Geography and Environment

By the end of this unit, you must be able to propose responses to the effects of natural and non-natural hazards in the environment.

Learning objectives
By the end of this unit, you must be able to:
(a) define hazards
(b) identify different types of hazards
(c) state the causes and effects of hazards
(d) explain human responses to natural and or human hazards in the short, medium and long term.

Hazards

Do this individually.
1. Use your dictionary and the Internet to find out the meaning of the term hazard.
2. Write it down in your notebook.
3. Share your findings with your class members.

Hazards are events or activities that cause a threat to life, health, property or the environment. Hazards can cause great harm to life on the earth and to the physical environment. They have a very significant impact on a country or area.

Types of hazards

Work in pairs.
1. List the different types of hazards that affect people and the environment in your area.
2. Discuss them in class.

There are many hazards that affect human beings and their environment. These hazards
are divided into two major categories.
• Natural hazards.
• Man-made hazards.

Natural hazards
These are naturally occurring events that have negative effects on the environment and on people. Human beings have no control over natural hazards. However, some measures can be put in place to reduce their effects. Examples of natural hazards include floods, earthquakes, drought, epidemics, landslides, volcanic eruptions and strong winds.

Floods

                              Fig 11.1

                                    Fig 11.2

1. Name the type of hazard shown in the pictures.
2. Suggest possible causes of the hazard shown.
3. What are the effects of this hazard to human activities?
4. Suggest possible measures that can be put in place to overcome the hazard.
5. Give examples of countries in Africa where this hazard is common. Use the Internet and other geographical documents to get this information.
6. Present your findings in a class discussion.

A flood is an overflow of large amounts of water onto dry land. The flood water covers the land surface. When floods occur, they wash away important things such as crops and other vegetation. People are also displaced from their settlement areas. Sometimes people drown in the floods.

Causes of floods
1. Soil deposition – Soils are usually deposited on river beds due to erosion.
This makes the river beds to become shallow. The increase in river water due to high rainfall makes water to spill over the banks thus causing floods.

            Fig. 11.3 Soil deposition on a river bed.

2. High rainfall – High rainfall in catchment areas releases large volumes of water into the rivers. This causes the rivers to burst the banks as the water flows to the adjacent lands.
3. Blocked drainage systems – Blocked drainage systems in the urban areas cause water to flow on the surface.
4. Earthquakes – They cause tsunamis in the oceans which flood coastal lowlands.
5. Low gradients of the river channels
– Low gradient river channels in the old stage lead to low stream velocity. This causes the load to be deposited in the river channel making it shallow. The water spills over the river banks
causing flooding.

Effects of floods
1. Displacements of people since their homes are in water.
2. Flooding washes away crops leading to food shortage.

          Fig. 11.4 Floods destroy crops.

3. Water logging in soils which hinders crop cultivation.
4. Loss of lives through drowning, and destruction of property.
5. Floods wash away bridges, roads and railway lines which interfere with transport and communication.
6. Create pools of stagnant water which provide a conducive habitat for breeding of disease-causing organisms such as mosquitoes which spread malaria.
Diseases such as cholera, typhoid, malaria and bilharzia are also common in flooded areas.

Prevention and control measures
1. Planting vegetation – Vegetation prevents the land from erosion. They hold soil firmly together. Vegetation helps to reduce the flow of flood water hence reducing its effects.

2. Educating people – People should be educated on the importance of not blocking drainage systems by poor waste disposal. This will prevent blocking of drainage systems when it rains.
3. Construction of dams – Dams should be constructed. They should have flood-control reservoirs to help in flood control.

          Fig. 11.5 Reservoirs in a dams.

Earthquakes

Work in pairs. Study the pictures below and answer the questions that follow.

                                 Fig 11.6

                             Fig 11.7

1. Describe what you can observe in the pictures.
2. Suggest areas where the hazard shown in the pictures is common.
3. State the effects of the hazard shown in a settlement area.
4. Suggest measures that can be put in place to overcome the effects of the above hazard.
5. Present your findings in a class discussion.

An earthquakes is a sudden and violent shaking of the ground as a result of movements within the earth’s crust. It can also be due to volcanic action. Earthquakes cause a lot of destruction.

Causes of earthquakes
1. Movement of tectonic plates – Earthquakes occur when two plates move towards each other and one of them slides beneath the other. It also occurs when the plates move away from each other or when the plates slide against each other without destroying the earth’s crust.

Fig. 11.8 (a) Plates moving towards each other.

Fig. 11.8 (b) Plates moving away from each other.

Fig. 11.8 (c) Plates sliding against each other.

2. Violent volcanic eruptions – Magma that is pushed from the interior of the earth through the vent by great force causes vibrations in the earth’s crust.
3. Radioactivity – Radioactivity refers to the particles that are emitted from
the mantle due to instability. It causes the mantle to release a lot of energy which in turn causes vibrations in the earth’s crust.

Effects of earthquakes
1. Destruction of property – A lot of property is destroyed when earthquakes occur. For example, there is destruction of buildings, roads, railway lines, bridges and dams.
2. Loss of lives – Earthquakes occur suddenly. When buildings collapse, people in them lose their lives. When roads crack, accidents occur leading to loss of lives.
3. Earthquakes cause occurrence of landslides.
4. They also cause flooding of coastal lowlands due to tsunamis.
5. Outbreak of fire – This is caused by the damaged electric cables.
6. They cause breaking or displacement of rocks of the earth’s crust.
7. Displacement of people – When earthquakes occur, people are forced to move from where they live. This is due to destruction of property including houses. Therefore, they have to move and settle in a different area.

Prevention and control measures 

Earthquakes cannot be prevented. However, they can be monitored using specialized equipment. People can then be alerted to a possible earthquake. People are then able to prepare themselves by evacuating vulnerable areas. This helps to reduce the effects of the earthquake.

Work in groups of three.
1. Carry out a book and Internet research to find out some of the things that can be done to indicate preparedness for an earthquake.
2. Discuss this in groups.
3. Present your findings in class.

Drought

Your facilitator will download different video clips from the Internet showing areas facing
drought. Watch the clip and discuss the following in class.
1. The causes of drought.
2. The effects of drought.
3. Ways of preventing droughts from occurring.

Drought is a prolonged period of low rainfall leading to shortage of water. Drought affects people, animals and vegetation. Examples of areas that experience drought in Africa include the Sahel, Ethiopia, Somalia, Kenya, Angola and Mozambique.

Causes of drought
1. Lack of rain – Drought occurs when an area does not receive adequate amounts of rainfall for a long period of time.
2. Global warming – The gases that are released in the atmosphere due to human activities cause a rise in temperature. This in turn causes climate change. The weather patterns change and areas receive little rainfall. This can lead to drought.

3. Deforestation – Forests help in conserving water and reducing evaporation. Their roots hold water in the soil. Cutting down of trees exposes water sources such as rivers and streams causing them to experience more evaporation. The water bodies become smaller making an area dry.
This speeds up drought conditions.

Effects of droughts
Drought has the following effects.
1. Frequent food shortages.
2. Loss of lives.
3. Shortage of water.
4. Drying up of rivers.
5. Shrinking of lakes.
6. Decrease in hydro-electric power production due to lack of water.
7. Loss of vegetation.

Prevention and control measures
It is difficult to detect a drought. It also cannot be prevented. However, certain control measures can be put in place to reduce the effects of a drought.
1. Building dams – Dams should be built in different areas. They should be used to collect and conserve water during the rainy seasons. This water can then be used for different purposes when there is a drought.
2. Irrigation – When an area is hit by drought, irrigation farming can be practised. The water from dams can be used to irrigate the crops. This will ensure a constant supply of water to the crops. Drip irrigation should be used in an area facing drought to prevent wastage of water.

         Fig. 11.9 Drip irrigation in a dry area.

3. Greenhouse farming – Greenhouse farming should be encouraged. Greenhouses protect crops against adverse climatic conditions. This ensures that food is available throughout the drought period.
4. Rain water harvesting – During the rainy season, people can harvest and store rainwater to be used during a drought.
5. Recycling water – Water that has been used can be purified and reused.

Epidemic

In the month of April 2014 in Kamembe slum in Rusizi District, there was an outbreak of a disease. The disease caused the death of very many people.
Medical officers from the government visited the area to find out what disease it was. They noticed the following symptoms in people:
• diarrhoea
• fever
• stomach ache
• vomiting.

Those who were diagnosed were told that they had cholera. They were also told that it was an epidemic.
(a) What do you think is the meaning of the term epidemic?
(b) What likely caused the epidemic?
(c) Suggest some of the solutions that can be put in place to prevent occurrence of the disease.
(d) Discuss your answers in a class presentation.

An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease that spreads rapidly among many people in a community at a particular time. Examples of epidemic diseases include HIV and Aids,
Ebola, influenza, cholera, malaria and typhoid.

Causes of epidemics
1. Climatic conditions – Climatic conditions such as flooding lead to the spread of epidemics. The flood water causes sewages to overflow. The water for domestic use then becomes contaminated causing outbreaks of diseases.
2. Lack of water – Poor water supply in an area can cause an epidemic. People have little or no access to safe water for their day to day use.
3. Inadequate sanitation facilities – People living in poverty usually live in areas with poor hygiene and that lack proper facilities for disposal of waste.
These unhygienic conditions cause epidemics.
4. Unsafe food – When people eat food that is contaminated, they can get diarrhoea and other such infections

They may also get diseases such as cholera and typhoid which are caused by consuming contaminated food and water.
Effects of epidemics
The following are the effects of epidemics in an area.
1. Loss of lives.
2. High cost of treatment.
3. Shortage of labour due to disposition or death of energetic people.
4. Reduced productivity of people due to illnesses. This leads to poor economic development in an area.
Prevention and control measures
1. Vaccination – People should be vaccinated against various diseases that may cause death rapidly. This will protect them against infection.
2. Proper hygiene – Most epidemics are brought about due to lack of proper hygiene. People should practice personal, environmental and food hygiene to prevent outbreaks of diseases such as cholera and typhoid.
3. Education – People should be educated on different types of epidemics and their effects to a community. They should also be educated on how to protect themselves against infection
and how to handle the epidemics if they get infected.
4. Eating a balanced diet – A diet that has all the nutrients needed by the body will make the immune system strong. This will make people resistant to certain diseases. Lack of nutrients
in the body makes the body’s immune system weak.

Landslides

Do this in groups of four.
Your teacher will provide you with video clips on various areas that have been hit by landslides. Watch the video carefully. After watching do the following:
1. Find out the possible causes of landslides.
2. Give the effects of the landslides on a community.
3. Suggest possible prevention measures of above hazard.
4. Name the areas in Rwanda that are likely to experience the hazard.
5. Present your findings in a class discussion.

Landslides refer the movement of masses of earth’s materials composed of rocks and soils down a slope. Landslides may be rapid or slow.

                        Fig. 11.10 Landslide

Causes of landslides
1. Prolonged heavy rainfall – Rainwater saturates and lubricates the soil and rock materials making the earth unstable.

2. Vibrations of the earth – These vibrations are caused by earthquakes.
They cause trembling and shaking of the earth’s crust making soil and rocks to move down-slope.
3. Undercutting at the base of a slope – Undercutting is the process of wearing away of the part below a cliff or a slope. This makes the slope to be unstable thus triggers movement downslope.
4. Melting ice – It may cause movement of large masses of ice and rock particles downslope.
5. Volcanic eruptions – When volcanic eruptions occur, there is a rupture on the crust. This causes earth movements which make soil and rocks move downslope.
6. Mining and quarrying activities – During mining and quarrying activities, techniques such as blasting are used. These cause vibrations to occur under the soil that lead to landslides.
7. Wildfires – Fires destroy vegetation. The vegetation holds soil firmly together preventing landslides from occurring. When the vegetation is destroyed by fire, the soil becomes loose causing
landslides.

 Effects of landslides
1. Destruction of property such as buildings.
2. Loss of lives and injuries to people.
3. Destruction and interruption of transport and communication lines such as roads.
4. Landslides expose the slopes to soil erosion.
5. Displacement of people when they occur in settlement areas.

Prevention and control measures
1. Improving drainage – Improving the surface and sub-surface drainage of an area near a slope will help reduce the occurrence of a landslide. This is because water is the main cause of most landslides.
2. Growing vegetation – Vegetation holds the soil together firmly. People should avoid destroying vegetation through cutting trees in sloppy areas. Trees and other vegetation should be planted to
hold any loose soil in place.
3. Removing and replacing soil – Soil that is prone to landslides can be removed. It should then be replaced with soils that are not prone to landslides such as silt and sandy soils.

Volcanic eruptions

Work in groups of three. Describe the activity shown in the following pictures.

                               Fig 11.11

                          Fig 11.12

1. Give reasons why the activity taking place in the picture is considered a
hazard.
2. Give examples of areas where the activity in the pictures have been experienced in Rwanda and Africa.
3. State how the activity shown in the pictures influences human activities both positively and negatively.
4. Discuss your answers in a class presentation.

Volcanic eruptions occur when there is rupture on the crust of the earth. The rupture causes hot lava, volcanic ash and gases to be discharged from volcanic vents.

Fig. 11.13 Volcanic eruption on Mount Nyiragongo

Causes of volcanic eruptions
Volcanic eruptions are caused by movement of tectonic plates. This movement causes magma to rise through cracks or weaknesses in the crust of the earth. Pressure then builds up inside the earth’s crust. When this pressure is released, the magma explodes and moves to the surface causing volcanic eruptions.

      Fig. 11.14 How a volcanic eruption occurs.

Effects of volcanic eruptions
Massive volcanic eruptions result in the following.
1. Displacement of people.
2. Loss of lives.
3. Destruction of settlement areas and property.
4. Air pollution that occur s from the volcanic ashes and gases that are released.
5. Destruction of transport and communication lines.
6. Destruction of farmlands leading to food shortages.

7. Destruction of power lines and other communication infrastructure.
8. Destruction of vegetation and wildlife. 

Prevention and control measures
Volcanic eruptions cannot be prevented. However, people can be educated on the different things they can do to protect themselves and their families when the eruptions occur.

Work in groups of three.
1. Study the pictures below and explain what is taking place. Explain the causes and effects of each.

2. Find out from a resource person the types of natural disasters that have occurred in your local area in the past.
3. Discuss the natural disasters that you have been explained to the resource person.
4. Identify their causes and effects and write down short notes in your notebooks.
5. Find out how the people reacted and responded after the occurrence of the hazard.
6. Find out the disaster preparedness, response and prevention measures the people and the government have adopted in case of a reoccurrence of the disaster.
7. Present your findings in class.

Human-caused hazards
These are disastrous events caused directly by identifiable, deliberate or negligent human actions. They are also known as non-natural disasters. These hazards include pollution, wars, famine, accidents, fires and terrorism.

Pollution

Work in groups of three. Study the pictures below and answer the questions that follow

                               Fig 11.18

                              Fig 11.19

                           Fig 11.20

1. Define the term pollution.
2. Name the types of pollution shown in Figure 11.20.
3. Give the effects of pollution on the environment.
4. Identify the types of pollution in your local environment.
5. Suggest possible measures that can be put in place to overcome the problem of pollution.
6. Present your findings in class.

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the environment that cause undesirable effects. It causes harm to people and other living things and also to the environment.
Sewage water, dust and smoke are examples of contaminants. Pollution can be classified into air, water, ground (or land) and noise pollution.

Causes of air pollution
1. Emissions from industries – The smoke and fumes from industries cause air pollution. Large amounts of carbon monoxide are released into the atmosphere introducing impurities in the air.
2. Burning of fossil fuels – Fossil fuels are natural fuels such as coal, oil and gas.
Vehicles and other means of transport use these fossil fuels. When the fuels burn, they release fumes. The fumes cause air pollution. This is a major cause of air pollution in Rwanda. It is quite
difficult to manage.

             Fig. 11.21 Fumes from a car.

3. Chemicals – Chemicals used in agricultural production also cause pollution. Herbicides and pesticides used in dusting crops are usually released in the air causing pollution.
4. Dust – When there is too much wind, dust is blown from the surface of the earth. This leads to air pollution.

 Causes of water pollution
1. Fertilisers – Fertilisers are applied in the soil during agricultural production.
When it rains, they are carried away by rain water and deposited into sources of water such as rivers and lakes.
2. Sewage water – There is no proper mechanism for sewage disposal in many areas. Sewage water is mostly released into water sources and this causes pollution. It also leads to the spread of water borne diseases.
3. Dumping of dirt into water sources – People dump waste products such as human waste, animal waste and domestic wastes into water sources. This causes pollution.

4. Oil spills – Oils spills from ferries and ships lead to pollution of the water sources. This contributes to destruction  of aquatic life.

     Fig. 11.22 Oil spillage in a water body

Causes of land pollution
1. Excessive use of fertilisers – Excessive use of fertilisers in agricultural processes lead to contamination of soils.
2. Poor disposal of garbage – There are no appropriate areas for disposing garbage. This has lead to emergence of random dumping sites that cause land pollution.
Causes of noise pollution
1. Industries – Industries have a lot of machines that produce very loud noise.
These sounds are unpleasant and therefore cause pollution.
2. Means of transport – Various means of transport such as large motor vehicles, trains and aeroplanes produce very loud noise. The noise causes pollution.

3. Entertainment activities – Entertainment activities are also a cause of noise pollution. Examples are weddings, parties and music from entertainment areas.

Effects of pollution
1. Climate change – Pollution leads to the release of gases into the atmosphere.
This causes the climate to change. Temperatures become high due to global warming.
2. Poor health conditions among people
– Air, water and land pollution have adverse effects on the health of people. Water pollution leads to the spread of water-borne diseases. Air pollution leads to respiratory infections.
3. Death of aquatic life – Oil spillage in water bodies deprives aquatic animals of oxygen. This causes them to die.
4. Reduction in agricultural production – Climate change causes unfavourable
conditions for agriculture. The crop yields reduce leading to food insecurity. Excessive use of fertilisers also causes soils to be acidic. They are therefore not suitable for crop production.
5. Formation of acid rain – Chemicals and smoke in the air cause the formation of acid rain. Acid rain destroys aquatic life. It also destroys the leaves of plants leading to loss of vegetation cover.

                        Fig. 11.23 Formation of acid rain

Prevention and control measures
1. Recycling – Waste materials should be recycled to reduce the amount of waste products dumped in water bodies and on land. It will also help reduce the number of dumping sites.
2. Combustion of gases – Gases and vapours should be burnt using flames.
This will ensure that they are released into the environment in the form of less harmful products. For example, carbon monoxide should be burnt and released as carbon (IV) oxide which is
less harmful.
3. Maintenance of vehicles – Motor vehicles and other means of transport should be properly maintained to reduce the amount of fumes released in the environment.
4. Sewage treatment – Sewage water should be treated and the water recycled. The solid wastes should be disposed of appropriately and not in the water sources.

5. Reduce use of chemical fertilisers – The use of chemical fertilisers should be reduced. Farmers should opt for more environmental friendly methods such as using farmyard manure and green
manure.
6. Sucking of oil spills – Oil spills should be sucked from the surface of water
immediately they occur. This reduces water pollution and prevents the death of aquatic life.

Wars

Work in groups of three.
Use geographical documents and the Internet to research on war as a human
hazard. Use your findings to answer the following questions.
1. What is war?
2. Outline the possible causes of war.

3. Explain the effects of war on:
• human activities
• the economy.
4. Explain the possible measures that can be taken to stop the occurrence of war.
5. Present your findings in a class discussion.

War is a conflict between large groups of people. It involves physical force inflicted by use of weapons. War takes many forms such as armed conflicts, hostilities and police action. The 1st and 2nd World Wars are examples of war. War has resulted in great destruction on the economy, human suffering and loss of lives.

Causes of war
1. Competition – Competition for some resources that are unfairly distributed or which are inadequate result in conflicts and war. Such resources include jobs, political positions, territory, housing, cultivable land, fresh water and pasture.
2. Poor governance – This makes people unhappy with the government. It makes people or groups of people to fight for independence from the central government.
3. A clash in people’s beliefs – Religions and political views give a group of people a sense of identity. When these beliefs are interfered with, it results into war.
4. Ethnic differences – Ethnicity gives people a sense of identity and belonging. A threat to this results into violence or conflicts.

Effects of war
1. It leads to the death of people and human suffering.
2. It leads to displacement of people from their homelands creating refugees.
3. It leads to destruction of property.
4. The soldiers and victims suffer from mental and psychological illnesses.
5. It results in food shortages since farmers abandon their farming activities as they look for safety.
6. There is economic stagnation due to the destruction of the main infrastructure.
It is also very costly to finance wars. The resources that would have been used for economic development are diverted to war.

Prevention and control measures

1. Promote peace education – People should be taught the importance of peace and harmony in the country. This will reduce hostility which may lead to war. They should also be taught the
effects of wars to human beings and o development of the country.
2. Increase security – Security personnel should be deployed to various borders of the country. This will help to protect the country against external attacks which may result to war.

Famine

Do this in groups.
Your facilitator will provide you with video clips on various areas that have been hit by famine. Watch the video carefully. After watching, find out the following.
(a) What are the causes of famines?
(b) Give the effects of the famine to a country.
(c) Suggest possible prevention measures to the above hazard.
(d) Present your findings in a class discussion.

Famine is a widespread scarcity of food. It is caused by many factors. Famine is accompanied by cases of starvation, malnutrition and outbreak of diseases. This is a huge problem that affects very many countries in Africa. There was a great famine in Rwanda in the year 1943 – 1944.

          Fig. 11.24 An area facing famine.

Causes of famine
1. Conflicts – When a country or an area is engaged in war, the government uses funds to deal with the war. When a natural hazard such a drought affects an area, the government lacks funds to
deal with the situation.
2. Climate change – Global warming results in poor agricultural production. It leads to reduced amounts of rainfall received in an area. This can result in famine.

3. Natural hazards – Natural hazards cause people to fight for the scarce resources.
They also cause food insecurity due to low agricultural production.
4. Poverty – People living in poverty do not have access to land needed for agricultural production. Food will thus not be available to ensure food security.
5. Poor infrastructure – Poor transport and communication facilities in a country cause poor food distribution. People living in areas with poor road networks cannot easily access food. 

Effects of famine
1. Malnutrition – Lack of all nutrients required by the body causes health problems. These health problems may lead to death.
2. Epidemics – During famine, people have access to very little food and water. They do not get enough nutrients needed to protect the body against attacks by diseases. Therefore, they
are prone to attack by diseases which may lead to an increase in number of deaths.
3. Starvation – Famine leads to lack of food in an area or country. This in turn leads to starvation. Extreme cases of starvation lead to death.
4. Migration – People usually migrate from areas that have been hit by famine in search of food. They later decide to settle in those areas. This leads to population increase in some areas.

Prevention and control measures

1. Improve infrastructure – Transport and communication infrastructure should be improved. This will ensure that the roads are accessible and thus food can be distributed equally in all areas of the
country. This will help prevent famine.
2. Conflict resolution – Conflicts that occur should be resolved peacefully without engaging in war.
3. Disaster preparedness – People should be taught on how to handle different hazards when they occur. The government should also set up disaster response centres that will ensure that people experiencing famine are given food.
4. Improved farming methods – Improved farming methods such as building of greenhouses should be adopted.This will ensure constant food supply throughout the year. People living in dry areas should practise irrigation farming to ensure there is crop production hence food security. Organic farming should also be encouraged to reduce land pollution which leads to poor crop yields.

Accidents

Work in pairs.
Use geographical documents and the Internet to research on accidents as a human hazard. Use your findings to answer the following questions.
1. What are the different examples of accidents that human beings face?
2. Outline the possible causes of accidents.

3. Explain the effects of accidents on the economy.
4. Explain the possible measures that can be taken to reduce accidents.
5. Present your findings in class.

An accident is an unplanned or unfortunate event that happens unexpectedly. It also happens unintentionally. Accidents result in injuries or damage. Accidents can occur when doing different activities such when travelling, doing domestic chores like cooking, playing, walking and working.
Some accidents also occur as a result of poisoning or electric shock.

     Fig. 11.25 A fire accident.

Causes of accidents
1. Careless and drunken driving – Road accidents cause a lot of deaths in the country. They mostly occur due to careless driving. They also occur due to speeding. Some drivers drive under
the influence of alcohol thus cause accidents.
2. Poor weather conditions – Poor weather conditions also lead to travel accidents. When there is fog or mist, drivers and pilots are not able to see clearly.
3. Failure to observe road safety rules – Many of road users do not obey road safety rules. This increases the number of accidents that occur.

4. Careless handling of machines and equipment – If machines are not handled well when working, they can cause to injury to those using them. This happens more in industries. Electric appliances should also be handled well and used for the purposes they are intended for to avoid accidents.
5. Poor housekeeping practices – The home is where many accidents that can be prevented occur. This is due to poor housekeeping practices and carelessness. For example, when water spills on the floor and it is not wiped, it can cause falls.
6. Gas leaks in homes – When one does not turn off the gas knob well, it causes the gas to leak. A fire can start when a match is lit.
7. Poor road network – Roads with a lot of potholes and those that are unpaved can lead to road accidents.
Effects of accidents
1. Death – Many accidents are fatal. They cause the loss of lives of very many people. Road accidents cause very many deaths in the country daily.
2. Loss of property – When accidents occur, property worth a lot of money is lost. Infrastructure is also destroyed.
3. Disability – Those who are injured from accidents may become disabled. This prevents them from doing their work as they were used to. They have to learn new ways of coping with the situation.

4. Reduced development – Accidents lead to loss of lives. This causes a reduction in the population of an area. The rate of development thus reduces due to scarcity of human labour.
Prevention and control measures
1. Education on road safety – People should be educated on how they can use roads safely. They should also be taught the importance of observing road safety.
2. Being careful – People should be careful when performing different tasks or when handling machines to prevent accidents.
3. Construction and maintenance of roads – Road networks should be improved to ensure that the number of accidents are reduced.
4. Avoid speeding when driving – Drivers should be cautioned against speeding. Speed governors should be installed in vehicles to ensure that drivers drive within acceptable speed limits.
5. Proper housekeeping practices – The house should be kept clean and everything should be stored where it is supposed to be to reduce accidents.
Gas cookers should be turned off appropriately to prevent gas leaks which may lead to fire outbreaks.

Responses to hazards

Work in groups of three.
Use geographical documents and the Internet to research on the different responses to hazards. Use your findings to answer the following questions.

1. What is a response to a hazard?
2. What do you understand by:
• short-term response
• medium-term response
• long-term response?
3. Give reasons why it is necessary to respond after the occurrence of a hazards.
4. Identify some of the hazards that have occured in Rwanda.
5. For each hazard in (4) above, outline the short-term, medium-term and longterm responses that have been carried out to overcome those hazards.
6. Give some of the challenges that face responses to hazards in Rwanda.
7. Present your findings in class.

A response to a hazard is a deliberate effort or measure that is put in place to ease the problem. There are three responses to hazards.
• short-term
• medium-term
• long-term

(a) Short-term responses
These are responses that occur in the days and weeks immediately after a disaster has occurred. Short-term responses mainly involve search, rescue and helping those injured or affected. Short-term responses are rescue measures. They include the following.
• Search and rescue operations.
• Provision of machinery and equipment for use in the search and rescue operations such as helicopters, boats and bulldozers.
• Recovery of dead bodies and survivors.
• Provision of food, tents and water.
• Sending of medical teams to the affected areas.
• Provision of aid money to help victims and their families.
• Burying of the dead victims to stop the spread of diseases.

(b) Medium-term responses
These are responses that occur in weeks and months after a disaster has taken place.
These responses are aimed at providing services and facilities to help the victims of a hazard to settle and continue with their normal lives. Medium-term responses are rehabilitation measures.
They include the following.
• Medical rehabilitation and counselling.
• Reconnection of water and electricity supplies.
• Rebuilding of homes.
• Rebuilding of transport lines such as roads, railway lines, airports and ports.
• Reconnection of communication lines such as the telephone masts and Internet.
• Clearance of damaged buildings.
• Re-building and reopening of schools, hospitals, colleges, universities, shopping malls, offices and banks.
• Cancellation of debts.
(c) Long-term responses
A long-term response is a response or activity that goes on for months or years after a disaster has occurred. The aim of the long-term response is to jump start the local economy. Long-term responses are reconstruction measures.

They include the following.
• Building of new shelters such as schools, hospitals and houses.
• Cancellation of debts.
• Improvement on the disaster monitoring and warning systems such as those used for earthquakes.
• Improved education provision to people on hazard risks and their possible solutions.
• Provision of long-term aid or donations to a region or country.
• Creation of enterprise zones in order to encourage investment.
• Taking refugees back to their homes.

Work in groups of ten.
1. Act out a skit to show an area that has experienced a hazard. Use a hazard of your choice.
2. Respond to the hazard that has occurred and offer short-term solutions to the affected people.
3. Outline the medium term and long term solutions that should be offered in response to the hazard.

Project work.
Work in groups of six.
Your teacher will provide you with writing materials and tools.
1. Prepare posters and leaflets on causes and effects of natural and human caused hazards that might occur in and outside your school’s environment.
2. Each group should carry out an awareness campaign targeting the rest of the school to educate the other students on the causes and effects of the possible hazards. Extend the campaign and education to people outside the school.
3. Educated them on disaster preparedness and appropriate responses to each hazard.

Did you know?
• When magma reaches the earth’s surface it is referred to as lava. When the lava cools down, it forms rocks.
• Most natural disasters are caused by weather.
• Floods are the most widespread natural disaster aside from wildfires.
• Earthquakes are the deadliest of all natural disasters.
• The greatest famine in histor y killed around 45 million people in China between 1958 and 1962.

1. Define a hazard.
2. Giving examples, discuss the different types of hazards.
3. The table below shows some of the hazards that have been experienced in Rwanda. Fill in the blank spaces.

4. Explain the importance of responses to hazards in Rwanda.
5. Identify some of the challenges that Rwanda faces in the attempts to respond to hazards.