the equator.

    The characteristics of mangrove forests:
    • Mangrove vegetation have broad branches and they are evergreen
    • Characterized by mineral soils with poor drainage and by plant life
    dominated by trees.

    • The mangrove vegetation grows butters roots.
    • This type of vegetation has a long gestation.
    • They exist in areas with poor drainage and sufficient water supply to
    keep the ground waterlogged, and they have a high enough supply of

    minerals in the water to stimulate decay of organisms.

    • High salinity, hypoxic (oxygen deficient) waterlogged soil strata, tidal
    pressures, strong winds and sea waves.
    • Mangroves forests species, surviving at temperatures above 66° F (19°

    C), not tolerating fluctuations exceeding 18° F (10° C) or temperatures
    below freezing for any length of time.

    2. Aquatic plants : Refers to as hydrophytes or macrophytes. These plants
    require special adaptations for living submerged in water, or at the
    water’s surface. Aquatic plants can only grow in water or in soil that is
    saturated with water.

    The following are Characteristics of aquatic plants:
    • Roots are often reduced in submerged aquatic vegetation and their
    only function is to anchor the plant to the ground.
    • Plants that normally are submersed typically form their flowers raised
    above the water surface.
    • Floating plant with no attachment to the mud or bottom and with
    inflated portions of leaves, stems, or special hairs that enable the plant
    to remain floating.
    • Plant rooted in the mud or muck with immersed leaves with
    photosynthetic stems and relatively small leaves similar to typical
    leaves of terrestrial plants living nearby.
    • Plants that normally are submersed typically form their flowers raised
    above the water surface.
    • Arial roots that link with underground roots have numerous pores
    over their surface that allow for gaseous exchange.
    • Structures that anchor many seaweeds to the substratum, such as the
    bottom layer or bedrock

    3. Marsh is a wetland that is dominated by herbaceous rather than
    woody plant species. Marshes can often be found at the edges of lakes
    and streams, where they form a transition between the aquatic and
    terrestrial ecosystems. Grasses, rushes or reeds often dominate them.
    Familiar examples of marsh vegetation include cattails, sedges, papyrus
    and sawgrass.

    The following are characteristics of a marsh:
    • The mash vegetation grows in poorly drained water.
    • The mash vegetation is common characteristics of wetlands areas.
    • The mash vegetation grows in both fresh and salty waters.

    • The mash vegetation is found along the rivers and lakes.

    Swamp vegetation is a wetland that is forests. Many swamps occur along large
    rivers where they are critically dependent upon natural water level fluctuations
    and some swamps have hammocks, or dry-land protrusions, covered by aquatic
    vegetation, or vegetation that tolerates periodic inundation.
    Characteristics of swamp vegetation are:
    • There by characterized by mineral soils with poor drainage and by
    plant life dominated by trees.
    • The latter characteristic distinguishes a swamp from a marsh, in which
    plant life consists largely of grasses.
    • They exist in areas with poor drainage and sufficient water supply to
    keep the ground waterlogged, and they have a high enough supply of
    minerals in the water to stimulate decay of organisms and prevent the
    accumulation of organic materials.
    • They are often found in regions of low relief associated with rivers that
    supply the water to some lakes.
    • The number of plant species in swamps is few compared to the numbers

    that grow on well-watered but not waterlogged land

    A number of factors as indicated below influences vegetation distribution:
    • Rainfall: Growth of vegetation depends on amount of rainfall. For
    example, Equatorial rainforests have evergreen and dense vegetation.
    On the other hand, places with low rainfall have scattered vegetation.
    There is little vegetation in deserts.

    • Temperature: Forests found in cool areas have fewer tree species.
    Those in hot areas have more species. The cold mountain tops have
    heath and moorland.
    • Relief and altitude: It has been noticed that with a rise in the altitude,
    the plants in the region show a stunted growth. Trees such as pine,
    silver fir, birch, and juniper fall in this category of vegetation
    • Slopes: Areas on the opposite sides of mountains have different
    vegetation. Steep slopes have more runoff. Gentle slopes allow water
    to sink into the soil. Plants use this water.
    • Soil types provide basis for different types of vegetation. The sandy
    soils in the desert support cactus and thorny bushes. Wet, marshy,
    delta soils support mangroves and other deltaic vegetation.
    • Human activities: These include settlement, mining, farming and
    livestock keeping. For example, vegetation is cleared to create space
    for building houses. Trees are cut for firewood and timber. New or
    artificial vegetation is planted. In other areas, the ground is left bare.
    • Drainage also determine the vegetation of a place, there are plants
    grow best in areas of good drainage while others grow well in swampy

    condition for example papyrus which only grow in swampy area.

    Natural vegetation plays a significant role in the development of countries
    where they are found in the following ways:
    • Source of food
    Some plants that form the vegetation provide food. This is in form of fruits that
    grow in tropical forests. Some tree roots and shoot are sources of vegetables
    among the communities that live near these forests. Savannah woodland are
    also habitats for bees that help in production of honey which is also collected
    for food.
    • Construction materials
    Natural forests also provides construction materials; for example, trees provide
    timber and poles for construction of buildings. These poles can also be used in
    transmission of electric and telephone lines.
    • Climate modification
    Dense tropical rainforests help in influencing rainfall in the tropical region
    through evapotranspiration process. They also cool the environment where
    they are found
    • Controlling soil erosion
    Vegetation also provide a protective cover of the earth surface. This helps to
    control the agents of erosion like wind and running water from eroding the
    landscape. Besides, tree roots keep soil particles together and can withstand
    any erosional agents.
    • Soil formation.
    When the vegetation decomposes, they lead to soil formation for example dense
    vegetation leads to the formation of deep fertile soils that enhance agriculture.
    Also, dense forests help in accelerating chemical and biological weathering
    processes that help in soil formation.
    • Protection of water catchment areas
    Natural vegetation helps to protect water catchment areas like rivers and
    streams. The forests and grasslands protect these areas from excessive
    evaporation of water from the soil hence keeping constant flow of water as
    streams in these areas.
    • Purification of air in the atmosphere
    The natural vegetation helps clean or purify air through harvesting carbon
    dioxide from the atmosphere. Again, trees produce oxygen that human beings

    and animals use for their survival

    The vegetation also helps regulate the flow of numerous biogeochemical cycles
    in the atmosphere, most critically those of water, carbon, and nitrogen. It also
    contributes in the local and global energy balances.
    The natural vegetation plays an important role in our ecosystem. Whereby,
    plants are known as the primary producers since they can manufacture their
    own food through the process of photosynthesis using sunlight.
    • Supports industrialization
    The natural vegetation is also a natural resource that provides a number of
    uses to man; i.e. the products like ropes, rubber, gum, papers, and wood used
    in the manufacturing of books, rope, tyres, and seats come from the natural
    vegetation.
    • Source of medicine
    Some plants have medicinal contents. Herbs are used in the treatment of various
    diseases that threaten human lives as well as those of domestic animals
    • Promotes tourism.
    The natural vegetation such as forests and grasslands attract tourists. These pay
    (money) when they visit to see the animals and a variety of flora. The money is
    used to develop the social facilities like schools, hospitals etc.
    • Employment opportunities
    Many people get jobs. They are employed as researchers, forest guards and
    forest officers.

    Vegetation has also negative influences to man that are the following:
    • Vegetation are associated with some pests such as tsetse flies and tick,
    such pests transmit animal and human diseases.
    • Vegetation reduces mean annual temperature five feet, above ground
    from 0.8 to 1.8 °F depending upon character of vegetation and locality
    and affects man’s activity.
    • Some plants are thorny – leafed and they harmful for human beings
    and animals.
    • Vegetation is a habitant for dangerous animals, which may attack or
    harm human being.
    • Some plants are poisonous and may kill human being and animals

    when eaten.

  • UNIT 7 THE FIRST, SECOND REPUBLICS AND THE 1990-1994 LIBERATION WAR

    Key unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to examine the
    achievements and the failures of the First and the
    Second Republics and describe the causes and course

    of the liberation war.


    7.1.1. Achievements of the 1st Republic (1962-1973)
    The independence of Rwanda was won on 1st July 1962 from Belgian
    colonization; then, since 1962 up to 1973, Rwanda was under the First
    Republic under Kayibanda Gregoire as the president. Under this period, some
    achievements and political institutional changes were recorded.

    • The Constitution
    In 1962, Rwanda under the Republican form of government acceded to
    independence without a well formulated constitution. The vote for constitution
    took place during the meeting of November 23rd, 1962. The final text was signed

    on the following day, i.e. on 24th November 1962- by 40 Members of Parliament.


    Source: https://www.facebook.com/pg/GregoireKayibanda/about/

    • The government
    By independence, Rwanda had also a government headed by a President of the
    Republic and a Parliament.

    • The National Assembly
    The Parliament supervises the action of the President of the Republic and
    his government. Under the 1st Republic, there were three legislatures elected
    respectively in 1961, 1965 and 1969 until the dissolution of the Parliament
    following the July 5th, 1973 Coup d’état.

    • The Supreme Court
    The Supreme Court was instituted in the first Constitution of the Republic of

    Rwanda.

    • Economic evolution under the First Government
    The regime of the First Republic managed to make some modest achievements
    on economic perspective. The First Republic inaugurated some financial
    institutions like banks which helped to finance a few factories and industrial
    companies. The National Bank was established in January 1964, the commercial
    Bank in 1962, and the “Banque Rwandaise de Développement” or the Rwanda

    Development Bank in 1968.


    Source: https://twitter.com/ClaudeKabengera/status/1026801081823752193


    Source: http://rwanda-corporate-review.blogspot.com/

    The Rwanda Development Bank had a mission to solve the problem of financing
    industrial companies. In fulfillment of this mission, the Rwanda Development
    Bank financed several industries.

    In the sector of infrastructure, some projects had been conceived to macadamize
    all the road axes linking the country to the outside world in the frame-work of
    the five-year development plan (1966-1971). In order of priority, the following

    roads were to be macadamized:

    -- Kigali- Gatuna;
    -- Kigali-Rusumo;
    -- Kigali- Butare; and

    -- Ruhengeri- Cyanika.

    In addition to this achievement, there was the construction of the Rusumo
    Bridge at the Akagera River linking Rwanda and Tanzania and that of the
    Bridge over Nyabarongo River.

    In the sector of rural development, the emphasis was placed on the reclamation
    of marshlands in order to improve agricultural production and the distribution
    of improved seeds and plants in some parts of the country. Besides, there was
    introduction of new crops like rice. In terms of animal production, some
    cattle dips were put in place to fight ticks which attack cows.

    • Socio-cultural evolution
    • Education system
    In the sector of education and health, the First Republic managed to make some
    but very few achievements. Since its existence the regime of the First Republic
    strived to give free education services.
    A ‘’double-intake” system was introduced in primary schools during the
    academic year of 1969 - 1970. This system meant that every teacher had
    two groups of pupils to teach: one group in the morning and the other in the
    afternoon.

    However, the increase in intake for pupils resulting from the double-session
    program had problems. These included inadequate teaching staff who were
    not well qualified, poor teaching content which was not appropriate to the
    realities on the ground and finally, there was lack of school materials such as
    books, chalk, dusters. Even the state of school buildings was appalling.

    In order to overcome the above problems, the government took the following
    actions:

    -- As early as 1963, more qualified teachers were urgently trained by putting
    in place a training period of two years for trainers of trainers;
    -- A “pedagogic training centre” was set up in order to improve the quality
    of head teachers who were destined to become inspectors after six
    months of internship. This was done in the perspective of reorganized

    primary education at provincial level in various sectors;

    -- Opening of 12 audio–visual centres by the Gitarama Radio School in
    favour of radio teaching programs for uneducated rural children in a 4
    years program.
    -- Creation of a special post- primary cycle for girls to replace the 8 former
    post primary domestic training colleges (3 years in boarding school)
    for “privileged” young girls.
    -- Training of headmistresses and female teachers in women technical
    schools (2 years’ terminal cycle after ordinary level) in Nyanza, Mubuga
    and Remera;
    -- In 1971 - 72, the number of secondary schools increased from 24 to 63;
    -- For boys, some of those schools offered ordinary level orientation,
    diversified upper levels, technical secondary studies in agriculture,
    veterinary, medical training, etc. lower teacher – training education and
    finally professional education;
    -- As for girls, who had been marginalized for a long time in terms of
    education, a common cycle of orientation, diversified upper levels, lower
    teacher–training education, middle education and social, medical and
    domestic training were introduced.

    It should be reminded that at the time of independence, the country of
    Rwanda was not well equipped in terms of secondary schools. It possessed
    few secondary schools such as Groupe Scolaire of Astrida in Butare, Kicukiro
    Government Technical School in Kigali, Saint Andrew College in Kigali, Christ
    the King College, etc.

    During this period, there was not any for higher education. In fact, the first
    university was opened on November 3rd 1963 in Rwanda. The initiative
    to establish higher education finally was born during the First Republic. It
    was started by a Canadian priest called Levesque as Rector with 50 students
    distributed in three faculties: medicine, arts and sciences. It also operated a
    school called Ecole Pratique des Langues Modernes (Practical School of Modern

    Languages) and a Higher School for Nursing.


    Source:https://talloiresnetwork.tufts.edu/national-university-of-rwanda-rwanda/

    On 17th October 1971, after eight years of sustained hard work, UNR had 471
    students, 250 of whom 18 had graded as doctors in medicine. This was a big
    achievement for UNR. This University was launched in Butare (Huye District
    today) with the assistance of two countries: Switzerland and Canada.

    By 1971-1972, the number of students had reached 470. The Higher Institute
    of Education (Institute Pédagogique National (IPN) was started in 1966.

    • Health sector
    In health sector, the First Republic also tried to make some efforts. The focus
    was put on the construction of new dispensaries whose number increased from
    67 to 142 in 1972.

    To take care of disabled children, a centre for physically handicapped children
    was built at Gatagara and another Psychiatry Centre for the people with mental
    disability was built at Ndera. This centre known as CARAES Ndera is run by
    the Gand Brothers of Charity. Regarding preventive medicine, vaccination
    campaigns were initiated between 1965 and 1970.

    7.1.2. Achievements of the Second Republic

    After the coup d’état of 1973, Rwanda went through the different political
    changes under the leardership of the president Juvenal Habyarimana. He ruled

    the country from 1973 up to 1994 through a Party State MRND.


    Source:https://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=304_634x517.jpg&exph =

    517&expw =634&q= habyarimana+ juvenal&simid = 607998000554577436 &s electedIndex=1

    • Creation and institutionalization of MRND

    The “Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement” (MRND)
    or National Revolutionary Movement for Development was created two years
    after the coup by the President Juvénal Habyarimana. It was set up in order to
    fill the vacuum created by the dissolution of PARMEHUTU government on 5th
    July 1975.

    It was “Party State” whose objective was to unify, stimulate and intensify all
    efforts of all Rwandan people with a view to enhancing economic, social and
    cultural development in an atmosphere of national peace and unity. In 1977,
    the Commission for Administration and Institutional Affairs of MRND prepared
    a new constitution. In October 1978, the constitution was adopted by the
    Government and the MRND Central Committee. On the 20th of December 1978,
    the new Constitution was adopted by the population in a referendum with a
    reported 89% of the casted votes. At the same time Habyarimana was elected in

    a universal suffrage as President of Rwanda at an alleged 99% majority.


    Source: http://www.memorialdelashoah.org/rwanda/fiches/carte-membre-mrnd-fiche222.

    html

    Article 7 of the Constitution made Rwanda a single party State under the
    MRND and made each citizen a member of it from birth. In reality, this was
    the establishment of a One Party political system. The President of MRND
    party had to be the sole presidential candidate and all Rwandan citizens were
    automatically members of MRND. The new Constitution abolished the National
    Assembly and replaced it with Conseil National de Développement (CND) or
    National Development Council (NDC).

    • Institutionalization of Communal work (Umuganda) and
    facilitation by MRND
    In order to consolidate its power and its grip on the country, the MRND
    regime resorted to two methods of rural mass mobilization and recruitment
    of supporters in the entire country. These were communal work (Umuganda)
    and facilitation (gushyushya Urugamba) both of which were inspired by the
    SalongoandSakayonsa bands from Zaire’s MPR (MouvemenetPopulaire de la
    Révolution).

    Communal work and facilitation were political instruments aimed at controlling
    the population and ensuring its support to the regime. During the facilitation
    process, the founding President was idolized, praised and glorified with slogans
    like “Prezida fondateri, Ramba, Sugira, Sagamba, Tera imbere, Turagushyigikiye!”
    These slogans transcended everywhere during such functions. The president
    was a cult leader of sorts. That politics of controlling the population in order to

    ensure its allegiance only brought about rivalry.

    • Ethnic and Regional balance
    The Second Republic was basically made of Hutus who originated from the
    central and southern parts of the country. This policy established regional
    quota according to ethnic groups. These quotas were based on the criterion of
    proportional representation according to population as far as education and
    employment in the public service and private sector were concerned.
    The so-called policy of “Equilibre ethnique et regional dans le service et dans
    l’enseignement” or “ethnic and regional balance” prevented the best performers
    to join the education field, the army, the police and other posts which they
    deserved or wished to join. The policy marginalized the Tutsis as well as the
    Hutus from other districts apart from Gisenyi and Ruhengeri.

    • Economic evolution
    The 1974 - 1982 period was a very important phase of economic growth
    because of favorable rates of exports. On the one hand, there was an increase in
    coffee exports, and on the other hand foreign aid also increased.
    Concerning infrastructure development, the five following infrastructures were
    put in place by the Second Republic:

    -- Asphalting of several roads which reached a distance of 888.5 Km by
    1989;
    -- Construction of several buildings to serve as offices for different Ministries
    and hospitals as King Faisal Hospital;
    -- Extension of electricity network;
    -- Construction of Kanombe Airport;
    -- Construction of Amahoro National Stadium.

    From 1980 to 1987, the country enjoyed an economic growth due to a
    combination of positive external and internal factors like good climatic
    conditions, increase in prices of coffee, tea and minerals and a considerable

    external capital coming into the country.


    Source: https://paliagnes-rwanda.skyrock.com/1875726937-L-aeroport-de-Kanombe.html


    Source: https%3a%2f%2fconstructionreviewonline.com%2fwp-content%2fuploads%2f2018%

    2f06%2fstadium

    • Socio - cultural evolution
    • Health sector
    Under the Second Republic, many attempts were made like the expansion of the
    health sector, the dispensaries were transformed into health centers and more
    medical personnel were trained. Health centers increased from 32 in 1974 to
    50 in 1975.

    The government of Rwanda had also put in place a policy which aimed at creating
    nutritional centers in order to educate parents of nutritional diets and hygiene
    through creation of nutritional centres within the Health centres in such a way
    as to simultaneously achieve curative care and preventive education, including

    vaccination, nutrition, maternal and child protection.

    Source:https://twitter.com/easteco_org/status/997186271570223104

    Another achievement registered in the health sector was in 1979 that the
    Rwandan Government established the Broad-Based Vaccination Programme
    (PEV/BVP) whose objective was to reduce infant mortality through vaccination
    against certain targeted diseases: tuberculosis, whooping cough, tetanus, polio,
    measles and diphtheria.

    In1987, the Rwandan Government established the National Programme for
    the Fight against AIDS (PNLS) whose objective was to control, prevent, reduce
    and conduct research on AIDS. In the same year the Government launched
    the National Programme for Fight against Malaria (PNLM) and in 1989, the
    Programme for Acceleration of Primary Health Care (PASSP) was put in place.
    This programme aimed at encouraging the participation of the population in
    self-sponsorship and management of health services in their health centres.

    • Education
    In this sector, some achievements were attained such as:
    -- The construction of new primary and secondary schools and many
    reforms have been made at all levels of education in Rwanda;
    -- In 1978 – 1979, the system of primary education teaching was revised. The
    primary cycle changed from 6 years to 8 years. Training in professional
    skills was introduced in Primary 7 and P8, and Kinyarwanda became a

    language of instruction from P1 up to P8.

    -- At the secondary education level, the Ordinary Level was reduced and
    specializations sections now started in the Second year of secondary
    education. But this reform failed due to the following reasons:

    • Lack of teaching aid materials;
    • Lack of qualified teachers in various newly introduced subjects in the
    new curriculum;
    • Lack of appropriate evaluation methods for the reform.

    Therefore, in 1991, there was the revision of this reform where the primary
    education cycle was brought back to 6 years.
    At University level, the national Institute of Education for Teacher Training
    was fused with certain department of the National University of Rwanda. The
    creation of the new campus at Nyakinama in the 1980 – 1981 was a result of
    this fusion. The duration of studies in the Faculties of Arts and Education was

    reduced from 5 to 4 years.

    7.2.1 Failures of the first Republic
    Through the coup d’état of the 4th – 5th July 1973, the First Republic was at its
    downfall. This was caused by long standing failures that even dated from its
    beginning. Many factors were responsible for this downfall.

    • Institutionalization of discrimination against Tutsi
    From 1959 onwards, the Tutsi population was targeted, causing hundreds of
    thousands of deaths, and a population of almost two million Rwandan people
    were living in the Diaspora for almost four decades. The First Republic, under
    President Grégoire Kayibanda, institutionalized discrimination against Tutsi
    and periodically used massacres against the Tutsi. The following are examples:

    -- Names of “undesirable “Tutsi civil servants were hung on notice boards
    on the same day, in the night of 26th and 27th February 1973;
    -- Orders for Tutsis to leave establishments were formulated everywhere in
    the same manner;
    -- No province was spared and all Tutsis were affected.

    • Regionalism
    In 1965, the PARMEHUTU managed to win every seat of the National Assembly.
    However, in spite of this achievement, this political party was experiencing
    since 1963, considerable internal tensions.

    An example is the purge which began in February 1973 were initially provoked
    by students, but also encouraged – or perhaps led – by the authorities. Along
    with PARMEHUTU, the authorities aimed at uniting the regime by defining a
    common enemy. Northern soldiers (particularly Alexis Kanyarengwe, the Chief
    of Police, who was from Ruhengeri) who, in turn, wished to cause a political crisis,
    also targeted the Tutsi population. In fact, the purges, which initially consisted
    in posting lists of Tutsi students and staff, asking them to leave universities and
    companies, later evolved beyond the control of the central authorities. They
    came to bear certain demands, both social (general resentment of the rich) and
    regional (opposition between the south and center of the country on the one
    hand, and the north on the other).

    Consequently, Grégoire Kayibanda punished several northern dignitaries
    by dissociating them from the jobs and locations associated with wielding
    power: Alexis Kanayarengwe was appointed director of the Nyundo seminary;
    Major Nsekalije was assigned to a tea cooperative in Byumba. All the general
    secretaries of the government ministries were replaced, as well as nine of the
    ten préfets. It seemed the divide between the south and the north was firmly
    established.

    During the months of February – March1973, purges were organized in
    schools and in the administration against the Tutsi population. Tutsi students
    in lists posted in all secondary school institutions and universities
    and signed ‘Mouvement des Étudiants’ (‘Students’ Movement’) or ‘Comité de
    Salut Public’ (‘Committee of Public Safety’), were under threat and had to flee
    from these institutions.

    Need for constitutional amendment

    Another factor that contributed to the fall of the First Republic was the need for
    constitutional amendment which was voted on May 18th, 1973 by the National
    Assembly. This amendment increased the duration of presidential terms of
    office from five to seven years, and allowed Grégoire Kayibanda to stand for a
    third term. Even though, the National Assembly supported the amendment of
    the constitution, the country was already divided according to the two main
    regions: north and south; the first willing to take the power and the last wanting
    to maintain it.

    When it came the time of voting this report, Members of parliament were not
    unanimous. On the contrary, they were divided into two camps. There were
    those who sympathized or supported that report and these who were against it.
    The supporters of the report were punished by being suspended from decision
    making organs of the Party and were even prevented from contesting the
    legislative elections of 1969. To safeguard the Constitution, the senior officers
    of the National Army carried out a coup d’état that put to end the regime of the
    First Republic.

    The 5th July 1973 Coup d’état

    The blow for the downfall of the First Republic was the coup d’état of 1973
    carried out by 11 senior officers of the national army commanded by Major
    General Juvenal Habyarimana. Such other senior officers were Lieutenant
    Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe, Majors Aloys Nsekarije, Major Benda Sabin,
    Major Ruhashya Epimaque, Major Gahimano Fabien, Major Jean Népomuscène
    Munyandekwe, Major Bonaventure Ntibitura, Major Serubuga Laurent, Major
    Buregeya Bonaventure and Major Simba Aloys. This team was called “Comrades
    of the 5th July”.

    On this day, the high command of the National Guard made a national declaration
    to the population; mentioning the following points:
    Mr. Kayibanda is discharged of his duties as president of the Republic.
    Major general Juvénal Habyarimana will assume the constitutional prerogative

    of head of state.

    The government has been forced to retire and is temporarily replaced by a
    “committee for peace and national unity” composed of 11 officers and presided
    over by Major General Juvénal Habyarimana, until total re-establishment of
    peace in the country.

    The national assembly is dissolved.

    Political activities are forbidden throughout the entire territory of the Republic.
    The various organs of the party are dissolved.
    Rights and liberties are guaranteed by the 24th November constitution, with the
    exception of 16 articles which have been suspended.

    7.2.2. Failures of the Second Republic
    • Lack of freedom of speech and press
    The Second Republic was against the freedom of speech and press. This was
    justified by intimidation and imprisonment suffered by anyone who attempted
    to criticize this Regime of the Second Republic. For instance, on September 18th,
    1990 the trial of the priest André Sibomana, who was the director of the bimonthly
    publication Kinyamateka, and three of his journalists opened in Kigali
    after the publication of articles denouncing corruption in the government in
    this newspaper. On July 3th and 6th, 1990 the Cour de Sûreté de l’État (State
    Security Court) had Vincent Rwabukwisi, the editor-in-chief of Kanguka and
    Hassan Ngeze, the editor-in-chief of Kangura arrested. The first was accused of
    having interviewed Umwami Kigeri V Ndahindurwa in exile in Nairobi and of
    plotting with refugees, and the second of having breached the peace.

    • Economic crisis
    The economic improvement was fragile towards the end of the 1970-1980. This
    was due to an economic crisis which became worse during 1980-1990. It was
    especially from 1984-1986 that the crisis exacerbated and reached its highest
    point during 1990-1993. This economic was caused by many factors.

    At home, internal factors of structural nature like the reduction in agricultural
    production and failure to control population growth, weighed negatively on the
    economic situation. Therefore, this led to a fall in domestic resources.

    In January 1990, one-sixth of the Rwandan population was affected by famine
    which killed 250 people, according to the government. In 1991, Rwanda signed
    an agreement with the World Bank to implement a Structural Adjustment Plan
    (SAP) which led to the devaluation of the Rwandan franc on two occasions: its
    value fell by 40 % in November 1990, then again by 15 % in June 1992. Though
    the SAP was only partially implemented, the main effect of the devaluation was
    skyrocketing inflation, which reached 19.2 percent in 1991.

    • The imprisonment and killing of the politicians of the First
    Republic

    Nevertheless, during the two years that followed, the former ‘barons’ of the
    First Republic were assassinated or imprisoned. During the following years
    (between 1974 and 1977), 58 people – individuals who were close to Grégoire
    Kayibanda and public figures of the First Republic – were assassinated upon
    orders from Théoneste Lizinde, Chief of Security at the Interior Ministry.
    According to some sources, the repression affected up to 700 people.

    • Institutionalisation of ethnic and regional balance or quota
    system

    The Regime of Habyrimana was not a model of democracy as its leaders claimed.
    The regime coerced and aligned people behind political option within a single
    party system and partisan politics based on ethnic and regional segregation.
    The regime had created the Rukiga-Nduga conflicts which were characterised
    by the exclusion of Tutsi and Hutu of Nduga from schools and main posts of the
    direction of the country.

    This policy was in fact applied in all sectors of the National life and it constituted
    a serious violation of human rights. It undermined the regime of the Second
    Republic significantly as it was seriously contested by the democratic forces
    which militated for change and it ended up leading to the downfall of MRND
    regime in 1994.

    • Centralisation of the power in the hands of a small group of people
    “Akazu”

    Between 1985 and 1990 most of administrative positions were reserved for
    Hutus in a tacit quota system. In fact, power was held by elites from the north of
    the country, in contrast with the ‘pro-southern’ orientation of the First Republic.
    One-third of the 85 most important governmental positions were given to
    persons born in the préfecture of Gisenyi. One of the main power centres was
    known as the Akazu meaning “from one single household” and was organized
    around Agathe Kanziga – Juvénal Habyarimana’s wife – and her brothers.

    • The exaggerated glorification of the personality of Habyarimana
    As years went by, President Habyarimana started developing a personality cult.
    This was done through mobilisation and glorification of the President and his
    political party using animation and his portrait which was everywhere in public

    and private surroundings.

    • Increasing of dictatorship
    Frankly speaking, before the outbreak of the liberation war, the Habyarimana
    regime had already become a totalitarian regime. There was a single political
    party the Revolutionary National Democratic Movement (MRND) and all the
    powers were concentrated in the hands of a small group of family members of
    President Habyarimana. No single decision could be made whatsoever without
    prior approval and/or blessings of the dictator’s consent.

    • Mismanagement of refugees’ problem Refusal of their return

    The problem of refugees in Rwanda dated from 1959 with the mass killing
    which was organized against the Tutsi. This problem was differently managed
    by the two Republics.

    In June-July 1989, the Central Committee of MRND, the highest decisionmaking
    body in the Habyarimana regime examined the problem of Rwandan
    refugees scattered around the world, especially in the neighbouring countries.
    As a solution, the Central committee resolved that the refugees cannot return
    massively into the country. The Central Committee strongly advocated that
    refugees should find a way of integrating themselves into their respective
    countries of asylum. According to the Central Committee, Rwanda was
    overpopulated and incapable of receiving and accommodating her own people
    back. Only those who had the capacity to cater for themselves, it was decided,
    should apply individually for consideration to repatriate.

    This position of President Habyarimana and his Government prompted the
    refugees to call for an International Conference in Washing in August 1988 in
    which they rejected this position and reaffirmed their inalienable right to return
    to their homeland, and this led to the National Liberation War on October 1st,
    1990 hence leading to the downfall of the Second Republic during 1990-1994

    during liberation war.

    7.3.1. Causes of the liberation war of 1990-1994 in Rwanda

    • The long and hard life in exile
    The events of 1959 has led to the exile of many Rwandans who left the country
    after the unrest period marked by violence and massacres of the members of
    the political party Union Nationale Rwandaise (UNAR) and against the Tutsi
    in general. Such violence was committed by some members of the Parti du
    Mouvement de l’Emancipation Hutu (PARMEHUTU) supported by Belgian
    authorities. The resistance organised by refugees’ groups called Inyenzi and
    their efforts to return home were in vain. In exile, refugees had very bad living
    conditions in refugee camps and single young adults struggled to get a better
    life. Such bad living conditions coupled with lack of employment and good
    education in hosting countries pushed them to think of a solution to return
    home.

    • The regionalism and ethnic based divisionism
    Both, the First Republic (1962-1973) and the Second (1973-1994) Republic
    maintained and institutionalised “ethnic” labels (Hutu, Tutsi, Twa) in identity
    cards and the quota system. As a result, ethnic and regional equilibrium had
    to be respected in different sectors such as administration, enrolment in
    secondary and tertiary schools and in the army.

    During the First and Second republics, hatred against Tutsi was reinforced; very
    political crisis was blamed on Tutsi who were treated as scapegoats. This case
    was raised when refugees’ troops called Inyenzi attacked Rwanda in 1963 and
    later before the 1973 Habyarimana’s coup d’Etat against Kayibanda’s regime.

    • The refusal of return for Rwandan refugees
    Since 1959 and under the First Republic, the Tutsi ran away from the violence
    and mass killing organized against them; they did so because they had to save
    their lives. Generally, they ran towards church missions, schools and other
    places considered as safe to protect them from danger. Others decided to leave
    the country as soon as possible to look for asylum in neighbouring countries.

    Although the Government of Rwanda had since 1964 requested that refugees
    be settled in their countries of asylum, it did almost nothing to help them. On
    the contrary, its policy consisted of making life for them very difficult in those
    countries. The Rwandan embassies watched refugees closely in their countries
    of asylum.

    In 1966, President Kayibanda prevented refugees to claim their properties. In
    1975, President Habyarimana put in place a decree stating that Tutsi refugees’
    assets should become public properties. This decision was due to the refusal of
    political leaders who did not want to return the land to its owners.

    The 1990 – 1994 Liberation War was inevitable insofar as the problem of the
    refugees was left pending, while the living conditions in the countries of asylum
    became unbearable.

    Refugees aspiring to return home

    • The intimidation and killing of opponents

    The Second republic did not accept and tolerate any opposition. Any person who
    tried to oppose it was jailed. Even if political assassinations were not frequent
    they existed. For instance, the deaths of the former Chief Editor of Kinyamateka
    newspaper, Father Sylvio Sindambiwe and Felicula Nyiramutarambirwa, former
    member of the MRND Central Committee are believed to have been planned by
    the regime. Thus, the 1990 – 1994 Liberation War was organized in order to
    fight against such injustice in the country.

    • The increase of dictatorship in Rwanda
    During the Second Republic, only a single political party, MRND was allowed to
    operate as it was stipulated by the 1978 constitution. In practice, the powers
    were concentrated in the hands of a small group of people from the President’s
    family and his family in-law called Akazu. No single important decision could be
    made without prior approval of the President and his MRND.

    • Mismanagement, corruption and embezzlement of public fund
    By 1977, the foreign aid funds considerably increased a year to finance diverse
    projects undertaken with a lot of amateurism. These big projects of “integrated
    development” failed and left nothing tangible to the farmers. These projects
    distorted the Rwandan economy: excessive debts, corruption, negligence of
    subsistence crops for the benefit of the exportable farm produce (coffee and
    tea), stressed disparities between the capital city and the countryside, etc. and
    in January 1990, one-sixth of the Rwandan population was affected by a famine.

    • Rwandan Diaspora rejected by neighboring countries
    The majority of Rwandan refugees were deprived from all political rights. The
    authorities in these countries openly said that they had had enough of Rwandan
    refugees, had been hospitable enough and it had high time they returned to
    their countries. An example was the president of Uganda Obote who expelled
    Rwandan refugees in 1982. When they tried to enter Rwanda, they were pushed
    back into Uganda. Because they had nowhere else to go, many of them decided
    to drown themselves in the Akagera River.

    7.3.2. The course of the 1990 – 1994 liberation war in Rwanda.
    Rwandan refugees benefited from Ugandan crisis of the 1980s. Three young
    Rwandans namely Fred Gisa Rwigema, Paul Kagame and Sam Byaruhanga
    joined Yoweri Kaguta Museveni’s guerrilla war with an idea of using a military
    option to liberate Rwanda. Due to the persecution of Kinyarwanda-speaking
    people living in Uganda and their expulsion by Milton Obote’s regime in the
    1980s, other young Rwandans decided to join the Museveni’s guerrilla war in
    order to acquire experience that would help them to wage an armed struggle to

    force their return to Rwanda.

    The beginning of the Liberation War.
    The Liberation War was launched by RPF Inkotanyi and its armed wing, the
    Rwandese Patriotic Army on October 1, 1990 led by late Major General Fred
    Gisa Rwigema. When the war started in 1990, the RPF could count on about
    3,000 well trained soldiers of various grades. This army was composed of not

    only male but also female combatants.

    The RPF first launched an attack in Umutara on 1st October, 1990; but this attack
    was not successful because of the death of Late Major General Fred Rwigema on
    October 2, 1990. After being pushed from Umutara, the RPF resorted to using
    guerrilla tactics in the northern region of Rwanda.

    • Attack on Ruhengeri (January 1991)
    On the morning of January 23, 1991, the RPA attacked the Town of Ruhengeri.
    The Rwandan forces in the area were taken by surprise and were mostly unable
    to defend themselves against the invasion. One of the principal RPA targets in
    Ruhengeri was Ruhengeri prison1. The RPA stormed the buildings, and the
    prisoners were rescued and several of them were recruited into the RPA. Some
    political prisoners such as Théoneste Lizinde, Stanislas Biseruka and Brother
    Jean Damascène Ndayambaje were also released from prison.

    On 29th March 1991, the first negotiations between the RPF and the government of
    Rwanda started shortly after the RPF seized Byumba.
    In july 1992, a ceasefire was negotiated and signed in the Arusha Peace
    Agreement was signed between the RPF and the Habyarimana Government.
    An organization of African unity force known as GOMN (Grouped’Observation
    Militaires Neutres/ Neutral Military Group of Observers) was put in place to

    observe the ceasefire.

    Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File%3AAICC_Arusha.jpg

    On November 15th, 1992, Habyarimana took an about turn and declared that
    what had been partially negotiated and agreed upon between his regime and
    the RPF was mere piece of paper rubbish and openly expressed congratulations
    to the Interahamwe killer militia of his MRND party on the massacres they had
    just committed especially in the Northern part of the country. That way, he had
    made the ceasefire rather fragile by fragile by flagrantly violating its terms
    and working null and void. In reaction to those massacres, the RPF launched
    an offensive attack on the 8th of February 1993 which saw them capturing a
    large part of the country especially in the northern region. In fact, the RPF
    were nearing the gates of Kigali, the capital because they reached Rutongo. But
    soon after, due to the International pressure to resume negotiations, the RPF
    returned to its former positions around Kinihira.

    On 4th August 1993, the Arusha Agreement was signed. It was a political
    compromise for power sharing between the Government and the RPF but on
    the 10th of September 1993, the “Broad-based Transition Government” failed
    to make off because Habyarimana refused to swear in the new government and

    parliament in which RPF was to be part of.

    After the signing of Arusha Agreement in December 1993, the French military

    detach that was in Rwanda left and a UN intervention force arrived.

    Source: https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/206929

    Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_Civil War.

    https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rwandan_Civil War.

    7.3.3. The effects of the 1990 – 1994 liberation war in Rwanda
    • The loss of lives and destruction of properties
    Since the war started, there was increase of insecurity in Rwanda. In some
    areas, the reaction of the Habyarimana’s government was to attack and kill
    the Tutsi population of the interior of the country. For instance, from 1991 to
    1993, there the massacre of Abagogwe social group in retaliation against an
    RPA attacks. The similar killings were also done in Kibirira, Bugesera, Kibuye,
    Murambi and in Umutara. These killings were also seen by some analysts as a
    strategy of strengthening the Habyarimana regime in difficult conditions and
    uniting all Hutu against a same enemy

    • Destruction of infrastructures properties
    By this war, some public infrastructures like offices, roads and bridges,
    specifically in the northern regions of Rwanda were destroyed. Besides, the
    private properties were also destroyed like houses and shops.

    • The decline of the Rwandan economy
    The war and the pressure on Habyarimana’s regime led to the collapse of the
    Rwandan economy. The prices of main export commodities such as coffee
    decreased at the international market thus the country witnessed a hard
    economic situation. Besides, foreign aid decreased and the Rwandan francs lost

    its value.

    Main sectors of economic activities declined and Rwandans’ financial conditions
    worsened. In fact, because of the war, the North corridor was closed and this led
    to the stoppage of commercial exchange with Uganda. The war also increased
    the military expenditure of the Government of Rwanda and the military
    expenses kept impoverishing the country.

    • Displacement and exile of many people.
    Due to the fighting during the 1990 – 1994 liberation war; more than one
    million Rwandans fleeing the battle fields were displaced inside the country
    and they were not working. These Rwandans were in great need of shelter, food
    and other basic needs to use in their daily life. At the end of the war, Government
    officials, soldiers and militia fled to the DRC, Tanzania and Burundi taking with

    them millions of civilians. Thousands of them died of water-borne diseases.

    Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/Rwandan_refugee_camp_in_

    east_Zaire.jpg

    Apart from the negative effects brought by the Liberation war fought from 1990
    to 1994, on the other side, this war also brought positive results to the Rwandan
    society as stated in the following paragraphs.
    -- Restoration of national unity: Thanks to the liberation war won by RPF,
    many achievements were made in the matter of building the national
    unity like equal justice, peace and security, end of segregation, etc.
    -- Fighting against the public malpractice: The RPF Inkotanyi aimed at
    fighting against the corruption, favoritism and embezzlement as they
    were the result of the liberation war.
    -- Establishment of the democracy: The liberation war helped to establish
    a true democracy; the people have the rights to choose their leaders at all
    levels of public institutions.
    -- Improvement of the image of Rwanda: The 1990 - 1994 liberation
    war contributed to the improvement of the righteous image of the
    country. Rwandans are well-known all over the world as a good example
    of reconciliation, people living together on the same land, victims and
    criminals, after the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi.

    -- Promotion of good diplomatic relations with other countries: By the
    end of the 1990 – 1994 liberation, the country promoted international
    relations based on mutual respect, cooperation and mutual economic
    exchange. This helped the country to reduce economic and political

    dependency towards foreign countries.

  • UNIT 8 GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI, ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES OF THE RWANDAN GOVERNMENT AFTER THE GENOCIDE AGAINST THE TUTSI AND PREVENTION OF GENOCIDE

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to explain genocide
    against the Tutsi, achievements and challenges of
    Rwandan Government and analyze the preventive
    measures of genocide against the Tutsi from happening

    again in Rwanda and elsewhere in the world.


    Genocide is a deliberate, systematic extermination of a human group for diverse
    reasons: ethnic, religious, regional, social and political. Genocide is the mass
    killing of innocent people based on their tribe, race, religion, political ideas, among
    other reasons, with an intention of completely wiping them out. The genocide
    against Tutsi was a long planned, deliberate and systematic extermination of
    Tutsi. During the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi, over one million Tutsi perished
    in only one hundred days. This makes it the most brutal and fastest genocide in

    the world ever.

    8.1. Causes, stages and effects of genocide against Tutsi


    8.1.1. The causes of the Genocide against Tutsi.
    i. Division ideology
    This has its roots from the colonial era. This was because both the Belgians
    and Germans supported and collaborated with the Tutsi in administration of
    the country. In addition to that, Germans and Belgians treated Rwandans as
    belonging to different social categories, that is Tutsi, Hutu and Twa. In addition,
    both the 1st and 2nd republics practiced divisive and exclusive politics based on
    social categories in schools and in administration. This planted the seeds that
    resulted into the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

    ii. Bad leadership during the 1st and the 2nd Republics
    Both the 1st and 2nd republics promoted division between Rwandans. They
    were characterized by indoctrination of part of the population with extremist,
    genocidal ideology. This tore the national unity among the masses and later
    resulted into the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. Both regimes made no attempt
    to unite the people. They maintained the ethnic identity cards indicating a
    person as being Hutu or Tutsi. They promoted hatred and disharmony between
    the Hutu and Tutsi. The Tutsi were discriminated against, to a point where the
    Hutu were discouraged from marrying a Tutsi.

    iii. The culture of impunity
    During both regimes, criminals who committed crimes against humanity were
    rewarded by being promoted to important administrative positions instead
    of being punished. Corruption, favouritism, cheating, embezzlement and
    diversion of public funds were common under the 1st and 2nd republics. The
    victims went unpunished. In cases of massive killing of the Tutsi, the criminals
    were congratulated instead of being punished or trailed. Therefore, laws had
    loopholes and cases were judged in favour of the majority Hutu. This increased

    the killing of the Tutsi.

    iv. The role of local media
    The media played a key role in aiding the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.
    The call to murder all Tutsi men, women and children was broadcasted over
    one of the two radio stations in Rwanda. Various newspapers, magazines and
    television stations also called for and supported the 1994 Genocide against
    the Tutsi. Examples are the Kangura and Umurwanshyaka magazines, the
    government owned Radio Rwanda and RTLM (Radio Télevision Libre des Mille
    Collines) radio and television stations.

    v. Greed for power by the members of Akazu
    Most members of the Akazu, who mostly originated from Gisenyi prefecture
    (current Rubavu and Nyabihu Districts) wanted to keep on the rule over the
    country. They formed the inner circle of government and were close friends
    to Juvenal Habyarimana’s wife Agathe Kanziga. To achieve this, they took the
    responsibility of eliminating the Tutsi of whom they considered as an obstacle
    to their intentions. They prepared for Genocide against the Tutsi.

    8.1.2. The stages of the Genocide against the Tutsi
    For genocide to happen there must be certain preconditions. Foremost among
    them is a national culture that does not place a high value on human life. Also
    required is a campaign of vilification and dehumanization of the victims by
    the perpetrators who are usually the states. .According to Gregory H. Stanton,
    genocide has 8 main stages, classification, symbolization, dehumanization,

    organization, polarization, preparation, extermination and denial.


    Source: Inspired by the eight stages of genocide of G.H. Stanton.

    i. Classification
    At this stage people are divided into “us and them”. Genocide would be
    impossible without us and them. All cultures have categories to distinguish
    people into “us and them” by ethnicity, race, religion, or nationality: German
    and Jew, Hutu and Tutsi in Rwanda. Bipolar societies that lack mixed categories,
    are the most likely to have genocide.

    ii. Symbolization
    Names, words or symbols are applied to the targeted group. The classifications
    put on ID cards to easily identify the victim. Classification and symbolization
    are universally human and do not necessarily result in genocide unless they
    lead to the next stage, dehumanization.

    iii. Dehumanization
    One group denies the humanity of the other group. Members of it are equated
    with animals, vermin, insects or diseases. Dehumanization overcomes the
    normal human revulsion against murder. At this stage, hate propaganda in
    print and on hate radios is used to vilify the victim group.

    iv. Organization
    Genocide is always organized, usually by the state, often using militias to
    provide deniability of state responsibility (the Interahamwe militia in Rwanda.)
    Sometimes organization is informal or decentralized (terrorist groups.) Special
    army units or militias are often trained and armed. Plans are made for genocidal
    killings.

    v. Polarization
    Extremists drive the groups apart. Hate groups broadcast polarizing
    propaganda. Laws may forbid intermarriage or social interaction. Extremist
    terrorism targets moderates, intimidating and silencing the center. Moderates
    from the perpetrators’ own group are most able to stop genocide, so are the
    first to be arrested and killed.

    vi. Preparation
    Victims are identified and separated out because of their ethnic or religious
    identity. Death lists are drawn up. Members of victim groups are forced to wear
    identifying symbols. Their property is expropriated. They are often segregated
    into ghettoes, deported into concentration camps, or confined to a faminestruck

    region and starved.

    vii. Extermination
    The extermination begins, and quickly becomes the mass killing legally called
    “genocide.” It is “extermination” to the killers because they do not believe their
    victims to be fully human. When it is sponsored by the state, the armed forces
    often work with militias to do the killing.

    viii. Denial
    Denial is the eighth stage that always follows genocide. It is among the surest
    indicators of further genocidal massacres. The perpetrators of genocide dig up
    the mass graves, burn the bodies, try to cover up the evidence and intimidate
    the witnesses. They deny that they committed any crimes, and often blame
    what happened on the victims. They block investigations of the crimes, and
    continue to govern until driven from power by force. There they remain with
    impunity, unless they are captured and a tribunal is established to try them.

    8.1.3. The effects of genocide against Tutsi
    The effects of the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi are many. They are social,
    political and economic as they are explained below.
    -- The loss of lives: The most negative impact was the loss of lives in which
    more than one million innocent people who included men, women and
    children were killed in just 100 days.
    -- The destruction of properties: Genocide led to the destruction of
    properties like offices, communication lines, schools, and hospitals, and
    private properties such as houses.

    -- The physical mutilation of people: It caused physical mutilation of
    people. During this genocide against Tutsi, the perpetrators did not only
    kill the victims but they also deformed the bodies of the Tutsi.
    -- The high level of trauma: The 1994 genocide against Tutsi led to a high
    level of trauma. This situation was caused by sexual abuse and torture of
    the victims by the killers and loss of family members.

    -- The excessive degradation of human dignity: It led to excessive
    degradation of human dignity characterized by inhuman crimes like
    cannibalism, rape and even the burial of people who were alive.
    -- The devastation of the environment: The genocide against Tutsi caused
    the devastation of the environment. For instance, many forests were cut
    down, huge plantations damaged and domestic animals belonging to the

    Tutsi slaughtered and eaten.

    The increase in HIV/AIDS prevalence: There is an increase in HIV/
    AIDS prevalence in the post genocide period because during the genocide
    against the Tutsi, the perpetrators used the rape of women and girls as a
    weapon.

    -- The economic decline: There was decadence of the country’s economy.
    During the genocide most of the active population could not carry out
    their daily economic activities because of insecurity. The perpetrators and
    victims of genocide could not work and participate in economic activities.

    -- The increase in the number of widows, orphans, and the disabled
    people: There was an increase in the number of widows, orphans, and
    the disabled people. The 1994 genocide against the Tutsi has led to the
    death of more than one million Tutsi and left many widows and orphans
    who lost their family members. After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi,

    Rwanda also registered a large number of disabled persons.

    The big number of the prisoners: At the end of the 1994 genocide
    against Tutsi, more than one hundred thousand people suspected of
    committing genocide were apprehended and imprisoned. Considering
    the big number of these prisoners waiting to be judged, it was difficult to

    give justice to both victims and prisoners in a reasonable period.

    Source: https://www.pri.org/stories/2011-06-24/un-convicts-woman-rwanda-genocide.

    -- The prevailing climate of suspicion and mistrust: A climate of
    suspicion and mistrust also prevailed in the country. The Tutsi survivors
    of genocide could not interact with the Hutu whom they considered as the
    perpetrators of genocide that led to the death of their relatives.

    -- Creation of Gacaca courts: Gacaca courts were created to judge a big
    number of alleged criminals of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, by
    Organic Law No. 40/2001 of 26/01/2001 published in the official gazette
    of the Republic of Rwanda on March 15th, 2001 in Rwanda. Gacaca courts
    were created as a solution to the crucial problem of a big number of the
    victims of genocide who were waiting for justice. At the international
    level, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda ICTR based in
    Arusha, Tanzania, was created to judge the cases of the planners of the
    1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.

    -- The image of Rwanda was tarnished at international level: Politically
    and diplomatically, Rwanda’s international image was tarnished. After
    the genocide against the Tutsi, the country was only seen in a negative
    way by considering almost all Rwandans as killers. Rwanda was also seen
    as a country totally destroyed and without any humanity.

    -- Refugee crisis: Because of the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi, more
    than two million of Rwandans fled the country and established themselves
    in neighbouring countries in refugees’ camps. Another big number of

    Rwandans were displaced throughout the country.

    -- The spread of genocide ideology: Due to the 1994 Genocide against
    the Tutsi, Rwanda became an epicenter of genocide ideology in the Great
    Lakes region. The perpetrators of genocide who fled the country and
    went to live in refugees camps in DRC exported the ideology of genocide
    and continued to kill innocent people.

    In conclusion, it should be noted that the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi left
    Rwanda deeply damaged and the devastation was so great and so painful that
    some people regarded Rwanda as a failed state. Although this Genocide affected
    mainly the Tutsi, all Rwandans were generally affected. Many people became
    refugees and were displaced while others were apprehended and became

    prisoners.

    8.2.1. Achievements of Rwandan Government after Genocide
    against the Tutsi
    After Genocide against Tutsi and chaotic situation that followed the government
    of National unity did a lot to rehabilitate the country which was destroyed by
    the leaders of the second Republic. The following are the achievements of the
    government of Rwanda after Genocide against Tutsi.

    The government of national unity promoted the unity and reconciliation of
    Rwandans. The national unity implies the indivisibility of the Rwandan people.
    All citizens should have an equal opportunity to national economic resources
    and can claim the same political rights. After genocide against Tutsi, the
    Government of National Unity fought and eliminated all constraints of national
    unity such as “ethnicity” and regionalism. For instance, “ethnic” labels were

    removed from identity cards.

    The Commission unity and reconciliation was established and undertakes
    research in the matter of peace and unity and reconciliation to make proposals
    on measures for eradicating divisions and for reinforcing unity of Rwandans.

    It restored peace and security in all parts of the country. After the Genocide
    against the Tutsi, the security in Rwanda was extremely unstable as there were
    still unhealed wounds from the war. The problem of insecurity especially on
    the western border of the country was caused by the incursions of Ex FAR and
    Interahamwe militias. Military strategies were devised to find solution and
    eradicate the thousands of military groups and ex-combatants who continued
    to kill innocent Tutsi citizens.

    The government of national unity resettled refugees of 1959 who had taken
    refuge in neighbouring countries. Note that the First and second republics
    refused these refugees to come back in their mother land saying that Rwanda
    was overpopulated and incapable to receive and accommodate her own people
    back. At the same time the government of Rwanda repatriated the 1994
    refugees.

    The Government apprehended and brought to justice the perpetrators of the
    Genocide. Thousands of people were arrested and judged. Some of them were
    released for lack of evidence and others convicted and sentenced. It is pertinent
    to the people of Rwanda to feel that no reconciliation is possible without justice.

    The Government of National Unity restored traditional jurisdictions or Gacaca
    courts because of a big number of prisoners. The government decided to ease
    pressure on the criminal justice system by categorizing Genocide suspects
    according to the crimes they are accused of. The category 1, the planners and
    authors of the Genocide numbering 2,133, were tried in conventional courts.
    Category 2-4 where involvement in genocide was slightly less serious, were

    tried in traditional community courts or Gacaca courts.

    Source: http://www.rwandapedia.rw/sites/default/files/Gacaca%202001%204_1.jpeg

    Community dense appreciating the contribution of Gacaca courts in unity and
    reconciliation of Rwandans
    To strengthen the criminal justice system, the Government of Rwanda organized
    special training to magistrates and judges, while courts around the country
    were renovated. A national police force was created and charged with civil
    security matters and criminal investigations.

    To reinforce good governance in Rwanda, anti-corruption and public
    accountability institutions were created by the Government. Their operational
    capacity continued to be strengthened so as to achieve greater accountability.
    They include the Office of the Ombudsman, Office of the Auditor General for
    State Finances, Rwanda Public Procurement Authority and Rwanda Revenue
    Authority. These institutions are mandated to fight injustice, corruption
    and abuse by public officials and related offences in both public and private
    administration and to promote the principles of good governance based on
    accountability and transparency.

    The Government of National Unity instituted meritocracy in the education
    system of Rwanda and put measures in place to address the country’s
    manpower incapacity. Since 1994, the number of high learning institutions
    has gone up from one to six in 2000. The total number of students receiving
    higher education rose from 3,000 to just about 7,000. The number of graduates
    between 1963 and 1993 was 2,160. Between 1995 and 2000, a period of five

    years, the government of Rwanda produced over 2,000 graduates.

    The former military college in the heart of Kigali was transformed into a
    modern institute of science and technology (KIST) in 1997 to provide technical,
    skill-based training to 2,500 full time and part-time students. Licenses and
    facilitation were granted to other institutions and colleges to make more

    training opportunities available to the population.

    The number of primary schools also increased by more than one and a half
    times from 1994-2000. The number of qualified teachers rose by 53% between
    1994 and 2000. More resources were made available to build new schools and
    rehabilitate old ones. The government introduced universal primary education,
    established education support institutions, such as the National Curriculum
    Development Centre, the general inspectorate of education and an examination
    Board “National Examination Council” was introduced to ensure fairness,
    transparency and uniformity standards.

    The Nine Year and Twelve Year Basic Education were introduced to facilitate
    access to lower and upper secondary education. For the first time parents were
    involved in the construction of schools for their children.

    To create a highly skilled and productive workforce, the government has
    introduced technical and vocational training centers, established colleges of
    technology under “Rwanda Development Workforce authority”.
    The Government of National Unity is committed to promoting democracy and
    empowering the population of Rwanda to make policy-decisions and to become
    masters of their destiny. March 1999, grassroots elections were held across
    the country at cell and sector levels. The elections demonstrated the success of
    the unity and reconciliation program as people voted on the basis of merit, not
    ethnicity. The democratization process moved up to the district. The officials to
    this level were directly elected by the people for the first time in the history of
    Rwanda. Rwanda drafted the new constitution which was based on the views
    of people. After the constitution was promulgated, the general and presidential
    elections were held in 2003.

    The Government of National Unity was committed to rebuilding, expanding
    and improving the infrastructure of the country in order to facilitate
    economic growth. Since 2003 new roads have been built and others have been
    reconstructed to improve the road system.

    The government improved health domain by encouraging the people
    to participate in health programmes like Health insurance program;
    constructing more healthinfrastructure and training more health staff. La
    Rwandaised’AssuranceMaladie (RAMA), later Rwanda Social Security Board
    was established to ensure that government civil servants get proper medical

    insurance coverage.

    https://www.google.com/

    search?biw=1365&bih=584&tbm=isch&sxsrf=ACYBGNRXRdbQ8Gl1sJnIBlFGNnlAHQqS3w%3

    Moreover, the government of Rwanda promoted gender equality. The
    Government and civil society priorities were to strengthen capacity building
    programmes for women in all fields. In this regard, the Rwandan legislation
    which was disadvantaging women was amended in order to give equal
    opportunities to both men and women. Furthermore, the gender factor was
    integrated in all national policies on Rwanda’s long term development.

    8.2.2. Challenges of Rwandan Government after genocide
    • Suspicion and mistrust. Since Rwanda’s social cohesion had fractured
    due to the divisive politics that preceded the genocide, suspicion and
    mistrust characterized the population. Thus, the new government
    inherited a deeply scarred nation where trust within and between
    communities had been replaced by fear and betrayal. The government
    had a heavy task to restore unity and trust among Rwandans.

    • Security issue: Security problems were also a challenge to the
    government of national unity. Although the RPF had captured power
    and a transitional government had been put in place, in various parts of
    Rwanda the former government forces and Interahamwe militia were
    still carrying out genocide against Tutsi. In addition, infiltrators from
    refugee camps across the border continued to cross and destabilise
    the country. The Broad-based Transitional Government under RPF
    leadership had to devise means to address insecurity in the whole

    country so that Rwandans could begin the task of rebuilding the nation.

    • Resettlement of refugees and genocide survivors. The RPF strived
    to restore Rwanda as a country for all Rwandans and provided a
    homeland to which millions of Rwandan refugees could return. Tens of
    thousands of internally displaced people, especially genocide survivors
    whose homes had been destroyed, were resettled and provided with
    basic housing facilities.

    • Economic challenges after genocide against Tutsi. The Rwandan
    economy and political situation before 1994 was marked by economic
    stagnation and high levels of poverty, mainly attributed to lack of
    vision, poor economic planning, mismanagement, embezzlement and
    corruption by the leadership of the time. The post-genocide Rwanda
    faced economic challenges including an unstable macroeconomic
    environment. For example, in 1994 the economy shrank by 50 per cent
    and inflation rose to 64 per cent. Between 1985 and 1994, the GDP
    growth rate was a mere 2.2 per cent against a population growth rate
    of 3.2 per cent, meaning there was an annual decline of -1 per cent of
    per capita GDP. This was mainly due to the fact that the economy was
    characterized by low productivity in all sectors, but most especially in
    agriculture, a sector on which more than 90 per cent of the population
    depended for their livelihood.

    • Low private investment and as such, the country lacked a serious and
    vibrant private sector to drive economic growth. In the public sector
    too, there was a highly unskilled labour force because the skilled
    professionals had been particularly targeted in the genocide. In brief,
    the Government of National Unity inherited an economy completely
    destroyed by genocide and over three decades’ mismanagement.

    • Challenges in sector of health: in health the picture was similarly
    miserable. This sector had always been weak in Rwanda. Health
    workers in this sector were few and poorly trained. This situation
    was exacerbated by the genocide in which a large number of health
    workers had participated and consequently fled the country or were
    killed. The few that had returned from exile settled in Kigali, which
    had some infrastructures and was also safer to live in. To mitigate the
    health crisis, a number of NGOs and the army came in and tried to make
    a difference, but the task was overwhelming since the number of the
    injured and the sick was very high.

    • Challenges in the sector of education: During the 1994 genocide
    against the Tutsi, most education infrastructure was destroyed and
    the human capital decimated. Few people who went to school could
    not translate their knowledge into productive activities to improve the
    standard of living. In the eastern part of the country, schools were not
    only few, but in some areas they did not exist at all. It was a challenge to
    provide education infrastructure across the country and train teachers.

    • A broken justice sector. More than 140, 000 genocide suspects had
    been arrested, yet there was insufficient prisons infrastructure to host
    them. Their upkeep became a huge challenge in terms of feeding, and
    provision of medical and other services. To make matters worse, there
    were an inadequate number of trained lawyers to handle the large
    number of perpetrators of genocide and this was also true for other

    crimes that were being committed in the country.

    Genocide denial is defined as an attempt to deny or minimize statements of
    the scale and severity of an incidence of genocide. Since 1994, the genocide
    denial has taken three main forms: Literal genocide denial, interpretative and
    implicatory genocide denial. In Rwanda genocide was denied in the following
    ways:

    • The minimization of genocide in any behavior exhibited publicly and
    intentionally in order to reduce the weight or consequences of the
    genocide against Tutsi.

    • Minimizing how the genocide was committed.
    • Altering the truth about the genocide against the Tutsi in order to hide

    the truth from the people.

    • Asserting that there were two genocides in Rwanda: one committed
    against the Tutsi and the other against Hutu or saying there had been
    acts of mutual killing, etc.

    8.3.1. Literal genocide denial
    The literal genocide denial involves negating the facts of genocide, silencing
    talk of genocidal plans and killings. Literal genocide denial was mainly confined
    to the private sphere during the early post-genocide years. It still appears in
    some research, in internet blogs, and among the lawyers of those accused of
    genocide at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda.

    8.3.2. Interpretative genocide denial
    This form of genocide denial involves categorizing evidence that is established,
    and goes beyond negating, ignoring or silencing talk of genocide. Higher moral
    goals are often invoked in cases of interpretative denial, such as: revolutionary
    struggle, ethnic purity, western civilization’, or in the case of Rwanda, legitimate
    self-defence and a striving for ethnic-based self-determination.
    In the media and at the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the most
    common expression of interpretative denial was to present the genocide
    against the Tutsi as simply part of wider ‘civil war’ of all against all, rather than
    a targeted genocide. Interpretative genocide denial also uses the term “the
    double genocide” to deny genocide and the responsibility of perpetrators.

    8.3.3. Implicatory genocide denial
    This third form of genocide denial consists of revengeful counter-accusations,
    and explicit justification for one’s position, through anticipatory counter –
    accusation against the other party. The aim is also to exonerate all atrocities
    and lay the blame on others’.

    In implicatory denial the other side is always guilty of lies, propaganda, ideology,
    disinformation or prejudice, and thus of triggering the genocide. Very often,
    implicatory genocide denial tries to prove that if genocide was committed, it
    was not by those accused but by the ‘other side’ in a civil war.

    In Rwanda, since around 2003, implicatory genocide denial has been aimed at
    restoring a sense of self-worth among those accused of genocide crimes.
    The implicatory genocide denial becomes prevalent and involves explicit

    counter-accusations that genocide was planned by those previously viewed as

    saving the victims. A double genocide thesis is part of both the interpretative
    and implicatory forms of genocide denial. The most channels of genocide denial

    and ideology are the books, the newspapers, the public speeches, the films etc.

    Prevention is a continuous process that aims at avoiding the occurrence of
    something harmful by tackling the causes of the harm prior to it and at each
    phase of the process to its occurrence and after. Genocide Prevention is any
    action that works toward averting a future genocide. Genocide ideology can be

    prevented at three levels: primary, secondary and tertiary levels.

    Source:http://www. richardsrwanda.org /wp-content/ uploads /2011/07/284884_224883366

    8160_1467762132 _32478548_5366937_ n.jpg

    • The prevention at the primary level consists of measures aiming at
    creating an environment that reduces the risk of its escalation. This
    means preventive measures that may avoid the occurrence of the harm
    by tackling its root causes and put in place mechanisms that ensure
    the prevention of that harm. This requires using domestic legislation,
    independent judiciary and an effective police force to protect people.
    • Prevention of genocide at secondary level is necessary in two
    situations:
    • Firstly, in case a state has not adopted measures at the primary level
    and
    • Secondly, in case the measures adopted before did not prevent the
    risks of genocide from developing.

    The secondary prevention takes place when genocide is already taking
    place. At this level, many genocidal actions are observed, such as
    hatred, intolerance, racism, ethnic cleansing, torture, sexual violence,
    disappearances, dehumanizing and public discourse.
    The main focus is to end the genocide before it progresses further
    and claims more lives. This level of prevention may involve military
    intervention especially when it is an armed conflict context or use
    peaceful prevention to save lives.

    • Prevention of genocide at tertiary level focuses on avoiding genocide
    in future by rebuilding, restoring the community and dealing with all
    the consequences to repair the damage caused. This phase deals with
    all consequences.

    According to the international humanitarian law, the international community
    has the obligation to intervene once all signs are clear enough to prove that

    genocide is happening.

    8.5. Challenges faced in the process of preventing genocide


    While fighting and preventing genocide, there are many challenges including
    the following:

    • The first challenge is related to lack of certainty that the presence of
    factors at different phases may lead to genocide;
    • The second challenge is the uncertainty on whether the preventive
    measures to be taken can prevent the genocide;

    In all cases, no one can be sure that the signs of genocide will lead to it
    or that the measures to prevent it will be effective. In fact, by the time
    this is clear, it might be too late to prevent genocide from happening
    and too difficult to do it without causing other problems.

    • Another important challenge is that there is no institution that
    assesses the factors and phases of genocide and determine who
    takes appropriate measures, when to take them, how and where to
    implement them.

    Given the nature of prevention and the process to genocide, it is very
    difficult for the preventer to be sure beforehand that the preventive

    measures to be taken will definitely prevent the occurrence of genocide.

    8.6. Solutions to the challenges faced in the process of

    preventing genocide


    8.6.1. The role of the international community
    The poor record in preventing genocides forced the United Nations to
    conceptualize ways of deterring the crime while “recognizing and fully
    respecting the sovereignty of States.” The then UN Secretary - General Kofi
    Annan took important measures which inspired many programs in the field
    of genocide prevention. He identified a Five Point Action Plan to end genocide:
    • Prevent armed conflict, which usually provides the context for genocide;
    • Protect civilians in armed conflict, including the mandate for UN
    peacekeepers;
    • End impunity through judicial action in both national and international
    courts;
    • Gather military information and set up an early warning system;
    • Take quick and decisive action along a continuum of steps, including
    military action.

    8.6.2 Regional level
    • Various regional mechanisms have developed distinct methods for
    engaging with concerns that fall within the borders of their member
    states. The African Union (AU) is significantly more engaged in the
    region than its predecessor, the OAU.

    • Through the Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace
    and Security Council of the African Union (PSC), the African Standby
    Force (ASF) was established as part of the African Peace and Security
    Architecture (APSA). It includes conflict prevention, early warning and
    preventive diplomacy, peace-building, intervention and humanitarian

    action, and disaster management.

    • The Eastern Africa Standby Force (EASF) created by the decision of
    the Summit of the African Union held in July 2004 in Addis Ababa, is
    a constituent organization of the ASF. Yet, a number of the regional
    organizations still lack the resources, logistical and communication
    capacities to effectively enforce the peace.

    8.6.3 At national level
    In the aftermath of genocide, measures have been taken to face the immediate
    consequences and to prevent genocide from happening again. The following
    are the measures taken to prevent genocide:

    • Prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, fighting against
    denial and revisionism of genocide as well as eradication of genocide
    ideology and all its manifestations;

    • Eradication of discrimination and divisionism based on ethnicity,
    region or on any other ground as well as promotion of national unity;
    • Building a State governed by the rule of law, a pluralistic democratic
    Government, equality of all Rwandans and between men and women
    • Laws punishing the crime of genocide and the genocide ideology
    have been elaborated. Special organ to monitor and implement these
    principles has been created, the National Commission for the Fight
    against Genocide established by Law Nº09/2007 of 16/02/2007. Its
    mission is “to prevent and fight against Genocide, its ideology and
    overcoming its consequences”.

    • Therefore, it is imperative that the genocide against the Tutsi and all
    other acts of genocide elsewhere in the world be remembered. The
    second one is to educate people for sustainable peace and prevention

    of genocide using memorials.

    Bisesero memorial sites and genocide commemoration are one of the ways to
    prevent genocide

    Then the prevention of genocide should be done in educational setting. The
    country of Rwanda has included the prevention of genocide and peace education
    as a cross cutting issue in the programmes that have to be taught at all levels of

    education from the primary to the tertiary.

    Figure 2.7: Educating the youth through testimonies about the past is a good way to prevent

  • UNIT 9 NATIONAL COHESION DUTIES AND OBLIGATIONS, IDENTITIES AND THE RESPECT OF HUMANRIGHTS

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to analyze types and
    different ways of human rights violation, its prevention
    and the national duties and obligations towards the

    achievement of national cohesion.

    9.1.1. Definition of the concept of Human Rights
    Human rights are commonly understood as inalienable fundamental rights
    which are inherent in the mere fact of being human. The concept of human
    rights is based on the belief that every human being is entitled to enjoy her/
    his rights without discrimination. Human rights differ from other rights in two
    aspects.

    Firstly, they are characterized by being:
    -- Inherent in all human beings by virtue of their humanity alone (they do
    not haveto be purchased or to be granted);
    -- Inalienable (within qualified legal boundaries); and
    -- Equally applicable to all.

    Secondly, the main duties deriving from human rights fall on states and their
    authorities or agents, not on individuals.

    Human rights are applicable everywhere and at every time in the sense of
    being universal, and they are egalitarian in the sense of being the same for
    everyone. They require empathy and the rule of law and impose an obligation
    on persons to respect the human rights of others. They should not be taken
    away except as a result of due process based on specific circumstances, and
    require freedom from unlawful imprisonment, torture, and execution.

    9.1.2. Types of Human Rights
    Human rights can be classified and organized in a number of different ways.
    At an international level the most common categorization of human rights has
    been to split them into civil and political rights,economic, social and cultural
    rights. The following are some of the types of Human Rights:

    • Individual or civil rights are a set of ‘physical integrity rights’ which
    concern the right to life, liberty, and security of the person; privacy and
    freedom of movement; ownership of property; freedom of thought,
    conscience, and religious belief and practice; prohibition of slavery,
    torture, and cruel or degrading punishment.

    • Rule of law is related to equal recognition before the law and equal
    protection of the law; effective legal remedy for violation of rights;
    impartial hearing and trial; presumption of innocence; and prohibition
    of arbitrary arrest.

    • Rights of political expression comprise freedom of expression,
    assembly, and association; the right to take part in government; and

    periodic and meaningful elections with universal and equal suffrage.

    • Economic and social rights concern adequate standard of living,
    free choice of employment; protection against unemployment; “just
    and favorable remuneration”; the right to form and join trade unions;
    “reasonable limitation of working hours”; free elementary education;
    social security; and the “highest attainable standard of physical and
    mental health.”
    • Rights of communities refer to self-determination and protection of
    minority cultures.

    9.1.3. Ways of prevention of human rights violations
    9.1.3.1 The concept of prevention
    Human rights violations occur when actions done by state’s (or non-state)
    actors abuse, ignore, or deny basic human rights (including civil, political,
    cultural, social, and economic rights). Furthermore, violations of human rights
    can occur when any state or non-state actor breaches any part of the Universal
    Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) treaty or other international human
    rights or humanitarian law.

    States have the primary responsibility for the promotion and protection of
    all human rights, including the prevention of human rights violations. The
    obligations of States include the duty to protect against human rights abuse
    by third parties, including private actors. States may breach their international
    human rights law obligations where they fail to take appropriate steps to
    prevent, investigate, punish and redress private actors’ abuse.

    9.1.3.2 Direct prevention/mitigation
    Direct prevention aims to eliminate risk factors and establish a legal,
    administrative and policy framework which seeks to prevent violations. It is
    also contingent on establishing a culture of respect for human rights, good
    governance and the rule of law, and an enabling environment for a vibrant civil
    society and free press.

    9.1.3.3 Indirect prevention/non-recurrence
    Indirect prevention of human rights violations, or non-recurrence, takes place
    after a violation has occurred. It aims to prevent recurrence by identifying and
    addressing causes of violations of all human rights, through investigation and
    prosecution, ensuring the right of victims and societies to know the truth about
    violations, and the rights of victims to an effective remedy, in accordance with

    international law.

    9.1.3.4 Legislative and institutional framework for prevention
    As a first step, prevention includes ratifying human rights treaties and their
    implementation at the domestic level and adopting laws and policies that
    guarantee human rights in law and practice.

    The role of human rights education in prevention of human rights violation
    Human rights education contributes to the prevention of human rights violations
    and conflict, and to the enhancement of participation in decision-making
    processes within a democratic system. Education about human rights must
    become part of general public education. Research institutes and universities
    should be also strengthened to train lawyers and judges.

    9.1.3.5 Dialogue
    Dialogue groups that assemble people from various ethnicities should be
    organized to overcome mistrust, fear and grief in society. Getting to know the
    feelings of ordinary people of each side might help to change the demonic
    image of the enemy group. Dialogue also helps parties at the grassroots level
    to discover the truth about what has happened, and may provide opportunities
    for apology and forgiveness.

    9.1.3.6 Truth commissions
    Truth commissions are sometimes established after a political transition. They
    can be understood as bodies set up to investigate a past history of violations
    of human rights in a particular country which can include violations by the
    military or other government forces or armed opposition forces. Their goal
    is to uncover details of past abuses as a symbol of acknowledgment of past
    wrongs. Finally, they conclude with a report that contains recommendations to
    prevent a recurrence of the crimes and to provide reparations to victims.

    9.1.3.7 International war crimes tribunals
    International war crimes tribunals are established to hold individuals criminally
    responsible for violations of international human rights law in special courts.

    9.1.3.8 Democratization measures
    Various democratization measures can help to restore political and social
    rights. For sustainability and long-term viability of human rights standards,
    strong local enforcement mechanisms have to be established. An independent

    judiciary that provides impartial means and protects individuals against

    9.1.3.4 Legislative and institutional framework for prevention
    As a first step, prevention includes ratifying human rights treaties and their
    implementation at the domestic level and adopting laws and policies that
    guarantee human rights in law and practice.

    The role of human rights education in prevention of human rights violation
    Human rights education contributes to the prevention of human rights violations
    and conflict, and to the enhancement of participation in decision-making
    processes within a democratic system. Education about human rights must
    become part of general public education. Research institutes and universities
    should be also strengthened to train lawyers and judges.

    9.1.3.5 Dialogue
    Dialogue groups that assemble people from various ethnicities should be
    organized to overcome mistrust, fear and grief in society. Getting to know the
    feelings of ordinary people of each side might help to change the demonic
    image of the enemy group. Dialogue also helps parties at the grassroots level
    to discover the truth about what has happened, and may provide opportunities
    for apology and forgiveness.

    9.1.3.6 Truth commissions
    Truth commissions are sometimes established after a political transition. They
    can be understood as bodies set up to investigate a past history of violations
    of human rights in a particular country which can include violations by the
    military or other government forces or armed opposition forces. Their goal
    is to uncover details of past abuses as a symbol of acknowledgment of past
    wrongs. Finally, they conclude with a report that contains recommendations to
    prevent a recurrence of the crimes and to provide reparations to victims.

    9.1.3.7 International war crimes tribunals
    International war crimes tribunals are established to hold individuals criminally
    responsible for violations of international human rights law in special courts.

    9.1.3.8 Democratization measures
    Various democratization measures can help to restore political and social
    rights. For sustainability and long-term viability of human rights standards,
    strong local enforcement mechanisms have to be established. An independent
    judiciary that provides impartial means and protects individuals against
    politically influenced persecution must be restored. Election monitors who
    help to guarantee fair voting procedures can help to ensure stable and peaceful
    elections. And various social structural changes, including reallocations of
    resources, increased political participation, and the strengthening of civil
    society can help to ensure that people’s basic needs are met.

    9.1.3.9 Humanitarian aid and development assistance
    Humanitarian aid and development assistance seeks to ease the impact that
    violent conflict has on civilians. Once conflict has ended, development assistance
    helps to advance reconstruction programs that rebuild infrastructure,
    institutions and the economy. This assistance helps countries to undergo

    peaceful development rather than sliding back into conflict.

    9.2.1 National Cohesion
    National cohesion involves the constructing of an integrated citizenry with a
    sense of belonging amongst members of different groups and from different
    regions, through the regulation and reconciliation of differences as well as
    competing interests and demands.

    9.2.2 National identity
    National identity is the sense of a nation as a cohesive whole, as represented
    by distinctive traditions, culture, language and politics. A person’s national
    identity is his/her identity and sense of belonging to one state or to one nation,
    a feeling one shares with a group of people, regardless of one’s legal citizenship
    status. Scientists see national identity in psychological terms as “and awareness
    of difference”, a “feeling and recognition of ‘we’ and ‘they’”.

    National identity is not an inborn trait, various studieshave shown that a
    person’s national identity results directly from the presence of elements from
    the “common points” in people’s daily lives: national symbols, language, national
    colours, the nation’s history, national consciousness, blood ties, culture, music,
    cuisine, radio, television, and so on.

    National identity markers are those characteristics used to identify a person
    as possessing a particular national identity. These markers are not fixed but
    fluid, varying from culture to culture and also within a culture over time. Such
    markers may include common language or dialect, national dress, birthplace,
    family affiliation, etc.

    9.2.3 Factors of national cohesion and identities
    The promotion of the national cohesion and identities requires deliberate
    strategies to reorganize the management of diversities. These strategies include:

    • There is need to strengthen social institutions and organizations as
    well as mechanisms of governance to enhance national cohesion. The
    transformation of the political and governance institutions such as the
    executive, legislature, judiciary, civil service, local government, public
    administration, electoral rules, and party composition is particularly
    important for the achievement of national cohesion and integration.

    • Adoption of diversity concepts at all levels of organizational
    management at public and private establishments.

    • Establishment and enhancement of local community dialogue forums
    by creating, developing and/or expanding local community dialogue
    forums such as local workshops are essential.

    • Strengthening the role of national, province and community leaders
    in promoting national cohesion and identity; community leaders
    and traditional systems that promote national cohesion such as the
    Councils of Elders should be recognized and supported.

    • Implementation and enforcement of legislation that is related to
    prosecution of individuals or groups that promote negative ethnicity
    and hate speech in Rwanda.

    • Embracement of diversity and symbols of national unity emphasis
    should be placed on the sovereignty of the people, effective
    management of indigenous languages, national symbols, the national
    anthem, national days, national values and principles of governance
    among others.

    • Develop and monitor a set of indicators and indices that capture
    the role of governance institutions in enhancing cohesion. These
    indicators will include: democratic governance, rule of law, reduction
    of corruption, justice and human security as well as promotion of value
    systems and public policies.

    • Accelerate the development of special economic zones to improve the
    socio-economic profile of the less developed regions. The Government
    should ensure equitable infrastructural development across the
    country with attention to roads, electricity, water and sanitation among
    others.

    • Facilitate equitable investments in social and economic services,
    education, training institutions, health facilities, food, security and
    water among others. Ensure universal access to fundamental human
    rights such as basic education, health services, and water and food
    security.

    • Improve land management practices and challenges related to natural
    resource mismanagement. Since many conflicts in Rwanda revolve
    around land and management of resources, there is need to improve
    land management practices and address land inequalities and resource
    mismanagement.

    • Address youth unemployment and other forms of socio-economic
    exclusion. The economy should be improved with the aim of facilitating
    the creation of more job opportunities.

    • Use traditional performances such as dance, music, drama and
    sporting activities to facilitate cohesion amongst communities. Cultural
    performance and arts, especially those that are linked to specific events
    and national days, should be used to encourage and support national
    cohesion and integration.

    • Media and cultural activities such as art, music, pictures and film can
    be used to broadcast messages of peace and positive co-existence.
    Therefore, the media should be used to promote various cultural
    activities that encourage and support national cohesion and integration.

    • There is a need of strong communication strategy which should entail
    working with local media among others in a bid to counter stereotypes
    and other negative practices.

    • Another factor for national cohesion and identity includes the existence
    of a visionary leadership that practices good governance and develops
    a vision for the nation.

    • It is also essential to recognize changing demographics such as youth,
    men, women, people with various challenges and other groups.
    9.2.4 Influences of national cohesion and identity on the respect
    of human rights

    National cohesion and culture play a significant and fundamental role in
    fostering identity and sense of security by directing individual behavior. Cultural
    products serve to unify people while participation in cultural activities ensure
    that issues of national importance are profiled and messages of integration
    communicated thereby promoting mutual coexistence and respect of human
    rights as follows:

    When the people identify themselve in one group, one country or state with the
    same culture, this enable them to defend them and safeguard their life and the
    life of each other.

    The national cohesion is amongest the key points in respect of the human rights
    especially the right to the nationality as defended in Universal declaration of
    human rights and in the constitution of Rwanda as amendated up to date. This
    is due to the will of sharing a nation as their identity.

    In the traditional Rwanda, the Rwandans had the same religion, beliefs and
    rituals. This facilitated them to enjoy the freedom of worship because everyone
    was allowed to participate in his or her own traditional ritual like Kubandwa and
    guterekera. Today, even if there are various religoius practices; the Constitution
    of Rwanda grants all citizens with freedom of worship. In this regard, the respect
    of human rights is ensured.

    Culture is essential for individual survival and for social relations. Just as culture
    is essential for individuals, it is also fundamental for the survival of societies.
    Some system of rule-making and enforcing is necessary in all societies. In order
    to survive, societies need rules about civility and tolerance toward others. We

    are not born knowing how to express kindness or hatred towards others.

    National cohesion and Rwandan identity can promote the respect of the human
    rights in the sense that they destroy the sectarist references, exclusions, division
    and negative ideologies that had characterised the Rwandan societies and led
    to the genocide against the Tutsi.

    In culture of Rwanda and as it is stated in the constitution of Rwanda, every
    child has the right to the family and is entitled to special measures of protection
    by his/her family, society and the State. This enforces the respect of human
    rights especially the Convention on the Rights of the Child adopted in 1989.
    In ancient Rwanda as well as today, the Rwandans enjoy the rights of being
    fairly tried. Judicial institution like Gacaca for instance, had been set up to
    perform such noble task. This cemented the culture of justice and all Rwanda

    people respected the decision made by hierarchal courts of justice.

    9.3.1. Itorero ry’igihugu
    Itorero is one of the Rwanda’s Home Grown Solutions in the governance cluster
    and is regarded mainly as a cultural-centredprogramme. It is a holistic training
    system that includes civic education exercises, cultural values, patriotism and
    social political development of Rwandans.

    Itorero was initiated during the reign of King Ruganzu I Bwimba at around
    1312 A.D. The traditional Itorero was a cultural school where Rwandans would
    learn about their language, their history, social relations, sports, dancing, songs,
    patriotism and national defense. Itorero was created so that people acquire a
    good and deep understanding of their culture.

    From 1924 to 1994, Itorero was banned by the colonial rule and further by the
    post independence regimes.

    Between May 1998 and March 1999, the consultative meetings in Urugwiro
    recommended the reviving of the cultural values that could help to cultivate
    decent citizens. It is in this spirit that the Rwanda government decided to draw
    from the Rwandan culture, some home grown tools to deal with our peculiar
    challenges in the area of governance, economy and social welfare.

    The idea of re-establishing Itorerory’Igihugu came up during the leadership
    retreat that took place in Akagera in February 2007. It is in this perspective
    that a Cabinet meeting of 12th November 2007 passed a resolution to revive
    Itorerory’Igihugu and make it a channel for instilling a new mindset among
    Rwandans for speedy achievement of the development goals enshrined in the
    Vision 2020.

    Itorerory’Igihugu was later revived at the official launch presided upon by
    His Excellency Paul Kagame, the President of the Republic of Rwanda on 16th
    November 2007 in the Parliament Buildings.

    Itorerory’Igihugu has the objective of cultivating self-respecting citizens who
    are identified by their national values, who are eager to embrace speedy
    innovations that have positive impact on their social welfare. Itorerory’Igihugu
    also aims at cultivating visionary, patriotic, and exemplary servant leaders at all
    level of governance, leaders who have a heart for the people and their wellbeing.

    The curriculum content for Itorerory’igihugu is unique to Rwanda due to the fact
    that it is based on principles and values peculiar to the Rwandan culture while
    Urugerero (National Service) on the other hand, has much in common with
    what takes place in other countries. Participating in Itorero is the obligation
    of every Rwandan, regardless of status and social group. They include children
    from seven years old and the youth from the age of 18 to 35 years. For the latter
    age group, participating in Urugerero (National Service) is obligatory.

    The same content focuses on a desire to promote opportunities for development
    using Rwandan cultural values; identify taboos that inhibit the development of
    the country; fight violence and corruption; eradicate the culture of impunity;
    strengthen the culture of peace, tolerance, unity and reconciliation; and
    eradicate genocide ideology and all its roots.

    9.3.2 Umuganda
    Umuganda was created to help supplement the national budget spent in
    construction and the repair of basic infrastructure. The work done is organized
    by community members and is done voluntarily and without pay. The projects
    completed through Umuganda include the construction of schools, feeder
    roads, road repair, terracing, reforestation, home construction for vulnerable
    people, erosion control, water canals, etc.

    Planning for Umuganda is done at council meetings at the cell level. It is the
    responsibility of local leaders as well as national leaders to mobilize the
    population to participate in Umuganda. Community members meet and plan
    the date and the activity. Participation in Umuganda is compulsory for all ablebodied
    citizens and it is expected that this policy will result in a more cohesive
    society as all members of a community come together to complete a project

    that benefits the community.

    Source:https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2018/07/18/628364015/how-rwandatidied-

    up-its-streets-and-the-rest-of-the=country=too

    Umuganda is one of Home Grown Solutions. Modern day Umuganda can
    be described as a community work. On the last Saturday of each month,
    communities come together to do a variety of public works. This often includes
    infrastructure development and environmental protection.

    9.3.3. Imihigo
    Imihigo (Performance Contract) is the plural Kinyarwanda word of Umuhigo,
    which means to vow to deliver. Imihigo also includes the concept of Guhiganwa,
    which means to compete among one another. Imihigo describe the pre-colonial
    cultural practice in Rwanda where an individual set targets or goals to be
    achieved within a specific period of time. The person must complete these
    objectives by following guiding principles and be determined to overcome any
    possible challenges that arise.

    In 2000, a shift in the responsibilities of all levels of government as a result
    of a decentralization program required a new approach to monitoring and
    evaluation. Local levels of government were now responsible for implementing
    development programs which meant that the central government and people
    of Rwanda needed a way to ensure accountability.

    In 2006, Imihigo were introduced to address this need. Since its introduction,
    Imihigo have been credited with improving accountability and quickening the
    pace of citizen centred development activities and programs. The practice of
    Imihigo has now been extended to ministries, embassies and public service

    staff.

    ources:https://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/leaders-sign-imihigo

    In putting into practice imihigo, the districts are responsible for implementing
    programs under this broad agenda while Central Government assumes the task
    for planning and facilitating.

    9.3.4. Community policing.
    When Rwanda National Police (RNP) was created in the year 2000, it adopted
    the community policing strategy to build ties and work closely with members
    of the community to fight crime. Since then, the department for community
    policy has been influential in reducing crime throughout the country.

    Traditionally, the Police respond to crime after it occurs. On top of that, the Police
    cannot be everywhere at all times and, therefore, relies on routine patrols, rapid
    response to calls for service, arrests and follow-up investigations. Community
    policing, therefore, was adopted to encourage citizens to participate in crimesolving.
    Community policing encourages the Police to increase the means by which
    citizens can report incidents or the use of volunteers to provide timely reports
    that help us in anti-crime operations.

    This strategy has been very successful in increasing Police response to crime,
    because many reports are now provided by community members. This shows

    that people trust police to do its best in protecting their lives and property.

    9.4. The contribution of the Rwandan citizens and noncitizens

    towards the national duties and obligations


    9.4.1. National Itorero Commission
    From 19 November 2007, Itorerory’Igihugu was launched in all districts of the
    country. In December 2007, a ceremony to present nationwide Intore regiments
    at district level to His Excellency the President of the Republic of Rwanda and
    other senior Government officials took place at Amahoro stadium. Each district’s
    regiment presented its performance contract at that colorful ceremony marked
    by cultural festivals. Each district’s Intore regiment publically announced its
    Identification Name.

    There is also Itorero for Rwandan Diaspora that has the authority to develop its
    affiliated sub-division. From November 2007 up to the end of 2012, Itorerory’
    Igihugu had a total of 284,209 trained Intore.

    In order to enable each Intore to benefit and experience change of mindset,
    each group chooses its Identification Name and sets objectives it must achieve.
    Those projected objectives must be achieved during or after training, and
    this is confirmed by the performance contracts that necessarily have to be
    accomplished. With this obligation in mind, each individual also sets personal
    objective that in turn contributes to the success of the corporate objectives.

    The number of Intore who have been trained at the village level amounts to
    a total of 814 587. Those mentored at the national level are the ones who go
    down to mentor in villages, schools, and at various work places. In total, 1 098

    599 Rwandans have been mentored nationwide.


    Source: https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/213653

    From 2007 to 2017, about 23 categories composed of over 2,300,000 people
    from both public and private institutions have been trained under Itorero.
    These include citizens (1,109,707), students (160,875), professionals (50431),
    teachers (43600), decentralized (leader 33509), trainers (7520), diaspora
    (2769), farmers (2256) and people with disabilities (392).
    Through Urugerero Program, Intore mentored in 2012 totaled 40,730. Among
    them, 19,285 were female, while 21,445 were male. However, those who joined
    Urugerero were 37,660, female being 18,675 while male participants were
    18,985.

    9.4.2 Umuganda
    Rwandans between 18 and 65 are obliged to participate in Umuganda. Expatriates
    living in Rwanda are encouraged to take part. Professionals also contribute
    to umuganda. It is in this context that members of Rwanda’s elite and private
    sector, including engineers, medical personnel, IT specialists, statisticians and
    other professionals, are actively involved in Umuganda activities. The military
    personnel also participate in social activities like building schools and hospitals

    and this inspires the population to be very active as well.

    Source:https://www.bing.com/ images/ search? view=detailV2&ccid=
    vpL0ENNM&id= 134EB29B47082D18B51405423A69D5941E3C8C6A&thid= OIP.

    vpL0ENNMSQAwQOWgWVBHxAHaEs&mediaurl

    9.4.3. Imihigo
    Imihigo is the result of a participatory process of identifying and implementing
    priorities from the grassroots to the national level. In the process of identifying
    priorities, each level demonstrates its contribution to achievement of
    development goals.

    Performance contracts offer various opportunities for community participation
    including various meetings at the district, sector, cell and village. Accountability
    days and public meeting after umuganda are interesting opportunities for
    participating in performance contracts. The above opportunities are exploited
    by many including communities, women, consultative councils who actively
    participate in performance contracts. In such meetings, local priorities to be
    included into the national priorities are directly discussed with all the people

    contrary to other levels that involve only people’s representatives.

    Source: ttps://www.bing.com/images/search?view=detailV2&ccid=oIGr%2f60G&id

    9.4.4. Community policing
    Community Policing Committees (CPCs) were introduced in 2007 and they are
    made up of ordinary citizens chosen by fellow residents. They operate in cells
    and sectors to collect information that helps in crime prevention, while they
    also sensitize residents about the need to collectively overcome crime.

    The Youth Volunteers in Crime Prevention is an organization that has over 7,000
    young men and women spread throughout the country – with an aim to promote
    security and participate in crime prevention. They have been influential in

    aiding Police operations and also in sensitizing fellow youth against crime.

    Source:https://www.newtimes.co.rw/news/police-attributes-security-gains-people-centredpolicing

    The Community policing alsoworks with motorists’ association to ensure that
    road safety is respected, as well as with the business community to protect the

    country against economic crimes.

    9.5.1. National Itorero Commission
    According to Strategic Plan 2009-2012 of Itorero ry’Igihugu, the biggest
    challenge for Itorero is finding solutions to address the poor mindset of the
    average Rwandan. Other problems which impede development goals are
    corruption, genocide and divisionism ideology.

    From the time Itorero was launched, it is remarkable that many Rwandans have
    not yet fully understood its purpose and rationale. This confusion has caused
    some people to link Itorerory’Igihugu with activities of other associations. For

    example, those with a dancing purpose (cultural troupe).

    To mentor a significant number of Intore throughout the country still requires
    a substantial financial budget. This also calls for the commitment of the
    government and its partners to finance the program.

    9.5.2 Umuganda
    The challenges faced by Umuganda fall into two broad categories: planning and
    participation. In some areas of the country, poor planning has led to unrealistic
    targets and projects that would be difficult to achieve without additional
    financing. In urban areas, participation in Umuganda has been lower than in
    rural areas.

    To address these challenges, the team responsible for Umuganda at the
    Ministry of Local Government has run trainings for the committees that oversee
    Umuganda at the local level. These trainings include lessons on monitoring
    and evaluation, how to report achievements, the laws, orders and guidelines
    governing Umuganda as well as responsibilities of the committee. To overcome
    the issues of low participation rates in some areas of the country, especially
    in urban areas, an awareness raising campaign was conducted through
    documentaries, Television and radio shows to inform Rwandans about the role
    Umuganda plays in society and its importance.

    Problems of measurements: Umuganda is one of the most important activities
    planned to be achieved through implementation of Imihigo. However, there is
    absence of a clear standard on how to measure the value of Umuganda. For
    instance, some districts measure its value based on the number of people
    participating on the day multiplied by the daily labour (mostly farming) rate
    applicable in that district, whereas other districts attempt to estimate the
    financial cost of achievements on the day of Umuganda.

    9.5.3 Community policing
    The following are the biggest challenges the National Police of Rwanda is faced
    to as far as Community policing is concerned: high population growth rate
    and high population density, high police population ratio, high Rural-urban
    migration rate, low level of education, illiteracy, and ignorance of laws and

    potential for increasing criminality.

  • UNIT 10 PREVENTION AND RESOLUTION OF CONFLICTS

    PREVENTION AND RESOLUTION OF

    CONFLICTS

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to analyze
    the national, international judicial systems and
    instruments, how the justice has been delayed
    and denied in Rwandan society, preventing and
    resolving conflicts and violence at the national as

    well as international levels.


    Conflict is a reality of social life and exists at all levels of society. Conflicts have
    all the time existed. They are in different categories, they have different causes
    and therefore, there are no conflicts that are entirely similar. Different scholars
    tried to find causes of conflict:

    -- According to Nicholas Machiavelli, conflict was a result of the human
    desire for self-preservation and power.
    -- For Hobbes, the three ‘principal causes of quarrel’ in a state were
    competition for gain, fear of insecurity, and defense of honour.
    -- For Hume, the underlying conditions for human conflict were relative
    scarcity of resources and limited altruism.

    -- For Rousseau, the “state of war” was born from “the social state” itself.
    Generally, a conflict exists when there is an interaction between two or more
    individuals, groups or organizations where at least one side sees their thinking,
    ideas, perceptions, feelings or will contradicting with that of the other side and
    feels that they cannot get what they want because of the other side.

    There are four main causes of conflict:
    • Structural factors: such as weak states, security concern and ethnic
    geography;

    • Political factors like discriminatory political institutions, exclusionary
    national ideologies, intergroup and elite politics;
    • Economic factors, for example widespread economic problem,
    discriminatory economic system, poverty, unequal access to national
    resources and modernization;

    • Cultural factors like cultural discrimination, problematic group
    histories, emerging dehumanizing ideologies, etc.
    The escalating or “going up” factors are what contribute towards turning a
    conflict into something negative or destructive. The de-escalating or “going
    down” factors are the factors that help to channel the conflict energy into
    something positive and constructive. The way conflicts are seen can determine
    how to deal with them. The figure below shows the process of conflict escalation

    and de-escalation.


    Conflict and violence are linked but are not identical. Violence is very often an
    expression of conflict, a way of carrying out conflicts.
    10.1.1 Role of the state in prevention and conflict resolution
    The state is the only legitimate user of physical violence in a society. Thus, it is
    almost by definition involved whenever there is an armed conflict in society.

    All these roles make the state an actor in conflict as well as an object of conflict.
    This causes a dilemma.
    The dilemma of state in prevention and conflict resolution can be summarized
    as follows:
    -- If the state is powerful (totalitarian system), it creates counteraction,
    fear among the population and pay high cost of the repression in case of
    resistance; if it is weak it can be dismissed.

    -- There are many forces which can compete against the state. These forces
    include the companies interested in the extraction of minerals, the
    religious groups wanting to institute their own order; the political groups
    ethnically oriented searching for control of the power. A weak state can
    create intrastate wars, and a strong state may do the same. Both may also
    lead to regional/international repercussions.

    -- To find the ‘ideal’ state for lasting peace is not easy. Liberal democracy has
    been identified as an appropriate model, but it may not be applicable in
    every context and be sufficient to handle all the world’s conflicts.
    -- International conflicts can be handled by the international institutions
    (such as the UN, the International Court of justice and regional
    organizations), while internal conflicts may be treated as “home affairs”.
    However, internal affairs can be submitted to the international community

    if the legitimate, the government, ask for such an intervention. This is a

    basic principle of the UN Charter and was seen as an untouchable principle
    during the Cold War.
    To prevent conflict, therefore:
    -- The state should set up the mechanisms, institutions and policies aiming
    at fighting the violence and preventing the conflicts basing on the respect
    of the human rights.
    -- The state has also obligation of passing the rules and laws which limit the
    occasion of violence, outbreak of the conflicts and determine the pacific
    ways of conflict resolutions.
    -- The state, through its organs, must enforce the rules, regulations and the
    laws. This is basic principle for preventing the conflicts.

    10.1.2 Role of international community in prevention and
    resolution of the conflict
    The United Nations Organization (UN) has a broad mandate for the prevention
    of violent conflict under Article 1 of the UN Charter. It has a wide array of
    departments and agencies that have been working to very good effect to
    mitigate the sources of conflict and stop the immediate causes of violence. For
    instance, the UN is often best placed to undertake preventive initiatives. Such
    initiatives include preventive diplomacy, preventive disarmament, preventive
    peacekeeping, post-conflict peace building, capacity building and technical
    support, and activities promoting human rights and good governance.

    The most visible manifestations of the UN Secretary-General’s “good offices”
    efforts, Special Envoys, are deployed to help resolve a wide variety of disputes,
    from territorial questions to constitutional and electoral crises to peace talks.
    Special Envoys may have different mandates: country-specific (e.g. Syria,
    Yemen), regional (e.g. Sahel, Great Lakes), or thematic (e.g. prevention of
    genocide) mandates.

    The UN special political commissions, headed by senior representatives of the
    Secretary-General, provide a tool for intensive and sustained preventive efforts
    across a range of disciplines such as electoral support, women’s empowerment
    and human rights.

    They support complex political transitions and help sustain peace in
    coordination with national and UN development and humanitarian entities
    and other actors such as regional organizations and international financial
    institutions.

    The UN Peacekeeping missions bring military and police capacities to bear,
    integrating them with civilian peacekeepers to advance multidimensional
    mandates. Peacekeepers provide security and political and peace building
    support to help countries make the difficult, early transition from conflict to
    peace, helping to prevent relapse and to secure longer term stability, working

    in partnership with many other actors.


    Source: https://www.forbes.com/sites/realspin/2017/04/20/after-the-rwandan-genocide-theun-

    promised-never-again-now-its-time-for-them-to-take-action-against-isis/#599d5e344142

    UN regional offices serve as forward platforms for preventive diplomacy. Their
    networks and proximity to the countries in their region help to defuse tensions
    and support national actors, UN Country Teams, and regional organizations to
    address crises. Regional offices are also well placed to address cross-boundary
    issues such as transnational organized crime and water sharing.

    The UN works closely with regional partners – either in a leading or supporting
    role – to prevent conflict and maintain international peace and security.
    Partnerships with regional organizations such as the African Union (AU), the
    European Union (EU) or the Organization of American States (OAS), and subregional
    organizations like the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
    or the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), play important
    roles in early warning, engaging national networks and coordinating regional
    responses.

    10.1.3 Roles of regional organizations
    Regional and sub-regional organizations are uniquely placed to affect several
    factors that are crucial in the prevention of violent conflict. Such organizations
    can facilitate and help move forward the efforts of the UN system throughout its
    engagement in a given conflict or potential conflict.

    Regional and sub-regional organizations are well placed to act because first,
    members of regional and sub-regional organizations may be more willing to
    allow these organizations, rather than the UN, to engage in preventive action.
    The actions of regional and sub-regional organizations are likely to be more
    discreet than those undertaken by the various bodies of the UN, particularly at
    the early stages of potential conflict.

    Moreover, regional and sub-regional organizations may be better placed to
    act because they are familiar with the actors involved in the dispute and the
    situation on the ground.

    In addition, although their interests are not always benign, neighbors frequently
    have a greater interest in preventing conflicts that could potentially escalate to
    the regional level.

    The regional and sub-regional organizations have an important role to play in
    developing a regional “culture of conflict prevention” through the promotion of
    democracy, human rights and sustainable development.

    Lastly, they can and have been quite successful at longer-term and sustained
    conflict prevention efforts involving capacity building and technical assistance.
    In the past few years, this has begun to include election monitoring and broader
    democratization assistance in several regions.

    10.1.4 Role of Non – Governmental Organizations on prevention
    and conflict resolution
    In prevention and conflict resolution, the local and non-governmental
    organizations could play the following role:
    -- Addressing structural violence & promoting human security - through
    development, human rights monitoring & promotion, preventing
    environmental degradation...
    -- Making governments & state structures more responsive - through
    participation in political processes, policy dialogue, monitoring, advocacy
    campaigns, protests...
    -- Alleviating social tensions and conflict - through challenging xenophobia
    and discrimination, facilitating dialogue, promoting tolerance and a

    culture of peace...

    -- Developing options and strategies for response - formulating
    recommendations, engaging in policy dialogue, problem-solving
    workshops
    -- Mobilizing political will for response - lobbying and campaigning,
    sensitizing domestic audiences
    -- Developing & strengthening ‘constituencies for peace’ and public
    awareness work, facilitating social dialogue, public protests...
    -- Providing the humanitarian relief & support to war-affected communities;
    which reduce tension to the revengeful war.
    -- Strengthening capacities to mediate conflict and manage differences
    - through conflict resolution training, mediation services, education,
    promoting rule of law.
    -- Creating a ‘pragmatic peace’ at the local level, strengthening local
    community organizations’ capacities for conflict transformation &peace
    building through public dialogue.
    -- Developing a negotiation agenda and vision for the future that addresses
    the causes and consequences of conflict.
    -- Participating in the political negotiations and Facilitating / mediating

    political negotiations process.


    Dealing with conflicts is called differently: “conflict management,” “conflict
    resolution”, “conflict transformation”, “conflict mediation”, “consensus building”,
    etc. Most of the theorists and practionners prefer to use “conflict resolution”. The
    possible outcomes can be win-lose (one wins, the other loses), or compromise
    (parties settle their difference or win-win). However, the common outcome in
    violent conflicts is that both parties lose.

    Because conflicts are an integral part of human interaction, one should learn
    to manage them in order to prevent escalation and destruction. Throughout
    history, individuals and groups used a variety of ways to resolve their disputes
    or conflicts, trying to reach a resolution acceptable to all parties.

    10.2.1. Conflict analysis
    In dealing with conflicts, it is necessary to have a better understanding of the
    dynamics, relationships and issues of the situation. A detailed analysis of the
    conflict from a variety of perspectives must be carried out by exploring the
    specific issues and problems that relate to it. This practical process is what
    is called “conflict analysis”. It helps to plan and carry out better actions and
    strategies by facilitating to:

    -- Understand the background and history of the current events;
    -- identify all the relevant groups involved;
    -- Understand the perspectives of all these groups and to know more about
    how they relate to each other;
    -- identify factors and trends that underpin conflicts; learn from failures as
    well as successes.

    The whole dynamic conflict analysis is to be able to move from an attitude of “I
    don’t know what the real cause of the conflict is!” to “Now I know why we have this
    conflict!”. It is therefore important for the person or group analyzing a situation
    to gather data about the positions, values, issues, interests and needs of each
    party in conflict.

    -- Positions are what the person says and demands. They contain an
    understanding of the situation, the outcome of the conflict and the role
    that the conflicting party plays in it. Very often they contain a value as a
    justification or legitimization. Positions are formal, official and very often
    public.
    -- Values are basic principles which are held to be very important and may
    be used to justify positions. They can be cultural norms, laws, ethics, etc.
    -- Issues are what the parties claim the conflict is about. They are specific and
    concrete. Very often factual problems are less important than relationship
    problems, though conflicts are usually framed in factual terms.

    -- Conflicting parties are motivated by their own interests. They may be
    expressed but often they are hidden. Frequently, an actor may have several
    interests in a conflict. As interests are not essential human needs, they are
    negotiable and their relative importance may change with time.

    -- Needs are the fundamental, essential requirements for human survival.
    They relate to security, identity, community and vitality of human life.
    They are not negotiable, but they may be satisfied in different ways. They

    are usually unstated or disguised.


    Figure 2: Conflict analysis

    Conflicts change over time, passing through different stages of activity, intensity,
    tension and violence. It is helpful to recognize and analyze each stage.

    10.2.2. Using timelines
    It is a list of data (years, months, days, location, and actors) which depicts events
    in a chronological order. It shows a succession of events and gives examples in
    the history of the country. People of opposing sides may have different histories,
    emphasize different events, describe them differently, and attach contrasting
    emotions to them.

    The aim of using timelines in this way is to try to arrive at a ‘correct’ or ‘objective’
    history of the conflict and to understand the perceptions of the people involved.
    The timeline is also a way for people to learn about each other’s history and
    perceptions of the situation. The aim to reach is the point where the parties in
    a conflict can accept that others may have valid perceptions, even if these are

    opposed to their own.


    Mapping is a technique used to represent a conflict graphically, placing the
    parties in relation both to the problem and to each other. When people with
    different viewpoints map their situation together, they learn about each other’s
    experiences and perceptions.

    10.2.4. Conflict tree
    In many conflicts, there is a range of opinions concerning questions such as:
    -- What is the core problem?
    -- What are the root causes?
    -- What are the effects that have resulted from this problem?
    -- What is the most important issue for our group to address?

    This is called “conflict tree”. It offers a method for a team, organization, group
    or community to identify the issues that each of them sees as important and
    then sort these into three categories: Core problem(s), causes and effects. This
    tool offers also a way of identifying positive and negative forces and to assess

    their strengths and weaknesses.


    10.2.5. Negotiation
    Negotiation is a process in which parties to a conflict discuss directly possible
    outcomes. Parties exchange proposals and demands, make arguments, and
    continue the discussion until a solution is reached, or an impasse declared. The
    goal of negotiation is to reach an agreement that is acceptable to all parties, to
    which they remain committed, and which they indeed implement.

    Negotiations are based on the following basic principles:
    -- Separate the people from the problem: The participants in a negotiation
    have with different perceptions, beliefs, viewpoints and emotions. In
    negotiation the “people side” must be treated separately from the factual
    issues. Ideally, participants should also see themselves working side by
    side attacking the problem, not each other.
    -- Focus on interests, not positions: The object of negotiation is to satisfy
    underlying needs and interests. To take and hold on a position will not
    lead to agreements that take care of human needs. Thus the focus should
    be on interests.
    -- Invent options for mutual gain: In negotiation, partners must take time
    to look for a wide range of possible solutions before trying to come to
    an agreement. If there are many options, there is more chance of finding
    solutions which advance shared interests and reconcile differences.
    -- Use objective criteria: Agreement must reflect some fair standards.
    These standards are not subjective criteria of one participant; rather they

    should be shared by all participants and objectively verifiable.

    -- Finally, active listening is the most important and difficult skill needed
    for negotiator or mediator to succeed in the negotiation process.
    On international level, negotiation in order to resolve conflicts has become a
    common and frequent practice. Many ways are available to deal with conflict.

    In most cases, conflicts are resolved through efforts of trained government
    representatives or diplomats. This is an old tradition by which ambassadors were
    personal representatives of one sovereign to the court of another. In modern
    times, electronic communication has supplanted the individual diplomat when
    it comes to the establishment of important international agreements, but the
    role of person-to-person contact, even at the highest levels, remains important.
    The process of conflict resolution is like a debate.

    10.2.6. Mediation
    Mediation is a process that employs a neutral/impartial person or persons to
    facilitate negotiation between the parties to a conflict in an effort to reach a
    mutually accepted resolution. It is a process close to negotiation.

    The mediator’s role is to help the parties think in new and innovative ways and
    to avoid rigid positions instead of looking after their interests. In general, the
    mediator not only facilitates but also designs the process and helps the parties
    to get to the root of their conflict, to understand their interests, and reach a
    resolution agreed by all concerned parties. He/she uses tools such as active
    listening, open-ended questions, and his/her analytical skills.

    The mediator may decide to stop the process for ethical or other reasons,
    and the parties may decide that they are not satisfied with the process. The
    agreement, which is reached between the parties is voluntary, the parties own
    it and are responsible for implementing it. The agreement is validated and
    ratified by the courts.

    Mediation has a special advantage when the parties have ongoing relations that
    must continue after the conflict is managed. Since the agreement is by consent,
    none of the parties should feel they are the losers. Mediation is therefore useful
    in family relations, disputes between neighbors, in labor relations, between
    business partners, and political parties. It creates a foundation for resuming

    the relation after the conflict has been resolved.


    Source: RCN Justice & Démocratie http://www.rwandapedia.rw/sites/default/files/
    Mediation%20Session%20in%20 Nyamugari%20Sector%20in%20the%20Kirehe%20

    District_2012.jpg

    Solving conflicts completely is impossible, as conflict is part of the daily life.
    What is needed to achieve a lasting peace is to prevent escalation so that it does
    not become crisis with killings of human beings and destruction of social and
    material structures.

    Practitioners say that peace begins within each individual and then spread
    out. The question is that not everyone is ready to engage in that process unless
    there is awareness action with that aim. This can be initiated by the state, the
    international institutions or civil society organizations.

    Lack of conflict mechanism and programs in local community can hinder the
    prevention and resolution of conflict in the community. Not all countries or
    communities have such experience. Rwanda is among the countries who have
    elaborated such kind of programs because of its particular tragic experience.
    Key challenges to conflict prevention remain in international affairs. Many
    states in the South are concerned that conflict resolution can be abused as a
    pretext for the big powers to violate the sovereignty of the weak. These concerns
    have been somewhat verified in the past couple of years. It is the case of recent
    operations in Libya.

    Concerns about violations of sovereignty persist, as do suspicions about
    the underlying motivations behind the use of military power for ostensibly
    humanitarian purposes, and perceptions that, even when well-intentioned,
    the application of force can potentially have troubling and unpredictable
    consequences.

    Lack of international community ownership regarding some crises: the actions
    of the United Nations are limited with insufficient humanitarian activities
    and in some cases (like in Darfur crisis), the international community’s will is
    oriented by the big powers such as the USA and China. To some extent, China
    was mandated to play a more role to end the conflict in Darfur. Therefore, the
    conflict became insignificant to the UN which delays the action to be taken in
    order to stop it.

    Unwillingness of the UN to develop a conflict resolution mechanism capable of
    managing crisis also is another challenge in process of conflict resolution. This
    unwillingness is a result of the misperception of the existence of glob threats
    by states and non-states actors. Such willingness can be also resulted from
    the division within international community based on different interests each

    member state can find in conflict.

    In case of intra-state conflict, some states are not able to address the menace
    of the proliferation of small arms and light weapons in polity with functional
    policies. This enables different groups to get armed and able to challenge the
    national security. As a result, the government is seen as a weak and failed state.
    Even the civil society is not able to act in order to prevent the conflict.

    Some states also failure to tackle the immediate and root causes of conflict
    holistically. After many years of neglect, the government can fail to really solve
    many cases of injustice, poverty, unemployment and issues of resource control.
    In addition, the state failure to address early warning signs and early response
    systems can greatly affect the conflict prevention and resolution.

    10.4. Solutions to the challenges encountered during the
    prevention and resolution of conflicts and violence
    Conflict prevention and resolution involve long-term political processes, with
    periods of slow to no progress punctuated by shifts in positions, circumstances
    or contexts. While some types of conflicts can be sorted into broader categories
    due to certain common features, each conflict has to be seen in its particular
    environment.

    To be effective, conflict resolution tools should integrate state and non-state
    actors through multi-track approaches at the local, national, and regional
    levels. Local civil society or ganizations may have a better understanding of
    local context and can play a significant role in supporting national conflict
    resolution and reconciliation processes at the local level.

    Mediation is a specialized activity, which requires specific training, expertise
    and knowhow. Consequently, any third-party actor engaging in mediation
    efforts should be equipped with a solid understanding of how mediation and
    conflict resolution work.

    Sustainable peace building contributes to the process of conflict resolution.
    Consequently, national and international efforts have to focus on meeting the
    most immediate needs of people.

    Another key objective is the restoration of state legitimacy and effectiveness,
    as peace building usually starts after a partial or complete breakdown of the
    political and social order, for instance due to an armed conflict or other forms

    of protracted violence.

    The establishment and promotion of prevention and conflict resolution
    must include national peace commissions, national and local institutions for
    mediation and dispute settlement, national and local early warning networks,
    local peace committees, truth and reconciliation commissions as well as
    community-based conflict prevention initiatives.

    Early warning and early response systems must be considered on time so that
    they can be especially important contributions to end the conflict status within
    a society or between different nations.

    The key building blocks for reconciliation include trust, justice and reparation.
    They should be applied in support of conflict resolution and peace building,
    reconciliation activities are inherently about learning how to remember and

    change rather than to forgive and forget.

  • UNIT 11 DIGNITY AND SELF-RELIANCE

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to critique how the

    home-grown solutions contribute to self-reliance.

    Dignity: It is a condition of being worth of respect, esteem or honor.
    Self-reliance: This is a state of being independent in all aspects.
    Home Grown Solutions are Rwanda’s brainchild solutions to economic and
    social development. They are also practices developed by the Rwandan citizens
    based on local opportunities, cultural values and history to fast track their
    development. Being locally-created, Home Grown Solutions are appropriate
    to the local development context and have been the bedrock to the Rwandan
    development successes for the last decade.

    11.1.1. Girinka
    The word “Girinka” (girainka) commonly known as GirinkaMunyarwanda (One
    Cow per Poor Family Programme) can be translated as ‘may you have a cow’
    and describes a centuries’ old cultural practice in Rwanda whereby a cow was
    given by one person to another, either as a sign of respect and gratitude or as a

    marriage dowry.

    Contemporary Girinka was introduced in 2006 against a backdrop of
    alarmingly high levels of poverty and childhood malnutrition. The program is
    structured in two phases. First, a community member identified as someone
    who would greatly benefit from owning a cow is given a pregnant dairy cow.

    That person benefits from its milk and manure production. Beneficiaries are
    then obliged to give the first born female calf to another worthy beneficiary
    in their community. This is known as the ‘pass on’ principle, or kuziturirana/

    kwitura.

    Girinka has been described as a culturally-inspired social safety net program
    because of the way it introduces a productive asset (a dairy cow) which can
    provide long-term benefits to the recipient. Approved on 12 April 2006 by
    Cabinet decision, Girinka originally aimed to reach 257,000 beneficiaries;
    however, this target was revised upwards in 2010 to 350,000 beneficiaries
    by 2017. The Government of Rwanda was initially the sole funder of the
    Girinkaprogram but development partners have since become involved in the
    program. This has led to an increase in the number of cows being distributed.

    By September 2014 close to 200,000 beneficiaries had received a cow.

    Source: https: //www.bing.com/ images/search?view= detailV2&ccid= oIGr%2f60G&id=
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    DI6umSwbzJjawHaFj&

    11.1.2. Ubudehe – Social categorisation for collective action and
    mutual support

    Ubudehe refers to the long-standing Rwandan practice and culture of collective
    action and mutual support to solve problems within a community. It is one
    of Rwanda’s best known Home Grown Solution because of its participatory

    development approach to poverty reduction.

    The origin of the word Ubudehe comes from the practice of preparing fields
    before the rainy season and finishing the task in time for planting. A community
    would cultivate clear the fields together to make sure everyone was ready for
    the planting season. Once a community had completed Ubudehe for everyone
    involved, they would assist those who had not been able to take part, such as
    the very poor. After planting the partakers gathered and shared beer. Therefore,
    the focus of traditional Ubudehe was mostly on cultivation.

    Ubudehe was an inclusive cultural practice involving men, women and members
    of different social groups. As almost all members of the community took part,
    the practice often led to increased solidarity, social cohesion, mutual respect
    and trust.

    Colonisation and the introduction of a cash-based economy weakened the
    practice of Ubudehe as some members of the community were able to recruit
    some people to perform agricultural works for payment. While this trend
    occurred across the country, in some places Ubudehe was still practiced until
    the 1980s.

    • Contemporary Ubudehe
    Contemporary Ubudehe is a poverty reduction initiative by the Government of
    Rwanda which provides communities with the skills and support necessary
    to engage in problem solving and decision making for their development. It
    is a culture of collective action and solidarity to solve problems of poverty by
    people themselves. This is done by categorizing Rwandans into different income
    groups according to self-sustenance. The poor are given priority in terms of
    health insurance, education, electricity, water supply and even accommodation.

    From the independence of Rwanda, Ubudehe was reintroduced into Rwandan
    life in 2001 as way to better involve communities in their development by setting
    up participatory problem solving mechanisms. Ubudehe creates opportunities
    for people at all levels of the society, especially the village level, to interact
    with one another, share ideas, create institutions and make decisions for their
    collective development.

    11.1.3. Akarimak’Igikoni (Small field of kitchen)
    This is one of the government’s home grown solutions for fighting against
    malnutrition. It consists of small field of vegetables cultivated near the house.
    The field is enriched by enough manure to increase production of vegetables.
    A variety of vegetables are grown there and careful supervision is ensured
    by family members. The Akarima k’Igikoni has played a significance role in
    combating malnutrition mainly in rural areas. It helps people to get balanced
    and varied diet hence good health and increase in production and life expectance

    of Rwandans.

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    06845EE9C24CC248A1BAD0587997531A0B67C71E&thid= OIP.AF0Vh4efOAHwgmOVSd_-

    11.1.4. Kuremera

    It is an initiative created by the government of Rwanda. It aims at solving the
    problem of unemployment especially among the youth. At the start, the Rwandan
    government gave Rwandan Francs 200 million to youth. They were given this
    amount to start self-help projects. This has gone even to local levels. Members
    of a given community can join hands to help the needy in their community. For
    example, they construct houses, avail water for the aged and provide food.
    11.1.5. Umuganda
    Umuganda was created to help supplement the national budget spent in
    construction and the repair of basic infrastructure. The work done is organized
    by community members and is done voluntarily and without pay. The projects
    completed through Umuganda include the construction of schools, feeder
    roads, road repair, terracing, reforestation, home construction for vulnerable
    people, erosion control, water canals, etc.

    Today, Umuganda takes place on the last Saturday of each month from 8:00 a.m.
    and lasts for at least three hours. Rwandans between 18 and 65 are obliged to
    participate in Umuganda. Those over 65 are welcome to participate if they are
    willing and able. Expatriates living in Rwanda are also encouraged to take part.
    Those who participate in Umuganda cannot be compensated for their work –
    either in cash or in kind.

    11.1.6. Agaciro (Agaciro Development Fund)
    This is solidarity fund that has been initiated by Rwandans. The fund seeks
    to improve the level of financial autonomy of Rwanda. It is a government
    programme. It was started by his Excellency the President of the Republic of
    Rwanda in August, 2012. It was started as a way of increasing self-reliance
    rather than relying on foreign aids.

    11.1.7. Imihigo– Performance contracts
    The word Imihigo is the plural Kinyarwanda word of umuhigo, which means to
    vow to deliver. Imihigo also include the concept of guhiganwa, which means to
    compete among one another. Imihigopractices existed in pre-colonial Rwanda
    and have been adapted to fit the current challenges of the Rwandan society.

    Imihigo were re-initiated by Rwanda’s President, Paul Kagame, in March 2006.
    This was as a result of the concern about the speed and quality of execution of
    government programs and priorities. The government’s decentralisation policy
    required a greater accountability at the local level. Its main objective was to
    make public agencies and institutions more effective and accountable in their
    implementation of national programs and to accelerate the socio-economic

    development agenda

    Today, Imihigo are used across the government as performance contracts and
    to ensure accountability. All levels of government, from the local district level
    to ministries and embassies, are required to develop and have their Imihigo
    evaluated. Members of the public service also sign Imihigo with their managers
    or head of institution.TheImihigo process ensures the full participation and
    ownership of citizens because priorities are developed at the grassroots level.

    11.1.8. Itorero
    Traditionally Itorero was a traditional institution where Rwandans would learn
    rhetoric, patriotism, social relations, sports, dancing, songs and defence. This
    system was created so that young people could grow with an understanding of
    their culture. Participants were encouraged to discuss and explore Rwandan
    cultural values. Itorero was reintroduced in 2009 as a way to rebuild the nation’s
    social fabric and mobilise Rwandans to uphold important cultural values.

    In the aftermath of the Genocide against the Tutsi, the Government of Rwanda
    reintroduced Itorero in view of societal transformation. This Home Grown
    Solution was adopted following the 4thUmwiherero (National Leadership
    Retreat) in February 2007.

    Contemporary Itorero includes physical activities along with classes on
    Rwandan history that reintroduce some of the cultural values lost during

    colonisation. Training is adapted for the group participating in Itorero.

    Source:http://paulkagame.com/?p=3551

    Itorero is designed for all Rwandans. Children of seven years and above take
    part in their imidugudu, villages, to help them grow up to become responsible
    citizens. Compulsory National Service (Urugerero) is designed for those
    between the ages of 18 and 35 who have completed secondary education.
    Others keen to participate are given the opportunity to do so according to their
    professional backgrounds.
    Rwandan citizens living abroad also join Urugerero and a number of young
    Rwandans have organised Itorero in cities including London and Brussels.Nonnationals
    desiring to participate and provide service to the country can also do
    so.

    11.1.9. Community policing
    Community policing or community oriented policing is a strategy of policing that
    focus on building ties and working closely with members of the communities.
    Community policing was adopted in Rwanda to encourage citizens to participate
    in crime-solving.

    Community policing encourages the Police to increase the means by which
    citizens can report incidents or the use of volunteers to provide timely reports
    that help us in anti-crime operations.

    This strategy has been very successful in increasing Police response to crime,

    because many reports are now provided by community members.

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    608043157824998829&selectedIndex=214

    Home Grown Solutions, culturally owned practices have been translated into
    sustainable development programmes and have contributed a lot in helping
    getting some socio-economic solutions that were not possible to get otherwise.
    Dignity and self-reliance through Home Grown Solutions have positive
    contributions on the Rwandan society. Some of them are:

    -- They have brought, among Rwandans, a sense of togetherness and love
    for one another. The love is not based on any other string but Rwandans.
    -- Dignity and self-reliance have played a big role in the economic
    development of Rwanda. Every Rwandan feels that it is their duty to
    develop their own country.

    -- Dignity and self-reliance has led to promotion of peace and stability
    among Rwandans. People learn to respect and live in harmony with each
    other.
    -- Rwanda has been able to fight the bad history of tribalism of 1950s and
    early 1990s. Rwandans now work together towards the development of

    their nation.

    They have also helped to reduce income inequalities among Rwandans.
    Rwandan society looks forward to dignifying every member, that is, the
    rich help the poor.

    -- Dignity and self-reliance reduce the dependency ratio on the
    government. Some issues are addressed by the citizens through various
    campaigns such as ‘bye-bye nyakatsi.’ Campaigns such as kuremeraand
    AgaciroDevelopment Fund have enabled the government to finance up to
    66% of its budget.

    -- Rwanda has been able to provide basic services to its citizens. For example,
    under the Ubudehe, the vulnerable Rwandans are given priority in terms
    of education.

    -- Dignity and self-reliance are very important in Rwanda. They promote
    growth and development of Rwanda. They bridge the gap between the
    poor and the rich. They enable provision of basic services, and helping the

    needy and disaster stricken people. They also help in poverty eradication.

    11.3.1. Challenges of Girinka.
    In some cases, the distribution of cows has not been transparent and people with
    the financial capacity to buy cows themselves were among the beneficiaries. This
    issue was raised at the National Dialogue Council (Umushyikirano) in 2009
    eventually resolved through the cow recovery programme. This program
    resulted in 20,123 cows given to unqualified beneficiaries (out of a total of
    20,532 wrongly given) redistributed to poor families.

    A lack of feed factories in the country has hindered efforts to properly feed some
    of the cattle affecting their health and productivity. The Ministry of Agriculture
    worked with investors who have shown interest in building feed factories in
    Nyagatare, Kayonza and Kicukiro. In some instances, the cost of management
    inputs has been high and in some districts there has been a delay in utilisation
    of earmarked fund. Decentralisation of the programme has helped address this.
    Provision of additional services (especially veterinary services and artificial
    insemination) has been limited in some cases due to shortage of skilled staff
    with relevant training. This has affected the cows’ milk production and the
    ‘pass on’ system.

    Poor management by inexperienced farmers has increased the mortality for
    some cows. To address this, beneficiaries now receive training about modern
    farming practices prior to receiving their cow.

    11.3.2. Challenges of Ubudehe
    In some cases, village members have preferred to be classified into lower
    poverty levels as a way to receive support from social security programs such
    as health insurance and Girinka. To overcome this, household poverty level
    categorisation takes place publically with all heads of households and must be
    validated by the village itself.

    In the project implementation, the major challenge lies in the choice of a project
    by the community and its completion. Actually, communities sometimes have
    difficulty defining the problems affecting their development and struggle to
    know how best to prioritise the projects and select the most crucial project to
    execute. Challenges also sometimes arise when communities are required to
    choose one household to act as a model for the village. This can be a point of
    contention because that household receives significant resources to carrying
    out its Ubudehe development plan.

    11.3.3. Challenges of Umuganda
    The challenges faced by Umugandafall into two broad categories:
    -- Planning and participation. In some areas of the country, poor planning
    has led to unrealistic targets and projects that would be difficult to achieve

    without additional financing.

    -- In urban areas, participation in Umugandahas been lower than in rural
    areas. To address these challenges, the team responsible for Umugandaat
    the Ministry of Local Government has run trainings for the committees
    that oversee Umugandaat the local level. These trainings include lessons
    on monitoring and evaluation, how to report achievements, the laws,
    orders and guidelines governing Umugandaas well as responsibilities of
    the committee.

    11.3.4. Challenges of Itorero
    During its implementation, Itorerofaced a series of challenges including:
    -- Inadequate staff and insufficient logistics for the monitoring and
    evaluation of Itoreroactivities;
    -- Training modules and internal regulations and procedures governing
    Itoreroprogrammes not yet refined;
    -- Low level of understanding the important role of Itorerory’ Igihuguon the
    part of partners;
    -- Districts lack sufficient training facilities;
    -- Some Itoreromentors lack sufficient capacity to train other people;
    -- The National ItoreroCommission does not get adequate information on
    partners’ commitment to Volunteer Services;
    -- A number of various institutions in the country have not yet started
    considering voluntary and national service activities in their planning.
    -- Low understanding of the role of Itorero especially at the village level;
    -- Existence of some partners who have not yet included activities relating
    to the promotion of Ubutore culture in their plan of action.

    11.3.5. Challenges of Imihigo
    There is a planning gap especially on setting and maintaining logic and
    consistency: objectives, baseline, output/targets and indicators.

    Setting unrealistic and over-ambitious targets by districts was common. Some
    targets were not easily achievable in 12 months; for example, the construction
    of a 30 km road when no feasibility study had been conducted or reducing
    crime by 100%.
    In some districts low targets were established that would require little effort

    to implement.

    The practice of consistent tracking of implementation progress, reporting and
    filing is generally still weak.
    Some targets were not achieved because of district partners who did not fulfil
    their commitments in disbursing funds - especially the central government
    institutions and development partners.

    There is a weakness of not setting targets based on uniqueness of rural and
    urban settings.

    Setting targets that are beyond districts’ full control was observed: For
    example, construction of stadiums and development of master plans whose
    implementation is fully managed by the central government.
    There was general lack of communication and reporting of challenges faced

    that hindered implementation of the committed targets.

  • UNIT 12 RWANDAN VALUES, TABOOS, CITIZENSHIP AT NATIONAL, AFRICAN, GLOBAL LEVELS AND THE ROLE OF DEMOCRACY IN THE TRANSFORMATION OF THE RWANDAN SOCIETY

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to examine the
    importance of citizenship at national, African and
    global levels and appreciate the role of democracy in

    the transformation of the Rwandan society.

    Ndi Umunyarwanda, means ‘I am Rwandan’. It is a programme initiated to build
    a national identity based on trust and dignity. It aims to strengthen unity and
    reconciliation among Rwandans by providing a forum for people to talk about
    the causes and consequences of the genocide as well as what it means to be
    Rwandan.

    Ndi Umunyarwanda is a program and a process born out of the Youth
    Connect Dialogue. The dialogue was initiated by Rwandan youth, Ministry
    of Youth and Imbuto Foundation, with the aim of building trust among
    Rwandans. NdiUmunyarwanda http://genocidearchiverwanda.org.rw/index.php/
    Category:Ndi_Umunyarwanda_Collection.

    programme was initiated in 2013, with an ultimate goal of building a national
    identity and to foster a Rwandan community that is based on trust and unity.
    In the Rwandan context, trust is a process that can be achieved through
    responsible and continuous dialogue, on the truth about our history, the cost
    struggle. Ndi Umunyarwanda reminds Rwandans that the struggle to protect
    their nation and sustain their achievements is ongoing. The concept is based on
    four pillars: history, testimonies, forgiveness and healing.

    It was born to help Rwandans, especially the youth, openly talk about their
    history, repent, forgive, and heal in the post-Genocide period. Seeking the truth,
    expressing the remorse for what happened during the Genocide, encouraging
    apologies and forgiveness and taking measures to ensure that what happened
    never happens again are the foundation of Ndi Umunyarwanda programme.
    If it is well implemented, Ndi Umunyarwanda will help a lot because it will
    be a platform to break the awkward silence that we have in our society. We
    should not be carrying the trauma of not being able to express ourselves. We
    can express ourselves and still be Rwandans.’ They need a platform where they
    can talk about what they feel and think in order to heal and move forward. Ndi
    Umunyarwanda will help build trust among Rwandans and it will bring a lot of
    successes for this country because we will see more people working together
    and developing themselves more than before.

    Ndi Umunyarwanda teaches about the qualities of the Rwandan including:
    • Trust in each other
    • Truth and tolerance
    • Listening
    • Humility
    • Self-respect
    • Helping each other
    • Patriotism
    • Team work
    Ndi Umunyarwanda also teaches Rwandans about taboos. These are vices or

    things and we should not practice or emulate. Such taboos include:

    • Selfishness
    • Betray the country
    • Having genocide ideology, hate, and passing that on to your sibling.
    The role of Ndi Umunyarwanda values in sustainable development
    • Ndi Umunyarwanda values have brought, among Rwandans, a sense
    of togetherness and love for one another.
    • Dignity and self-reliance have played a big role in the economic
    development of Rwanda. Every Rwandan feels that it is their duty to
    develop their own country.
    • Dignity and self-reliance has led to promotion of peace and stability
    among Rwandans. People learn to respect and live in harmony with
    each other.
    • With Ndi Umunyarwanda values, Rwanda has been able to fight the
    bad history of tribalism of 1950s and early 1990s. Rwandans now work
    together towards the development of their nation.

    • Ndi Umunyarwanda values have also helped to reduce income
    inequalities among Rwandans. Rwandan society looks forward to
    dignifying every member, that is, the rich help the poor.

    • Dignity and self-reliance reduce the dependency ratio on the
    government. Some issues are addressed by the citizens through various
    campaigns such as ‘bye-bye nyakatsi.’ Campaigns such as kuremeraand
    AgaciroDevelopment Fund have enabled the government to finance up

    to 66% of its budget.

    12.2.1. The concept of Pan-Africanism
    Pan-Africanism is a worldwide movement that aims to encourage and
    strengthen bonds of solidarity between all indigenous and diaspora ethnic
    groups of African descent. It is based on the belief that unity is vital to economic,
    social, and political progress and aims to «unify and uplift» people of African
    descent. At its core Pan-Africanism is a belief that “African people, both on
    the continent and in the diaspora, share not merely a common history, but a
    common destiny”. Pan-Africanist intellectual, cultural, and political movements
    tend to view all Africans and descendants of Africans as belonging to a single
    “race” and sharing cultural unity. Pan-Africanism posits a sense of a shared
    historical fate for Africans in the Americas, West Indies, and, on the continent
    itself, has centered on the Atlantic trade in slaves, African slavery, and European
    imperialism.

    Pan-Africanism is a dynamic concept of seeing Africa [and its populations] as
    one entity in its different components: people, cultures, history, and issues and
    considering Africans as one race wherever they are in time and space.

    Pan-Africanists envision a unified African nation where all people of the
    African diaspora can live. The most important early Pan-Africanists were Martin
    Delany and Alexander Crummel, both African Americans, and Edward Blyden
    born in West Indies. However, the true father of modern Pan-Africanism was
    the influential thinker W.E.B. Du Bois.

    Among the more-important Pan-Africanist thinkers of the first decades of the
    20th century was Jamaican-born Black Nationalist Marcus Garvey. From the
    1920s through the 1940s, among the most-prominent black intellectuals who
    advocated Pan-Africanist ideas were C.L.R. James and George Padmore,
    both of whom came from Trinidad. From the 1930s until his death in 1959,
    Padmore was one of the leading theorists of Pan-African ideas. Also influential
    were Léopold Senghor and Aimé Césaire , who were natives of Senegal and
    Martinique, respectively. A disciple of Padmore, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, was
    also an important figure in Pan-Africanist thought. The most-important figure
    of 1950s period was Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana who believed that European
    colonial rule of Africa could be extinguished if Africans could unite politically

    and economically.

    The importance of Pan-Africanism
    • Pan Africanism helped Africans to speak with one voice during the
    anti-colonial struggle and in subsequent diplomatic and economic
    negotiations.

    • The regional economic communities in Africa and the ideas of founding
    a borderless Africa with a single market, freedom of movement for
    labour and capital was inspired by pan Africanism movement.

    • Although divisions are still there, Pan-Africanism serves as a catalyst
    to confront these divisions via the continued mobilization for global,
    Black solidarity and consolidation.

    • Pan Africanism affirmed the worth of black people and therefore
    rejected the inferiority ascribed by racist thought in the late 19th and
    20th Cs.

    • It helped to launch the struggle for rights and equality for black people
    in the diaspora; although there were advocates of a return migration
    to Africa, eventually and especially after 1945, black people in the

    diaspora focused on rights and justice where they lived.

    • In Africa, the movement asserted the right of independence for
    Africans—“Africa for the Africans.”

    • Early in the century, for the newly emerging African elite, it was a
    source of ideas and contacts, especially for students studying abroad;

    • It helped to provide an ideology of unity in the process of mass
    mobilization of Africans for the independence struggle;

    • It also helped to build a constituency in Europe and North America
    which was sympathetic to and supportive of independence for Africa
    and this came to form important ‘public opinion’ in the 1950s and 60s.

    • The ideas of Pan Africanism were used by nationalists to form political
    parties and liberation movements in many states of Africa which fought
    and led African countries to independence.

    • The ideas of Pan Africanism resulted in the formation of OAU in 1963.
    With Pan Africanism African political unity was sowed and this unity
    influenced the formation of OAU that joined all African countries. The
    headquarters of OAU were at Addis- Ababa from where coordination
    among African states was carried out, hence facilitating the liberation
    struggles.

    • The Pan Africanism helped to sensitize black people about their
    rights and helped them present their human rights abuses before
    the UN. A number of Pan Africanists, for example, Julius Nyerere,
    Kwame Nkrumah, Kamuzubanda, Jomo Kenyatta and others started
    sensitizing fellow Africans about their rights, including the rights for
    self-government.

    • The Pan Africanism has continued to voice its dissatisfaction against
    neocolonialism in Africa. The Pan African groups around the world
    have succeeded in focusing the world’s attention to the existence of
    neocolonialism that is hindering the development of African countries
    even after independence.

    12.2.2. Global Citizenship
    It is a way of living that recognises that our world is wide, interconnected and
    interdependent. One in which our choices and actions may have repercussions
    for people and communities locally, nationally or internationally. A Global
    Citizen is someone who:

    • is aware of the wider world and has a sense of their own role as a world
    citizen
    • respects and values diversity
    • has an understanding of how the world works
    • is outraged by social injustice
    • participates in the community at a range of levels, from the local to the
    global
    • is willing to act to make the world a more equitable and sustainable
    place
    • takes responsibility for their actions.
    To be effective Global Citizens, young people need to be flexible, creative
    and proactive. They need to be able to solve problems, make decisions, think
    critically, communicate ideas effectively and work in collaborative way for

    sustainable development.

    Everybody defines leadership differently but I really like the way John C
    Maxwell defines leadership, “A leader is one who knows the way, goes the
    way, and shows the way.” Irrespective of how you define a leader, he or she can
    prove to be a difference maker between success and failure. A good leader has a
    futuristic vision and knows how to turn his ideas into real-world success stories.

    In this article, we take an in-depth look at some of the important leadership
    qualities that separate good leaders from a bad one. The following are some of
    the characteristics of a good leader:

    • Competency: To be competent is having suitable or sufficient skill,
    knowledge, experience, etc., for some purpose; properly qualified.

    Competent leader, therefore, performs through every season
    of leadership, during the good, bad, and ugly times of leading. They
    know how to nourish themselves and remain self-motivated. The most
    important role of a leader is to produce results, primarily by influencing
    those around them to perform

    • Honesty and integrity: The 34th President of United States,
    Dwight.D.Eisenhower once said, “The supreme quality of leadership
    is unquestionably integrity. Without it, no real success is possible,
    no matter whether it is on a section gang, a football field, in an army,
    or in an office.” Honesty and integrity are two important ingredients
    which make a good leader.

    • Humility: Humility is often characterized as genuine gratitude and
    lack of arrogance, a modest view of one’s self.Humility is one of the
    most respected strategic leadership qualities. Humble leaders admit
    their mistakes, apologize when necessary, and always share credit.

    This behavior makes you more “human” and relatable; it’s also simply
    a best practice to empower and reward others instead of acting like the
    smartest person in the room (even if you are!) Humble leaders treat
    others with respect. Humble leaders are consistent and disciplined in
    their treatment of others. They treat everyone with respect regardless
    of their position, role or title.

    • Patience: A good leader should have the ability to endure difficult
    circumstances such as perseverance in the face of delay; tolerance of
    provocation without responding in annoyance; or forbearance when
    under strain, especially when faced with longer-term difficulties.

    • Confidence: To be an effective leader, you should be confident
    enough to ensure that other follow your commands. If you are unsure
    about your own decisions and qualities, then your subordinates will
    never follow you. As a leader, you have to be oozing with confidence,
    show some swagger and assertiveness to gain the respect of your
    subordinates. This does not mean that you should be overconfident,
    but you should at least reflect the degree of confidence required to
    ensure that your followers trust you as a leader.

    • Inspire Others: Probably the most difficult job for a leader is to
    persuade others to follow. It can only be possible if you inspire your
    followers by setting a good example. When the going gets tough, they
    look up to you and see how you react to the situation. If you handle it
    well, they will follow you. As a leader, should think positive and this
    positive approach should be visible through your actions. Stay calm
    under pressure and keep the motivation level up.

    • Commitment and Passion: Your teams look up to you and if you
    want them to give them their all, you will have to be passionate about
    it too. When your teammates see you getting your hands dirty, they
    will also give their best shot. It will also help you to gain the respect
    of your subordinates and infuse new energy in your team members,
    which helps them to perform better. If they feel that you are not fully
    committed or lacks passion, then it would be an uphill task for the
    leader to motivate your followers to achieve the goal.

    • Good Communicator: Until you clearly communicate your vision
    to your team and tell them the strategy to achieve the goal, it will be
    very difficult for you to get the results you want. Simply put, if you are
    unable to communicate your message effectively to your team, you can
    never be a good leader. Words have the power to motivate people and
    make them do the unthinkable. If you use them effectively, you can also
    achieve better results.

    • Decision-Making Capabilities: Apart from having a futuristic vision,
    a leader should have the ability to take the right decision at the right
    time. Decisions taken by leaders have a profound impact on masses.
    A leader should think long and hard before taking a decision but once
    the decision is taken, stand by it. Although, most leaders take decisions
    on their own, but it is highly recommended that you consult key
    stakeholders before taking a decision. After all, they are the ones who
    will benefit or suffer from your decisions.

    • Accountability: As a leader, make sure that every one of your
    subordinates is accountable for what they are doing. If they do well,
    give them a pat on the back but if they struggle, make them realize their
    mistakes and work together to improve. Holding them accountable
    for their actions will create a sense of responsibility among your
    subordinates.

    • Delegation and Empowerment: You cannot do everything, right. It is
    important for a leader to focus on key responsibilities while leaving the
    rest to others. By that, I mean empowering your followers and delegating
    tasks to them. If you continue to micromanage your subordinates, it
    will develop a lack of trust and more importantly, you will not be able
    to focus on important matters, as you should be. Delegate tasks to
    your subordinates and see how they perform. Provide them with all
    the resources and support they need to achieve the objective and give
    them a chance to bear the responsibility.

    • Creativity and Innovation: What separates a leader from a
    follower? According to Steve Jobs, “Innovation distinguishes between
    a leader and a follower.” In order to get ahead in today’s fast-paced
    world, a leader must be creative and innovative at the same time.
    Creative thinking and constant innovation is what makes you and your
    team stand out from the crowd. Think out of the box to come up with
    unique ideas and turn those ideas and goals into reality.

    • Empathy: Leaders should develop empathy with their followers.
    Unfortunately, most leaders follow a dictatorial style and neglect
    empathy altogether. Due to this, they fail to make a closer connection
    with their followers. Understanding the problems of your followers
    and feeling their pain is the first step to become an effective leader. A
    good leader should work hard and provide his/ her followers with the

    suitable solution to their problems.

    Governance is «the process of decision-making and the process by which
    decisions are implemented (or not implemented).The concept centers on the
    responsibility of governments and governing bodies to meet the needs of the
    masses as opposed to select groups in society. The following are some of the
    characteristics of good governance:

    • Participation: Participation of both sexes is crucial to good governance.

    Participation could be direct or indirectly, through representation.

    Participation means the citizens needs to be informed and organized.
    This is where the freedom of association and organized civil society
    play key roles.

    • Accountability: This is a key requirement of good governance. Not
    just for government institutions but also for civil societies and private
    sectors. They must be accountable to their stakeholders and to the
    public. Accountability must be accompanied by transparency and rule

    of law.

    President Paul Kagame and Prime Minister Habumuremyi leading Umwiherero. 11th National

    Leadership Retreat

    Source: http://www.rwandapedia.rw/sites/default/files/13062988465_7e76c492ef_b_0.jpg

    • Good Planning: Planning is the process of goal setting; developing the
    approach to achieve those goals; outlining activities; prioritizing them;
    and creating a schedule that brings us closer to the goals that we set.
    With this understanding, we can strive to focus on the goal and work
    effectively to achieve it. Effective planning is one of the best methods
    to manage your time in order to use it to your advantage. “If you fail to
    plan you plan to fail”, because spending time without proper planning
    will lead you nowhere.

    • Rule of Law: This refers to the legal framework that is enforced
    impartially. It requires the protection of human rights and the rights
    of the minorities. For this to be effective, the judiciary must be
    independent and the police force must be impartial and incorruptible.

    • Responsiveness: Good governance presupposed that institutions
    and processes serve all stakeholders and respond as soon as the need
    arises. It entails government acting expeditiously in time of crisis or
    emergency.
    • Equity and Inclusiveness: This requires that all groups in society be
    given opportunity to improve and maintain their well- being. It means
    giving an open door to all and treating all equally.

    • Transparency: This means decision taking and enforcement are done
    in a way that abides by rules and regulations. It allows for information
    flow. Moreover, information must be freely available to those who will
    be affected by it, in an easily understandable form.

    • Effectiveness and Efficiency: This emphasizes the need for
    institutions and establishments to produce results that meet the needs
    of present society with the resources available. The concept covers the
    sustainable use of resources and the protection of the environment.

    • Democratization: It allows for individuals and every group in society
    to be given the opportunity to vie for positions without hindrance.
    It is the opportunity to fairly compete, without intimidation or
    discrimination.

    • Free Press: A press that is not gagged. A press responsible in reportage
    and investigative journalism is emphasized here.
    • Virile Civil Society: This refers to the civil society that is conscious

    and alive to its responsibilities.

    12.5.1. The concept of democracy
    Etymologically the term “democracy” means “power of people”. It derives from
    two Greek words “demos” or people and “kratos” which mean power. Democracy
    is defined as the government in which the supreme power is vested in the
    people. In some forms, democracy can be exercised directly by the people; in
    large societies, it is by the people through their elected representatives. In the
    memorable phrase of American President Abraham Lincoln, democracy is the
    government of “the people, by the people, and for the people”. Thus, democracy is
    simply a system of government where the citizens directly exercise their power,
    and have the right to elect the government representatives who collectively
    create a government body for the entire nation (like, a parliament).
    The basic features of democracy include the following:

    • Political freedom: This means, a freedom of choice, social order and
    form of government. It refers to the right of people to determine and
    change constitutional order and ensure the protection of human rights.

    • Equality of citizens: This means equality of all people before the law,
    equal responsibility of any committed offense and the right to equal
    protection before court. Equality is guaranteed for all citizens: there can
    be no privileges or restrictions on the grounds of race, colour, political
    beliefs, religious or other convictions, ethnic or social origin, property
    status, residence, linguistic or other grounds. The most important
    aspect is the equality of rights and freedom of men and women who
    have the same opportunities for their implementation.

    • Selectivity of state bodies: This implies formation of authorities and
    local government through the people’s will. It ensures that people
    have equal opportunity to exercise electoral rights for everybody. In
    a democratic state, the same people should not permanently occupy
    positions in government bodies for a long time: this causes distrust of
    citizens and leads to a loss of legitimacy of these bodies.

    • Separation of powers: This means that interdependence and mutual
    restrictions are imposed on different branches of power: legislative,
    executive and judicial powers. It serves as a means of checks and
    balance in order to avoid the accumulation of powers in the hands of
    some individuals who would transform their power into a means of
    suppressing freedom and equality.

    • Decision-making by the will of the majority with the mandatory
    observance of the rights of the minority: This feature means the
    combination of the will of the majority with guarantees of the rights
    of the individual who acts as a part of the minority (ethnic, religious
    or political). It also means the absence of discrimination, suppression
    of rights of an individual who is not a part of the majority in decisionmaking
    activities.
    • Pluralism: It refers to the diversity of social phenomena, broadening
    of the range of political choice, leading not only pluralism of opinions
    but also political pluralism, the plurality of parties, public associations,
    etc.
    12.5.2 The concept of justice
    According to Aristotle justice consists of treating equals equally and “unequals”
    unequally, in proportion to their inequality. Justice is an action in accordance
    with the requirements of some laws. Whether these rules are grounded in human
    consensus or societal norms, they are supposed to ensure that all members of
    the society receive fair treatment. Justice ensures that people receive their fair
    share of the goods available; obtain fair treatment from society’s institutions.

    Justice also implies that people’s actions conform to rules of fair play.
    There are four main features of justice including meritocracy, fairness, equality
    and moral righteousness.

    Meritocracy This is the idea of “getting what one deserves”. For example, a
    person can receive a medal for bravery, risking one’s life to save a drowning
    person
    Fairness: This is the idea of treating equals equally. For example, two people
    doing the same job competently with the same amount of experience and
    training should get the same pay. There should not be distinctions in rates of
    payment based on gender, age, racial or ethnic background or any other factor
    not related to performance on the job.

    Equality: This common understanding of justice is embodied in equal
    citizenship rights for all persons (for example, the right of all to vote in elections
    and run for political office and equal entitlement to universal public programs
    such as health insurance and education). Equality also demands that there
    should be an equitable sharing of civic burdens, such as paying taxes (although
    “progressive” taxation schemes may require the wealthy to pay proportionately
    more, they are about fairness).

    Moral righteousness: This final aspect of justice encompasses the ideal of
    individual virtue and ethical conduct. Individuals are thought to be “just” when
    they engage in altruistic behaviour to help others or make society a better place
    and set an example of altruistic conduct in both their personal responsibilities
    (as a spouse, parent or friend) as well as civic and public roles (as an employee,
    elected politician or club president).

    12.5.3. Different forms of democracy and justice

    I. Forms of democracy
    The main forms of democracy include direct democracy, representative
    democracy, presidential democracy, parliamentary democracy, authoritarian

    democracy, participatory democracy, Islamic democracy and social democracy.
    Direct democracy: A direct democracy is when citizens get to vote for a policy
    directly, without any intermediate representative or house of parliament. If the
    government has to pass a certain law or policy, it goes to the people. The latter
    vote on the issue and decide the fate of their own country.

    Representative democracy: Representative democracy or indirect democracy
    is when people choose to vote for who will represent them in the parliament.
    This is the most common form of democracy found across the World. This
    form of democracy is based on protecting the rights of not only the majority
    of the people in the state but also the minorities. By electing a more qualified
    representative, a minority population would be able to vocalize its grievances
    in a more efficient manner.

    Most of the representative democracies of the World consider themselves to
    be liberal democracies. This is because they value the needs of their individual
    citizens more than those of the entire state. This is why in countries like India
    and the USA; it is difficult to proclaim a state of emergency.

    Presidential democracy: Under a presidential democracy, the president of
    the state has a significant amount of power over the government. He/she is
    either directly or indirectly elected by citizens of the state. The president and
    the executive branch of the government are not liable to the legislature, but
    cannot, under normal circumstances, dismiss the legislature entirely. Similarly,
    the legislature cannot remove the president from his/her office either, unless
    the case is extreme.

    In a presidential democracy, the head of state is also the head of the government.
    Countries like the USA, Argentina, and Sudan employ this kind of democracy.

    Parliamentary democracy: A democracy that gives more power to the
    legislature is called a parliamentary democracy. The executive branch derives
    its democratic legitimacy only from the legislature, i.e. the parliament. The head
    of state is different from the head of government, and both have varying degrees
    of power. However, in most cases, the president is either a weak monarch (e.g.
    the United Kingdom) or a ceremonial head (e.g. India).

    Authoritarian democracy: This is when only the elites are a part of the
    parliamentary process. Some individuals of the state are allowed to vote for their
    chosen candidate, but “regular people” cannot enter the elections. Therefore,
    in the end, it is only the ruling elite that decide on the various interests of the
    state’s population.

    Participatory democracy: This is the exact opposite of authoritarian form
    of democracy. There are different types of participatory democracy, but all
    of them yearn to create opportunities for all members of the population to
    make meaningful contributions to the decision-making process. It empowers
    the disempowered by breaking up the state into small networks and prefers
    to empower community-based grassroots politics. It values deliberation and
    discussion, rather than merely voting.

    Islamic democracy: This form of democracy seeks to apply Islamic law to public
    policies, while simultaneously maintaining a democratic framework. Islamic
    democracy has three main characteristics. Firstly, the leaders are elected by the
    people. Secondly, everyone is subject to the Sharia law including the leaders.

    Thirdly, the leaders must commit themselves to practicing shura, a special form
    of consultation practiced by Prophet Muhammad. The only countries that fulfil
    these three characteristics are Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Malaysia.

    Social democracy: Social democracy arose as a reaction to neoliberal policies
    in international economics. Under neo-liberalism, profit-making entities like
    multinational corporations can easily infiltrate other political states, thus the
    power of the political state seems weak.

    Social democracy aims at empowering the state in favour of the neoliberal
    market. The state can increase its expenditure by providing free alternatives to
    overpriced private ventures. It may focus on providing free education or free
    healthcare, so that people do not have to depend on profit-making corporations.

    This list obviously does not claim to be an exhaustive discussion around the
    different types of democracy that exist today. There are as many theories
    concerned with democracy as there are different governments in the World.

    II. Forms of justice
    Issues of justice arise in several different spheres and play a significant role in
    causing, perpetuating, and addressing conflict. Just institutions tend to instill
    a sense of stability, well-being, and satisfaction among the society members,
    while perceived injustices can lead to dissatisfaction, rebellion, or revolution.
    Each of the different spheres expresses the principles of justice and fairness in
    its own way, resulting into different forms and concepts of justice: distributive,
    procedural, retributive, and restorative. People can seek these forms of justice
    when they have been wronged.

    Distributive justice: Distributive justice, or economic justice, is concerned
    with giving all members of the society a “fair share” of the benefits and
    resources available. However, while everyone might agree that wealth should
    be distributed fairly, there is much disagreement about what counts as a “fair
    share.” Some possible criteria of distribution are equity, equality, and need.

    Equity means that one’s rewards should be equal to one’s contributions to the
    society, while “equality” means that everyone gets the same amount, regardless
    of his or her input. Distribution on the basis of need means that people who need
    more will get more, while people who need less will get less. Fair allocation of
    resources, or distributive justice, is crucial to the stability of the society and the
    well-being of its members. When issues of distributive justice are inadequately
    addressed and the item to be distributed is highly valued, intractable conflicts
    frequently result.

    Procedural justice: Procedural justice is concerned with making and
    implementing decisions according to fair processes that ensure “fair treatment.”
    Rules must be impartially followed and consistently applied in order to
    generate an unbiased decision. Those carrying out the procedures should be
    neutral, and those directly affected by the decisions should have some voice or
    representation in the decision-making process. If people believe procedures to
    be fair, they will be more likely to accept the outcomes, even ones that they do
    not like. Implementing fair procedures is central to many dispute resolution
    procedures, including negotiation, mediation, arbitration, and adjudication.

    Restorative justice: Restorative justice (also sometimes called “reparative
    justice” or “corrective justice”) is an approach to justice that focuses on the
    needs of victims and offenders, instead of satisfying abstract legal principles or
    punishing the offender. Victims take an active role in the process, while offenders
    are encouraged to take responsibility for their actions, “to repair the harm they
    have done by apologizing, returning stolen money, or doing community service”.
    In other words, the simplest form of restitution is a straightforward apology.

    Restoration means putting things back as they were, so it may include some
    acts of apology to demonstrate one is truly sorry. This may include actions and

    even extra payment to the offended party.

    Retributive justice: Retributive justice is based on the idea that people deserve
    to be treated in the same way they treat others. It is a retroactive approach
    that justifies punishment as a response to past injustice or wrongdoing. The
    central idea is that the offender has gained unfair advantages through his or her
    behavior, and that punishment will set this imbalance straight. In other words,
    those who do not play by the rules should be brought to justice and deserve to

    suffer penalties for their transgressions.

    12.6.1 Democracy in Rwanda
    I. The main principles of democracy
    After the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi, the country of Rwanda strived to set
    up a democratic regime. The main principles underlying democracy including
    elections, political pluralism, rule of law, decentralization, liberalization of
    the press and media were emphasized. Moreover, due to the regional and
    ethnic divisions that had characterized the first and the second Republics and
    culminated into the Genocide against the Tutsi, an emphasis was also placed on

    the promotion of unity and reconciliation among Rwandans.

    Elections: An election can be defined as a mechanism of filling an office or
    post through choices made by the designated body of the people known as the
    electorate. Participation of the citizens in elections and thereafter collective
    involvement of the elected officials in the decision-making process are
    important ingredients for the gradual establishment of democracy. In addition,
    the concept of representative democracy is based on the principle that it is the
    people who are the nominal holders of political sovereignty and that, in the
    exercise of that sovereignty; theyelect their representatives so that they can
    exercise their political rights.

    Separation of powers: The notion of separation of powers can be understood
    as the separation of government decision-making into the legislative, executive,
    and the judicial functions. This aims at reinforcing constitutional protection
    of individual liberties by preventing the concentration of such powers in the
    hands of a single group of government officials.

    Political pluralism: In Rwanda, a multi-party system is recognized in its
    Constitution (article 54). Political organizations fulfilling the conditions
    required by the law may be formed and operate freely. However, due to the
    historical context of the country of Rwanda that had been characterized by
    “ethnic” and regional discrimination which culminated into the 1994 Genocide
    against the Tutsi, the Rwandans have put in place other principles underpinning
    the political system which involves power -sharing, consensus and the existence
    of the Forum of the Political Parties.

    Power sharing: Power sharing can be understood as a system of governance
    in which all major actors of the society are provided a permanent share of
    power. This system is often used by majority of the government system in
    which ruling groups rotate among various social groups over time. The basic
    aims of power sharing are traditionally to ensure the decentralization of power,
    the protection of rights for the minority groups, the establishment of grand
    coalition governments in which nearly all political parties are represented and
    the provision of mechanism to ensure decision making by consensus.

    Rule of law: The rule of law requires state institutions should act in accordance
    with the law. The branches of the state must obey the law and in addition the
    state cannot exercise power over anyone unless the law permits to do so. It has
    to be noted that the rule of law signifies that no political authority is superior to
    the law itself. When and where the rule of law obtains, the rights of citizens are
    not dependent upon the will of rulers; rather, they are established by law and

    protected by independent courts.

    Decentralization: Decentralization being the opposite of centralization refers
    to the process of transferring powers, authority, functions, responsibilities
    and the requisite resources from central government to local governments
    or administrative divisions. Decentralization has to be implemented through
    three modes: deconcentration, delegation and devolution.

    -- Under deconcentration, services and functions reserved to be performed
    by central government are executed by central government public servants
    located in local governments but hierarchically responsible directly to
    central government.
    -- Under delegation, services and functions reserved to be performed by
    central government are delegated to local governments and the requisite
    resources transferred to them for effective provision of these delegated
    services.

    -- Under devolution, the powers, authority, functions, responsibilities
    services and resources currently centralized at central government level
    are transferred to local governments which are created by law as legal
    entities with powers to sue and be sued.

    Press and media: The media means any process, whether in print, audio-visual,
    auditory, signs or internet, to disseminate, broadcast and make known to the
    general public facts, opinions and any other expression of thought particularly
    in order to inform, educate and train, promote leisure and entertainment. And
    the Public media refers to public broadcasters and newspapers.

    The media policy elaborated in 2014 by the Ministry of Local Government
    aims at availing an informed citizenry and it is inspired by the fundamental
    principles of freedom of speech and opinion, free access to information, media
    freedom and their relationship to the pursuance, attainment and sustainability
    of a free, secure, united, reconciled and democratic Rwanda.

    II. Justice in Rwanda
    With the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi that destroyed all the sectors of the
    life of the country, the judiciary needed to be rebuilt to meet the challenges
    created by that Genocide. To address this situation, the Government of National
    Unity committed to create a strong, responsive, professional and independent
    judiciary that Rwandans could trust and respect, reformed the judicial system.

    To meet this objective, the justice system was revised in 2003. With this judicial
    reform, the Ministry of justice had to oversee the functioning of the judicial
    police, the criminal investigation, the prosecution and the prison services
    and all these entities were separated with full financial and administrative
    independence including the Ministry of Justice, the Supreme Court and the
    National Prosecution Authority.

    The High Council of the Public Prosecution is composed of persons from
    different organs with experience and expertise. The Council is responsible for
    taking decisions, recruitment and appointment of staff.

    The National Prosecution Authority has branches across the country and is
    headed by the Prosecutor General. It also has several special units such as the
    Economic and Financial Crimes Unit, Genocide Fugitive Tracking Unit, Sexual
    and Domestic Violence Unit, all ideology and related Crimes Unit, Witness and
    Victims Protection Unit, all of which have helped in delivering justice.

    At the same time, the Inspectorate General of the Prosecution was created
    to oversee the functioning of prosecutors. It has a mechanism of evaluating
    prosecutors, and sanctioning or rewarding them according to their performance.

    Prosecutors in managerial and administrative positions have a limited term of
    office to ensure transparency, efficiency and accountability. All these initiatives
    have enabled the Prosecutor’s Office to handle more cases in courts of law than
    ever before.

    According to justice reforms of 2003, the structure of the Supreme Court was
    reduced from six separate chambers, each with its own president, to a single
    unit under the leadership of the Chief Justice. A new High Court of the Republic
    was also created and replaced the former four chambers of the Supreme Court.
    The High Court of the Republic has two lower levels, namely the Intermediate
    Court and the Primary Court (District). The new structure has had a positive
    effect on the efficiency of the High Court because it facilitates harmonization of
    jurisprudence.

    In addition, the Inspectorate General of Courts was established to regularly
    supervise the functioning of courts so as to evaluate court judges and personnel
    who are in turn rewarded in case they perform well while poor performances
    are sanctioned accordingly. Heads of courts, on the other hand, have a fixed
    term of office.

    In 2007, Commercial Courts were established by an organic law No. 59/2007
    of 16/12/2007 to settle commercial disputes. Commercial courts comprise the
    Commercial High Court and the Commercial Courts. Commercial Courts in the
    country are three namely Nyarugenge Commercial Court; Huye Commercial

    Court and Musanze Commercial Court.

    The reforms have also introduced “single judge seating” at all levels with the
    exception of the Supreme Court. This reform has contributed at a certain extent
    to the reduction of delays and backlogs, which had previously characterised
    Rwanda’s judiciary, in the disposal of cases.

    New kinds of courts like Gacacajurisdictions and Abunzi (mediators) were
    initiated as home-grown solutions in the justice system.

    Through the Ministry of Justice, the Government initiated the Access to Justice
    Bureaus, referred to in French language as Maisonsd‘Accès à la Justice (MAJ),
    in 2007. Now established in all 30 districts of Rwanda, MAJ serves as the first
    point of orientation with legal aid service for Rwandans. MAJ mainly provides
    legal information/education as well as legal advice. MAJ also aligns with the
    policy objective of a more decentralized and reconciliatory justice system
    that involves citizens. The Rwanda Bar Association (RBA) law grants MAJ staff
    powers to provide legal and judicial aid to indigents and needy people.

    MAJ staff may assist, counsel, represent and plead, before all courts, for
    indigents. They are also able to analyze cases, offer legal advice and mediation
    to parties, sensitize the population on their legal rights, assist prisoners and
    provide legal training to Abunzi.

    In Rwanda, there is also another means utilized in conflict resolution. This is
    based on law on arbitration and conciliation in commercial matters published
    on No 005/2008 of 14/02/2008. This law defines “arbitration”: a procedure
    applied by parties to the dispute requesting an arbitrator or a jury of arbitrators
    to settle a legal, contractual dispute or another related issue while “conciliation”
    describes a process, whether referred to by the expression conciliation,
    mediation or an expression of similar import, whereby parties to the dispute
    request a conciliator to assist them in their attempt.

    12.6.2. Democracy in Tanzania
    I. History and principles of democracy in Tanzania
    The United Republic of Tanzania was established in April 1964, following the
    amalgamation of the former independent states of Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
    Tanganyika attained independence in December 1961 under the leadership of
    Julius Nyerere. The transition to independence was achieved without violence
    and in 1964, the Union between Tanganyika and Zanzibar merged to form
    Tanzania.

    Tanganyika (Tanzania mainland) had a multiparty political system. The
    Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), established in 1954 was the
    overwhelmingly a dominant political party in pre independence Tanganyika.
    Other political parties were United Tanganyika Party (UTP), the African National
    Congress (ANC) and All Muslim National Unity of Tanganyika (AMNUT). In
    Zanzibar (Tanzania Islands) there were three important political parties prior
    independence.

    These included Zanzibar Nationalist Party (ZNP), ASP-Afro Shiraz Party and
    Zanzibar and Pemba Peoples Party (ZPPP).
    The multi- party general election in Tanganyika prior to independence took
    place in 1958, 1960 and 1962 when Tanganyika became a republic and
    MwalimuJulius Nyerere as the first President. Although all the political parties
    struggled to bring independence in Tanganyika, soon after the attainment of
    independence, the ruling party (TANU) under the Chairmanship of Mwalimu
    Nyerere, denounced opposition parties and introduced the single party system
    in 1962.

    Tanganyika united with Zanzibar in 1964 which led to the birth of The United
    Republic of Tanzania in which TANU became the only political party in Tanzania
    Mainland and ASP-Afro Shiraz Party in Zanzibar after the dissolution of other
    political parties. This was followed by the introduction of the single party
    constitution in 1965.

    All general elections since 1965 to 1990 were held in a single party system,
    though they were competitive in nature. The single party political system did
    not give the citizens freedom to join in or form the political parties, even though
    they were not pleased by the ruling party. The presidential position had one
    candidate and a shadow or blank, in which the electorate was required to vote
    for YES for a candidate or NO for a shadow. This system violated the citizens’
    rights of electing the leader they wanted. On February 5, 1977, TANU and ASP
    merged to form Chama Cha Mapinduzi(CCM) [meaning Party of the Revolution]
    a revolutionary state party. It became the sole legal political party in Tanzania.

    All candidates had to be approved by CCM and were permitted to campaign
    only under the CCM platform. Elections within a single party framework
    were competitive. For example in October 1985, there were 328 candidates
    competing for 169 elective seats in the National Assembly.

    The multi- party political system was officially reintroduced in 1992 after
    the collapse of the USSR in the 1990s and pressure from the donor countries
    (USA and Europe), the World Bank, and the International Monetary Fund
    conditionalities forced the less developed countries including Tanzania to
    adopt the multiparty system in order to get financial assistance in terms of
    loans, grants and aids.

    Surprisingly, the majority of Tanzanians refused the introduction of multiparty
    due to the fear that the political parties will lead to civil wars and
    disruption of the long existing unity and peace. The late Mwalimu Nyerere
    played a major role in educating the Tanzanians on the importance of multiparty
    system. Unexpectedly, he was the one who banned the political parties
    soon after independence. He realized his mistakes and because of his influence
    and reputation as the father of the nation, multi-party system was officially
    instituted on July 1, 1992.

    This marked the era of multi-party system and democracy in Tanzania, where
    many political parties registered, including the ruling party (CCM) which was
    the first party to get the certificate of registration, followed by the Civic United
    Front (CUF) in Kiswahili, Chama Cha Wananchiand CHADEMA in Kiswahili
    Chama cha Demokrasi and Maendeleo (meaning in English Party for Democracy
    and Progress).There were also other many political parties and in 1995 there
    were 13 political parties that participated in the general election.

    Since 1995 multiparty elections have always been organised and the CCM has
    always managed to win all the presidential ones. The election results witnessed
    the return of the CCM to power with Benjamin Mkapa who received 62% of
    the vote while the opposition candidates amassed 38%. In the parliamentary
    elections, the CCM also won more seats than other political parties.

    The 2000 elections were not different from the 1995 elections with the CCM
    able to ensure that they were not operating on a level playing field. The abolition
    of state subsidies to political parties meant that the opposition was unable to
    fund their campaigns adequately. The problem of the differentiation between
    the CCM and the state remained.

    Although Tanzania has escaped the more overt political turmoil that its
    neighbouring countries have endured, in the aftermath of the 2000 multiparty
    elections, the country appears to be open to inter-ethnic rivalry largely due to
    the Zanzibar question which threatens the union itself.

    Zanzibar is the site of the greatest opposition to the ruling CCM party which has
    been in power since independence. The challenge faced by the former President
    Jakaya Kikwete was to deal with the dysfunctional economy and to meet the
    ever growing demands of its population which has seen a rapid decline of social
    services. The ideal of self-reliance which was espoused by Nyerere is no longer

    a choice, but increasingly a necessity.

    After the two presidential mandates of Mkapa in 2005, the CCM’s Candidate
    Jakaya Kikwete won the presidential election with an unassailable lead of
    68%. In 2015, Dr John Pombe Magufuli from the CCM political Party also won
    presidential elections and became on November 5, 2015 the fifth president
    of Tanzania. After all, the CCM had been in power for decades, and meaning
    seemed to herald continuity with the past.

    II. Justice in Tanzania
    Social justice is the view that everyone deserves equal economic, political and
    social rights and opportunities.

    Since independence Tanzania has gone through distinct policy episodes of social
    integration. In the first two decades of the post-independence period Tanzania
    made deliberate efforts and took various initiatives to attain social integration.

    In this period Tanzania strived to build national unity and placed emphasis
    on human development and social policy consistent with the basic needs
    approach. This period was characterized by emphasis on investment in human
    development consistent with the basic needs approach. During this period an
    emphasis was placed on promoting the principles of human dignity, equality
    and freedom of the individuals, equality of opportunity in life and equal citizen
    political rights across all races and commitment to reduce income and wealth
    differentials in society and fight against corruption.

    In the same period, the Government of Tanzania deliberately downplayed
    religious differences and promoted religious tolerance. It was declared that the
    state was a secular state which worked with various religious denominations.

    Moreover, the Government adopted the policy of health for all availing free
    medical services to all. Massive investments were made in health facilities and
    primary health care was given priority. The Government of Tanzania also made
    significant contribution in the provision of basic services. This has been done
    through direct funding of services such as health, education and water which
    are basic necessities to the population, and through provision of subsidies on
    basic goods such as food. All these are efforts to provide social protection to the
    population.

    Various policy statements on social security issues have been made and Acts
    passed in regard to the protection of some sections of the population against
    contingencies such as injuries and old age. In total these formal social securities
    covered only a very small proportion of the population (less than 10%).

    Apart from the formal social protection schemes, there are also traditional and
    non-traditional informal social protection schemes. Tanzania, like many other
    countries in the developing world, has had strong informal/traditional safety
    nets built on family and/or community support and informal income transfers.
    The traditional social security systems are often based on customary rights,
    or on spiritual and religious grounds. They are often organized around family
    groups, kinship groups or neighborhood and community groups. While it is
    recognized that over time traditional social system has tended to decay and
    change forms in response to the forces of urbanization and industrialization
    there are indications that family and community social support systems have
    remained the main safety nets, particularly among the rural poor and other
    vulnerable groups. In times of crises, individuals have depended on family and
    clan members and/or members of the community for assistance in the form
    of cash or in-kind, remittances to rural areas and facilitating settling in of new
    migrants into the urban areas.

    The villagization programme that was adopted was a more inclusive and country
    wide programme involving the replacement of the traditional system of rural
    settlements in which households were located often in isolated homesteads by
    the creation of larger and more viable villages which were perceived to be more
    viable economic units. The government’s efforts to deal with the challenges
    of smallholders, uneconomically small plots and challenges of providing
    social services to a scattered population took various forms but the most
    memorable policy stance was villagization, which involved the resettlement of
    rural population with view to facilitate the provision of social and economic
    infrastructure. Priority was given to education including adult education,
    health services and rural water supply. Villages were created in 1974 in which
    60% of the population was relocated. The logic behind villagization was based
    on what was seen as ideal African traditional family whereby which was almost
    self-contained economic and social unit which provided and shared basic
    necessities of life on the basis of mutual respect and obligation. The principles
    of love, sharing and work which had prevailed in traditional African family units
    were expected to be carried into Ujamaa Villages.

    In fact, Tanzania made considerable achievements in human development and
    during that period, there was an economic progress but this model ran out of
    steam towards the end of the 1970s as exhibited by the way this development
    was interrupted by the economic crisis starting from the late 1970s and the
    early 1980s. In response Tanzania adopted structural adjustment programmes
    which were meant to focus on efficiency gains and growth acceleration.

    The second policy episode from1981 to 1995 was essentially a period in which
    Tanzania adopted adjustment and reforms which were aimed at restoring
    stabilization and growth but in the process it contributed to causing cracks into
    the social integration status that had been achieved in the previous two decades.

    In the third period (1996-2005) Tanzania embarked on more comprehensive
    economic and social policies in which social integration received attention
    again but this time in a new context of the market economy, competition and
    globalization.

    Concerning the judicial system, Mainland Tanzanian law is a combination of
    British, East African customary law, and Islamic law. The courts at the lower
    levels are presided over by magistrates appointed by the chief justice. They have
    limited jurisdiction, and there is a right of appeal to district courts, headed by
    either resident or district magistrates. Appeal can be made to the High Court,
    which consists of a chief justice and 17 judges appointed by the president. It has
    both civil and criminal jurisdiction over all persons and all matters however,
    appeals from the High Court can be made to the five-members Court of Appeal
    and judges are appointed to the Court of Appeal and the High Court by the
    president on the advice of the chief justice and to courts at lower levels by the
    chief justice.

    In 1985, the Zanzibar courts were made independent to those of the mainland.
    Islamic courts handle some civil matters and cases concerning the Zanzibar
    constitution are heard only in Zanzibar courts. All other cases may be appealed
    to the Court of Appeal of the Republic.

    The judiciary is made up of various courts of judicature and is independent
    of other arms of the government. Tanzania adheres to and respects the
    constitutional principles of separation of powers. The Constitution makes
    provision for the establishment of an independent judiciary, and the respect
    for the principles of the rule of law, human rights and good governance.

    The Judiciary in Tanzania can be illustrated as follows: The Judiciary in Tanzania
    has four tiers: The Court of Appeal of the United Republic of Tanzania, the High
    Courts for Mainland Tanzania and Tanzania Zanzibar, Magistrates Courts, which
    are at two levels, i.e. the Resident Magistrate Courts and the District Court, both
    of which have concurrent jurisdiction. Primary Courts are the lowest in the

    judicial hierarchy.

    Source: http://www.nyulawglobal.org/globalex/Tanzania.html

  • UNIT 13 ROLE OF THE AGENTS OF THE COLONIAL CONQUEST, EUROPEAN DOMINATION AND THE EXPLOITATION OF AFRICA IN THE19TH CENTURY

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to discuss the
    role of agents of colonial conquest and to analyze the
    European domination, exploitation in Africa and its

    consequences in the 19th century.

    13.1.1. Colonial agents
    Colonization is a practice in which a powerful country rules a weaker one
    and establishes its own trade and culture over it. Colonial agent refers to a
    person who acts on behalf of another. It can also mean a person who obtains
    and provides information for the government in a certain area in secret. In the
    history of African colonization, colonial agents refer to the various groups of
    Europeans who came into Africa from 1884 in order to pave way for colonization
    of Africa. Colonial agents in Africa included missionaries, Explorers and
    traders (Chartered Companies).

    Most of these agents were sent to Africa by various organizations:
    -- the Royal Geographical Society (RGs) sent explorers
    -- the London Missionary Society and Church Missionary Society (CMS) sent
    missionaries to various parts of Africa
    -- the Royal Niger Company (RNC), German East Africa Company (GEAC),
    British South African Company (BSAC), the Imperial British East African
    Company (BEAC) and among others operated as Chartered Companies
    representing their home governments in different African countries.

    13.1.2 The role of colonial agents in colonization of Africa
    These agents were always received with open hands by African chiefs they met
    but later they led activities to collapse Africa’s political independence.

    i. The role of explorers in colonization of Africa
    The verb to explore means to discover, to move far with a purpose of discovery.
    Therefore, explorers were people who came from Europe to discover more
    about man and universe in which man lived. Moreover, Exploration is the act
    of searching or travelling around terrain (including space) for discovering
    resources or information.

    Explorers played a very important role towards the colonization process
    and perhaps without their colonial powers would have faced more serious
    problems than the ones faced in Africa. They provided important geographical
    information about the African continent. For example, John Speke discovered
    the source of River Nile, Krapf reached mountain Kenya. Such information
    greatly helped the later groups which came in Africa.

    Explorers mapped out the African interior and located on them areas with rich
    economic potentials, hospitable tribes as well as those which were hostile. For
    example, while in East Africa, Doctor David Livingstone sent several maps to
    London showing locations of caravan routes, Lakes and major rivers of Southern
    Tanganyika. The maps provided greatly helped future European agents.

    Explores established initial good working relations with African communities
    they came into contact with. This greatly simplified the work of other colonial
    agents like Christian missionaries and Chartered Companies. For example,
    through H.M. Stanley, the Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda called upon Christian
    missionaries and Chartered companies.

    Explorers also provided relevant information about the rich economic potentials
    of Africa which inspired Europeans colonialists to come and colonize Africa.

    ii. The role of missionaries in the colonization of Africa
    Missionaries refer to a group of people who leaved their home country
    and move elsewhere to preach their religious belief to other people. The
    missionaries that came in Africa included: Church missionary society, Roman
    Catholic missionaries, Lutherans, Universities mission to central Africa (UMCA),
    Orthodox missionaries, Holy ghosts from Zanzibar, The White Fathers etc.

    Missionaries always invited their home governments for assistance in case of
    any resistance from local African communities. This was always looked at as
    only way of being assured of safety. However, in the end such societies were
    colonized.

    Each colonial power sent missionaries in areas where she had great economic
    interests. In such circumstances, missionary groups worked for betterment
    of their home countries and in this way were indirectly paving way for the
    colonization process in Africa.

    Missionaries always softened the hearts of their Christian converts to the
    extent that they could hardly resist colonial rule. The wonderful preaching
    and teachings from the bible as well as the use of threads sometimes turned
    the young converts into good collaborating agents of colonial powers thus
    missionaries cannot escape blame for having laid the foundation of colonial
    rule in Africa.

    In some cases, Missionaries also worked side by side with African chiefs as
    secretaries and advisors. In such special circumstances, missionaries would
    later ill-advised African chiefs to sing treaties whose details they could not
    understand and in order for them to remain protected, they always called for

    their home governments.

    Missionaries also promoted legitimate trade in order to protect their economic
    interest of their governments that sent them. This greatly strengthened and
    promoted the colonization of Africa.

    In some areas missionaries also contributed to internal divisions and weakening
    of some African societies, for example Buganda people were divided along
    religious lives that caused religious wars between Catholics and Protestants to
    finish off the war and colonize Uganda.

    More to this, in Uganda missionaries financed other colonial agents most
    especially the Imperial British East African Company to continue operating for
    more years because they were promoting the interests of Britain as a colonial
    power.

    iii. The role of Chartered Companies in the colonization of Africa
    Chartered companies were trading companies that were sent by European
    countries to come and trade in Africa. They started signing treaties, occupying
    areas of influence, laying down the initial infrastructure that facilitated colonial
    administrative policies; they abolished slave trade, identified economic viable
    areas for economic exploitation, from their home government that led to
    European colonization.

    The various Chartered Companies that operated in Africa included:
    -- Imperial British East African Company (IBEACO),
    -- The Germany East African Company (GEACO),
    -- The British South African Company (BSACO),
    -- The Royal Niger Company (RNCO), etc.
    Trading companies played a significant role towards the colonization process
    in the following ways:

    -- They financed the administration of the countries in which they operated
    on behalf of their countries in which they operated on behalf of their home
    governments and by doing so, they saved such government the burden of
    unnecessary financial expenditure.

    -- Chartered companies also provided the skilled manpower for the
    administration of colonies as reluctant to take over direct responsibility.
    -- The companies used their authority to help in the effective abolition of
    slave trade. For example, the IBEACO destroyed the Coastal Arab Slave
    trade centers and much as the Arabs tried to put up a resistance they

    were defeated thus promotion of legitimate trade.

    -- Chartered companies also developed several infrastructures on behalf
    of European colonial governments, for example, they financed the
    construction of medical centers and administrative posts. In Uganda the
    IBEACO financed the surveying of the main route of the Uganda railway.

    -- Chartered Companies also signed treaties of friendship with the local
    leaders of the areas in which they operated on behalf of their colonial
    governments they represented. Such treaties were used by colonial
    powers to claim for the rightful ownership and or occupation.

    -- More to that chartered Companies created security organs on behalf of
    their home governments. For example, in Kenya and Uganda, the Imperial
    British Company had its private army that comprised of Sudanese, Arabs,
    and Swahili and Ganda soldiers. This same force was used by the British
    to maintain internal stability.
    -- They collaborated with the Missionaries to defeat African resistance wars.
    -- They encouraged their home governments to carry out effective

    occupation of the colonies.

    Colonial Methods of African Exploitation also known as Colonial economic
    policies were mechanisms introduced by European colonial masters in Africa
    order to ensure effective exploitation of Africa’s natural resources for their
    economic gains.

    i. Taxation
    It was the main method of generating revenue for supporting colonial
    administration. The commonest were the hut and gun taxes. The method of
    collection was brutal and harsh, and often caused resistance wars. For instance,
    the Hut Tax War of 1898 in Sierra Leone.

    Taxation was also important to force Africans either to grow cash crops or to
    work on European farms. This was because in order to get money for paying
    taxes these were the only possible alternatives. In some areas like the Congo
    Free State and Angola, taxes were paid in form of natural products and animals.
    Failure to pay taxes in these areas would lead to confiscation of property and
    sometimes mutilation.

    ii. Forced cash crop growing
    To meet the primary demand for colonisation of Africa, cash crop growing had
    to be boosted. Some crops like rubber were grown traditionally; some were
    grown such as pyrethrum by Europeans while others like coffee and cotton
    were grown by Africans under the supervision of Europeans. These cash crops
    were needed to supply raw material to industries in Europe.
    Europeans did not encourage the production of food. Forced labour undermined
    the production of food crops. This led to famine in African societies which
    had been traditionally self-sufficient in food. The African economies were
    developed as producers of raw materials in form of cash crops and minerals,
    and as consumers of European manufactured goods.

    iii. Forced labour
    Africans were forced to work on European farms, mines and construction sites
    of colonial offices and roads. Their labour was either paid cheaply or not paid at
    all. In the Portuguese colonies of Angola and Mozambique there was a unique
    form of forced labour called contract labour. Africans were rounded up and
    taken to Principle and Sao Tome to work in sugar cane plantations.
    Due to this forced labor, African societies experienced famine. A lot of time was
    spent on work for Europeans.

    iv. Land alienation
    This was the most evil form of exploitation of natural resources. Africans in
    settler colonies were hit hardest by this practice, for example in Kenya, South
    Africa, Rhodesia, Algeria, Angola and Mozambique. In some areas of Africa,
    Africans were forced to settle in reserve camps leaving fertile and mineralized
    plots of lands to Europeans. This policy caused resistance in many areas of
    Africa.

    In Rwanda, the church alienated huge chunks of land to build churches, schools
    and people were forced out of their land.

    v. Development of legitimate trade.
    After realizing the benefits of slave trade and its abolition, they introduced
    legitimate trade. This form of trade is said to have brought peace and stability
    as it eliminated the raids and suffering caused by slave trade.

    Legitimate trade was monopolized by Europeans who transferred all the profits
    to their countries. They paid low prices for African products and highly priced
    their exports to Africa. Worse still, the legitimate trade involved the exchange of
    high valued African products like gold, copper, diamonds, cotton, coffee, rubber,
    and palm oil among others. Exports to Africa included beads, used clothes,
    bangles, spices and glassware.

    In Rwanda, the European trader named Borgraved’Altena purchased cows at
    very low prices so as to supply beef to the colonialists.

    vi. Discouraged industrialization
    To control the monopoly for trade in raw materials and market for their
    manufactured goods in Africa, Europeans extremely discouraged manufacturing
    industries. In Egypt, Lord Cromer established processing plants for cotton lint
    while cotton cloth production was done in Britain.

    In Senegal, the French never set up any industries to the extent that even
    groundnuts were exported in the shells. Only primary processing industries
    were set up to reduce the volume of raw materials. The prices for raw materials
    were very low while the manufactured goods from Europe were sold at high
    prices. Thiswas a clear indication of colonial exploitation.

    vii. Development of road and railway transport
    To support legitimate trade, road and railway transport networks were
    established. These networks connected the interior of African colonies to the
    coast.
    Roads were mainly established in areas rich in resources where colonialists
    had direct gains. The main purpose was to facilitate the effective exploitation

    of raw materials.

    In Togo, Germany constructed railway lines and named them according to the
    produce they were meant to carry such as Cotton line, Palm oil line and Iron
    line.

    In Rwanda, the railway project planned by the Germans from Dares-Salaam via
    Tabora to Rusumo stopped because of the first World war.

    viii. Education system
    The colonial education system was controlled by Christian missionaries. In
    the colonial schools, Africans were trained to serve as lower cadres, known as
    “colonial auxiliaries”. The main products of these schools best suited the posts
    of houseboys, house girls and clerks. They could not make engineers, doctors
    and other professional careers. The colonial education system produced people
    who liked European ways of life. As a result, they exploited fellow Africans.

    In Rwanda, education was exclusively given to the sons of chiefs. In French,
    Portuguese and Italian colonies education was used for assimilation purposes.
    Liberal subjects such as, political science, literature and history were neglected
    in order to keep Africans away from forming revolutionary movements against
    colonialists. To colonialists, the best subjects fit for Africans were bible study,

    reading and writing of languages.

    European domination and exploitation has caused different socio-economic
    and political impacts on Africa. Both positive and negative effects are described
    below.

    13.3.1. Economic impact/effects
    i. Positive effects
    -- The colonial government improved the colony infrastructure: roads,
    bridges, ports, etc.,
    -- They introduced cash crops: tea, coffee, and sisal, cocoa, Cotton, etc.,
    -- Colonization increased the value of land, because it could be sold at a high
    rate,
    -- Colonization increased Legitimate trade,
    -- Colonization introduced money that facilitated the exchange (cash
    economy),
    -- Colonization introduced modern technology where people started using
    machines.
    ii. Negative effects
    -- Roads built helped colonialists to exploit African resources not to develop
    Africa,
    -- Regions that had no resources were ignored,
    -- To avoid competition, colonialists discouraged the development of
    industries in Africa,
    -- African artisans stopped pottery, basketry etc.,
    -- Colonial rule neglected food crops and emphasized on cash crops which
    caused famine in some part of Africa,
    -- The commercialization of land led to illegal sell of communal lands which
    led to poverty and social conflict,
    -- Colonialists monopolized external trade,
    -- Economic exploitation of Africa: minerals (gold, diamond, etc.), land and
    labor,
    -- The death of many people working in mining and plantations of Europeans
    in Africa.
    13.3.2. Social effects
    i. Positive effects
    -- Urbanization was accelerated across all African countries,
    -- Introduction of modern medicine to fight tropical diseases: malaria,
    typhoid, etc.,
    -- Introduction of hospitals, clinics, sanitary equipment, etc.,
    -- The spread of Christianity and western education in Africa. They trained
    the first African elite,
    -- They introduced new languages: French, English, Latin, Portuguese etc.,
    -- Abolition of slave trade and introduction of legitimate trade,
    -- Introduction of western culture: cloths, buildings, houses, etc.
    ii. Negative effects
    -- Rural-urban migration and associated problems like prostitution.
    -- Hostility between Africans and Europeans because these foreigners had
    occupied fertile lands of the natives.
    -- Africans identity and civilization disappeared with colonization.
    -- Division of Africans due to divide and rule policy.
    -- Uneven distribution of social services: they were established only for
    white minority.
    -- In education, the curricula did not meet the need of Africans.
    -- Neglect women social status: women were excluded in some jobs like
    mining.
    -- Racial discrimination promoted by the white settlers.
    -- Land alienation: fertile land was occupied by European settlers.
    -- Colonization created a new class of intellectual which conflicted with
    illiterate people.
    -- Many people were killed during the war of conquest.
    13.3.3. Political impacts
    i. Positive impact
    -- The colonialism created peace and stability in some areas because
    expansionist wars ended.
    -- It created independent states in Africa: there are more than 50 states in
    Africa.
    -- Colonialism introduced new institutions like high courts in judiciary
    system.
    -- Europeans introduced new administrative structure. E.g. province,
    district, sector, cell.
    -- Colonialism gave birth to African nationalism and Pan Africanism.
    ii. Negative impacts.
    -- Colonization was oppressive, discriminative and exploitative.
    -- Colonialists divided Africa without considering tribal boundaries. For
    example, the Bakongo scattered in Angola, DRC, Gabon.
    -- It weakened indigenous system of government where Europeans replaced
    African chiefs.
    -- The colonization created the idea that public property belongs to the
    colonialists not the people and that idea is still there.
    -- The Europeans created a permanent army that caused insecurity after
    decolonization of Africa.
    -- Loss of independence; Africa lost the sovereignty and freedom. They lost

    control of their own affairs.

  • UNIT 14 AFRICAN NATIONALISM AND THE ACQUISITION OF INDEPENDENCE

    Key Unit competence: The student-teacher should be able to analyze the
    causes of the African nationalism, the means used
    to acquire independence in Africa and its impact on

    African societies.

    Nationalism can be defined as the desire for colonized people to end all forms
    of foreign control and influence so as to be able to take charge of their political,
    social and economic affairs. It is the desire for self-rule and self-governance or
    strong feeling and love for one’s country.

    Example of the main African Nationalists:



    Before 1960 most of Africa was still under colonial control. However, by 1970
    most of Africa was independent from European colonialism. Several factors
    contributed to the rise of this African nationalism. The factors that gave birth

    to African nationalism are of two kinds; internal factors and external factors.

    14.1.1 Internal factors
    i. The oppressive and exploitative colonial policies
    During the 19th century and early 20th c, the whole of Africa, except Ethiopia
    and Liberia was brought under colonial rule. Europeans grabbed African land,
    pushed African intro over –crowded reserves, introduced high taxes, and forced
    Africans to work in mines and on plantations. All for the white man’s benefit
    while at work, Africans were often abused or even lagged. These who failed
    to pay taxes were treated in similar way or even imprisoned. All this annoyed
    Africans and led to strong feelings of nationalism.
    ii. Missionaries’ activities in Africa
    They introduced western education and taught at subjects like history which
    exposed Africans to the liberation struggle of various people for example the
    French revolution of 1789, they also emphasized to the equality of all people
    which incited Africans to fight for rights including political rights.

    iii. The formation of political parties in Africa
    These included united gold coast convention(UGCC) and the Convention of
    People’s Party(CPP) in Ghana, African National Congress(ANC) in South Africa,
    the Uganda National Congress (UNC),the Kenya African National Union (KANU)
    and others Leaders of these parties were elites who inculcated a spirit of
    nationalism amongst party members.

    iv. The 2nd WW (1939-1945)
    Africans were recruited to serve their colonial masters as drivers, cooks and
    soldiers during this Great War. They saw whites retreating, dying and they
    learnt a lesson that whites were not gods as they had thought. They could die
    of bullets just like Africans. They also witnessed poverty and prostitution in
    European slums. On their return to Africa at the end of the W.W.II, the ex-service
    men no longer feared whites and introduced militant nationalism in Africa.

    v. The formation of OAU on 25th may 1963
    This was a continental body, which aimed at promoting African unity. It united
    the 32 independent African states and set itself a task of helping other African
    countries that were still under colonial rule. In 1974, the OAU set up a liberation
    committee that provided moral such as ANC in S.A.

    vi. The 1952-1955 MAU MAU rebellion in Kenya
    The term MAU- MAU stands for, ( Mzungu Aende Ulaya Mwafurika Apate
    Uhuru ). Following many years of oppression Kenya’s took up wins against
    the British which thought Africans in the Angola, Algeria and other areas that
    colonial oppression can be ended through wined struggle.

    vii. The independence enjoyed by Ethiopia and Liberia
    In these two countries, the political, economic, social and cultural ways of life had
    remained intact. These two countries served as a role models and challenged
    the suffering Africans to fight for their lost dignity and independence.
    viii. The 1954-1962 Algerian war of independence
    Algeria successfully resisted to French colonialists. It became independent at
    the end of guerilla war. This provided another example to Africans to struggle
    against colonial rule using force of arms.
    ix. The development of mass media across Africa
    African elites founded a number of newspapers, magazine and radio stations.
    Though these they publicized the atrocities committed by colonialists against
    Africans and called up on Africans to rise up and change the situation.

    14.1.2 External factors
    i. The formation of the United Nations Organisation 1945
    The UNO set itself an objective of fighting against colonialism all over the world.
    It set up a decolonization committee charged with the responsibility of granting
    political freedom to all colonized peoples.
    -- The UNO set up a trusteeship council: This was to take care of the colonies
    that had belonged to defeated Germany and Italy e.g.: Tanganyika, Libya,
    Togo and Cameroon…
    -- It became a voice for the colonized: The UN members were aware that it
    was colonialism that had caused the disastrous 2nd WW.
    -- The UNO was not discriminative: It admitted African countries that were
    independent to the UNO membership.
    -- It issued the universal declaration of human rights in 1948: this UDHR
    emphasized the dignity and equality of all human beings.
    -- The UNO recognized liberation movements in Africa: where as the
    colonial masters looked at Africa nationalist groups are label movements,
    the UNO recognized them and allowed liberation leaders to explain their
    grievances to UN members.
    -- It gave military support to keep peace: In some cases, the UNO has sent
    its peace keeping forces to bring order among nationalists and hence
    streamline the struggle for independence.
    -- It gave constructive advice to nationalists: In 1964, the UNO advised
    Senegal and Gambia to remain as sovereign states and avoid political
    integration that was likely to produce ethnic conflicts.
    -- UNO extended financial support to Africa: The UNO has since the 1946s
    showed economic interests in Africa but has also desired to promote the
    standard of living of African people.
    -- The UNO helped in training African leaders: During the decade of
    decolonization, the UNO trusteeship council embarked on man power
    training in African territories.
    ii. The impact of the 2nd world on the growth of African nationalism
    -- The war exposed the military weakness of the white men: before the 2nd
    WW, Africans thought that the white men were invincible (unbeatable)
    and feared to make a military challenges to them. However, during the
    war African soldiers saw white men dying retreating. This made Africans
    to reduce their fear for the white men.
    -- Africans get exposed to the entire world: They were sent to fight in
    South Africa, Asia and Europe. These travels opened their eyes and minds
    they met new people with new ideas.
    -- Africans obtained military skills: During the war, they were exposed to
    up to date European weapons which they learnt to fire and in some cases
    to repair on their return to Africa, they put this technical knowledge and
    tactics in practice by fighting the white men.
    -- African soldiers were exposed to democracy: They made friendship with
    European communists and they witnessed democratic and constitutional
    governance and wondered why they should not have the same democratic
    rights.
    -- Unfulfilled promises made the nationalistic while persuading them
    into war African service men were promised rewards. For example,
    democratic constitutions, employment in civil service, promotion in
    army… However, when the war ended most of them were demobilized,
    remained unemployed and lived in very poor conditions as compared to
    the situation during war.
    -- It led to militant nationalism in Africa: Before African nationalists used
    old methods of demanding for independence through negotiations became
    irrelevant they formed militant movements to fight for independence.
    -- African service men witnessed disunities amongst Europeans: At first,
    Africans looked at Europeans as demi-gods and patrons of civilization.
    However, during the Second World War, Africans were exposed to quarrels
    and fight amongst Europeans. For instance, the British against German,
    French against Germany… on returning to Africa, they turned the Bullet
    against Europeans.
    -- It led to the formation of the United Nations Organization (UNO):
    The UNO was born to correct the mistakes of the hypocritical League of
    Nations and to replace it. From the start, the UNO condemned colonialism
    and advocated for the political rights of the all colonized people of Africa
    and Asia.

    iii. The rise of super powers
    In 1941, USSR and USA joined the Second World War after WW II, they emerged
    as the new super powers to replace the war ravaged France and Britain their
    roles in decolonization were as follows:
    -- They wanted to spread their ideologies in Africa: After the 2nd WW, cold
    war (war of ideas) started it was between USSR, which wanted to spread
    its ideology of socialism, communism in Africa and USA which wanted
    to spread its ideology of capitalism in Africa. The two powers allowed
    sympathy with the colonized Africans so as to get supporters of their
    ideologies.
    -- USA exposed African students to democracy: America not only gave
    scholarship to African students like Nkrumah to study abroad, lent also
    allowed them to form or join democratic students’ organization. It also
    published a monthly magazine “African interpreter” by granting students
    freedom to express themselves democratically.
    -- Interaction of USA troops with African soldiers: During the 2nd WW,
    American troops were dispatched to north and West Africa. They valued
    the dignity of blacks unlike Europeans. they could share meals, toilets,
    bars and dancing halls with them above all, American troops criticized
    British and French colonialism in Africa.
    -- USA and USSR had anti colonial traditions: The USA had once been
    colonized and oppressed by the British they fought for independence and
    joined it 1976. They understood clearly the status of Africans and worked
    hard to change it.
    -- USA and USSR influenced the formation of the UNO: After 2nd WW,
    the major powers of the world met at San Francisco and signed to UNO
    charter article 13 made it clear that colonialism was an evil that had to be
    abolished. It declared the right of all people to choose best suited to them.
    -- Super powers threatened sanctions or colonial masters: USA and
    USSR exerted pressure on Europeans colonialists to decolonize their
    African empires, hence facilitating nationalistic activity in Africa. USA and
    USSR even threatened to improve sanctions on Britain, France, Belgium
    and Portugal if they didn’t decolonize.
    -- USSR embarked on spreading socialism in Africa: this ideology
    condemned land grabbing, oppression, exploitation and racial segregation.
    -- Both USA and USSR supported Pan-Africanists: In America Negro
    intellectual like WEB Dubois expressed better criticism against colonialism.
    He was never arrested for his view. The same to George Padmore, the great
    West Indian Pan African intellectual. The free atmosphere accorded to
    pan Africanists in diaspora enabled them spread their views up to Africa
    and hence influenced decolonization.

    iv. The pan Africa movement
    African living in Diaspora, especially in America started this movement. Pan
    Africanists like WEB Dubois, Marcus Garvey and George Padmore appealed to
    Africans all over the world to be proud of their role and to unite against whites
    in Africa. Marcus Garvey “go back to Africa” policy and “Africa for Africans”
    Slogan inspired the growth of nationalistic feelings amongst African students
    who went study abroad. For example Kwame Nkrumah.

    v. Western education
    Colonial masters’ scholarship to some Africans students who went to study
    abroad. Those students came into contact with white’s liberals, socialists
    and communists who were against colonialism. In addition, they witnessed
    democracy at work in European countries and America and wondered why
    such democratic governance was denied to them on returning to Africa, the

    elites demanded for democratic governance and an end to colonialism.

    There were four types or methods that Africans applied in the struggle to
    liberate Africans from the colonial domination

    14.2.1. Peaceful liberation/non-violence means.
    Peaceful liberation involved intensive negotiation between the colonialists and
    African Nationalists for instance the political independence of Tanganyika,
    Ghana, Uganda and Zambia applied negotiation or peaceful means to get their
    independence.

    14.2.2. Liberation by revolution.
    The liberation by revolution involved complete overthrow of the existing
    political system. This existed in colonies where independence was given to the
    minority at the expenses of the majority; the case in point is in Zanzibar where
    minority Arabs were granted independence by the British which prompted the
    majority blacks to make a revolution in 1964 supported by the masses. It took
    place even in Egypt and Libya. Liberation by revolution is always sudden and
    involves bloodshed.

    14.2.3. Liberation by armed struggle/violent method.
    The struggle was conducted in the situation where peaceful means failed and the
    imperialists were reluctant to negotiate or to give independence to the Africans.
    In such situation the Africans picked up arms to fight the imperialists by force
    as a method to achieve the independence. For example, in Zimbabwe, Algeria,
    Kenya, Angola, South Africa and Mozambique the fight involved bloodshed use

    of guerrilla warfare.

    14.2.4. Combination of peaceful means and armed struggle
    In some countries, the liberation movement combined both peaceful means
    and armed struggle. Firstly, the Africans resorted to armed struggle as a way
    to achieve their independence and then applied dialogue/peaceful means to
    solve the problems of their independence. This situation happened in Kenya

    and Zimbabwe.

    -- African nationalism had effects as it led to present political freedom
    for Africa and reversed the African tragedy and humiliation that was
    orchestrated at the Berlin Conference.
    -- It brought about the Organization of African Unity. Its spirit led to assisting
    African Liberation Movements of Southern Africa against colonialism.
    -- African nationalism affirmed the worth of black people and therefore
    rejected the inferiority ascribed by racist thought in the late19th and 20th
    centuries.
    -- It helped to launch the struggle for rights and equality for black people in
    the Diaspora;
    -- In Africa, African nationalism asserted the right of independence for

    Africans “Africa for the Africans”.

    -- In addition to the slogan, African nationalism contributed in at least 3
    ways:
    • Early in the century, for the newly emerging African elite, it was a
    source of ideas and contacts, especially for students studying abroad;
    • It helped to provide an ideology of unity in the process of mass
    mobilization of Africans for the independence struggle;
    • It also helped to build a constituency in Europe and North America
    which was sympathetic to and supportive of independence of Africa
    and this came to form important ‘public opinion’ in the1950s and 60s.
    -- African nationalism played a role in history after independence by unifying
    nations with diverse groups and gave all its citizens a sense of belonging.
    It bound people living in one nation together even if they did not have a
    common background. Due to this unity when opportunities were given to
    all people, they feel proud in their country and stand together in times of

    hardship such as natural disasters.



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