Topic outline
UNIT 1 COMMUNICATION, INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS AND COOPERATION
Key Unit Competence:
To use language in the context of communication, international relations and
cooperation
• Text 1: Some types of communication
Communication is a process by which information is exchanged between
individuals through a common system of symbols, signs, or behaviour. We
communicate continually throughout each and every day. We sometimes do it
without thinking – we operate on communication autopilot. However, we should
actually think about how we communicate. There are many different ways to
communicate and each of which play an important role in sharing information.
The four main categories or types of communication are verbal, nonverbal,
written and visual communication.
Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking with others. It
can be face-to-face, over the telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc. Some verbal
engagements are informal, such as chatting with a friend over coffee or in the
office kitchen, while others are more formal, such as a scheduled meeting.
Regardless of the type, it is not just about the words, it is also about the calibre
and complexity of those words, how we string those words together to create
an overarching message, as well as the intonation (pitch, tone, cadence, etc.)
used while speaking. And when occurring face-to-face, while the words are
important, they cannot be separated from non-verbal communication.
Nonverbal communication is the use of facial expressions, posture, eye contact,
hand movements, and touch to convey information to others. It can be used both
intentionally and unintentionally. What we do while we speak often says more
than the actual words. For example, if you’re engaged in a conversation with your
boss about your cost-saving idea, it is important to pay attention to both their
words and their non-verbal communication. Your boss might be in agreement
with your idea verbally, but their nonverbal cues: avoiding eye contact, sighing,
scrunched up face, etc. indicate something different.
In addition to nonverbal and verbal communication there is written communication.
Written communication is the act of writing, typing or printing symbols like letters
and numbers to convey information. Whether it is an email, a memo, a report,
a Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract, etc. all forms of written communication
have the same goal: to disseminate information in a clear and concise manner
– though that objective is often not achieved. In fact, poor writing skills often
lead to confusion and embarrassment, and even potential legal jeopardy. One
important thing to remember about written communication, especially in the
digital age, is the message lives on, perhaps in perpetuity. Thus, there are two
things to remember: first, write well – poorly constructed sentences and careless
errors make you look bad; and second, ensure the content of the message is
something you want to promote or be associated with for the long haul.
On top of the above three mentioned types of communication, there is another
type of communication which is referred to as visual communication. Visual
communication is the act of using photographs, art, drawings, sketches, charts
and graphs to convey information. We are a visual society. Think about it,
televisions are running 24/7, Facebook is visual with memes, videos, images,
etc., Instagram is an image-only platform, and advertisers use imagery to sell
products and ideas. Visuals are often used as an aid during presentations to
provide helpful context alongside written and/or verbal communication.
In conclusion, you should know that understanding how you communicate is
the first step to communicating more effectively. That is why you are advised
to think about how you communicate. Words, sentences, pitch, tone, cadence
and nonverbal cues you use can
be a hindrance or furtherance to how youcommunicate effectively.
Adapted from Communications for Professionals: Five Types Of Communication By Anne
Converse Willkomm
• Comprehension questions
1. What do you understand by “we operate on communication autopilot”?
2. Does the author think that operating on communication autopilot is a
good idea? Explain.
3. State the four main types of communication.
4. Referring to the text, answer the following question on this scenario: “As
Kalisa stood up to ask for permission, the teacher looked at him deniably
and he went back to his seat. Which type of communication was this?
5. Suppose that you have watched a video on YouTube showing step
by step how to insert a picture in Microsoft Word document. In which
category of communication can you classify this communication?
6. Using a clear example, explain how one can use nonverbal communication
unintentionally.
7. Explain how visual communication can help a primary teacher to teachscience subjects
• Text 2: History of Braille
Braille is a system of touch reading and writing for blind people in which
raised dots represent the letters of the alphabet. It also contains equivalents
for punctuation marks and provides symbols to show letter groupings. Braille
is read by moving the hand or hands from left to right along each line. The
reading process usually involves both hands, and the index fingers generally do
the reading. The average reading speed is about 125 words per minute. But,greater speeds of up to 200 words per minute are possible.
By using the braille alphabet, people who are blind can review and study the
written words. They can also become aware of different written conventions such
as spelling, punctuation, paragraphing and footnotes. Most importantly, braille
gives blind individuals access to a wide range of reading materials including
recreational and educational reading, financial statements and restaurant
menus. Equally important are contracts, regulations, insurance policies,
directories, and cookbooks that are all part of daily adult life. Through
braille, people who are blind can also pursue hobbies and cultural enrichment
with materials such as music scores, hymnals, playing cards, and board games.
Various other methods had been attempted over the years to enable reading for
the blind. However, many of them were raised as versions of print letters. It is
generally accepted that the braille system has succeeded because it is based
on a rational sequence of signs devised for the fingertips, rather than imitating
signs devised for the eyes.
The history of braille goes all the way back to the early 1800s. A man named
Charles Barbier who served in Napoleon Bonaparte’s French army developed
a unique system known as “night writing” so soldiers could communicate safely
during the night. As a military veteran, Barbier saw several soldiers killed because
they used lamps after dark to read combat messages. Barbier based his “night
writing” system on a raised 12-dot cell; two dots wide and six dots tall. Each dot
or combination of dots within the cell represented a letter or a phonetic sound.
The problem with the military code was that the human fingertip could not feel
all the dots with one touch.
Braille as we know it today was invented by Louis Braille. He was born in the
village of Coupvray, France on January 4, 1809. He lost his sight at a very young
age after he accidentally stabbed himself in the eye with his father’s awl as his
father was a leather-worker
At eleven years old, Braille found inspiration to modify Charles Barbier’s “night
writing” code in an effort to create an efficient written communication system for
fellow blind individuals. One year earlier he was enrolled at the National Institute
of the Blind in Paris. He spent the better part of the next nine years developing
and refining the system of raised dots that has come to be known by his name,
Braille.
After all of Braille’s work, the code was now based on cells with only 6-dots
instead of 12. This crucial improvement meant that a fingertip could encompass
the entire cell unit with one impression and move rapidly from one cell to the
next. Over time, braille gradually came to be accepted throughout the world as
the fundamental form of written communication for blind individuals. Today it
remains basically as he invented it.
However, there have been some small modifications to the braille system,
particularly the addition of contractions representing groups of letters or whole
words that appear frequently in a language. The use of contractions permits
faster braille reading. It also helps reduce the size of braille books, making them
much less cumbersome.
Braille passed away in 1853 at the age of 43, a year before his home country of
France adopted braille as its’ official communication system for blind individuals.
A few years later in 1860, braille made its way “across the pond” to America
where it was adopted by The Missouri School for the Blind in St. Louis. (Adapted
from History of Braille by Braille works.
Retrieved from https://brailleworks.com/braille-resources/history-of-braille/
(accessed on 26 December 2019)
• Comprehension questions
1. Explain how written communication is possible for blind people.
2. Account for the weakness of other methods that had been attempted to
enable reading for the blind.
3. What made Braille successful in enabling reading for the blind?
4. Appreciate the contribution of Charles Barbier’s night writing to Louis
Braille’s work.
5. Which small modifications were done to the braille system?
- Physical noise or external noise are environmental distractions such as
startling sounds, appearances of things, music playing somewhere else, and
someone talking really loudly near you, etc;
- Physiological noise are biological influences that distract one from effectively
communicating; these could include sweaty palms, pounding heart, butterfly
in the stomach, induced by speech anxiety, or feeling sick, exhausted at work,
the ringing noise in your ear, being really hungry, and if you have a runny nose
or a cough.
- Psychological noise are the preconceived bias and assumptions such as
thinking someone who speaks like a valley girl is dumb, or someone from a
foreign country can’t speak English well so you speak loudly and slowly to
them.
- Semantic noise is word choices that are confusing and may have the effect
of distorting the meaning.
Adapted from Theories & Models Of Communication by Amudavalli, A.
• Comprehension questions
1. What do you understand by “communication is a two-way process”?
2. Referring to the passage above, answer the following questions on
this scenario: “Keza cried and her mother realised that she (Keza) was
hungry.”
a. Between Keza and her mother, who is the sender, who is the receiver?
b. What is the message?
c. Suggest the feedback of the receiver.
3. In your own words, define the term “context” as a component of
communication.
4. Choose which of these classifications (physical noise, physiological
noise or Psychological noise) applies to the following scenarios:
a. Shema cannot hear properly due to the infection in the ear.
b. When John heard that Hassan had just come from Saudi Arabia, he
started using gestures because he thought Hassan was not familiar with
American accent.
c. Two soldiers are trying to communicate but the gun shot noise preventsthem from hearing one another.
• Text 1: History and the Evolution of Diplomacy
We do not know when human societies first felt the need to communicate with
each other, but it is safe to assume that they did so from the very earliest times.
We know that diplomatic status existed very early and it is both evident and
instructive why it should have been so. If it has been decided that it may be
better to hear the message than to eat the messenger, then there have to be
rules about who a legitimate messenger is, and there have to be sanctions which
will ensure his safety. The earliest diplomats were a response to a felt need for
a mechanism to convey messages between societies safely and reliably. It isinstructive to note that right from the beginning, diplomacy, even in its crudest
forms, evolved in response to political needs reciprocally felt. It has continued
and is continuing thus until today.
Once diplomacy actually existed and was conceded to be irreplaceably useful,
a reverse factor also became possible. The nature and functioning of the
diplomatic machine at any particular historical moment could of itself shape the
way in which principals - whoever they might be - conducted their exchanges.
Thus it has occasionally occurred that functions which had developed within
diplomacy came to create a particular international activity simply because they
existed. Of course, sometimes what the machine could not do, or could not be
seen to be doing without damaging its basic function, could be done by other
means - by Secret Services, for example, or by hired assassins.
The evolution of foreign ministries followed from the desire of rulers and their
ministers to maintain a continuous flow of diplomatic business in which cross
relationships between diplomatic partners, between internal sources of political
influence and between differing issues could be carefully followed and controlled.
To do this successfully and to have instantly available knowledge of current
obligations and commitments required an institutional memory obtainable only
through a properly managed single foreign ministry.
In the beginning, the role of foreign ministries was to coordinate embassies and
their staffs. These embassies were still far smaller than their modern form. With
embassies legitimate messengers in foreign countries became ambassadors.
The embassy staffs were made up of highly qualified professionals including
some dedicated to espionage. The information gathered by spies plays an
increasingly important role in diplomacy. Treaties to prevent wars would not be
possible if a country has no information about military activities of another.
These kinds of development occasionally engendered reluctance from
contemporary traditionalists. None, however, encountered the fierce opposition
and disapproval from the principals themselves that accompanied the
emergence of the resident ambassador. There could be no doubt that this was
an inescapable response to particular circumstances otherwise it could not
have triumphed over the objections of the proprietors of the system itself. The
origin of the problem lay in a change of emphasis in the purpose of diplomacy.
Diplomacy steadily developed as the means by which sovereign rulers
communicated with other sovereign rulers. It was the great assertion of
sovereign individuality, functioning in a sometimes avowedly - or sometimes
simply politely - adversarial mode, depending on circumstances. Diplomacy and
international relations were then considered the most effective and principled
means of resolving conflict.
In today’s diplomacy, the most effective response to a crisis is to call a meeting
in peacetime to discuss it before it gets out of hand. Conferences or congresses
had of course been well known devices, but always in the context of bringing an
existing war to an end. In most of discussions, each country is encouraged to
try to satisfy another country’s needs in order to avoid a warAdapted from History and the Evolution of Diplomacy by Richard Langhorne.
• Comprehension questions
1. Do we know when diplomacy started? Explain.
2. What do you understand by “it may be better to hear the message than
to eat the messenger”?
3. Explain the measures taken to ensure the safety of diplomats.
4. In the second paragraph, the author says that sometimes what the
machine could not do was done by other means. What does he mean by
“machine”?
5. Does diplomacy have anything to do with espionage? Explain.
6. Do you think that espionage is justifiable? Justify your answer.
• Text 2: Economic and Commercial Diplomac
Economic diplomacy, narrowly defined, is concerned with international
economic policy questions, such as how to preserve global financial stability
without indefensible levels of youth unemployment and unmanageable levels of
wholly defensible levels of civil unrest; and how to stimulate economic growth,
particularly in the poorest countries, while arresting or at least slowing down
climate change. Commercial diplomacy, on the other hand, consists mainly of
assistance to the promotion of exports and foreign direct investment (FDI), and
access to raw materials. Modern diplomacy was influenced by commerce from
its earliest days. The priority given to economic as well as commercial diplomacy
has risen more in recent years. The role of foreign ministries and especially
embassies is undeniably great in both economic and commercial diplomacy.
The invention and spread of resident diplomatic missions in the late fifteenth
century had probably been encouraged by the example of the consulates earlier
established by trading peoples in and around the Mediterranean world, and, from
the first, they sometimes had a decidedly commercial flavour. In a few exceptional
cases, major trading companies, with the blessing of their sovereigns at home,
themselves established full-blown embassies, not only financing them but also
appointing and sharing in the instruction of ambassadors. Thereafter, although
high politics came to dominate the work of most embassies until World War
I, the ‘trade’- averse aristocrats who usually headed them were rarely able toignore commercial work altogether.
This was because they had field responsibility for the consular posts that, in time,
fell under state control; because international trade began to grow enormously
in the first half of the eighteenth century; and because embassies themselves
came to be given direct responsibility for the negotiation of commercial treaties
–that is, the general framework in which trade was conducted in bilateralrelationships
In the late nineteenth century, as international rivalry intensified for markets –
as also for foreign concessions to sink mine shafts, drill for oil, build railways,
and cut canals – so commercial diplomacy was given a strong fillip. Diplomats
were required to interest themselves in projects such as these, especially when
they were thought to have the additional advantage of serving political and
strategic interests. The Suez Canal and the Berlin–Baghdad Railway are well
known examples. Diplomatic missions intervened with local ministries both to
support the placement of capital by their nationals on advantageous terms and
subsequently to provide protection to their investments against violence, breach
of contract, and hostile legislation. The latter role gave rise to the legal doctrine
of ‘diplomatic protection’ and, inevitably, to a counter-doctrine.
Adapted from Economic and Commercial Diplomacy. In: Diplomacy (P.210-211) by BerridgeG.R.
• Comprehension questions
1. Differentiate economic diplomacy from commercial diplomacy.
2. Do you really think that commerce can influence diplomacy? Justify your
answer.
3. What do you understand by “with the blessing of their sovereigns at
home”?
4. Evaluate the role of major trading companies in foreign politics.
5. What caused commercial diplomacy to be given a strong fillip in the late
nineteenth century?6. What do you understand by “diplomatic protection”?
• Text 3: Rwanda’s diplomacy in 2018
In her work, ‘the secret life of bees’ Sue Monk Kidd observed that, “if you need
something from somebody, always give that person a way to hand it to you”. I
couldn’t think of a better statement to aptly describe Rwanda’s diplomacy in
2018.
Towards the end of October, it’s not too early to begin analysing the year and
for Rwanda’s diplomacy, it’s not an exaggeration to assert that this will go
down as one of the country’s best, both at home and away, especially from theinternational relations front.
• Comprehension questions
1. How does the journalist describe Rwanda’s diplomacy in the first
paragraph?
2. Appreciate Rwanda’s post-1994 diplomacy template.
3. Why do you think Rwanda joined the Commonwealth while it was not
formerly a British colony?
4. What do you think boosted Mushikiwabo’s victory in OIF elections?
5. Did analysts think that Mushikiwabo would easily win elections? Explain.
6. Mention two Rwanda’s diplomatic victories in 2018.II. Vocabulary (Text2)
Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings of the
words/phrases in the table below. Copy the table into your book and fill inthe blank spaces.
III. Vocabulary (Text3)
Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings of the
words/phrases in the table below. Copy the table into your book and fill inthe blank spaces.
IV. Sentence construction:
Use each of the following words/phrase in your own sentence.
a) e-communication
b) Sign language
c) Embassy
d) Sovereigns
e) Rivalry
f) Diplomacy
g) Espionage
V. Paragraph writing
In one paragraph, explain why embassies are needed. You can again havea look at the techniques of writing a good paragraph in year one, unit 5.
1.4 Treaties and agreements:
Text 1: Regional integration to foster prosperit
President Paul Kagame has said that regional integration and close partnership
between members of regional economic communities can fast-track development
and prosperity for individual nations.
Kagame was, on 1st November 2017, speaking at the Global Business Forum
on Africa held in Dubai, United Arab Emirates. The session was moderated by
John Defterios, the emerging Markets anchor at CNN UAE.
The Head of State noted that regional integration in Africa would enable
countries to get past divisions that have long prevented the continent from
being as prosperous at it should.
Citing the example of the East Africa Community integration, Kagame said the
initiative has yielded positive impacts such as free movement of people, customs
union and joint infrastructure projects.
“If you look at the East African region, even more progress has been realised,
for example, in the area of customs union, integration in the area of infrastructure
that bring the countries of the East African Community together, whether it is
telecommunication in the area of realising one area network, where there are no
roaming charges,” Kagame said.
Other impacts, he noted, include working together to implement reforms that
cover aspects such as the economy and security. EAC integration has, among
others, seen the liberalisation of free movement of people, goods and services,
consequently increasing opportunities for the over 160 million citizens of the
bloc.
Four countries in the bloc (Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda and South Sudan) in 2014
rolled out the One Area Network, scrapping calls roaming rates which brought
down the cost of communication. The region is also in the process of rolling
out the Standard Gauge Railway, a 2000km project which will further ease
movement of goods.
On the side-lines of the Global Business Forum on Africa, Rwanda signed
two bilateral agreements with UAE, which are expected to enhance investor
relations.
The pacts will facilitate the promotion and reciprocation of protection of
investments as well as double taxation avoidance. This, experts say, will serve
to increase investor confidence in Rwanda’s business regulatory environment.
Speaking to The New Times, from Dubai, Emmanuel Hategeka the Chief Operating
Officer of the Rwanda Development Board, said that the forum presents an
ideal platform to mobilise investments.
“The forum presents an excellent platform to attract private investors to Rwanda.
We are able to access a global network of investors brought together by the
Dubai Chamber and showcase Rwanda’s investment opportunities and engage
in forward-looking discussions,” he said.
The United Arab Emirates, he said, is one of Rwanda’s main sources of investors.
“UAE has been a major source of investors to Rwanda registering over $100
million in planned investments in logistics, hospitality and financial services,”
Hategeka said.
The two-day forum, which was opened recently was the fourth on Africa. H.E
Paul Kagame attended it at the invitation of Sheikh Mohamed Al Maktoum, the
vice-president of UAE and the ruler of Dubai.
The forum was organised by the Dubai Chamber of Commerce and Industry.
Convening over 1,000 top-level government and corporate decision-makers as
well as industry experts the forum was running under the theme “Next Generation
Africa.”
Participants examined the current economic outlook for the African continent,
and explored prospects for its development, investment opportunities and the
potential for forging partnerships between African businesses and their UAE
counterparts.(Adapted from The New Times https://www.newtimes.co.rw/section/read/222853)
• Comprehension questions:
1. Assess the importance of regional integration for countries.
2. What do you understand by “joint infrastructure projects”?
3. Explain the role EAC played as far as telecommunication is concerned.
4. What should we expect from rolling out the Standard Gauge Railway?
5. Appreciate the role of The United Arab Emirates in Rwanda’s investment.
• Text 2: International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
The United Nations Security Council established the International Criminal
Tribunal for Rwanda to “prosecute persons responsible for genocide and other
serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the territory of
Rwanda and neighbouring States, between 1 January 1994 and 31 December
1994”. The Tribunal was located in Arusha, Tanzania, and had offices in Kigali,
Rwanda. Its Appeals Chamber was located in The Hague, Netherlands.
Since it opened, the Tribunal indicted many individuals whom it considered
responsible for serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in
Rwanda in 1994. Those indicted include high-ranking military and government
officials, politicians, businessmen, as well as religious, militia, and media leaders.
With its sister international tribunals and courts, the ICTR has played a pioneering
role in the establishment of a credible international criminal justice system,
producing a substantial body of jurisprudence on genocide, crimes against
humanity, war crimes, as well as forms of individual and superior responsibility.
The ICTR was the first ever international tribunal to deliver verdicts in relation
to genocide, and the first to interpret the definition of genocide set forth in the
1948 Geneva Conventions. It also is the first international tribunal to define rape
in international criminal law and to recognise rape as a means of perpetrating
genocide.
Another landmark was reached in the media case, where the ICTR became
the first international tribunal to hold members of the media responsible for
broadcasts intended to inflame the public to commit acts of genocide.
On 14 December 2015, the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)
delivered its final judgment on appeal in the case against former Minister of
Family and Women’s Development Pauline Nyiramasuhuko and five co-accused.
Nyiramasuhuko was the first woman convicted of genocide by an international
court. The court found her guilty of rape, among other crimes. The Appeals
Chamber upheld convictions for most of the charges against Nyiramasuhuko,
her son Arsène Ntahobali, and four local government officials.
“The creation of the ICTR was an extraordinary evolution in the international
response to serious and widespread human rights violations,” said Geraldine
Mattioli-Zeltner, international justice advocacy director at Human Rights Watch.
“It signalled that all serious crimes, whoever commits them and wherever they
are committed, should be prosecuted and tried.”
At the ICTR’s closing event, Rwandan Justice Minister Johnston Busingye called
upon states where indicted genocide suspects are sheltering to understand
that they owe a duty to humanity, and to the Rwanda victims. He urged them toensure that those suspects are brought to justice.
“Diplomatic pressure on countries where Rwandan genocide suspects are living
to step up efforts to apprehend and prosecute them is of primary importance,”
Mattioli-Zeltner said. “The UN Security Council should make clear that they will
be held to account, wherever they may be, and that justice for the Rwandan
genocide does not end with the closure of the ICTR.”
Adopted from International Residual Mechanism for Criminal Tribunals by UnitedNations
• Comprehension questions
1. Why was the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda established?
2. Before ICTR establishment, had any other international tribunal delivered
verdicts in relation to genocide? Justify your answer.
3. Describe ICTR’s achievement in terms of media cases.
4. The court found Nyiramasuhuko guilty of rape. Explain how a woman can
be involved in rape.
5. Discuss the Minister Johnston Busingye’s message at the ICTR’s closing
event.6. Advise countries that harbour genocide suspects.
Vocabulary, sentence construction and composition writing.
I. Vocabulary (Text1)
Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the meanings of the following
words/phrases
a. Integration
b. Anchor
c. Roaming charges
d. Rolled out
e. Bilateral agreements
f. Pacts
g. Reciprocation
h. Hospitality
i. Prospects
II. Vocabulary (Text2)
Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings of the
words in the table below. Copy the table into your book and fill in the blankspaces.
III. Sentence construction
Use each of the words in the above table in your own sentences.
IV. Composition writingWrite a 300 word composition explaining the role of regional integration
1.5 Language structure: Uses of gerunds and ing-clauses
and Verbs used with either infinitive or ing- forms
I. Uses of gerunds
Note: A gerund is a noun formed from a verb which refers to an action, process,
or state. Gerund will always contain the ending –ing and used as a noun. Inshort, any verb ending in -ing and used as a noun is a gerund.
Verb / Gerund
Study the following sentences:
1. She is running very fast. (verb)
2. She likes running very fast. (
gerund)
In the first sentence, run is used as a verb. She is doing the action of running.
In the second sentence, running is used as a gerund (noun) and like is the verb.
Therefore, a gerund will always be used as a noun and does not replace the
progressive form of the verb.
Functions of Gerunds
• Because a gerund is a noun, it can be the subject of a sentence
Examples:
- Singing makes Sarah happy.
- Smoking is prohibited in public places.
• A gerund can also be the direct object
Examples:
- Kayitesi enjoys singing.
- When her mother died, she started misbehaving.
• Gerunds can be Subject Complement.
Example: It was singing that made Kayitesi happy.
• Because a gerund is a noun, it can be the object of a preposition in a
prepositional phrase.
Example: Besides singing, Kayitesi likes dancing.
When to use gerund
• There are verbs that are commonly followed by a gerund. Those verbs
include:
- like
- love
- enjoy
- dislike
- hate
- start
- admit
- avoid
- keep etc
Example: I like playing soccer but I hate boxing.
Note that some verbs such as like/love/hate… can be also followed by an
infinitive.
• Gerund is also used after prepositions. Those prepositions include:
- aim at
- keep on
- interested in
- instead of
- good at
- before ...
- after ...
Examples:
I am interested in collecting stamps.”
After playing football I drank an orange juice”.
• Gerund is equally used after expressions, such as:
- It’s no use ...
- It’s no good ...
- There’s no point in ...
- I can’t help...
- I don’t mind...
- I can’t stand/bear...
Example: It’s no use convincing him to meet her.
II. Verbs used with either infinitive or ing- forms
Study the following sentences:
- The bus stopped picking up the children.
- The bus stopped to pick up the children.
Do the above sentences have the same meaning?
Notes: Some verbs have a different meaning depending on whether they are
followed by an -ing form or to + infinitive.
Stop
• Stop + -ing means the action is not happening any more.
Examples:
- I’ve stopped buying the newspaper because now I read the news online.
- Janet stopped reading her morning newsletters.
• Stop + to + infinitive means that someone or something stops an activity
so that they can do something else.
Examples:
- Muhire stopped to greet the Ambassador.
- He stopped the video to ask the students some questions.
Try
• Try + gerund means that you are trying something as an experiment,
especially as a possible solution to a problem, to see if it works or not.
Examples:
- Have you tried turning the computer off and on again?
- I want to try studying with a friend to see if it helps us stay more motivated.
• Try + infinitive means that something is difficult but you are making an
effort to do it.
Examples:
- I’m trying to learn Japanese but it’s very difficult.
- Our country tried to satisfy your needs but you look indifferent.
- I’m trying to study but it’s impossible with all this noise.
Remember/forget
• Remember + gerund and forget + gerund refer to having (or not having) a
memory of something in the past.
Examples:
- I remember watching this film before.
- I’ll never forget meeting you for the first time in this café.
• Remember + infinitive and forget + infinitive refer to recalling (or not
recalling) that there is something we need to do before we do it.
Examples:
- Please remember to buy some milk on the way home.
- He forgot to lock the door when he went out.
Exercise
Choose the correct verb form from the brackets to complete the sentences.
1. I’d forgotten _____ to Canada when I was small, but then my parents
showed me photos. (to go/ going)
2. I always forget _____ my alarm for Monday morning. (to set/ setting
3. She tried _____ the whole book but it was very long and complicated. (to
read/ reading)
4. You’ll be OK. I remember _____ really nervous on my first day too! (to be/
being)
5. Try _____ the video with subtitles. This might help you understand better.
(to watch/ watching)
6. She had to stop halfway through the race _____ the wheel on her bike.
(to repair/ repairing)
7. Remember _____ your swimming costume in case we go to the pool. (to
pack/ packing)
8. He’s stopped _____ French classes and changed to Spanish. (to take/
taking)
9. Kamali is good at _____(to dance/ dancing)10. Rutebuka couldn’t give up _____(to smoke/ smoking)
1.6 Spelling and pronunciation
A. Spelling
Identify and correct misspelled words in the following paragraph
The ability to practice diplomacy is one of the defining elements of a stete,
and diplomacy has been practiced since the formation of the first city-stetes.
Originally dipolomats were sent only for specific negotiasions, and would return
immediately after their mission concluded. Dipolomats were usually relatives of
the ruling family or of very high rank in order to give them legitimasy when they
sought to negosiate with the other stete. Ambassaders at that time were nobles
with little foreign or dipolomatic experience and needed to be supported by alarge emberssy staff.
B. Phonetic transcription
Give the missing phonetic transcriptions of the words in the table below and
practise their pronunciations.
1.7. End unit assessment
UNIT PEOPLE AND TECHNOLOGY 2
Key Unit Competence:
To use language learnt in the context of people and technology.
1. After observing picture one, describe different activities currently
taking place due to technological advancements.
2. Using picture two, explain some disadvantages of different new
technologies and suggest suitable solutions.3. Look at picture three and describe what you can see.
2.1. Describing concepts related to both humankind and
technological trends
technologies can detect changes in shoppers’ heart rates. A variety of wearable
ranging from today’s smart watches to tomorrow’s augmented-reality goggles
capture a wearer’s biofeedback. Smartphone data captured in real time can alert
retailers that customers are checking online to compare prices for a specific
product, suggesting dissatisfaction with store pricing, product selection, or
layout.
During the next two years, more companies will likely embrace aspects of
the growing intelligent interfaces trend. As a first step, they can explore how
different approaches can support their customer engagement and operational
transformation goals. Companies already on such journeys can further develop
use cases and prototypes. Though investments of time, labour, and budget
may be required before companies can begin reaping benefits, the steps
they take during the next 18 to 24 months will be critical to maintaining future
competitiveness.
Intelligent interfaces represent the latest in a series of major technology
transformations that began with the transition from mainframes to personal
computers and continued with the emergence of the web and mobile. At each
stage, the ways in which we interface with technology have become more
natural, contextual, and ubiquitous. This is seen through the progression from
keyboards to mice, to touchscreens, to voice and the consequent changes in
the way we manipulate onscreen data.
Today, voice-user interfaces such as those found in popular mass-market
products such as Amazon’s Alexa, Google Assistant, Apple’s Siri® voice
recognition software, and Microsoft’s Cortana are the most widely deployed
types of intelligent interface. The on-going competition among these tech
giants to dominate the voice systems space is standardizing natural language
processing and AI (Artificial intelligence) technologies across the interface
market-and fuelling innovation. Amazon offered a US$1 million prize through its
annual Alexa competition to any team of computer-science graduate students
building a bot capable of conversing “coherently and engagingly with humans
on popular topics for 20 minutes.”
Voice use cases are proliferating in warehouse, customer service, and, notably,
in field operation deployments where technicians armed with a variety of voiceenabled wearable can interact with company systems and staff without having to
hold a phone or printed instructions. Likewise, we are seeing more organizations
explore opportunities to incorporate voice dialog systems into their employee
training programs. Their goal is to develop new training methodologies that
increase the effectiveness of training, while shortening the amount of time
employees spend learning new skills
Though conversational technologies may currently dominate the intelligent
interfaces arena, many see a different breed of solutions gaining ground,
harnessing the power of advanced sensors, IoT (internet of things) networks,
computer vision, analytics, and AI. These solutions feature, among other
capabilities, computer vision, gesture control devices, embedded eye-tracking
platforms, bio-acoustic sensing, emotion detection/recognition technology,
and muscle-computer interfaces. And soon this list also may include emerging
capabilities such as brain-controlled interfaces, exoskeleton and gait analysis,
volumetric displays, spatial computing, and electro vibration sensing.
(Extracted from Reimagining the way humans, machines, and data interact, by AllanV. Cook, Jonathan Berman, and Jiten Dajee
• Comprehension questions
1. Discuss the technological advancement experienced in the field of
business as shown in paragraph three.
2. Explain how companies can embrace the intelligent interface trend.
3. Show how intelligent interfaces represent the latest technology
transformations today.
4. State the current most widely deployed types of intelligent interface.
5. Assess the extent to which voice dialogue syatems are used today.
6. Determine the aim of using voice dialog systems in different organizations
nowadays.
7. State and discuss the new technological solutions that are currentlygaining ground as described in the last paragraph
II. Sentence construction
Using the words in the above table, make grammatically correct sentences.
III. Summary writing
In not more than 100 words, summarize the above passage.
IV. Research
Conduct a research on the positive result of new technologies. Then
present your findings to the class.
2.2. Advantages of new tech trends
• Text: Advantages and disadvantages of modern technology
Today, technology is very important because it is used for almost everything.
Like everything, technology has advantages and disadvantages.
In the world today, people cannot live without technologies such as televisions,
mobile phones, computers and others. These technologies have slowly taken
an essential part in people’s day-to-day lives and being without them would be
unimaginable for some of us. To understand technology, one must know what it
provides in terms of advantages, but also disadvantages.
First, the evolution of technology is beneficial to humans for several reasons. At
the medical level, technology can help treat more sick people and consequentlysave many lives and combat very harmful viruses and bacteria
The invention of the computer was a very important point. Communication is
thus enhanced, and companies can communicate more easily with foreign
countries. Research is also simplified.
For companies, progress in implementing strategic technology trends is helping
them save time and therefore, money. Exchanges are faster especially with the
internet. Sales and purchases are now facilitated and possible worldwide. This
allows businesses to buy raw materials with discounts or at reduced prices.
Similarly, global tourism has grown.
When observed more closely, new things are discovered every day. Let’s take
for instance when radio waves were discovered, radio broadcasts followed
suit almost immediately. The same applies to the television and electricity. If no
one had discovered that electricity could be generated, then the entertainment
industry wouldn’t be at its current stage of development.
Technology improves daily lives; allowing to move physical storage units to
virtual storage banks and more. Scientists of the time are also able to send
astronauts to the moon thanks to technology.
In the modern industrial world, machines carry out most of the agricultural and
industrial work and as a result, workers produce much more goods than a
century ago and work less. They have more time to exercise and work in safer
environments.
On the other hand, the evolution of modern technology has disadvantages, for
example, dependence on new technology. Man no longer needs to think. Even if
the calculator is a good invention, man no longer makes mental calculation and
no longer works his memory. The decline of human capital implies an increase
in unemployment. In some areas, devices can replace the human mind.
The use of technology certainly needs rule and new laws. For example internet
use is an individual freedom. However, the invention of the atomic bomb
cannot be an individual freedom. In fact, regulations are difficult to implement
when these technologies are introduced-such as regulation surrounding the
impending arrival of autonomous vehicles.
Finally, as most technological discoveries aim to reduce human effort, it would
imply that more work is done by machines. This equates to less work for people:
the human is becoming ever so obsolete by the day, as processes become
automated and jobs are made redundant. The influence that the negative impact
of technology has on children should not be underestimated as well.
Extract from Key Events in the Story of Technology, London (2019) Bonhill GroupPlc, by Michael Baxter
• Comprehension questions
1. Why is technology very useful?
2. Assess the importance of technology at the medical level.
3. Show how the invention of the computer was a very important point.
4. Evaluate the usefulness of implementing strategic technological trends
for companies.
5. Analyse the utility of technological discoveries in media and entertainment.
6. Explain how technology improves daily lives.
7. Discuss the use of technology in agriculture and industrial work.
8. Using suitable examples from the passage, explain the disadvantages of
the evolution of modern technology.
9. Why rules and new laws are needed for the optimal use of technology?10. Analyse the impact of technological discoveries on employmen
II. Sentence construction
Using the terms in the above table, construct correct and meaningful
sentences.
III. Summary writing
In not more than 80 words, summarize the advantages and disadvantages
of modern technology as developed in the above passage.
IV. Composition writing
Write a 300 word composition predicting the impact of technological
advancement on Rwanda’s future generation.
V. Debate
Debate on the following motion: “Technological discoveries cause more
good than harm.”
VI. Research
Conduct a research on the current impact of modern technology on the
community in your area. Analyse both positive and negative influences of
technology and suggest practical measures that should be implemented toencourage optimal use of technological discoveries.
2.3. Challenges caused by new technologies
• Text: How will technology impact on us?
Perhaps the most fundamental and direct impact that technology has on the
everyday life of most people is economic in nature. The issue of jobs and
unemployment is one that strikes a chord of concern in just about every person.
While competition between machinery and human labour has long existed
in the realm of physical tasks, it has only recently been introduced into the
domain of mental work. Much as heavy machinery has eliminated the need for
physical exertion on the part of humans, so too does modern technology, in the
form of microchips and computers. It brings with it the potential to eliminate
mental drudgery. Does this mean, however, that humans will no longer have anypurpose to serve in the world?
To gain some perspective on the issue, we can take a look at the past. At
the beginning of the 20th century in the United States, jobs in factories and
agriculture were disappearing at a rapid rate. But with the loss of those jobs
came the potential for millions of new jobs and economic development in new
industries. Indeed the macroeconomic trend of the past century has been
overwhelmingly positive. Jobs have grown 10-fold in the United States (from 12
million in 1870 to 116 million in 1985) and the percentage of people employed
has grown from 21 percent to 48 percent. Per-capita gross national product, as
well as the average earning power of jobs, has increased 600 percent in constant
dollars during the same period. Today, new manufacturing technologies are
rapidly reducing the number of production jobs. The advent of new technology
is projected to rapidly decrease the demand for clerical workers and other suchsemiskilled and unskilled workers
Computers, which have revolutionized the workplace, are similarly infiltrating
society. They have brought about innumerable advances in education and
personal communication. Slowly but surely, computers have begun to infiltrate
the classroom. Though not yet optimized for education, the personal computer
has much potential in this arena. Wireless networks can allow for the easy
sharing of courseware, submissions by students of papers, exams, courseware
responses, and other creations. The networking of information can provide
students with instant access to vast amounts of information and knowledgeThe realm of communications has likewise seen immense change. We are
provided with new ways to communicate with each other, such as email and
instant messaging. Documents placed on the internet are sources of information
for the rest of the world. Vast databases allow for the easy storage of information.
Global positioning satellites allow us to track our exact location and find our wayto various destinations
The potential applications of technology to warfare are well known. But is this
application positive or negative? One might argue that the military application
of science is undoubtedly negative in that it has led to the creation of the atomic
bomb and other such weapons of mass destruction. Technology has made the
complete destruction of humanity possible. That capacity continues to grow,
as more nations develop nuclear technology and the proliferation of nuclear
warheads continues.
On the other hand, it is also possible to argue that science has made it possible
for the more accurate destruction of enemy targets and, in doing so, has
lessened unintended damage to civilian populations. Smart bombs and cruise
missiles have lessened the human component of war at least to some degree.
(Extract from “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us”, by Bill Joy, Stanford University,April 2000
Comprehension questions
1. Assess the economic impact of technology on the everyday life of some
people.
2. Evaluate the positive impact of technology on employment at the start of
the 20th century.
3. What is the impact of the new manufacturing technologies on employment
today?
4. Analyse the outcome of technology in education.
5. How did new technologies influence the way people communicate?
6. Examine the negative applications of technology to warfare.
7. Discuss the positive impact of the use of science and technology in thefield of war.
Use a dictionary or a thesaurus to find the meanings of the following terms.
1. …realm… (paragraph one)
2. …microchips… (paragraph one)
3. …drudgery… (paragraph one)
4. …macroeconomic… (paragraph two)
5. overwhelmingly… (paragraph two)
6. . …advent… (paragraph two)
7. … …clerical… (paragraph two)
8. …innumerable… (paragraph three)
9. . …infiltrate… (paragraph three)
10. . …courseware… (paragraph three)
11. . …warfare… (paragraph five)
12. . …proliferation… (paragraph five)13. …lessen… (paragraph six)
II. Sentence construction
Using the above terms used in the above passage, construct grammatically
correct sentences.
III. Summary writing
In less than 90 words, summarize the above passage.
IV. Composition writing
Write a 350 word composition on the optimal use of modern technological
discoveries.
V. Debate
Debate on the following motion: “With modern technology humans will nolonger have any purpose to serve in the world.”
2.4. Language Structure: Correlative connectors
• Notes
Correlative connectors are words that function as separable compounds,
occurring in pairs, and have corresponding meanings. A correlative connector
is a type of connector that functions in a pair, with both words working together
to balance words, phrases, or clauses. These connectors are only used when
equal, correlative ideas are presented. They should not be used with ideas that
are disparate or unequal. There are many examples of correlative connectors
but the most common are:
- either ... or
- neither ... nor
- not only...but also
- both ... and
- the more... the less
- the more... the more
- no sooner... than
- whether... or
- rather ... than
- hardly/scarcely…whenExamples
1. Both the planning of technology projects and their uses are costly.
2. John will either sleep or go to school.
3. Computers are not only useful but also stressful.
4. Not only is management of waste technological tools expensive but also
harmful to the environment.
5. Not only did she forget my birthday, but she also didn’t apologise for
forgetting it!
6. No sooner did he enter the room than my tablet disappeared.
7. No sooner had I closed my eyes than I fell asleep.
8. Do you care whether we use a smart camera or a projector in the
conference?
9. The more you think about it, the less likely you are to take action.
10. The more it rains, the more serious the problems become.
11. Wouldn’t you rather take a chance to owe me than be in debt to Michael?
12. Hardly had I reached the station when the train came.
13. Scarcely had I reached the station when the train arrived
Note that when we begin a sentence with a negative word or phrase like hardly,
scarcely, not only or no sooner, we put the auxiliary verb before the subject.
When there is no auxiliary verb or main verb be, we use do, does or did.
• Language practice
Complete each sentence using the correlative connector pair from the
parenthesis:
1. I plan to take my vacation ………… in June ………… in July. (whether/
or, either / or, as / if)
2. ………… I’m feeling happy ………… sad, I try to keep a positive attitude.
(either / or, whether / or, rather / than)
3. ………… had I taken my shoes off ………… I found out we had to leave
again. (no sooner / than, rather / than, whether / or)
4. ………… only is dark chocolate delicious, ………… it can be healthy.
(whether / or, not / but also, just as / so)
5. I will be your friend ………… you stay here………… move away. (either/or, whether/or, neither/nor)
2.5. Spelling and pronunciation
A. Spelling and dictation
Listen carefully to the text read or recorded about technology and social welfare.
Write it down as correctly as possible.
B. Phonetic transcription
Complete the table below by giving the phonetic transcriptions of the words
studied across this unit. Pay attention to the placement of the stress where
necessary. Then practise their pronunciation. You can use a dictionary where
you find it necessary. One is done for you.
2.6. End unit assessment
1. Carry out a survey in your area with the aim of evaluating the
progress that Rwanda has made in the implementation of modern
technology and the impact that this has had on socio-economic life.
Then present your findings to the class.
2. Each correlative connector comes in a pair of words. Use one of the
following pairs to complete each sentence: either … or, neither …
nor, both . . . and, not only . . . but also, whether … or, not only…also,
not only…but…also
3. “Could I come over at ………… three ………… four o’clock?” asked
Joan.
4. The teacher refused to mark his work because his book was
………… torn ………… dirty.
5. I really need a holiday but ………… in Spain ………… France.
6. I’m going to fish tomorrow, ..………… it rains ………… shines.
7. ………… did he borrow a lot of money from us, he ………… refused
to pay back a single cent.
8. The children at the centre can ………… hear ………… speak.
9. She employs a maid to do ………… the cooking ………… washing
for her family.
10. We have enough spices for only one type of curry. We can cook
………… chicken curry ………… mutton curry.
11. The boy is really talented. He ………… knows how to play the piano
………… can also compose music.
12. I do not like him. He is ………… rude ………… selfish.
13. Conduct a research on key economic areas that need modern
technology in Rwanda. Suggest appropriate ways of using
technology in those areas and show how this could boost their
productivity.
14. Write a 300 word essay on the following topic: “The impact of
effective implementation of technology on the learning process inRwandan schools.
UNIT 3 NATIONAL SERVICES AND SELFRELIANCE
Key Unit Competence:
To use language learnt in the context of national services and self-reliance
3.1. National services and self-reliance rationale
Read the texts below and answer the comprehension questions that follow:
• Text 1: Home Grown Initiative
Home Grown Initiatives (HGIs) are Rwanda’s brain child solutions to economic
and social development. They are practices developed by the Rwandan
citizens based on local opportunities, cultural values and history to fast track
their development. Being locally created, HGIs are appropriate to the local
development context and have been the bedrock to the Rwandan development
successes for the last decade.
After the 1994 genocide against Tutsi, Rwandan economic structure was
devastated none was hoping that the county should be rebuilt and continues
its development process. After this period, Rwandan government has adopted
several programs and policies to boost Rwandan economy and to promote the
general welfare of the population.
HGIs had a significant impact on recipient households and the community. In
terms of social impact, Home Grown Initiatives have contributed to beneficiary
households through the increased access to health and education services,
shelter, improved nutrition, social cohesion and sustained participation in
decision making at community level.
HGIs include community work, truth and reconciliation traditional courts,
mediators, performance contracts, community-based and participatory effort
towards problem solving, solidarity camps, national dialogue, National Leadership
Retreat and One cow per Family program. They are all rooted in the Rwandan
culture and history and therefore easy to understand by the communities.
(Adapted from History for Rwanda Schools senior six. Rwanda Education Board)
• Comprehension questions
1. What does HGIs mean in full?
2. When were HGIs thought of?
3. Who are to execute the HGIs and who benefit from them?4. Discuss the HGIs contribution to social and economic development.
• Text 2: The contribution of the youth national services
In most countries, the youth represents the future of their countries; therefore,
they have a vital role to play in the development of each country by participating
in national service.
The training and participation of the youth contribute to the increase of national
army, where some become soldiers permanently or part time after accomplishing
military trainings. The youth is the manpower provider because they participate
in national service by offering their physical force in order to accomplish national
service goals like construction of houses for the poor families, repairing the roads,
construction of vegetable gardens for family consumption. In environmental
protection, the youth in national service construct terraces and plant trees in
order to fight against soil erosion.
In Rwanda, the youth at Urugerero have contributed in making data collection.
Most data collected were about the number of illiterate people in their area of
operations, the cases of school dropout and children of school going age who
are not yet in school, of local population who have not yet registered for health
insurance, number of family living in illegal marriage and vulnerable groups.
Through Urugerero, the graduates of senior six secondary schools also
perform different national duties in line with the Government’s notion of selfreliance and dignity. The most activities the students are engaged in include
awareness campaigns on development projects, HIV/AIDS, gender balance,
family planning, adult literacy and community work among others. Furthermore,
the youth contribute in fighting and preventing people against the genocide
and genocide ideology, fighting against the drug abuse and sensitizing and
mobilizing local population about credit – saving through micro-finances likeUmurenge SACCO
The youth also contribute in national service by contributing in service provision
and delivery to local population at sector and cell levels. Services delivered
including distribution of official documents namely identity cards and land
registration certificates. Data entry in computers and customer care are also
done by national service participants. This boosts the service delivery to the
local population.
Adapted from history for Rwandan schools senior six, student’s book. Rwanda
education board.
1. Why do you think the youth present the future of the country?
2. Discuss the contribution of “urugerero” program in national services
delivery.
3. Assess your contribution to the national service delivery. Share it to yourclass.
Vocabulary, sentence and composition writing
I. Vocabulary: use dictionary and thesaurus to check the meanings
of the following words and phrases. Practice spelling them correctly
1. Track
2. Devastated
3. Boost
4. Leadership Retreat
5. Manpower
6. Sensitizing
7. Self-reliance
8. Dignity
II. Construct meaningful sentences with the above words and phrases
III. Write a 250 word composition appreciating the contribution of theRwandan youth in the national services.
3.2. National services that encourage unity, peace and
reconciliation
Read the following texts and answer the questions that follow:
• Text 1: Establishment of the mediation committees
In 2004, the Government of Rwanda established mediation committees as an
alternative dispute resolution mechanism.
Established at the cell and sector levels, mediation committees primarily address
family disputes, such as those relating to land or inheritance. By institutionalizing
mediation committees, low level legal issues could be solved at a local level
without the need to be heard in conventional courts. Citizens experiencing legal
issues are asked to first report to mediation committees, cases not exceeding
3,000,000 Frs (for land and other immovable assets) and 1,000,000 Rwf (for
cattle and other movable assets). Cases of these types can only be heard in
a conventional court if one party decides to appeal the decision made at the
sector level by the mediation committee.
As the mediation committees system gained recognition as a successful
method to resolve conflict and deliver justice, the importance of providing
more structure and formality to their work increased. Consequently, the
mediation committees started receiving trainings on mediating domestic conflicts
and support from both governmental and non-governmental organisations to
improve the quality of their mediation services.
The mediation committee, at the cell and sector level, is headed by a bureau
composed of a president and a vice-president elected by their peers. Claims
made to the mediation committees are received by the Executive Secretary
who in turn forwards them to the mediation committee. If the Executive
Secretary is unable to receive the claim, the request is delivered to the
chairman of the mediation committee. The relevant council (cell or sector level)
is then notified.
The mediation committees that make up the mediation committees operate at a
cell level in the first instance (initial cases) and at a sector level in the event of
appeal (appeal cases). According to the law establishing the structure of
mediation committees, the committee is composed of twelve people known
for their integrity, who reside respectively in the concerned cell and sector andwho are recognised for their ability to reconcile differences. These mediators
are elected by the Cell Council and the Sector Council respectively for a
renewable term of five years.
In order to initiate a case, one of the parties must first submit a complaint
to the Executive Secretary of the cell verbally or in writing so that it can
be registered by the mediation committee. The applicant must provide a
brief outline of the case to inform the proceedings, after which the mediation
committee can summon parties and decide on the venue, as well as the date
and time for hearing the case.
(Adapted from history for Rwandan schools. senior six, student’s book. Rwanda education
board)
• Comprehension questions
1. Give examples of some conflicts solved by the mediation committees.
2. Describe the structure of a mediation committee.
3. After reading the above passage, assess the function of your local
mediation committee referring to their responsibilities. Share it to your
class.
4. Explain the process that citizens follow to have their cases dealt with.
• Text 2: Civic Education Program
In the aftermath of the Genocide against the Tutsi, the Government of Rwanda
reintroduced civic education program in view of societal transformation. This
HGS translated as Civic Education Program, was adopted following the 4th
National Leadership Retreat in February 2007.
Contemporary civic education program includes physical activities along with
classes on Rwandan history that reintroduce some of the cultural values lost
during colonization. Training is adapted for the group participating in civic
education program. For example, health workers have been trained on activities
relevant to their profession, while local leaders have been trained on service
delivery and good governance.
The Government of Rwanda established the National civic education program
Commission with the objective of mobilizing Rwandans to uphold important
cultural values and the culture of intore. The commission was entrusted with
developing a program that allowed Rwandans from diverse backgrounds
to undertake personal development and contribute to the wellbeing of the
communities where they live or that they serve. The civic education program
provides opportunities for participants to enhance positive values build a sense
of responsibility through patriotism and gain professional knowledge.The values at the core of contemporary civic education program are unity,
patriotism, selflessness, integrity, responsibility, volunteerism and humility.
Civic education program is designed for all Rwandans. Different curricula have
been developed to suit the program’s varied participants. Children of seven
years and above take part in their villages, to help them grow up to become
responsible citizens. Compulsory National Service (Urugerero) is designed for
those between the ages of 18 and 35 who have completed secondary education.
Rwandan citizens living abroad also join Urugerero and a number of young
Rwandans have organised civic education program in cities including London
and Brussels. Non-nationals desiring to participate and provide service to the
country can also do so. University graduates and retired people who participated
in Urugerero before and wish to do so again are also given the opportunity to
join civic education program. Participants come from each administrative level
across the country.
(Adapted from history for Rwandan schools. senior six, student’s book. Rwandaeducation board.)
• Comprehension questions
1. What are the civic education program values?
2. What is the relevance between the civic education program and peace,
unity and reconciliation?
3. Explain the contribution of the civic education program towards societal
transformation.
4. Justify the activities carried out in the civic education program that youappreciate?
Vocabulary, sentence, summary and composition writing
I. Vocabulary: use a dictionary and thesaurus to check the meanings of
the following words. Practise their spellings.
1. Notified
2. Instance
3. Appeal
4. Reconcile
5. Mediators
6. Aftermath
7. Retreat Contemporary
8. Uphold
9. Undertake
II. Make meaningful sentences that are related to peace, unity and
reconciliation with the above words.
III. Summary and composition writing
1. Summarize the text “civic education program” in not more than 10
lines.
2. Write a composition of 300 words explaining the contributions
of mediators, community health workers and election process
managers to Rwanda nation building.3.3. National services in Rwanda
Read the following texts and answer questions that follow
• Text 1: One Cow per Poor Family programme
The programme describes a centuries’ old cultural practice in Rwanda whereby
a cow was given by one person to another, either as a sign of respect and
gratitude or as a marriage dowry.
The contemporary programme was introduced in 2006 against a backdrop
of alarmingly high levels of poverty and childhood malnutrition. The results of
the Integrated Household
Living Conditions Survey 2 conducted in 2005 showed rural poverty at 62.5%.
The Comprehensive Food Security and Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) and
Nutrition Survey showed that 28% of Rwanda’s rural populations were food
insecure and that 24% of the rural populations were highly vulnerable to food
insecurity.
The programme is based on the premise that providing a dairy cow to poor
households helps to improve their livelihood as a result of a more nutritious and
balanced diet from milk, increased agricultural output through better soil fertility
as well as greater incomes by commercializing dairy products.
Since its introduction in 2006, more than 203,000 beneficiaries have received
cows. One cow per poor family programme has contributed to an increase in
agricultural production in Rwanda - especially milk products which have helped
to reduce malnutrition and increase incomes. The program aimed at providing
350,000 cows to poor families by 2017.
The programme is structured in two phases. First, a community member
identified as someone who would greatly benefit from owning a cow is given a
pregnant dairy cow. That person benefits from its milk and manure production.
Beneficiaries are then obliged to give the first born female calf to another worthy
beneficiary in their community. This is known as the ‘pass on’ principle.
One cow per poor family programme is one of a number of programs under
Rwanda’s Vision 2020, a set of development objectives and goals designed to
move Rwanda to a middle income nation by the year 2020.
(Adapted from History for Rwanda Schools senior six student’s book. Rwanda Education
Board, Kigali January 2019)
• Comprehension questions
1. Describe the above mentioned surveys that indicate the vulnerability to
food insecurity.
2. How does the program assist in eradicating malnutrition and poverty in
general?3. Describe the one cow per family programme phases
4. How is this programme executed in your community?
• Text 2: Contemporary performance contract
Performance contract were re-initiated by Rwanda’s President, Paul Kagame,
in March 2006. This was as a result of the concern about the speed and
quality of execution of government programs and priorities. The government’s
decentralization policy required a greater accountability at the local level. Its
main objective was to make public agencies and institutions more effective and
accountable in their implementation of national programs and to accelerate
the socioeconomic development agenda as contained in the Vision 2020 and
Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) policies as
well as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).
Today, performance contracts are used across the government to ensure
accountability. All levels of government, from the local district level to ministries
and embassies, are required to develop and have their contracts evaluated.
Members of the public service also sign performance contracts with their
managers or head of institution.
While performance contracts are now widely used across government, it
first began at the district level. When developing its performance contracts,
each local government administrative unit determines its own objectives (with
measurable indicators) taking into account national priorities as highlighted
in the national as well as international strategy and policy documents such
as the MDGs, Vision 2020, EDPRS, District Development Plans (DDPs)
and Sector Development Plans (SDPs). The performance contracts, at both
planning and reporting phases, are presented to the public for the purpose of
accountability and transparency. The mayors and province governors also sign
the performance contracts with Rwanda’s President committing themselves to
achieving set objectives. The performance process ensures the full participation
and ownership of citizens because priorities are developed at the grassroots
level.
Between 2006 and 2009 a limited evaluation process took place whereby the
best ten performing districts from across the nation were reviewed (two from
each province and the City of Kigali). Each province and the City of Kigali would
rank the performance of their districts with the top two then communicated to the
national evaluation team. This team then conducted their own review and ranked
them from 1-10. This approach suffered from significant limitations including
the fact that it was not possible to objectively compare the performance of all
districts because while one province may have had better performing districts
than another, this system did not allow that to be discovered. Due to these
shortcomings, a nation-wide district performance contract evaluation exercise
was conducted in 2010 for all the thirty districts. A national evaluation committeewith technical expertise and experience conducts this process
(Adapted from History for Rwanda Schools senior six student’s book. Rwanda Education
Board, Kigali January 2019)
• Comprehension questions
1. What was the reason of re-initiating the performance contract by H.E
Paul Kagame, the president of Rwanda?
2. What were the shortcomings in the former performance contract
evaluation process?
3. What are responsibilities of national evaluation committees?
4. Is this program applied in your district? How far do you know this? Explainwith clear examples
Vocabulary and composition writing
I. Vocabulary and sentence construction: use a dictionary and thesaurus
to check the meanings of the following words and use them to make
meaningful sentences related to national services in Rwanda. Practise
their spellings.
1. Alarmingly
2. Vulnerability
3. Households
4. Millennium
5. Grassroots
6. Transparency
7. Shortcomings
II. Composition writing: write a 300 word composition evaluating how
“the one cow per family program” is conducted in your community.3.4. Scope of national services worldwide
Read the text below and answer the questions that follow
Text: Concepts of Judicial Systems
The judicial or court system interprets and applies the law on behalf of the state.
The judiciary also provides a mechanism for the resolution of disputes.
In some nations, under the doctrine of separation of powers, the judiciary does
not make law (which is the responsibility of the legislature) or enforce law (which
is the responsibility of the executive), but rather interprets law and applies it to
the facts of each case.
In other nations, the judiciary can make law, known as common law, by setting
precedent for other judges to follow, as opposed to statutory law made by the
legislature. The judiciary is often tasked with ensuring equal justice under the
law.
In many jurisdictions, the judiciary has the power to change laws through judicial
review. Courts with judicial review power may annul the laws and rules of the
state which are incompatible with a higher norm, such as primary legislation, the
provisions of the constitution or international law. Judges are responsible for the
interpretation and implementation of a constitution, thus charged with creating
the body of constitutional law in common law countries.
For a people to establish and keep the rule of law great care must be taken
in the appointment of unbiased legal experts who are truthful and cannot be
corrupted. For the law to be accepted courts must stick to justice and the lawsmust be culturally relevant.
The term judiciary is also used to refer collectively to the personnel, such as
judges, magistrates and other adjudicators, who form the core of a judiciary
(sometimes referred to as a “bench”), as well as the staffs who keep the systems
running smoothly.
In some countries the judiciary includes legal professionals and institutions such
as prosecutors, state attorneys, ombudsmen, public notaries, judicial police
service and legal aid officers. These institutions are sometimes governed by
the same administration that governs courts. In some cases the judiciary also
administers private legal professions such as lawyers and private notary offices.
(Adapted from history of Rwandan schools. Senior 5, student’s book. Rwanda EducationBoard
• Comprehension questions
1. How far do you know the judicial system in your country? Share your
ideas to class.
2. Compare the judicial system in the second and third paragraph.
3. What personnel are involved in the judiciary within some countriesaccording to the last paragraph?
Vocabulary and sentence writing and survey
I. Vocabulary: match words with their meanings in the above table.
Spell the words correctly
II. Make meaningful sentences with the words in the table pages 55-56.
III. Conduct a survey about some national services in a country of your
choice and write a composition about it.3.5. Language structure: Coordinate connectors
• Notes
These connectors join two independent clauses together. Their purpose is to
show the connection between two words, actions, ideas, items in a series and
complete sentences. The most common examples are: and / or/ nor/ so / but/
for/yet. The following table summarizes how coordinate connectors are used.
Exercise
Choose the best answer from the brackets to complete each sentence.
1. Would you rather have cheese ………honey on your sandwich? (For,
nor, or, so)
2. His favorite sports are football……….tennis (or, and, nor, for)
3. I wanted to go to the beach, ……… Mary refused (but, or, so, for)
4. I am allergic to cats, …I have three of them (or, for, yet, so)
5. I am a vegetarian,……. I don’t eat any meat. (so, yet, nor, but)
6. Thomas will be late to work,………he has a dental appointment (but, or,
for, nor)
7. Jennifer doesn’t like to swim,……….does she enjoy cycling. (and, or, but,
nor)
8. Jackson wanted to eat another piece of cake,…………he was on diet. (
for, but, yet, so)
3.6. Spelling and pronunciation
A. Practise the pronunciation of the words below. Pay attention to where you
put stress. You can use dictionary where necessary.
1. Contemporary
2. Programme
3. Sustainable
4. Partnership
5. Household
6. Entrust
7. Successful
8. Doctrine
9. Interpre3.7. End unit assessment
UNIT 4 GENOCIDE AND PEACE BUILDING
Key Unit Competence:
To use the language learnt in the context of genocide and peace building
4.1. Describing words and expressions used in the context
of genocide and peace building
• Text: Genocide and related terms
The history of the world has always been punctuated by cycles of violence,
regardless of time, region or race. Genocide, which is one of the worst forms of
violence, has always led to horrific socio-economic and environmental impacts.
The last decade of the 20th century was the most turbulent some countries like
Rwanda has ever experienced in its history. The following paragraphs discuss
some of terms used in the context of genocide.
Firstly, crimes against humanity are codified in article 7 of the Rome Statute of
the International Criminal Court (ICC). “The notion encompasses crimes such
as murder, extermination, rape, persecution and all other inhumane acts of a
similar character (wilfully causing great suffering, or serious injury to body or to
mental or physical health), committed ‘as part of a widespread or systematic
attack directed against any civilian population, with knowledge of the attack’.
The mapping report says that most incidents listed may fall within the scope
of “widespread or systematic attacks” characterized by “multiple acts of largescale violence, carried out in an organized fashion and resulting in numerous
victims. Most of these attacks were directed against non-combatant civilian
populations consisting primarily of women and children. As a consequence, the
vast majority of acts of violence perpetrated during these years, which formed
part of various waves of reprisals and campaigns of persecution and pursuit of
refugees, were in general terms all transposed into a series of widespread and
systematic attacks against civilian populations and could therefore be classified
as crimes against humanity by a competent court.”
Secondly, Laue (1993:256) defined conflict as ‘escalated natural competition
between two or more parties about scarce resources, power and prestige’.
Parties in conflict believe they have incompatible goals, and their aim is to
neutralize, gain advantage over, injure or destroy one another (Laue 1993:257).
According to Fry and Bjorkqvist (1997:26), conflict, although inevitable, is not
inherently pathological, sick behavior or always dysfunctional. Some conflicts
are harmful but they may, in some cases, improve society and social relations
on a long-term basis. Conflict can be a constructive force in social life (Fry
and Bjorkqvist 1997:26). The theoretical links between geography, society
and conflicts were also highlighted by Ferguson (1994:59) who emphasized
that genocides had negative consequences on the infrastructure, structure andsuperstructure.
Thirdly, the term ‘genocide’ was coined by a Polish-Jewish lawyer named
Raphael Lemkin who formed the word by combining the Greek word for race
or tribe (Geno) with the Latin word for killing (cide). In proposing this new
term, Lemkin had in mind “a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the
destruction of essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim
of annihilating the groups themselves.”
Therefore, the crime of genocide since it was initially formulated in 1948, in
article 2 of the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of
genocide, the definition of ‘genocide’ has remained substantially the same. Article
6 of the Rome Statute borrows from this convention and for example, defines
the crime of genocide as “any of the following acts committed with intent to
destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such.
According to the United Nations (cited in Destexhe 1996:5), means any of the
following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national,
ethnic, racial or religious group, including; killing members of the group, causing
serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group, deliberately inflicting
on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction
in whole or in part. This terminology has been reviewed and enriched and even
subjected to controversies by social scientists who have shown that all mass
murders or massacres are not necessarily genocide (Staub 1992:8), but one
can also conceive genocide where there is no murder (Robbins and Robbins
2003:151).
Lastly by no means least, as far as the convention on the prevention and
punishment of the crime of genocide is concerned, for a perpetrator to be
guilty of genocide, the people he intends to destroy must belong to one of the
following four categories: First, a national group which is a set of individuals
whose identity is defined by a common country of nationality or national origin;
second, an ethnic group that refers to the set of individuals whose identity is
defined by common cultural traditions, language or heritage; third, a racial group
where individuals whose identity is defined by physical characteristics; fourth,
a religious group that is defined as a set of individuals whose identity is defined
by common religious creeds, beliefs, doctrines, practices, or rituals.
Adapted from: Gahima, A. (2007). The socio-economic impacts of the genocide
and current developments in Rwanda: Case studies of the towns of Butare and
Cyangugu. Unpublished Master’s Dissertation, Department of Geography and
Environmental Studies, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban.
• Comprehension questions
1. Examine the worst forms of violence that happened in Rwanda and its
impact as described in the passage
2. Identify some crimes against humanity as are codified in article 7 of the
Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC).3. Compare and contrast genocide and conflict.
Vocabulary, sentence and essay writing
I. Use a dictionary and thesaurus to find the meaning of the words
below
a. …. horrific……(paragraph one)
b. ……violence……(paragraph one)
c. ……turbulent……(paragraph one)
d. ……victims……(paragraph two)
e. …… perpetrated……..(paragraph two)
f. ……reprisals……(paragraph two)
g. …… pathological……(paragraph three)
h. ….. annihilating………(paragraph three)
i. …. massacres…… (paragraph four)
II. Make grammatical and meaningful sentences using the following
words or phrases
a. Conflict
b. Genocide
c. Violence
d. Survivors
e. Victims
f. a national group
g. ethnic group
h. a racial group
i. a religious groupIII. Write an essay comparing and contrasting genocide and a war
4.2. Genocide in the world
• Text: Genocide in the world
It is worth noting that the occurrence of genocide is not limited to Rwanda.
There have been other cases of genocide in different parts of the world that
occurred in different times. Some of the cases of genocide that happened in
the 20th Century are as follows: Genocide against the Herero in Namibia by the
German colonialists (1907), the Holocaust genocide that occurred in Germany
and its occupied territories (1939 – 1945) and the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsi in Rwanda.
The first one was the Nama Herero Genocide was not recognized for unknown
reasons by the United Nations Organization. However, many authors and
specialists in the study of genocides qualify it as a pure act of genocide
committed against the Nama and the Herero in 1907. When the Germans
arrived in South-West Africa (Namibia) in 1880, they found the area populated
by certain groups of people such as the Nama (Namaqua) who were about
20,000 in number by then. Another group of people was the Herero who were
about 75,000 in number. Their occupation was cattle herding. These people
violently resisted occupation of their land and establishment of the German rule.
The German commander who led the conquest, vowed to meet any resistance
from the natives with ‘uncompromising brutality’. He vowed to wipe out the
natives completely in 15 year time.
The second one is called Holocaust, this is a genocide that occurred in Germany
and its occupied territories. It targeted Jews of whom approximately 6,000,000
were killed by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime. Apart from the Jews, non-Jews
were also killed including millions of Polish Gentiles, Russians, Ukrainians and
prisoners of other nationalities. This has been one of the largest genocides
in history. About two-thirds of the Jews who lived in Europe were killed in the
Holocaust. Laws were passed in Germany that excluded Jews from the civil
society, more specifically the Nuremberg Laws of 1935. Concentration camps
were established where Jews were murdered in large numbers. Jews were
collected from various parts of Germany occupied territories in 1939 and were
transported in cargo trains to the famous concentration or extermination camps.
Most of them, however, died along the way. Those who survived the journey by
train were killed in gas chambers.
Events leading to the planning and execution of the 1994 Genocide against the
Tutsi in Rwanda date back to 1959. The cause of the 1994 Genocide against
Tutsi was the history of a long process of violence, hatred, injustice and ethnic
divisions in the first and second Republics of Rwanda. Massacre against the
Tutsi had happened in 1959 as a result of similar reasons to those ones that
caused the 1994 Genocide – manipulated ethnic rivalries between the Hutuand the Tutsi
There was an ethnic and political violence which was characterised by a
period of violence from 1959 – 1961 targeting the Tutsi and Hutu members
of UNAR. This violence saw the country transition from a Belgian colony with a
Tutsi monopoly to an independent Hutu dominated republic. A Hutu elite group
was formed to counter the Tutsi policy and transfer power from the Tutsi to the
Hutu. From November 1959, a series of riots by the Hutu took place. The riots
entailed arson attacks on Tutsi homes. The violence forced about 336,000 Tutsi
to exile in the neighbouring countries where they lived as refugees. The Tutsi
exiles organised themselves into an armed group to fight for their way back
into their country. Afterwards, there were no active threats posed by the Tutsi
refugees to the Hutu-controlled government in Rwanda. It was until the early
1990s when the Tutsi refugees regrouped again into a strong force and formed
the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), a movement which they used to force the
Rwanda Government into a political negotiation.
However the negotiations failed as Hutu extremists were not willing to share the
power. Using the death of President Juvenal Habyarimana in an airplane crash
on April 6th, 1994 as a pretext, they executed their long term plan of killing the
Tutsi in the 1994 Genocide at the end of which more than one million Tutsi
were massacred. The 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi did not take a long
time to be recognised by UN. The Security Council created the International
Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by the Resolution 955 of November 8th,
1994. Based in Arusha, the ICTR was established to deal with the prosecution
of the Rwandans responsible for the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi.
Adapted from: History for Rwanda Secondary Schools (REB, 2016).
• Comprehension questions
1. Identify some cases of genocides that took place in the world as described
by the writer.
2. Evaluate different cases of genocide and use examples to decide the one
which was the worst.
3. When were the events leading to the planning and execution of the 1994
Genocide against the Tutsi start? Identify the role of first and second
Republics of Rwanda in this process of planning and execution of the
1994 Genocide against the Tutsi.
4. Explain the contribution of UN after 1994 genocide against the Tutsi in
Rwanda.
5. Suggest some pieces of advice to the countries and international
organizations for the genocide to never happen again.
Vocabulary, sentence construction and essay writing
I. Using dictionaries and thesaurus, find the meaning of the following
words
a. …. vowed ……(paragraph 2)
b. …. murdered…..(paragraph 3)
c. ….. rivalries……(paragraph 4)
d. …. monopoly……(paragraph 5)
e. …… riots…..(paragraph 5)
f. …… arson……(paragraph 5)
g. …..out-group….(paragraph 7)
h. …… grievances……(paragraph 7)
II. Use the above words to write meaningful sentences.
III. Write an essay describing and contrasting 1994 genocide against
Tutsi in Rwanda and other genocides in the world4.3. Talking about genocide ideology
• Text: Fight against genocide ideology
Before speaking of the strategies or ways of fighting against the different forms
and channels of genocide denial and ideology, it is essential to reflect on the
real or perceived causes of genocide. In fact, the perceived or real causes
of genocide provide the foundation for the peddling of genocide ideology by
extremists in our society. What then is genocide ideology? Whether genocide
is an actual ideology or not is debatable but it is certainly a developing stream of
ideas rooted in fear and thirst for power usually in the context of a history where
the people are of different origin. Genocide is an extermination or destruction
of the other who has been part of a whole but is now being separated and
targeted as an enemy (and man’s spontaneous reaction to the enemy, as we
have learnt through history, is to eliminate the enemy). So the genocide ideology
begins with the process of identification and stigmatization of the ‘other’ that is,
labelling of the ‘other’ and eventually the separation of the ‘other’ from the restof ‘us’.
The cumulative process of segregation of the ‘other’ is initiated by the political
leadership and disseminated through various means including addressing the
public at political rallies, teaching students at schools, universities and other
institutions of learning and indoctrinating the general public including party
militants through the radio and television broadcasts and dissemination of
disinformation and propaganda through print and electronic media. The ‘other’
is presented by ‘us’ as dangerous, unreliable, and, like a dangerous virus, must
be destroyed.
The separation of ‘us’ from the ‘other’ or ‘them’ is through racial or ethnic
segregation which may then result in internment, lynching, proscription or exile.
The process of separation begins when political leaders start to brand a section
of their own population as the ‘other’, ‘these people’, ‘enemy of the state’, ‘enemy
of the people’, ‘security risk’, ‘rebel sympathizer’, ‘accomplice’, ‘cockroaches’
‘Inyenzi’, or similar derogatory remarks. Cultural or racial branding like ‘atheist’,
‘communist’, ‘Muslim’, ‘Christian’ or ‘white’, ‘black’ or ‘Arab’ have also been
known to have been used. The result of the separation of ‘us’ from the ‘other’ by
the political leadership is the process through which genocide ideology evolves.
These examples of the early warning signals at the formative stages of genocide
ideology are not exhaustive. Extremists are very resourceful people and are
constantly inventing new ways and vocabularies for identifying, stigmatising
and dehumanising the ‘other’. Once the ‘other’ is sufficiently stigmatised and
dehumanised, it becomes easy, and even necessary for ‘us’ to massacre ‘them’
without any sense of guilt or remorse. Every African will recognize some or all
of these processes either in their own national histories or elsewhere. Yet, it is
not possible to construct the ‘other’ before establishing the identity of the ‘us’.
The political leadership ensures that the public understands that the ‘us’ is more
superior, intelligent and deserving of a better life, with higher dignity and respect
than the useless and backward ‘others’.
How can the law then deal with such situations and discourage or prevent the
use of political demagoguery? It is important to understand how the ‘ideology’
of genocide becomes part of the dominant discourse of a society where the
‘other’ is terrorized by the ‘us’ into silence. The hand of the state is never far
from any genocide or mass killings. The state plays a major role, either as
active participant or silent supporter, accomplice or collaborator. To commit
the crime of genocide, considering the scope and magnitude of mass murder
that is required for it, also needs a monopoly of arms, of propaganda, of terror,
of resources and of power. Only the state in modern history possesses such
resources. To that extent, without the participation, complicity, collaboration or
corroboration of the state, it is most unlikely that any group of individuals can
commit the crime of genocide.
(Adapted from: Chaste N. (2017). History for Rwanda schools learner’s Book: Kigali.
Fountain Publishers Rwanda Ltd Aegis trust, (2016). Education for sustainable peace inRwanda: Facilitators’ guide on sustainable peace: Kigali)
• Comprehension questions
1. Explain how genocide ideology begins.
2. Who do you think would initiate the process of segregation in the people?
Explain
3. Justify why you think extremists are very resourceful people when it
comes to ideology.
4. What would you recommend to the governments in order to fight againstgenocide ideology?
I. Find the meanings of the following words and phrases using
dictionaries and treasures
a. …peddling……. (paragraph one)
b. … genocide ideology …. (paragraph one)
c. …..stigmatization….. (paragraph one)
d. ……disseminated…..(paragraph two)
e. …militants….(paragraph two)
f. …..internment….(paragraph three)
g. ….lynching ….(paragraph three)
h. ….proscription….. (paragraph three)
i. ……(cockroaches)……. (paragraph three)
j. ……. derogatory…….(paragraph three)
II. Using the words above, make correct and meaningful sentences.
III. Conduct a survey about the effect of genocide ideology on socioeconomic development of a country and present it to the classroom
4.4. Prevention of genocide• Text: Prevention of genocide
The prevention of the crime of genocide is intrinsically connected to the
prevention of crimes against humanity and war crimes. I have been referring to
these crimes as “atrocity crimes” as they reveal extreme forms of human rights
violations of a deeply violent and cruel nature, that typically, but not always,
occur on a massive scale. These crimes also tend to occur concurrently in the
same situation rather than as isolated events, as has been demonstrated by
their prosecution in both international and national jurisdictions. Consequently,
initiatives aiming at preventing one of the crimes will, in most circumstances,
also cover the others.
The duty to prevent genocide, crimes against humanity and war crimes is well
established both under several treaties and under rules of customary international
law binding on all states. This duty was reiterated in the political commitment
made by all United Nations member states in 2005, under the umbrella of the
responsibility to protect principle. In paragraph 138 of the Outcome Document
of the 2005 World Summit, states recognized their primary responsibility to
protect their populations from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing and crimes
against humanity, including their incitement, through appropriate and necessary
means. Alarmingly, most conflicts come hand in hand with allegations of serious
violations of international human rights law and international humanitarian law
being committed. It is also well known that the risk of atrocity crimes dramatically
increases in an environment of conflict. Therefore, the prevention of conflict
contributes to the prevention of atrocity crimes and vice versa.
However, genocide and crimes against humanity do not only occur during
armed conflict. According to international law, these crimes can also take place
in peacetime. A prevention agenda that strictly focuses on conflict prevention
risks overlooking these cases. Situations that place states under serious levels
of stress, including as a result of political instability, threats to the security of a
country or even volatility in economic or social affairs, can create environments
that are conducive to serious human rights violations and, in the most serious
cases, to atrocity crimes, even where there is no armed conflict. This report
looks into measures taken by states to comply with their international obligations
and responsibilities in this respect.
Through their Ministries of Education, several states implement programmes for
human rights education in schools. As respect for human rights is at the core of
prevention of genocide and other atrocity crimes, these programmes contribute
in general to national atrocity prevention efforts.
Education can play an important role in preventing genocide and other atrocity
crimes by promoting pluralism, inclusion, and a greater understanding of
the value of and respect for diversity. Instilling these ideas in young people
contributes to creating a society that is resilient to violence and atrocity crimes
by mitigating long-term risk-factors such as enrooted discriminatory attitudes
and prejudice. To do so, education systems should reflect the ethnic, national
and cultural diversity of societies and set an example of inclusiveness in their
policies. They should also adopt and implement curricula and teaching methods
that emphasize respect for diversity, equal citizenship and the importance of
human rights, particularly non-discrimination.
In addition, education can help foster a culture of prevention by teaching
new generations about past instances of systematic human rights violations,
including genocides or other atrocity crimes. Education encourages a better
understanding of past crimes, including the causes, dynamics and processes
that led to them, such as discrimination and dehumanization of the affected
group that preceded the violence. Education also examines the consequences
of atrocity crimes and invites new generations to reflect on their society and
inspire them to act against the warning signs. Education is further a powerful
tool to prevent incitement to violence that could lead to atrocity crimes. By
understanding these processes, and being able to identify early warning signs,
new generations will be able to prevent recurrence of similar violent events. In
this way, education strengthens societies’ resilience to atrocity crimes.
For example, in Germany, teaching about the Holocaust is mandatory in secondary
schools and the education system also places emphasis on extracurricular
activities, including visits to historic locations and memorials as well as meeting
with survivors. In Croatia, Poland and Romania teaching about the Holocaust
and other past incidents of atrocity crimes is part of formal education in order to
teach future generations on the urgency of preventing genocide.
Incorporating instances of past atrocity crimes in educational materials shows
that a state acknowledges and recognizes the suffering of victims and of the
groups to which they belong. Education and the teaching of a recent history
of violence, war, conflict and oppression could become a tool to transform
relationships among individuals from different groups, making recurrence to
violence less likely. In Rwanda, the Education Board and the Ministry of Education
have integrated genocide studies in the curricula of its primary, secondary and
higher education institutions. The curriculum, developed in 2008, incorporated
the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda, in which moderate Hutus and others
who opposed the genocide were also killed, while emphasizing the unifying and
inclusive qualities of nationality, citizenship and patriotism, instead of ethnicity.
In this way, focus is put on a collective identity as Rwandan rather than Hutu or
Tutsi.
In conclusion, in relation to national security forces, establish transparent,
accountable and democratic civilian oversight, including on budgetary matters;
include staff from diverse population groups at all levels, promote professionalism
among uniformed personnel, create programmes to improve relations with
local communities; vet officers for participation in atrocity crimes and remove
identified perpetrators; provide training on international humanitarian law and
international human rights law and on the collection of evidence of atrocity
crimes; establish operating procedures for the use of force and firearms that
are compliant with international standards; and adopt international humanitarian
law and international human rights law standards in national military statutes
along with the creation of international disciplinary and other accountability
mechanisms to address violations committed by security forces personnel.
(Adapted from: S/RES/2150 (2014) on Threats to International Peace and Security.
UNESCO, 2017. Education about the Holocaust and preventing genocide: policy guide.
Pg.16. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights has beenimplementing the World Program for Human Rights Education since 2005.)
• Comprehension questions
1. As what are crimes against humanity and war crimes referred to in the
passage? Give reasons.
2. According to the law, who has the responsibility to prevent genocide
from the people? Explain.
3. Why do you think genocide and crimes against humanity do not only
occur during armed conflict?
4. How would you explain the role of education in prevention of genocide
in the world?
5. Suggest other important strategies that should be used to preventgenocide.
• Text: Peace building
Peace building is one of the core pillars at Never Again Rwanda. Under this
program, NAR works with youth and adults under various programs and projects
with the aim of establishing sustainable peace and prevention of future violence
through providing platforms for citizens, especially youth, to discuss root causes
of conflict and how to overcome them in their respective communities. Through
our interventions, we hope to enable diverse groups of community members,
and youth to openly discuss their sensitive past, current or emerging issues.
Based on this, psychosocial support groups (safe spaces for peace) are
created, where youth and community members from diverse backgrounds meet
to discuss their traumatic sensitive issues in order to overcome their trauma.
They meet on a monthly basis to engage in dialogue about their individual
wounds. Each of these groups is comprised of 30 participants inclusive of both
male and female, though some groups are exclusively comprised of female
participants like those for specific victims of sexual violence namely; women who
were raped and children born out of rape during the 1994 genocide against the
Tutsis.
We also aim to foster a society where youth participate actively in peace processes
by using critical thinking in open and safe spaces for dialogue and appreciate
diversity.
We also use a method of instilling fundamental hope in adolescents
through ten-session workshops. Hope in its fullest sense encompasses the four
greatest needs of a human being. These include: Attachment (trust, openness
and connection), Survival (self-regulation and feelings of liberation), Mastery
(empowerment, ambition and ideals) and Spirituality (faith and higher support
for attachment, mastery and survival).
Still recovering from one of the worst genocides of the 20th century infamous
for its speed, brutality, and intimacy of neighbours killing neighbours, Rwanda
offers an exceptional case study of how societal healing and reconciliation are
mutually reinforcing; despite their conceptual distinction. As stated in the report,
“Reconciliation is a relationship-building process, while healing is a process
aimed at the reduction of suffering”. Nevertheless, repairing relationships
and building trust help heal societal wounds, just as letting go of fear and
anger advances reconciliation. The fact that many genocide survivors and experpetrators continue to live in the same communities underscores the need for
healing to transcend the individual level into societal healing and reconciliation.
As expected, most actors affirm the profound need for healing work in all of
Rwanda’s provinces.
Actors and academic experts agree that healing must begin with the individual
but it is imperative that the work of individual healing moves into a group and
community context in order to achieve societal healing. While the results of
this study demonstrate the many personal benefits of a group approach, which
include emotional and practical support, staving off feelings of isolation and the
validation of experience, just to name a few, the group approach also supports
reconciliation and peace building by rekindling mutual trust, promoting open and
honest communication, developing group decision-making skills and restoring
interpersonal relationships. Several initiatives engage in socioeconomic activities
that provide material support to individuals while also promoting positive, social
interaction among community members.
In order to address conflicts and champion for peace regionally, we implement a
great lakes program, which uses cross border dialogues as vital avenues to talk
about any challenges to peace. The dialogues are made up of members from
Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
(Adapted from: http://neveragainrwanda.org/peace-building/)• Comprehension questions
1. According to the text, what is the aim of never again Rwanda’s programs
and projects?
2. Why do you think the youth should be involved in peace building
programs?
3. Explain the methods used by never again Rwanda in peace building
campaign.
4. Justify the relevance of group approach when healing people’s wounds
left by genocide.
5. Examine the achievements of never again Rwanda within the country and
the region
Vocabulary, sentence construction, conducting a survey and debate
I. Find the meanings of the words below using dictionaries and
thesaurus.
a. ……platforms….. (paragraph one)
b. …….self-regulation……(paragraph three)
c. …….. transcend……. (paragraph four)
d. ………. healing…….(paragraph five)
e. ……… rekindling……. (paragraph five)
f. …….. avenues………(paragraph six)
II. Using the words above, make different meaningful sentences.
III. Conduct a survey on the role of the youth in building sustainable
peace.
IV. Debate on the following motion: “Never again clubs are considerablynecessary to the youth rather than to adults in countries like Rwanda”
4.6. Ways of addressing the consequences of genocide
• Text: Addressing the consequences of genocide
The government of national unity alongside other partners and citizens has
actively led in efforts aimed at addressing the consequences of genocide.
Various practical measures have been adopted to reach that goal. Some of
these measures include the following:
Gacaca Courts were used to find out what happened during Genocide against
the Tutsi. These courts enabled Rwandans to come together and tell the truth
about what really happened in 1994. This laid the foundation for peace and
reconciliation. A total of 1,958,634 genocide-related cases were tried through
Gacaca Courts. They helped speed up genocide trials and strengthened unity
and reconciliation by finding out the truth about genocide and putting an end to
the culture of impunity.
The Rwandan society was gravely affected by the genocide. Its social structures
were completely destroyed. Social reconstruction means rebuilding the social
structures that were once destroyed. Reconciliation was very much needed in
order to regain social cohesion. Reconciliation refers to the process of making
parties in a conflict mend and then going on improving relations with each other.
The two parties, after reconciling, re-establish friendly relations having put aside
their differences.
A third party usually facilitates reconciliation by bringing the two parties in
conflict to an agreement. Through the third party, the aggrieved parties open up
for dialogue to arrive at a peaceful reconciliation. Reconciliation is an interactive
process that requires a cooperative effort between the parties involved.
Individuals or groups are encouraged to talk about the painful experiences they
went through during the genocide. This enables healing to take root among
the survivors and perpetrators alike. The government can do this by promoting
positive moral values and peaceful coexistence through policies and practices.
The process of reconciliation includes the following steps: acknowledgement,
apology, forgiveness, restitution and redress among others.
As far as acknowledgement is concerned, the perpetrators should acknowledge
wrongdoing and apologise to the victim group. This creates room for dialogue,
speeds up the reconciliation process and removes fear and suspicion between
the two groups. Apology is important towards attaining reconciliation and
repairing broken relationships. It serves to inspire forgiveness and reunion
between the perpetrator and victim group. Forgiveness greatly contributes to the
reconciliation process. The wronged party should be able to forgive. Forgiveness
enables the wrongdoer and the wronged one to move on. Restitution means
giving back what was wrongly taken away from the victims by the perpetrators.
As for redress, the perpetrator group should do something to correct wrongsthey had done to the victim group.
Above all, peace building and benevolence are strong weapons in the process
of addressing consequences of genocide. Genocide begins in the minds of the
people; therefore, it is also in the people’s minds that defences of peace must
be constructed. Peace building involves various efforts that usually begin by
creating a culture of peace which is accompanied by harmony, cooperation and
coexistence among the people. A peaceful environment gives rise to behaviour
that respects life and human dignity. Peace building promotes observance of
human rights and fundamental freedom. It rejects violence and commits to
principles of freedom, justice, solidarity, and understanding between people.
Peace building finally encourages open communication, cooperation, harmony
and observance of the rule of law.
Benevolence refers to the willingness to help, being generous or performing
acts of kindness. Human beings are usually capable of expressing benevolence
regardless of whether they are victims or perpetrators of violence. It involves
development of empathetic feelings, which leads an individual to take
responsibility for assisting victims. People who have suffered usually care about
other peoples’ suffering, especially if they have been involved in a protective
and healing processes. This involves having been helped by others or acting
on other peoples’ behalf at the time of suffering. Therefore, the victim group
reaches out to assist other groups undergoing similar situations to them.
(Adapted from General Studies and Communication Skills for Rwandan Schools, book 6,
Moran Publishers Limited)
• Comprehension questions
1. Appreciate the contribution of the Gacaca courts in addressing the
consequences of the genocide against the Tutsi.
2. Explain the term reconciliation.
3. Evaluate the help of a third party in the reconciliation process.
4. How can the government play the role of third party in reconciling people
after genocide?
5. State and explain 5 steps of the reconciliation process as shown in the
above passage.
6. Discuss efforts that should be made to promote peace building in a postgenocide community.
7. What do you understand by benevolence in the process of addressingthe aftermath of genocide?
Vocabulary, Sentence construction, summary writing and research
I. Vocabulary
Using a dictionary or a thesaurus, explain the following terms used in the
above passage
1. …reconciliation… (paragraph two)
2. …impunity… (paragraph two)
3. …cohesion… (paragraph three)
4. …interactive… (paragraph four)
5. …restitution… (paragraph five)
6. …redress… (paragraph five)
7. …benevolence… (paragraph six)
8. …coexistence… (paragraph six)
9. …empathetic… (paragraph seven)
10. …protective… (paragraph seven)
II. Sentence construction
Use the above words to make correct and meaningful sentences.
III. Summary writing
In not more than 100 words, summarize the text: “Addressing the
consequences of genocide”
IV. Research and project
Conduct a research on the consequences of the 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi. Devise ways that would prevent the genocide from happening.
Then work on a project to set strategies that will help reconstruct theRwandan society
4.7. Language structure: Past simple tense, subordinating
conjunctions and phrasal prepositions
1. Past simple tense
Exercise
Read the following paragraphs extracted from the text and identify different
tenses used.
Laue (1993:256) defined conflict as ‘escalated natural competition between
two or more parties about scarce resources, power and prestige’.
The crime of genocide since it was initially formulated in 1948, in article 2 of
the convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, the
definition of ‘genocide’ has remained substantially the same. Article 6 of the
Rome Statute borrows from this convention and for example, defines the crime
of genocide as “any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in
whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such.
The term ‘genocide’ was coined by a Polish-Jewish lawyer named Raphael
Lemkin who formed the word by combining the Greek word for race or tribe
(Geno) with the Latin word for killing (cide). In proposing this new term, Lemkin
had in mind “a coordinated plan of different actions aiming at the destruction of
essential foundations of the life of national groups, with the aim of annihilatingthe groups themselves.”
Notes
I. Past simple tense:
This tense is usually used to:
• Describe events completed in the past at time indicated by such adverbs
of time as yesterday, ago, last month, last week and last year.
Examples:
a) Jimmy didn’t call me during memorial week!
b) Mary went to Huye District three years ago.
c) Sarah arrived in Kigali a week ago.
• Express habits in past
Examples:
a) Robert went to Kigali memorial site every Friday.
b) They sang different songs regularly during commemoration week.
Such past habits are usually described in simple past with adverbs of frequency
like: always, never, frequently, sometimes, generally,…
• Express actions that happened over a long time in the past.
Examples:
a) The orphan girl struggled and became rich.
b) The perpetrators united with their neighbours.
The simple past is also used after conditional phrases such as if only, as if, as
though, wish, etc.
Examples:
a) If I were the leader during genocide against Tutsi in Rwanda, I would
support many people.
b) He spoke to me as if he were my boss.
c) I wish I had wings I would fly far away.II. Spelling of regular verbs in past simple
Exercise
1. Use the correct past simple tense of the verb in brackets.
a. The genocide that___________ (occur) in Germany and its occupied
territories, It __________ (target) Jews of whom approximately 6,000,000
were killed by Adolf Hitler and his Nazi regime.
b. The government of Rwanda__________ (show) that it was possible to
bring about reconciliation in a country.
c. Peter and his entire family__________ (be) executed during the Genocide.
d. RPF ____________ (stop) people who were killing innocents during 1994
genocide against Tutsi.
e. The Security Council ____________ (create) the International Criminal
Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) by the Resolution 955 of November 8th, 1994.
2. Using the past simple tense, write a paragraph talking about the role ofyouth in preventing genocide ideology.
Notes
A subordinating conjunction is a word that connects an independent clause to
a dependent clause. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence.
In other words, it does not need any additional information to operate as a
sentence. The sentence “The student failed the test” is an example of an
independent clause.
A dependent clause adds extra information to the main clause. These clauses
cannot stand by themselves and their meaning is dependent on the independent
clause. They are not complete sentences. For example, “because she didn’t
study” is not a complete sentence.
However, combine the two clauses, and we have “The student failed the test
because she didn’t study.” A complete idea has been expressed and enough
information has been presented to fully explain the thought. What joined the two
clauses? It is the word “because.” And there we have our first subordinating
conjunction.
Here are examples of other subordinating conjunctions and their uses;
• Although
Although—means “in spite of the fact that”:
Example:
1) Although it was raining, I ran home.
2) He came to work although he felt sick
3) Although my mum told me to come home early, I stayed out late.
• After
“After” shows “subsequently to the time when”:
Examples:
1) Call me after you arrive at the station.
2) We couldn’t see the film after the electricity went out.
3) I always tell my daughter that she can have dessert after she eats her
dinner.
• Before
“Before” shows “earlier than the time that”:
Examples:
1) He had written a book on history of Rwanda before he died.
2) Before he contacted me, I was going to call him.
3) I need to finish the report before the manager arrives from Paris.
• Because
“Because” means “for the reason that”:
Examples:
1) He became rich because he was smart and worked hard.
2) They stopped building the house because it was raining hard.
• If
“If” means “in the event that”:
Examples:
1) If it rains, it will be difficult to go to the memorial site.
2) If I receive a promotion, you will be the first to help orphans.
• Since
“Since” means “from the time when”:
Examples:
1) I’ve been a dancer since I was young.
2) Since Paul graduated, he has been helping genocide survivors.
3) This shop has been refurbished three times since 1994 genocide against
the Tutsi in Rwanda happened.
• Until
“Until” means “up to the time that”:
Examples:
1) Don’t do anything until I come back.
2) She didn’t know she was a talented singer until she sang in the school
concert.
3) They won’t allow us to start until everyone arrives.
• Unless
“Unless” means “except, on the condition”:
Examples:
1) You will not pass the exam unless you work harder.
2) I will not tell you anything unless you tell me what you know about my
parents’ death.
3) Unless you use dialogues, you will not easily improve your peace club.
Exercise
a) I visit our memorial site _________ a month. (once, whenever, wherever)
b) This is the place _________ we stayed last time we visited. (where, when,
how)
c) _________ you win first place, you will receive a prize. (wherever, if, unless)
d) You won’t pass the test _________ you study. (when, if, unless)
e) I could not get a seat, _________ I came early. (as, though, when)
f) We are leaving Wednesday _________ or not it rains. (if, whether, though)
g) Pay attention to your work _________ you will not make mistakes. (so that,
unless, or)
h) The musicians delivered a rousing performance _________ they had
rehearsed often. (though, as, once)i) She’s honest _________ everyone trusts her. (if, so, when)
IV. Phrasal prepositions
Notes
Phrasal prepositions are grouped into phrases of three or more words that
could include adverbs, verbs and other words that function as one phrasal
preposition. All words are separated to form one phrasal preposition. Phrasal
prepositions include: in addition to, in spite of, on account of, as soon as, as
opposed to, as far as, in reference to, on top of, with the exception of, in frontof, as long as etc.
Examples of phrasal prepositions
1) They told me that in addition to all the work done I also needed to finish
the project.
2) Rafael is playing tennis very well; he’s surely on top of his game at the
moment.
3) As opposed to seeking advice from your sister, why don’t you talk to
your close friend Harriet?
4) I was speaking in reference to the climate change issues.
5) I stand here in front of you all to demonstrate my qualities as a great
leader.
6) On account of the new law enacted by the minister, our society is now
able to declare their own taxes.
7) I’ll tell you once more, as long as I run this board I am the man in charge.Exercise
Exercise
Write a paragraph talking about how to prevent genocide and how to promote
peace building using prepositional phrases.
4.8. Spelling and pronunciation
A. Practice the pronunciation of the words below. Pay attention to where you
put stress. You can use a dictionary where necessary.
a) Genocide
b) Victims
c) Perpetrators
d) Survivors
e) Reconciliation
f) Peace
g) Violence
h) conflict
B. Match the words with their corresponding phonetic transcriptions
4.9. End unit assessment
I. Choose the best answer to complete each sentence.
1. _________ 1994 genocide against Tutsi, the government spent many
efforts in unity and reconciliation programs.
a) After
b) Although
c) Before
d) Even if
2. I don’t want to go to the movies _____________ I hate seeing people
killing each other.
a) Although
b) Because
c) Whenever
d) So that
3. I like to give my support; ___________ there is a fundraising campaign
to help orphans.
a) Whenever
b) Whose
c) After
d) If
4. ___________ spring arrives, we have to be prepared for more snow.
a) Because
b) Until
c) Althoughd) Now that
5. _____________ the alarm goes off, I hit the snooze button.
a) As soon as
b) Because
c) Before
Now that
II. Complete the following sentences using phrasal prepositions given
below.
1. ……………….. his hard work, he failed the test.
a) By means of
b) In spite of
c) Because of
2. ………………… doctors, smoking can cause cancer.
a) In accordance with
b) According to
c) On behalf of
3. I am standing here ………………… my colleagues.
a) instead of
b) by means of
c) on behalf of
4. The trains arrived late ……………….. heavy rains.
a) in spite of
b) on behalf of
c) because of
5. I stayed in bed all day ……………… going to work.
a) in addition to
b) in spite of
c) instead of
6. Thoughts are conveyed ………………… words.
a) on account of
b) by means of
c) by virtue of
7. Gandhi gave up his legal practice ………………… his country.
a) by virtue of
b) for the sake of
c) on behalf of
8. ……………….. his own family, he has to support his brothers.
a) In addition to
b) Instead of
c) In spite of
9. There is a school …………………. my house.
a) front of
b) in front of
c) in front
10. I would like to have lemon juice ………………… coffee.
a) Instead
b) instead of
c) in spite of
III. Complete the following story with the correct tenses from the brackets.
Last summer, my family and I 1. -------------( spend) our holidays in Germany,
an amazing country. The city 2. --------------( be) very big and there 3. ---
-----------(be) lots of things to see and do. We 4. ------------(stay) at a
comfortable hotel and 5. -------------(go) swimming every day at the beautiful
beaches…I 6. ------------ (learn a lot there! We also 7. --------------(visit)
the memorial site. There 8. ------------( be) various historical information
about Holocaust genocide. The following day, We also 11. ----------- (visit)
many interesting sights, like the archaeological museum and other prehistoric
settlements, which I 12. --------------- find) pretty impressive. I also 13. ---
------------ ( love) the local people. They 14. ------------- (be) very friendly
and welcoming! We 15. ------------ (have) a great time in Germany as far as
understanding their history was concerned and I would really love to go there
again someday!
IV. Write an article about the role of RPF in the achievements of
Rwandan government on socio-economic development after 1994
genocide against Tutsi. Pay attention to the use past simple tense andsubordinating conjunctions.
UNIT 5 STUDY SKILLS AND WRITING
Key Unit Competence:
To use language learnt in the context of study skills and writing.
1. Do you think experienced teachers can have difficulties giving
instructions in classroom? Justify your answer.
2. What should students do when they have not understood an
instruction in class?
3. How can one make notes for revision?4. Outline at least 4 study skills you know.
5.1 Instructions for working in class.
• Text: Good instruction-giving in the second-language classroom
Imagine you are attending a seminar. The facilitator gives instructions, and you
have a vague notion of what you are supposed to do, but you do not want to ask
the facilitator to clarify because you are sure you are the only one who has not
understood. After the facilitator tells you to start working, you turn to the person
next to you and ask, “What are we supposed to do?” That person says, “I’m not
sure. I thought you would know.” Soon you realize that almost everyone in the
room is confused, while the facilitator is standing behind the lectern wondering
why no one has started engaging in the activity she just explained.
Most of us can recall an experience where the facilitator delivered instructions,
but we were unclear about what we were expected to do. And, as student
teachers, most of you may have had experiences of giving instructions that
were misunderstood or incomprehensible to your learners. While occasional
foibles in giving instructions are understandable, mastering instruction-giving
is a fundamental aspect of good classroom teaching practice. Instructions and
their delivery can be the determining factors as to whether a lesson succeeds or
fails. Learners see the ability to explain things well as one of the most importantqualities of a good teacher.
Instruction-giving has a direct effect on learning; a lesson or activity becomes
chaotic and fails when students do not understand what they are supposed
to do. Nonetheless, good instruction-giving is a challenge for both native
and non-native language teachers, as well as for both seasoned and novice
teachers. However, instruction-giving is a skill that is sometimes neglected for
pre-service and in-service teachers in teacher-training programs. New teachers
might assume that it is a skill that will be naturally mastered; more experienced
teachers might assume that it is a skill they have already mastered. For all
teachers, however, instruction-giving is an area that deserves attention and
practice, as it has a major impact on how well students are able to carry out
activities and, as a result, how well they learn.
After year 3, you may be hired to teach in upper primary and thus be obliged
to teach in English. In this case, Total Physical Response (TPR) can help you.
TPR is a method of language teaching developed by James Asher where the
teacher gives a command and the students perform the action. In short, TPR is
based on the coordination of language and physical movement. To apply it, you
can first give students a hand-out with a list of common instructional commands
used throughout the course, such as take out a pen or pencil, Turn to page…,
take out a pen or pencil, take out a piece of paper, write your name on the paper,
open your books, close your books, put your books away, stand up, sit down,
find a partner, put your desks face-to-face, repeat after me, raise your hand,
work in groups, choose a group leader, you have 5 minutes, get ready to report
in English etc.
After demonstrating the actions and going over the list with students, you should
give commands and have the students perform them. Starting the course with
TPR for common instructions helps students understand typical classroom
language, which has a positive impact on classroom management. Remember,
good instruction-giving begins in the preparation stage. Although teachers
may feel they can easily improvise, instructions are often not as clear to their
students as they are to themselves. A good way to make sure your instructions
for an activity are clear and concise is to write them out as you develop your
lesson plan.
(Adapted from Good Instruction-Giving in the Second-Language Classroom by JIMALEE
Sowell- 2017)
• Comprehension questions
1. What do you understand by “you have a vague notion of what you are
supposed to do”?
2. Referring to paragraph one, explain why some students don’t ask when
they have not understood instructions.
3. How do you think students would judge a teacher whose instructions are
not easily understandable?
4. Discuss effects of instruction-giving on a lesson or activity.
5. Can good instruction-giving be a challenge to native language teachers?
Explain.
6. What do you understand by “Total Physical Response”?
7. List eighteen common instructional commands mentioned in the fourthparagraph.
Vocabulary, paragraph and composition writing.
I. Vocabulary
Use a dictionary and thesaurus to look up the missing meanings of the
words/phrases in the table below. Copy the table into your book and fill inthe blank spaces.
II. Paragraph writing.
In one paragraph, detail characteristics of a good classroom instruction.
III. Composition writing.
Suppose you are going to teach English in primary one. Step by step
explain how you would give instructions to primary one learners.
5.2 Reading extracts from literature.
The extract tells us about Pip, an orphan who is about seven years old. While
visiting the graves of his parents and siblings, the boy encounters an escaped
convict in the village churchyard.
‘Hold your noise!’ cried a terrible voice, as a man started up from among the
graves at the side of the church porch. ‘Keep still, you little devil, or I’ll cut your
throat!’ A fearful man, all in coarse grey, with a great iron on his leg. A man with
no hat, and with broken shoes, and with an old rag tied round his head. A man
who had been soaked in water, and smothered in mud, and lamed by stones,
and cut by flints, and stung by nettles, and torn by briars; who limped, and
shivered, and glared, and growled; and whose teeth chattered in his head as heseized me by the chin.
‘O! Don’t cut my throat, sir,’ I pleaded in terror. ‘Pray don’t do it, sir.’
‘Tell us your name!’ said the man. ‘Quick!’
‘Pip, sir.’
‘Once more,’ said the man, staring at me. ‘Give it mouth!’
‘Pip. Pip, sir.’
‘Show us where you live,’ said the man. ‘Point out the place!’
I pointed to where our village lay, on the flat in-shore among the alder-trees and
pollards, a mile or more from the church.
The man, after looking at me for a moment, turned me upside down, and emptied
my pockets. There was nothing in them but a piece of bread. When the church
came to itself, — for he was so sudden and strong that he made it go head
over heels before me, and I saw the steeple under my feet, — when the church
came to itself, I say, I was seated on a high tombstone, trembling while he ate
the bread ravenously.
‘You young dog,’ said the man, licking his lips, ‘what fat cheeks you ha’ got.’
I believe they were fat, though I was at that time undersized for my years, and
not strong.
‘Darn Me if I couldn’t eat em,’ said the man, with a threatening shake of his head,
‘and if I hadn’t half a mind to ’t!’
I earnestly expressed my hope that he wouldn’t, and held tighter to the tombstone
on which he had put me; partly, to keep myself upon it; partly, to keep myself
from crying.
‘Now look here!’ said the man. ‘Where’s your mother?’
‘There, sir!’ said I.
He started, made a short run, and stopped and looked over his shoulder.
‘There, sir!’ I timidly explained. ‘Also Georgiana. That’s my mother.’
‘Oh!’ said he, coming back. ‘And is that your father along your mother?’
‘Yes, sir,’ said I; ‘him too; late of this parish.’
‘Ha!’ he muttered then, considering. ‘Who d’ye live with, - supposin’ you’re kindly
let to live, which I han’t made up my mind about?’
‘My sister, sir, — Mrs Joe Gargery, — wife of Joe Gargery, the blacksmith, sir.’‘Blacksmith, eh?’ said he. And looked down at his leg.
After darkly looking at his leg and me several times, he came closer to my
tombstone, took me by both arms, and tilted me back as far as he could hold
me; so that his eyes looked most powerfully down into mine, and mine looked
most helplessly up into his.
‘Now lookee here,’ he said, ‘the question being whether you’re to be let to live.
You know what a file is?’
‘Yes, sir.’
‘And you know what wittles is?’
‘Yes, sir.’
After each question he tilted me over a little more, so as to give me a greater
sense of helplessness and danger.
‘You get me a file.’ He tilted me again. ‘And you get me wittles.’ He tilted me
again.
‘You bring ‘em both to me.’ He tilted me again. ‘Or I’ll have your heart and liver
out.’
He tilted me again.
I was dreadfully frightened, and so giddy that I clung to him with both hands, and
said, ‘If you would kindly please to let me keep upright, sir, perhaps I shouldn’t
be sick, and perhaps I could attend more.’
He gave me a most tremendous dip and roll, so that the church jumped over its
own weathercock. Then, he held me by the arms, in an upright position on the
top of the stone, and went on in these fearful terms:
‘You bring me, to-morrow morning early, that file and them whittles. You bring
the lot to me, at that old Battery over yonder. You do it, and you never dare to
say a word or dare to make a sign concerning your having seen such a person
as me, or any person sumever, and you shall be let to live. You fail, or you go
from my words in any partickler, no matter how small it is, and your heart and
your liver shall be tore out, roasted, and ate. Now, I ain’t alone, as you may think
I am. There’s a young man hid with me, in comparison with which young man I
am an Angel.
That young man hears the words I speak. That young man has a secret way
peculiar to himself, of getting at a boy, and at his heart, and at his liver. It is in
vain for a boy to attempt to hide himself from that young man. A boy may lock
his door, may be warm in bed, may tuck himself up, may draw the clothes over
his head, may think himself comfortable and safe, but that young man will softlycreep and creep his way to him and tear him open. I am keeping that young man
from harming you at the present moment, with great difficulty. I find it very hard
to hold that young man off of your inside. Now, what do you say?’
I said that I would get him the file, and I would get him those broken bits of food
I could, and I would come to him at the Battery, early in the morning.
‘Say Lord strike you dead if you don’t!’ said the man.
I said so, and he took me down.
(Adapted from Charles Dickens’ (1861). Great Expectations. London: Chapman and Hall.)
• Comprehension questions
1. Describe the man who is talked about in this extract.
2. Describe the character of the narrator in this extract.
3. Where does the conversation between Pip and the escapee take place?
4. How does the escapee end up snatching Pip’s loaf of bread?
5. The man told Pip that he was with a young man who was more awesomethan him. Do you think he was telling the truth? Explain
Vocabulary, paragraph and composition writing.
I. Vocabulary
In full sentences, explain the following words as used in the above passage.
a. ... soaked...
b. ...smothered...
c. ...rag...
d. ...briar.../ (brier)
e. ...steeple...
f. ...tombstone...
g. ... tilted...
h. ...clung...
i. ...tremendous...
j. ...peculiar...
II. Paragraph writing
In two paragraphs, explain what Pip’s reaction towards the escapee in the
above extract reveal about his character.III. Composition writing.
a. Write a 6 paragraph composition, describing the character of the
escapee in this extract.
b. Pip almost got killed as he visited the graveyard where his parents and
relatives are buried. Write a short composition explaining whether visiting
our ancestor’s graveyard is or it is not a worthwhile practice.
c. Step by step, explain how you would have reacted if you were in Pip’s
situation.
5.3 Describing different study skills
Text: Basic study skills
Acquiring good study habits can make you a more effective learner in school
and at work. The key to becoming an effective student is learning how to study
smarter, not harder. This becomes more and more important as you advance in
your education. An hour or two of studying a day is usually sufficient to make it
through in high school with satisfactory grades, but you can’t make it if you don’t
know how to study smarter. Basic study skills include: elaborative interrogation,
self-Explanation, practice testing, distributed practice and Interleaved Practice.
Elaborative interrogation is a great way to learn. In elaborative interrogation
you ask yourself questions. Little kids know this intuitively, as they run around
asking “Why, why, why?” Asking yourself questions like “why is this fact true?”
aids learning. The main reason asking why questions seems to work is that it
encourages you to integrate the new fact with things you already know. Doingso improves your memory for the new fact by giving you more eagerness to find
The idea behind self-explanation as a reading strategy is to pause from reading
your textbook periodically and explain to yourself what it means to you. You can
do this after a section of text, or when studying an example problem. When
trying to self-explain, you may find that you need to look back over parts of the
text to fully understand what’s being said. Self-explanation encourages you to
make inferences based on what you are reading. You don’t just summarize the
text, but say a little more than what was in it. As you try to explain, you also
identify problems and so revise your explanation. These serve to enrich and
repair your understanding.
Actively testing your memory improves learning far more than passively reviewing
material. Tests are not just for evaluation. Testing improves learning by exercising
memory retrieval. When you answer a test question, you have to actively search
your long-term memory. Doing so creates more and better pathways to the
answer. This makes the answer easier to find the next time around. Scientists
sometimes call it, “retrieval practice.” Practice testing is easy to do. You can do
it by answering questions from your textbook or past papers.
Distributed practice helps you do better since it allows you to space your
studying out over the time you have. Do a little at a time over several study
sessions. If you have a test coming up tomorrow, you should not try to cram
everything in one session. Successful students typically space their work out
over shorter periods of time and rarely try to cram all of their studying into just
one night. One reason distributed practice aids learning is that you have to restart your memory for the topic during each study session. This technique is
best when combined with practice testing.
The idea behind interleaved practice is that you are better off mixing some area
problems with some perimeter problems when you study. When studying math,
for instance, you need to learn a few different kinds of formulas. You may learn
one equation to compute the area of a circle and learn another to figure out the
perimeter. Interleaving is a process where students mix, or interleave multiple
subjects or topics to improve learning.
In a nutshell, the above mentioned five study skills all work quite well. There are
many other study skills but these five ones are more strongly recommended
than others. These techniques will not be a panacea for improving achievement
for all students, and perhaps obviously, they will benefit only students who are
motivated and capable of using them. Nevertheless, when used properly, they
may produce meaningful gains in performance in the classroom, on achievement
tests, and on many other tasks encountered across the life span.Adapted from Five Study Skills to Accelerate Your Learning by WINSTON SIECK
• Comprehension questions
1. What is the key to becoming an effective student as described in the first
paragraph?
2. What do you understand by “to study smarter, not harder”?
3. Outline the five study skills as mentioned in the passage.
4. To what extent is elaborative interrogation as a study skill is important?
5. Appreciate the role of self-explanation in studying.
6. If you have a test coming up tomorrow, should you try to cram everythingin one session? Justify your answer
Vocabulary and composition writing.
I. Vocabulary
Explain the following words as used in the above passage.
a. Satisfactory
b. Eagerness
c. Inferences
d. Repair
e. Retrieval
f. Long-term memory
g. Pathways
h. Cram
i. Panacea
j. Encountered
II. Composition writing
Write a short composition explaining how you use distributed practice as
a study skill.
5.4 Writing compositions
• Text: Aspects of a Composition
When we write, our objective is to communicate with the reader. Your
composition should therefore convey a clear message to the readers. Any piece
of composition is made of three main parts:
a. Introduction
An introduction is always intended to draw the reader’s attention to the whole
composition. It could begin with a general statement or question, sometimes
called the thesis statement or thesis question. This should be followed by a
summarised presentation of the main point with which to develop the body of
the composition. The introduction should also set the stage for the writer to
guide the reader into the gist of the topic. An introduction should be concluded
with a transition sentence that leads the reader into the body of the composition.
b. Body (Argument)
The body of a written piece is where one elaborates, defends, and expands
the main points stated in the introduction. The body should support the main
argument with supporting evidence or examples to illustrate the point.
The body of the composition is always made of different paragraphs based on the
number of points making the topic. Each point takes an independent paragraph.
As one makes or argues a case, it is better to ensure that the strongest point is
presented as early as possible.
c. Conclusion
A conclusion is normally a single and concise paragraph in which a final appeal
to the reader is made. It is a finishing, all-encompassing statement that wraps
up the whole presentation in a powerful statement. The writer is expected to
express his or her final opinion on the matter discussed. The purpose of the
conclusion is to leave the reader with an idea or thought that captures the
essence of the body while provoking further reflection and consideration.
• Comprehension questions
1. What are the characteristics of a good composition?
2. Outline the parts of a composition.
3. How should one start his/her composition?
4. In which part should the writer support his/her main argument with
supporting evidence or examples?5. How should one conclude his/her composition?
Writing a composition.
I. Write a 300 word composition explaining how a student should
prepare his/her exam.
II. Suppose that you are going to teach in a second language and you
expect learners not to be able to decode instructions. Write a 250
word composition detailing how you would help them.
III. Write a 300 word composition explaining whether failing an exammeans that a student is not intelligent.
5.5. Making notes
Note making is not just about writing down everything you hear or read. It is a
process of reviewing, connecting and synthesising ideas from your lessons or
readings. In secondary schools, students are expected to become proficient
note-takers, and those notes are essential study tools that they use to review
material for quizzes and tests. Note-taking should augment student learning and
help students recall difficult concepts more easily and remember what teachers
teach. Good note-taking strategies that will help you retain what you learn and
study smarter include: Recording meaningful facts, grouping ideas, thinking
quality over quantity, following along in the book if appropriate, indicating date
and title notes, highlighting the clues and saying it another way.
Recording meaningful facts is very useful while taking notes. The goal of notetaking should be to summarize the most important parts of what a teacher
shares during a lesson: dates, names, places, formulas or anything else that is
emphasized. It’s good to write lots of notes, but you should focus on recording
points that seem important, recurring themes or other details that are critical to
their overall understanding.
Grouping ideas is equally a good strategy since lots of raw notes may not make
studying easier for a student. It’s a good idea to leave space on the left- or righthand side of the notebook for condensing and recapping concepts. During
class or while reading a book, you can write down any main ideas on the side of
notes, or at a minimum, subtitles of what was discussed or read
.
Apart from grouping ideas, another strategy you need to think of is thinking
quality over quantity. New secondary school students tend to think good notetaking means recording everything the teacher says. It’s a common challenge
for students: focusing so intently on taking notes that they forget to listen and
process information enough to be thoughtful about what they record in their
notebooks. While taking notes you should concentrate on what the teacher
wants the class to know. That may very well mean students’ pencils should not
be moving during the entire class period, and that’s perfectly fine.
Following along in the book if appropriate is another advantageous strategy.
When the teacher focuses on a particular chapter or topic, it can be helpful
later on to have page numbers to refer to for clarification or more information.
Secondary school students should ask at the beginning of the period if the
teacher is referencing textbook material.
The strategy of indicating date and title notes is a minor thing but it can make a
huge difference: labelling notes will prove helpful when it comes time to study
for a test. Teens should always put the date, class topic(s) discussed at the top
of their notes.
In addition to the above mentioned strategies, highlighting the clues is a strategy
that can help you retain the most important information. Teachers usually point
out information that students need to know and it is a smart idea to call out
these cues in notes. Secondary school students should listen for phrases like
the most important part, for example, in summary, as a review and the only
exception to this is. These should trigger careful note-taking and you should
notate these important points with an asterisk or other symbol.
The last strategy but not the least is saying it another way. One of the most
important parts of note-taking is not the note-taking itself is the reflection
process. Secondary school students should write down complex points in their
own words so they are easier to understand later. This helps information click
and reinforces long-term retention.
In conclusion, students should know that taking notes is not a natural skill. It
must be taught and practiced. Organized students tend to take cleaner notes, of
course, but note-taking is meant to solidify knowledge and make studying easier
and more effective, and that doesn’t come easily to many students. Secondary
school students should know note taking strategies in order for their revision to
be successful.
(Adapted from Seven note-taking strategies for high school students by Huntington
Learning Centre)
• Comprehension questions
1. What do you understand by “note making”?
2. Discuss the role of taking notes.
3. State seven note-taking strategies as mentioned in the above passage.
4. What should a student focus on while taking notes?
5. Why is it import to group ideas while taking notes?
6. What do you understand by “thinking quality over quantity”?
7. How can a student identify the clues to highlight?
vocabulary, note taking and paragraph writing.
I. Vocabulary
Explain the following words as used in the text above.
a. Synthesising
b. Augment
c. Raw notes
d. Recapping
e. Intently
f. Thoughtfulg. Trigger
II. Note taking
Visit the school library and read a section of a book of your choice. Take
notes on the important information and be ready to present it in class.
III. Paragraph writing
Write a paragraph explaining why students need to be guided on how to
take notes.5.6 Writing a summary
• Text: How to Write a Summary
A summary is a brief statement or account that presents the essential information
or main idea of a reading or lecture. Proficient students understand that
summarizing, identifying what is most important and restating the text (or other
media) in your own words, is an important tool for success.
If you really understand a subject or a chapter, you will be able to summarize it.
If you cannot summarize what you read, even if you have memorized all the facts
about it, you can be absolutely sure that you have not learned it. If you truly learn
the subject, you will still be able to summarize it months or years from now.
Talented students may monitor their understanding of a text by summarizing
as they read. They understand that if they can write a one- or two-sentence
summary of each paragraph after reading it, then that is a good sign that they
have correctly understood it. If they cannot summarize the main idea of the
paragraph, they know that comprehension has broken down and they need to
use fix-up strategies to repair understanding. Below are tips on how to write a
summary:
- Write main ideas in your own words.
- Shape these ideas into sentences that express the purpose and point of
view of the writer or speaker.
- Remember that a summary is written in paragraph form.
- A summary begins with an introductory sentence that states the text’s title,
author and main point of the text.
- A summary is written in your own words.
- A summary contains only the ideas of the original text. Do not insert any
of your own opinions, interpretations, deductions or comments into a
summary.
- Write a last sentence that wraps up your summary; often a simple
rephrasing of the main point.
- The final material should be not more than one third of its original length.
• Comprehension questions:
1. In your own word define the term “summary”.
2. Does memorising a section of a book prove that you understand it?
Explain.
3. How should one introduce a summary?
4. How should one conclude a summary?5. Appreciate the contribution of a summary to studying.
Vocabulary and summary writing.
I. Vocabulary
Explain the following words as used in the above text.
a. Proficient
b. Monitor
c. Fix-up strategies
d. Deductions
e. Wraps up
II. Summary writing.
Go back to unit 1 and read the text on Components of communication.
Summarise it in not more than 80 words.• Text1: A business letter
A business letter, as the name suggests, is a letter which has a formal tone
and is used for business purposes. Apart from this, business letters are also
written for conveying messages to people whom we do not know personally.
This makes the business letter different from the usual casual or informal letter.
While writing a business letter, a person has to follow certain rules. One of the
most important rules is that it should be short and concise. Businessmen do not
have the time to read long letters and hence, the letter should not be more than
a page. Apart from this, you have to follow a unique format for business letters,
which differs to a large extent from informal letters.
A business letter is a formal letter like other formal letters. It is a good idea to
gather some crucial information on the things that you have to keep in mind while
writing a business letter. Below are some important tips for a good businessletter
- Margin: To start with, leave a margin from all the four sides of the paper.
- Sender’s address and date: According to the rules, it is important to begin
the letter with the address and other contact details of the sender. However,
this can be avoided, if the letter is typed on the letterhead. Followed by
this, one has to mention the date on which the letter is written.
- Recipient’s name and address: After you have written the date, you have
to mention the recipient’s name and full address. This should come some
lines after the date
- Salutation: Once you are done with the address of the recipient, you have
to begin the letter with a salutation. The salutation should have a greeting
word or phrase followed by a personal title - Mr./Ms. – and sometimes the
full name of the person. Some of the letter salutations that you can use for
business letters include Dear (full name), Dear Sir/Madam, etc.
- Subject: After the salutation comes the subject line where you have to
mention the purpose of the letter in short. In some letters it is called
Request.
- Body: The body of the letter can have 2-3 paragraphs. In the introduction,
talk about the reason for writing the letter and in the following paragraphs,
you can give the necessary details.
- Complimentary closing: Once you finish writing the letter, you have to end
it with a complimentary closing. Some of the closings include Respectfully
Yours, Sincerely yours, Yours faithfully, etc. if you are using a computer,
leave four blank spaces after the complimentary closing and then, write
your full name. The blank space should be used to sign your name.
- Enclosure: If you have enclosed some document with your letter, it is
important for you to mention it just below your name. Leave two spaces and
write ‘Enclosure’ or ‘Enclosures’ below it. If you have attached more than
one enclosure, do not forget to mention the correct number in brackets.
- CC: If you are sending the same letter to more than one person write “cc”
below the enclosure and write the name of the other person to whom you
are sending the same letter.
Types of Formats
Although the information given below can help you in understanding the
business letter format correctly, looking at a sample will make it very clear. Types
of formats include: Block Letter Format, Semi-block Format and Modified Block
Format.
a) Block Letter Format
In this type, all the text in the letter is left-aligned. Indent is also not required if
you are using a block letter format for writing a letter. The paragraphs are spaced
either using double or triple paragraph spacing, but there is no indention for theparagraphs.
Address
Telephone Number
Email Address
Date
Recipient’s
Address
Dear Mr./Ms.
Subject/Re: (PURPOSE OF THE LETTER)
In the first paragraph, you can introduce yourself, if the recipient does not
know you. After this, mention the purpose of the letter.
In the second paragraph, give out the details i.e., the facts that support
the statement you made in the first paragraph. You can end the letter
with this paragraph or you can have another one, if the information
you want to convey does not fit in this paragraph. Complete the
letter by thanking the recipient for taking out time to read the letter.
Respectfully Yours,
(Your Signature)
(Your Name)
Enclosure(s) (mention the number)cc:
b) Semi-block Format
This type of format follows the same arrangement as the block format (i.e., left
alignment) except for paragraphs where indention is applied.
c) Modified Block Format
In this type also all the text is left-aligned with the exception of the sender’s
address, business date and closing signature, which are placed toward the
right hand side. In this format also, there is no indention of paragraphs.
N.B: Apart from the above mentioned formats, there are other formats of formal
letters. For example, a letter in which the sender’s address is put in the top rightcorner of the paper.
• Comprehension question
1. What is a business letter?
2. Give at least one reason why a business letter should be short and
concise.
3. Is there any difference between business letters and other formal letters?
4. Give two examples of letter closing terms.
5. Mention at least 3 types of business letter format.
• Text 2: Curriculum vitae (CV)
A CV is an abbreviation of curriculum vitae. It is a document used to present
personal life details to prospective employers. In the case of a job application,
it should tell about professional history and skills, abilities and achievements.Ultimately, it should highlight why you’re the best person for the job.
What to include in a CV:
While the structure of a CV is flexible, there are particular sections that employers
expect to see on a CV. Here below are the sections that must be included in a
CV:
Name, professional title and contact details: The first part of a CV, positioned
at the top of the page, should contain the name, professional title and contact
details. The title of your CV should be ‘curriculum vitae’. When it comes to
contact details, email address and phone number(s) are essential.
Experience and employment history: Employment history section provides
opportunity to outline previous occupations, internships and work experience.
Experience starts with the most recent. When writing about experience, for
each position held, it is important to state the job title, employer, the period of
that employment and a one-line summary of the duties assigned, including key
responsibilities, skills and achievements. Bolster each point with active verbs
and figures to support each claim to show impact on the organisations served.
Education and qualifications: Like experience section, the education background
should start with the highest qualification towards the lowest. The name of the
institutions and the period of study are required too.
Hobbies and interests: Depending on the type of job applied for, one can boost
his or her CV by inserting hobbies and interests section at the end, focusing on
interests that make them stand out or are relevant to the job.
References: Referees are needed to confirm the information given in the CV.
• Comprehension questions
1. Appreciate the importance of CV.
2. List five particular sections that employers expect to see on a CV.
3. Using an example, explain how hobbies and interests in the CV canincrease the chance of getting a job.
Letter and CV writing.
I. Letter writing.
a. Suppose that you are head of Human Resource Department of a
large bank. Write a letter to the governor of the National bank
recommending a job applicant for a position.
b. Suppose that you have finished TTC studies. Write a letter to the
District Education Officer (DEO), requesting a teaching job in primary
school.
II. CV writing.
Write a CV that will accompany the application letter mentioned above inquestion b
5.8. Language structure: Connectors of contrast, explaining
and listing
Notes: As their name itself suggests sentence connectors are used to combine
sentences. They also express the relationship between ideas. We can add variety
and sophistication to our writing by using appropriate sentence connectors.
They can also be used to connect paragraphs to give them coherence.
I. Connectors of contrast
Connectors of contrast are sentence connectors that join two contrasting
ideas. They include: But, although, despite the fact that, however, nevertheless,
despite, in spite of, yet, etc.
Examples:
1. His rope was thin but it was strong.
2. He is fat but he runs fast.
3. Although the boy was injured, he didn’t give up.
4. We went out in spite of the rain.
5. In spite of having a headache, I enjoyed the film.
6. Despite working hard, she failed the exam.
7. She got good marks in spite of her teacher. (= She had a bad teacher.)
8. Her advice seems strange, yet I believe she’s right
9. He says that he is a socialist. However, he owns three houses and four
luxury cars.
10. There was little chance of success. Nevertheless, we didn’t give up.
Nevertheless is very formal. In a less formal style, we can use conjunctions
like but or yet. Nevertheless and however don’t combine two clauses. They
are used to emphasize the fact that the point expressed by the second clause
contrasts with the first. In writing, they are separated from the rest of the
sentence by a comma.
II. Connectors of listing
Connectors of listing include:
- firstly, secondly ...
- to begin / start with ..., to conclude with
- in the first place, in the second place
- next , then , finally, last(ly)
- to conclude ...
- last but not least ...
- to summarise , to sum up
III. Connectors of example
Connectors of example include:
- for example (e.g.), for instance
- that is (i.e.)
- that is to say
- ... such as ...
- namely ...
Exercise
1. Some people believe in ghosts and supernatural phenomena…….others
are sceptical about all that. (however, in spite of, whereas)
2. GDP in developing countries………. Rwanda will continue growing at a
high rate. (such as, for example, although)
3. She didn’t get the job……….her brilliant qualifications. (despite, though,
yet)
4. They brought lunch, ………..sandwiches and soda.( namely, in spite of,
even though)5. I’m not going to speak to her…………….she begs me pardon(but,
although, however)
6. …………….the risks thousands of people climb the Everest every year.(
in spite of, even though, nevertheless)
7. ……………….I went to the store, and………..I got gas. (then/first)
8. ……………..I learned so much, I didn’t manage to pass my exam. ( But/
Even though)
9. You’ll be nauseous ……………you stop eating so many sweets.
(whereas/ unless)
10. ………………we’re at the bus station by seven o’clock, we’ll miss our
bus. (Therefore/Unless)
5.9. Spelling and pronunciation
A. Spelling
Correct spelling mistakes in the following paragraph.
Iffective revision is not something that can be rushed. So start well in advanse of
the exam date. This will lesseen the chance of having to do last minute craming
and spending the whole night in the library. It’s a good idea to have a rautine
with your revision where you aim to start and finish at roufly the same time eachday
B. Phonetic transcription
Give phonetic transcriptions of the following words
a. Synthesising
b. Augment
c. Raw notes
d. Recapping
e. Intently
f. Thoughtful
g. Trigger
5.10.End unit Assessmen
I. Write a letter to the Director General of REB asking him to address the
problem of book scarcity in your school. Use connectors of example
and other connectors in your composition.
II. Choose the best alternative from the brackets to fill in the blank space.
1. ………………… (Even if/whereas) you saved a lot, you wouldn’t be
able to afford that house.
2. He eats only healthy food………………. (because of/ whereas )his
sister gorges herself with junk food.
3. You should learn more,……………….. (although/otherwise) you might
fail your exams.
4. Martha wanted to work in England, …………… (therefore/despite) ,
she studied English very hard.
5. ………………….. (Otherwise/ Even) if your chances are small, you
should try to do it.
6. ………………….. (Although/Unless) he was very tired, he worked
very hard.
7. Slice this meat and ……………… (because of/ afterwards) you can
boil it for thirty minutes.
8. I cooked dinner……………….(so that/then) my friends wouldn’t have
to eat out.
9. This street is slippery …………….. (otherwise/because of) the snow.
10. Something must be wrong; …………… (otherwise/unless ) Keza
would be at school.
11. ……………….(In spite of /Although) he is very rich, he doesn’t help
his parents.
12. ……………….( So that/ Even though) the weather was windy, we
went for a walk.
13. She is always helpful and friendly to me, ………………… (although/
therefore), I like her very much
14. He must be very clever; ………………….. (whereas /otherwise) he
wouldn’t have passed such a hard exam.
15. ……………..(Unless /Although) I have a bike, I don’t often ride it.
16. I like horror films ……………..(despite/ whereas) my friend prefers
comedies.
III. Write a short composition, narrating the difficulties you encountered
decoding instructions in any lesson.
IV. Write one paragraph, explaining the importance of note takingREFERENCES
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grammar, fourth edition with answer key. United states of America, library
of congress: cataloging-in- publication data
11. Raymond M, (2012).English Grammar in use, fourth edition: Cambridge
. Cambridge university press
12. REB. (2019). History for Rwanda Schools senior six student’s book
second edition. Kigali: Rwanda Education Board
13. REB. (2019). History for Rwanda Schools senior five student’s book
second edition. Kigali: Rwanda Education Board
14. Allan V.C., et al. (2018) Reimagining the way humans, machines, and
data interact Deloite Insights.
15. Michael, B. (2019) Key Events in the Story of Technology. London:
Bonhill Group Plc,
16. Bill, J. (2000) “Why the Future Doesn’t Need Us”. California: Stanford
University
17. Gahima, A. (2007). The socio-economic impacts of the genocide and
current developments in Rwanda: Case studies of the towns of Butare
and Cyangugu (unipublished)
18. REB (2017). History for Rwanda schools, senior five learner’s Book
second edition. Kigali: Rwanda Education Board
19. Aegis trust, (2016). Education for sustainable peace in Rwanda:
Facilitators’ guide on sustainable peace: Kigali
20. REB (2017).General Studies and Communication Skills for Rwandan
Schools, senior six student book second edition. Kigali: Rwanda
Education Board
Reports and plans
1. S/RES/2150 (2014) on Threats to International Peace and Security.
2. UNESCO. (2017). Education about the Holocaust and preventing
genocide: policy guide. Pg.16.
3. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
has been implementing the World Program for Human Rights Education
since 2005.
Online resources
1. https://unictr.irmct.org/en/tribunal
2. https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/12/23/rwanda-international-tribunalclosing-its-doors (Accessed on 25th November 2019)
3. https://www.accord.org.za/ajcr-issues/%EF%BF%BCenvironmentalcauses-and-impacts-of-the-genocide-in-rwanda/
4. https://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/ADD16852-AEE9-4757-ABE7
9CDC7CF02886/283503/RomeStatutEng1.pdf