Foundation of Education

Key Unit competence: Select appropriate assessment methods/ techniques and create relevant assessment tools

to assess learners’ competences.

Introductory Activity

Observe the image above and answer the questions that follow:

1) What those pupils are doing?

2) What is the purpose of this activity?

3) Comparing to your experience, when this activity is given to pupils?

4) What do you think the teacher has done before the activity and what will be done next?

5) Apart from the teacher and learners seen on the photo, what are other persons do you think they can 

be involved in this activity? What will be their role?

2.1. Key concepts related to pedagogical assessment

Activity 2.1

a) Assessment

This is regarded as those formal and informal procedures that teachers and learners employ in gathering information on learning and making judgment about what learners know and can do. As opposed to the misconception most

people have always had that assessment comes after teaching, assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning.

b) Competence-based assessment

This is an assessment process in which a learner is confronted with a complex situation relevant to his/her everyday life and asked to look for a solution by applying what has been learned (knowledge, skills, competences and attitudes).

Evidence of learning is then collected and used as the basis on which judgments are made concerning learner’s progress against fixed performance criteria.

c) Competence-Based assessment versus Knowledge-Based assessment

d) Difference between assessment and evaluation

Educators use two distinct processes to help students build lifelong learning skills: assessment and evaluation. Assessment provides feedback on

knowledge, skills, attitudes, and work products for the purpose of elevating future performances and learning outcomes. Evaluation determines the level of quality of a performance or outcome and enables decision-making based on

the level of quality demonstrated. These two processes are complementary and necessary in education.

The significant differences between assessment and evaluation are discussed in the points given below:

•  The process of collecting, reviewing and using data, for the purpose of improvement in the current performance, is called assessment. A process of passing judgment, on the basis of defined criteria and evidence is called evaluation.
•  Assessment is diagnostic in nature as it tends to identify areas of improvement. On the other hand, evaluation is judgmental, because it aims at providing an overall grade.
•  The assessment provides feedback on performance and ways to enhance performance in future. As against this, evaluation ascertains whether the standards are met or not.
•  The purpose of assessment is formative, i.e. to increase quality whereas evaluation is all about judging quality, therefore the purpose is summative.
• Assessment is concerned with process, while evaluation focuses on product.
• In an assessment, the feedback is based on observation and positive & negative points. In contrast to evaluation, in which the feedback relies on the level of quality as per set standard.
•  In an assessment, the relationship between assessor and assessee is reflective, i.e. the criteria are defined internally. On the contrary, the evaluator and evaluatee share a prescriptive relationship, wherein the standards are imposed externally.
•  The criteria for assessment are set by both parties jointly. As opposed to evaluation, wherein the criteria are set by the evaluator.
• The measurement standards for assessment are absolute, which seeks to achieve the essential outcome. As against this, standards of measurement for evaluation are comparative, that makes a distinction between better and worse.

The above points are summarized in the table below:

Before carrying out assessment, teachers should be clear about why they should

assess, what should be assessed, when it should be assessed and how to do the

assessment. This will depend on types of assessment.

Application Activity 2.1

1) Complete the KWL chart in the column of what you have learnt (L) about assessment

2) Fill in the following adjective in the T-chart below whether they are qualifying assessment or evaluation: diagnostic, judgmental, absolute, comparative, reflective, prescriptive

2.2. Types of pedagogical assessment

Activity 2.2

Observe your school report of the previous year and explain how the teacher finds the marks to fill in your school report.

2.2.1. Types of assessment according to the assessment time

a) Diagnostic assessment

Diagnostic assessment is carried out before learning. At the beginning of a new section of work; to find out what learners already know and can do, and to check whether learners are at the same level.

b) Formative assessment

Formative assessment is daily monitoring of learning to provide ongoing feedback that teachers can use to improve their teaching and learners use to improve their acquisition of competences. Formative or Continuous assessment is among other things, intended to help teachers to assess curriculum learning objectives at short intervals of time, and provide effective remedial instruction for low achiever learners, or enrichment activities for high achievers. 

When learners appear to be having difficulty with some of the work, by using on-going assessment. Formative assessment is also known as assessment for learning.

Formative assessment is used for the following purposes:

• Determine the extent to which learning objectives and competences are being achieved and to identify which schools need pedagogical advice and which learners need strategic and remedial interventions.
• Monitor the learner’s progress and provide him/her with constructive feedback.
•  Diagnose or detect learning errors as a result of a wrong idea, or a misconception.
•  Decide on the next steps in terms of progression.
• Keep records and measure the learner’s progress.
• Identify learners who are gifted and talented in order to provide enrichment work; and those who are struggling and need support in terms of remedial instruction.
• Motivate learners to learn and succeed, i.e, encourage learners to read, or learn more, revise, etc. Teachers need to consider various aspects of the instructional process including appropriate language levels, meaningful examples, suitable methods and teaching aids, appropriate pace, appropriate assignments, etc.
• Check effectiveness of teaching methods in terms of variety, appropriateness, relevance, or need for new approaches/strategies.
•  Provide feedback to learners, parents and teachers.
•  Help learners to take control of their own learning.

c) Summative assessment

Summative assessment is used to evaluate learner learning, skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the completion of a defined instructional period, such as the end of a project, unit, course, term, school year and cycle. This is also known as assessment of learning to establish and record overall progress of learners towards full achievement.

Summative assessment mainly takes the form of written tests at the end of month, and examinations at the end of a term, school year or cycle.

The purpose of summative assessment is mainly concerned with appraisal of work in terms of units of work completed, and attempts to ascertain if goals of the unit, course or program have been achieved. It therefore comes at the end of the unit, course or program. Summative assessment is also used for selection, guidance on future courses, certification, promotion, curriculum cotrol, and accountability.

2.2.2. Types of assessment according to the reference framework to interpret assessment results

a) Norm-referenced assessment

Norm-referenced assessment measures a student’s performance in comparison to the performance of a group of peers (norm group) on the same assessment.

Example: The student "X" scored 60% in the end unit assessment and was the 7th out of 46 students. Moreover, while comparing the student "X" scores to the class average that is 35 %, Teacher "M" concluded that student "X" performed well based on the rank and the fact that he/she scored above the class average.

From this example, Student "X" score was compared to the classmates scores through the ranking and the class average. The diagram below summarises the interpretation process:

b) Criterion-referenced assessment

Criterion-referenced assessment Measures a student’s performance based on mastery of specific skills, competences. It measures what the student knows/

can do and doesn’t know/cannot do at the time of assessment. The student’s performance is NOT compared to other students’ performance. Each student’s performance is measured based on a predetermined performance criterion.

Example 1: Interpretation of student "Y" performance

Example 2: Interpretation of student Z performance

As shown by the above examples, criterion-based assessment helps to identify students who mastered a learning unit and those who need remedial activities to achieve the standard.

Requirements: This assessment requires a learning objective with clear performance standard and valid assessment tool (exam) to measure that performance.

2.2.3. Type of assessment depending on the examiner

a) Classroom or internal assessment

Classroom assessment, sometimes called internal assessment, refers to assessments designed or selected by teachers and given as an integral part of classroom instruction. They are given during or closely following an instructional activity or unit. This category of assessments may include teacher-student interactions in the classroom, observations, student products that result directly from ongoing instructional activities, called “Immediate assessments”, and quizzes closely tied to instructional activities, called “Close assessments”. 

They may also include formal classroom exams that cover the material from one or more instructional units, called “proximal assessments”.

This category may also include assessments created by curriculum developers and embedded in instructional materials for teacher's use.

Classroom assessment is viewed as an active process of systematically collecting and analyzing student learning evidence in order to make effective educational decisions, which are designed to promote student learning.

Classroom assessment is also defined as a set of strategies, techniques, and procedures that teachers and students engage in, to collect, evaluate, and report student achievement. It is a tool teachers use to gather data and information about how students are progressing in what they know and in the development of their skills. Classroom assessment is used for a variety of purposes – to document what students know and can do, diagnose strengths, weaknesses, and misunderstandings, improve and enhance student learning, motivate students, assign grades, and provide feedback to parents.

b) External assessment

External assessment refers to assessment designed, or selected, marked ad used by other people from outside of the student’s school such as sector, districts, national or international level. It is typically used to audit or monitor learning. External assessments are usually more distant in time and context from instruction. 

They can be based on the content and skills defined in national curriculum/syllabus, but they may not necessarily reflect the specific content that was covered in any particular classroom depending on purposes. 

They are typically given at a time that is determined by school administrators, rather than by the classroom teacher.

Application Activity 2.2

2.3. Principles of pedagogical assessment

Activity 2.3

Think of the exam done lastly and describe what you have appreciated about it if any. If not, what did you dislike about that exam and why?

Pedagogical assessment is based on different principles; some are described below:

• Assessment should bring about benefits for learners and support the learning process

To warrant conducting assessments, there must be a clear benefit- either direct service to the learner or in improved quality of educational programs. All assessment tasks influence the way in which students approach their learning,

and this will be considered in the design of all assessment tasks.

• Assessment should be tailored to a specific purpose and should be valid and fair for that purpose

Assessment will be explicitly designed to measure student achievement of the intended learning objectives, competences. Measures should be taken during the whole assessment process to ensure fairness.

• Assessment should be age-appropriate in both content and methods of data collection

Assessment of young children should address the full range of early learning and development, including physical well-being and motor development; social and emotional development; approaches towards learning; language development; and cognition and general knowledge. Methods of assessment should recognize that children need familiar contexts in order to be able to demonstrate their abilities.

•  Assessment should be linguistically appropriate

Regardless of whether an assessment is intended to measure early reading skills, knowledge of colour names, or learning potential, assessment results are easily confounded by language proficiency, especially for children who come from home background with limited exposure to English or any other foreign language which is used as a medium of instruction, for whom an assessment would essentially be an assessment of their language proficiency. First and second languages of learners should be considered when setting assessment tasks.

• Parents should be a valued source of assessment information as well as an audience for assessment results

Assessment should include multiple sources of evidence, especially reports from parents and teachers. Assessment results should be shared with parents as part of an ongoing process that involves parents in their children’s education.

• Assessments should be equitable, inclusive and fair, supporting all students.

Thus, technical issues are important to consider for all assessments, including those that occur each day in the classroom. Assessment needs to take account of the diverse needs of students, to be equitable with regard to gender, disability, background language and socio-economic status and not discriminate on grounds that are irrelevant to learning.

• Assessment should be explicit and fair

Prior to undertaking any assessment task, students should be clearly informed on the purpose and requirements of the task and should be provided with the specific assessment criteria that should be used for marking it. Feedback to students should be related to the stated learning objectives and specific assessment criteria. Clear information on the policies and processes relating to assessment should be easily available to all involved in the assessment process.

• Assessment should be an integral part of teaching and learning

Assessments should arise naturally out of the teaching and intended learning of the curriculum. 

They should be carefully constructed to enable judgments to be made about students’ progress in ways that contribute to ongoing learning.

Teachers need to consider planning for assessment as well as planning for teaching. This preparation should include planning how they will draw on their own observations and planning for summative assessments. 

Teachers also need to consider how they will refine their teaching programs based on the information they collect.

• Assessment should lead to informative reporting

Reporting happens at the end of a teaching cycle and should provide an  accurate summary of the formative and summative assessment information collected for each student. The purpose of reporting is to provide feedback to students, parents, and teachers. The information is also valuable for school and system-wide planning.

 It is important that, in addition to providing an accurate summary of student performance, the judgements of student achievement are reliable.

• Assessment should lead to school-wide evaluation processes

Highly effective schools pay particular attention to teachers’ qualitative and quantitative data and standardized test data. Teachers and school leaders need to understand current and past student achievement levels, be explicit about targets for improvement and about how progress towards those targets will be monitored. School leaders need to plan for how they will evaluate the effectiveness of school initiatives and programs. Teachers should plan for how they will reflect on and evaluate their teaching practices. This implies that schools and teachers need to be willing to identify and evaluate both the intended and unintended consequences of any initiative or program.

Application Activity 2.3

Take a copy of Year One end-year exam (subject: FOE), analyze it and say if the one who set it respected the principles of assessment. If you were asked to set it, what do you think you could have done differently?

2.4. Assessment tools

Activity 2.4

Based on your experience since primary school, demonstrate the ways

teachers used to assess your learning.

2.4.1. Interview

Interview consists of a series of well-chosen questions that are designed to elicit a portrait of a student’s understanding about different concepts/topics.

The interview may be videotaped or audiotaped for later analysis.

During a structured interview, the student may be asked to use their own words to explain an idea but is typically required to go beyond simple recognition of a concept to construct a detailed personal explanation. Generally, the student is also asked to use that concept to solve a problem or other application task.

Additional questions may be added in response to the answers given. It is this freedom to follow the interviewee, to ask for clarifications, and to focus on errors, misconceptions, and gaps in knowledge, that makes the interview so much more fruitful.

The interview should begin with a focus question that requires application of the concept to be investigated without forcing the student into an explicit definition. Specific definitions of the concept, if needed, should be sought only after understanding the student’s response to the focusing question. It is important for the interviewer to wait some seconds after each prompt before trying to interpret the question or ask another.

Purpose of interview

•  To investigate how well one understands and can apply a concept;
• To identify gaps in understanding that may be common among students;
• To document the general and content-specific procedures that students employ in application tasks and the sequences and way processes are employed;
•  To document how student understanding and problem-solving skills change over time or with instruction;
•  To obtain verbal feedback from students about course structure, teaching techniques, and other aspects of the course or program of instruction.

2.4.2. Portfolios

Student portfolios are a collection of evidence to demonstrate mastery, comprehension, application, and synthesis of a given set of concepts. The evidence can be presented in a three-ring binder, a multimedia tour, or a series of short papers. A unique aspect of a successful portfolio is that it also contains explicit statements of self-reflection. Statements accompanying each item describe how the student went about mastering the material, why the presented piece of evidence demonstrates mastery, and why mastery of such material is relevant to contexts outside the classroom.

The overall goal of the preparation of a portfolio is for the learner to demonstrate and provide evidence that he or she has mastered a given set of learning objectives. More than just thick folders containing student work, portfolios are typically personalized, long-term representations of a student’s own efforts and achievements. Whereas multiple-choice tests are designed to determine whatthe student doesn’t know, portfolio assessments emphasize what the student does know.

2.4.3. Rubrics

Rubrics are a way of describing evaluation criteria based on the expected outcomes and performances of students. Typically, rubrics are used in scoring or grading written assignments or oral presentations. They may be used, however, to score any form of student performance. Each rubric consists of a set of scoring criteria and point values associated with these criteria. In most rubrics, the criteria are grouped into categories so the instructor and the student can discriminate among the categories by level of performance.

Purpose of rubrics

• To improve the reliability of scoring written assignments and oral presentations;
• To convey goals and performance expectations of students in an unambiguous way;
• To convey grading standards or point values and relate them to performance goals;
• To engage students in critical evaluation of their own performance.

2.4.4. Observation

Teachers have always watched and observed students in the classroom, and they have made instructional decisions based on these observations. Observations can take place in a variety of settings. They can focus on student performance, attitude and value during a single activity or during routine classroom activities.

After deciding what to observe, when to observe, and how often to observe, teachers will need to plan how to record their observations. Observations which go unrecorded in some way will not be as easily defensible to students, parents, and administrators, and may be forgotten over time.

2.4.5. Checklist

A checklist is a tool for identifying the presence or absence of conceptual knowledge, skills, or behaviours. 

Checklists are used for identifying whether key tasks in a procedure, process, or activity have been completed. 

The tasks may be a sequence of steps or include items to verify that the correct sequence was followed.

 Teachers may need to observe the tasks being followed because, in general, they cannot judge what tasks the learner did from the end product. Achecklist may also be given to students to follow in completing a procedure (e.g., in a lab). 

A checklist enumerates task descriptions in one column and provides a space beside each item in a second column to check off the completion of the task.

Characteristics of checklists

• Have criteria for success based on expected outcomes
• Be short enough to be practical (e.g., one sheet of paper)
• Have tasks chunked into logical sections or flow from start to finish
•  Highlight critical tasks
• Have sign-off points that prevent students from proceeding without approval, if needed
• Be written with clear, detailed wording to minimize the risk of misinterpretation
• Have space for other information such as the student’s name, date, course, examiner, and overall result
• Be reviewed by other instructors

Example of a checklist

•  Expected learning outcome: The student will write instruction objective that has a measurable action verb at the highest appropriate level given a “verb-level” list.
• Criteria for success: All questions must be answered “Yes”.

2.4.6. Project work

Project work is a product which requires a learner to plan, carry out, and make

a project presentation which is then assessed by the teacher or by peers.

2.4.7. Questioning

• Oral questioning: a process which requires a learner to respond verbally to questions.
• Class exercise: tasks that are given during the learning/ teaching process.
• Quiz: short and informal questions usually asked during a lesson.
• Homework and assignments: tasks assigned to learners by their teachers to be completed outside of class. Common homework assignments may include a quantity or period of reading to be performed, writing, problems to be solved, a school project to be built (display), or other skills to be practiced.

Qualities of good questions

Good question items should be:

•  Clear, simple and straight forward,
• Short and precise,
• Free of bias,
• Readable,
• Original,
• Indicate marks for each question
• Follow order of difficulty (Blooms)
• Contain a variety of verbs

2.4.8. Rating scales

A rating scale is a tool used for assessing the performance of tasks, skill levels, procedures, processes, qualities,

 quantities, or end products, such as reports, drawings, and computer programs. Rating scales are like checklists

except that they indicate the degree of accomplishment rather than just yes or no. Rating scales list performance statements in one column and the range of accomplishment in descriptive words, with or without numbers, in other

columns. These other columns form “the scale” and can indicate a range of achievement, such as from poor to excellent, never to always, beginning to exemplary, or strongly disagree to strongly agree.

Characteristics of rating scales

•  Have criteria for success based on expected outcomes
•  Be clearly defined, detailed
•  Have statements that are cut into logical sections or flow sequentially
• Include clear wording with numbers when a number scale is used as an example, when the performance statement describes a behaviour or quality, 1 = poor through to 5 = excellent is better than 1 = lowest through to 5 = highest or simply 1 through 5.
• Have specific, clearly distinguishable terms
• Be short enough to be practical
• Highlight critical tasks or skills
•  Indicate levels of success required before proceeding further, if applicable
• Sometimes have a column or space for providing additional feedback
• Have space for other information such as the student’s name, date, course, examiner, and overall result
• Be reviewed by other instructors

Examples of rating scales

• Rating scale example 1: Tools handling assessment

• Expected learning outcome: The student will select the proper tool for each task and use it skilfully and safely.
•  Criteria for success: all skills must be performance “Average” or better

• Rating scale example 2: Presentation

•  Excepted learning outcome: The students will give a presentation of their group work
• Criteria for success: only one item is rated less than “slightly agree”

2.4.9. Exhibition/ demonstration

In education, the term exhibition refers to projects, presentations, or products through which students “exhibit” what they have learned, usually as a way of demonstrating whether and to what degree they have achieved expected learning standards or learning objectives. An exhibition is typically both a learning experience in itself and a means of evaluating academic progress and achievement.

Defining exhibition is complicated by the fact that educators use many different terms when referring to the general concept, and the terms may or may not be used synonymously from place to place. For example, the terms capstone

exhibition, culminating exhibition, learning exhibition, exhibition of learning, performance exhibition, senior exhibition,

 or student exhibition may be used, in addition to capstone, capstone experience, capstone project, demonstration

of learning, performance demonstration, and many others. Educators may also create any number of home-grown terms for exhibitions.

In contrast to worksheets, quizzes, tests, and other more traditional approaches to assessment, 

an exhibition may take a wide variety of forms in schools:

• Oral presentations, speeches, or spoken-word poems
•  Video documentaries, multimedia presentations, audio recordings, or podcasts
•  Works of art, illustration, music, drama, dance, or performance
•  Print or online publications, including websites or blogs
• Essays, poems, short stories, or plays
• Galleries of print or digital photography
• Scientific experiments, studies, and reports
• Physical products such as a models, sculptures, dioramas, musical instruments, or robots

2.4.10. Learning journal

Learning journal is a collection of notes, observations, thoughts and other relevant materials built-up over a period of time and may be a result of a period of study/learning. Its purpose is to enhance your learning through the process of writing and thinking about your learning experience. Why to use it?

We use learning journal to cater for the following:

•  To demonstrate how your learning is developing,
• To help to identify your strengths and weaknesses for improvement of preferences in learning.
• To help you to be reflective about your learning.

Learning journal is also called:

•  Learning log
•  Personal development plan (PDP)
• Field work diary

It should be a notebook. In learning journal, learners should set targets when they are in reflection.

Application Activity 2.4

Create a checklist to assess reading ability for a P4 child.

2.5. Paper setting

Create a checklist to assess reading ability for a P4 child.

2.5. Paper setting

Activity 2.5

Discuss the main points that a teacher should consider before and when setting questions for examination.

2.5.1 Considerations in preparing tests

Teachers need to build skills in developing exams that are fair, reliable, and valid. 

The following kinds of considerations are important in developing or preparing exams.

•  Selecting specific areas of the curriculum

Exams are samples of behaviours. When skills are being assessed, all components of the domains should be selected and assessed. When more complex domains are assessed, teachers should concentrate on the more important facts or relationship and avoid the trivial.

• Writing relevant questions

Teachers must select and use enough questions to allow valid inferences about students’ mastery of short-term and long-term goals, and attainment of state standards. Fairness demands that the way in which the question is asked be familiar and expected by the student.

•  Organizing and sequencing items

The organization of exams is a function of many factors. When teachers want a student to complete all the items and to indicate mastery of content, it is best to combine easy and difficult items. When the desire is to measure automaticity or the number of items that can be completed within a specific time period, it is best to organize from easy to difficult. Pages of exam questions should not be in disorder.

• Developing formats for presentation and response modes

Different response formats can be used within the same exams, although it is generationally a good idea to group together questions with the same format.

Regardless of the format used, the primary consideration is that the exam questions be a fair sample of the material being assessed.

• Writing directions for administration

The directions indicate clearly what a student must do (eg: circle the correct option). 

Also, teachers explain what, if any, materials may be used by students, any time limits, any unusual scoring procedures (eg: penalty for guessing).

• Developing systematic procedures for scoring responses

Teachers should have pre-determined and systematic criteria for scoring responses. However, if a teacher discovers an error or omission in criteria, the criteria should be modified. Obviously, previously scored responses must be

rescored with the revised criteria.

• Establishing criteria to interpret student performance

Teachers should specify in advance the criteria they will use for assigning grades or weighting assignments. In either case, they must specify what it takes to earn certain grades or how assignments will be evaluated and weighted.

2.5.2. Response formats

Activity 2.5.2

Consider the given questions below. Identify the characteristics for

each section.

FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION EXAM

YEAR 2, ALL OPTIONS

Section I: Circle the correct answer

1. Educational psychologists attempt to discover except:

      a. The extent to which the factors of heredity and environment contribute to learning.

      b. The nature of the learning process

      c. The organism that live in aquatic environment only

      d. The nature of the child

2. The following are challenges facing Rwandan education system except

       a. Increasing access to all levels of education

       b. Improving quality of education

       c. Increasing number of computers in TTC RUBENGERA only

      d. Improving the relevance of education and addressing the labor market demand

3. The following are challenges facing Rwandan education system except

      a. Increasing access to all levels of education

      b. Improving quality of education

      c. Increasing number of computers in TTC RUBENGERA only

      d. Improving the relevance of education and addressing the labor market demand

4. One of the following shows the elements of didactic triangle

        a. Learner, learner and leaner

        b. Learner facilitator and the fascinator

       c. Learner, the knowledge and the teacher

       d. Teacher, and the content

5. The field of psychology that studies physical, perceptual, cognitive, and

psychosocial changes across the life span is known as _______ psychology.

      a. Cognitive

     b. Evolutionary

     c. Developmental

    d. Clinical

6. The prenatal period that lasts from conception through the second week is the:

    a. Embryonic stage

    b. Foetal stage

   c. Germinal stage

   d. Teratogen stage

Section 2: Read the following statement and show if they are right or wrong by only writing TRUE or FALSE for each.

1. Educational psychology is not a science …………………………………

2. Educational psychology is like normative science………………………

3. Motivation in the classroom is not related to Maslow hierarchy of needs ………………

4. Encoding is the process by which sensory information gets into memory……………….

5. Intelligence is defined as the capacity to understand the world, think

rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges or new situation……………………

Section 3: Fill in with an appropriate type of assessment

1. …………………………..is done before learning to find out what learners

already know and can do, and to check whether the learners are at the same level.

2. ……………………………..are designed or selected at the districts level or

national level to audit or monitor learning.

3. ………………………………..is daily monitoring of learning to provide ongoing

feedback that teachers can use to improve their teaching and learners use to improve their acquisition of competences.

4. ………………………..measures a child’s performance against a predetermined set of criteria.

5. ……………………………….are used to evaluate learner learning, skill acquisition, and academic achievement at the conclusion of a defined instructional period, such as the end of unit, term, school year or cycle.

Section 4: Match the type of learning to its meaning

Section 5: Attempt all questions

1.    After you have defined learning, discuss any 4 internal psychological factors influencing it and respectively give two  

        pedagogical conclusions for each.

2.     Second to the definition, make a concept map of memory process.

3.    Discuss SQ3R as a technique that help you to improve your memory.

A) Selection formats

Three types of selection formats are commonly used: multiple- choice, matching and true- false.

•  Multiple-choice questions

Multiple-choice tests usually consist of a question or statement to which you respond by selecting the best answer from among a number of choices. Multiplechoice tests typically test what you know, whether or not you understand (comprehension), and your ability to apply what you have learned (application).

Multiple –choice questions are the most difficult to prepare. These questions have two parts: a (1) stem that contains the questions and (2) a response set that contains both correct answer, termed the keyed response; and one or more incorrect options, termed distractors.

In preparing multiple-choice questions, teachers should generally follow these guidelines:

• Keep the response options short and of approximately equal length. To eliminate length as a clue, the relative length of the correct answer is varied.
•  Keep material that is common to all options in the stem.
•  Avoid grammatical tip-off. All alternatives are grammatically consistent with the stem and parallel in form.
•  Avoid implausible options. The distractors are reasonable and attractive to the uninformed.
•  The stem of the item presents a single, clearly formulated problem.
•  The stem is stated in simple, clear language.
•  The stem is worded so that there is no repetition of material in the alternatives.
•  The stem is stated in positive form wherever possible.
•  If negative wording is used in the stem, it is emphasized in bold or by underlining.
• The intended answer is correct or clearly best.
•  The alternatives are free from verbal clues to the correct answer.
• The alternative “all of the above” or “none of the above” are used only when appropriate.
• Avoid options that indicate multiple correct options. Make sure that one and only one option is incorrect.
•  Avoid interdependent questions. Generally, it is bad practice to make the selection of the correct option dependent on getting a prior question correct.
•  Avoid similar options. Students who can eliminate one of the two similar options can readily dismiss the other one.
•  Make sure that one question does not provide information that can be used to answer another question.
•  Avoid using the same words and examples that were used in the students’ texts or in class presentations.
•  Vary the position of the correct response in the options.

When appropriate, teachers can make multiple-choice questions more challenging by asking students to recognize an instance of a rule or concept, by requiring students to recall and use material that is not present in the question, or by increasing the number of options.

• Matching questions

Matching questions are a variant of multiple-choice questions in which a set of stems is simultaneously associated with a set of options. The content of matching questions is limited to simple factual associations. Teachers usually prepare matching questions so that there are as many options as stems, and options can be associated only once with a stem in the set.

The following are the guidelines to be considered when setting matching questions:

• Each set of matching items should have some dimensions in common.
• Keep the length of the stems approximately the same, and keep the length and grammar used in the options equivalent.
• Make sure that one and only one option is incorrect for each stem.
•  Vary the sequence of correct responses when more than one matching question is asked.
•  Avoid using the same words and examples that were used in the students’ texts or in class presentations.
•  The items are based on homogeneous material.
• The instructions clearly state the basis for matching and that each response can be used once, more than once, or not at all.

Matching questions are presented in two columns. Stems should be placed on the left and options on the right. 

Moreover, all the elements of the questions should be kept on one page. Finally, teachers often allow students to draw lines to connect questions and options. To complete a matching assessment activity, students must select one item from each of two columns. The two items must fit together correctly based on the assessment directions.

• True-false questions

True-false questions contain statements that the student marks as being either

true or false. The utility of True- false lies primarily in assessing knowledge of

factual information. Below, are suggestions to be followed by a teacher who

chooses this format:

-- Avoid specific determiners such as “all”, “ever”, “always” and so one.

-- Avoid sweeping generalization. Such statements tend to be true, but

students can often think of minor exceptions.

-- Avoid complicated sentences. Exam should assess knowledge of content,

not a student’s ability to comprehend difficult prose. The statement is

brief and stated in simple, clear language.

• Keep true and false statements approximately the same length.
• Balance true and false statements. There is approximately an equal number of true and false statements.
•  Negative statements are used carefully and double negatives are avoided.
• The statements are free of clues to the answer (e.g. verbal clues, length).
• The true and false items are arranged in random order.

B) Supply formats

In supply formats we distinguish: fill-in questions, short- answer questions and essay questions. 

Teachers should prepare criteria for a correct response at the time they prepare the question.

• Fill-in questions

Fill-in-the-blank items, also known as completion questions, provide students with a partial sentence or question and then require them to write the word (or words) in the blank that best completes the statement or question. 

Fill-in-theblank and short-answer questions test learners’ ability to recollect facts they have learned.

Fill-ins are useful in assessing knowledge and comprehension objectives; they are not useful in assessing application, analysis, synthesis, or evaluation objectives. 

Teachers preparing fill-in questions should follow these guidelines:

•  Keep each sentence short.
•  If a two-word answer is required, teacher should use two blanks to indicate this in the sentences.
•  Avoid sentences with multiple blanks.
•  Keep the size of all blanks consistent and large enough to accommodate reality the longest answer.
• Clues to the answer have been avoided (e.g. “a” or “an”, length of the blank)

• Short-Answer questions

Short-answer questions or statements are like essay questions or open-ended questions, except they can be answered with just a few words or sentences. They test foundational knowledge which is usually factual.

 They require students to create an answer. When completing short-answer questions, it’s important

to pay attention to the directive words in each item. They are commonly used in examinations to assess the basic knowledge and understanding of a topic before more in-depth assessment questions are asked on the topic.

Some guidelines for setting short-answer questions.

• The item calls for a single, brief answer
• The item has been written as a direct question or a well-stated incomplete sentence
• The desired response is related to the main point of the item
• The units and degree of precision is indicated for numerical answers.

When using short answer questions to test student knowledge of definitions consider having a mix of questions,

 some that supply the term and require the students to provide the definition, and other questions that supply the definition and require that students provide the term. The latter sort of questions can be structured as fill-in-the-blank questions.

• Extended responses

Extended questions are also known as essay questions. Essay questions require students to write answers to statements or questions. To complete a successful essay exam, students need to be able to recall relevant information and to organize it in a clear way, generating a thesis and building to a conclusion.

Teachers give essay questions to determine whether or not students can make connections among various ideas, apply course information to new situations, and demonstrate that they have made the information their own.

Essay questions are most useful in assessing comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation objectives. To avoid subjectivity and inconsistency in essay questions, teachers should use a scoring key that assigns 49 specific point values for each element in ideal or criterion answer. 

Teachers should always be very precise in the directions or instructions that they give so that students will not have to guess what responses their teachers will credit.

Questions starting with “who”, “what”, “when”, “where”, “name”, “list” are avoided as these terms limit the response. Questions demanding higher order skills, such as those indicated in the following table are characterised as essay questions.

Note: Special considerations in assessing students with disabilities

When setting papers, teachers must pay attention to individual differences

among students, particularly to disabilities that might interfere with

performance. The following examples clarify this issue:

•  Students who have skill deficits in remembering things for short periods of time may need multiple-choice tests with fewer distractors.
• Students who have difficulty with the organization of visually presented material may need to have matching questions rewritten as multiplechoice questions.
•  Students who write very slowly can be expected to have difficulty with essay questions, they will need much more time than other.

The above examples show clearly that teachers should make sure that they have included the adaptation and accommodations required depending on the student special needs.

Teachers should remember that it is important to assess the skills that students have, not the effects of disability conditions.

2.5.3. Setting tasks for formative and summative assessment

Activity 2.5.3

Revise the Bloom taxonomy seen in Year One and indicate at which level

you can classify the following questions:

•  Define assessment.
•  Explain the difference between formative assessment and summative assessment.
•  Set questions for end-lesson assessment on prepositions in P1.
• Between multiple-choice questions and essay questions, which ones do you think are easy to answer? Explain
• Compare and contrast knowledge-based assessment and competence-based assessment.

a) Definition

Tasks are activities designed in the learning environment by the teacher in order to enable learners to develop and display their knowledge and understanding, and demonstrate the acquired skills, competences, attitudes and values.

b) Development of tasks: Use observable action verbs consistent with the level of learning expected, considering all the low, medium and higher order thinking skills and competences.

Examples of verbs used in setting tasks and criteria:

•  Low order (knowledge and understanding): define, name, list, identify, label, match, outline. 

Eg: Label the parts of the flower indicated on the drawing provided.

•  Medium Order: explain, describe, examine, classify, express, summarize, compute, relate, show, solve, use. Eg: Using a lens, examine the specimen provided and describe its external features.
•  Higher order: compare, analyze, illustrate, differentiate, compose, construct, design, formulate, evaluate, justify, and interpret.

Example:

•  Compare and contrast education system of Rwanda before and after 1994.
• You are provided with a dissection kit and a dead rat, dissect the rat longitudinally and draw what you see.  Label the drawing with the function of each part.

c) Setting integration situations for summative assessment

Integration Situations are a tool that teachers and schools should use to evaluate learners’ acquisition of competences at every level according to the National Assessment Standards.

The integration situation helps to highlight difficulties the learner has encountered while learning, as well as areas of strength and weakness, which the teacher can use to enhance methodology and tools (how to accomplish the tasks). 

No new knowledge, skills, attitudes or values should be introduced during the Integration Situations. 

It deals with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values already acquired during the learning process (during the lessons).

Characteristics of Integration Situations

•  The Integration Situation utilizes acquired content and competences and not any new content.
•  The Integration Situation is task-oriented and significant. It is based on learners’ everyday life context or for continuation of her/his study, social and professional goals. It is not limited to the school life.
• The Integration Situation refers to the problems that are specific to a given subject or a set of subjects whose parameters are specified.

Components of the integration situation

•  The Context/Content of the situation: a set of materials available like the basic content which will help the learner accomplish the task and the context in which the task has to be performed
• The Task: The clear description of what the learner is expected to do in her/his Integration Situation.
•  Instructions: A set of essential ideas to clearly guide the learner in accomplishing his/her task.
•  Marking Rubric: A clear guideline of expected results for the given task.

Examples of integration situation

Example 1

An ECD week is being organized by key Ministries in collaboration with International and local Organizations working in ECD area. The launch will take place in one of the rural Districts. As an ECD expert you have been selected as one of the speakers during the launch and as a key resource person during the preparation of the launch. Your speech will focus on two main points: Benefits of ECD programs and the role of parents in early learning in a rural area. As part of the preparation of your speech:

   a) Give 7 key messages on benefits of ECD programs (home-based and/or school based)

   b) Give 4 convincing examples highlighting the parental support in early learning in both formal and informal settings.

   c) Give names of 3 Ministries involved in organization of the ECD week.

Explain briefly the roles and responsibilities of each Ministry in the implementation of ECD policy. (9 marks)

Example 2

The local leaders in Gakenke District in Northern Province are very concerned with the increasing occurrence of landslides, deep gullies that are now common in the area, flooding in valleys and destruction of crops and property. 

The land officers in the district are worried about the nature of land that is made up of unconsolidated (loose) soils.

 The district has had a number of intervention measures that include: afforestation, reforestation, and promoting better

methods of farming. However, the problem is still worrying. The relief or nature of the landscape is described by steep slopes associated with scars left behind by numerous landslides during the rainy season. While other parts of the district

have gentle sloping areas that are appreciated for having stable soil conditions.

Local leaders have embarked on an environmental conservation campaign at the grass root level or in all villages.

 This has called for the training of the village representatives on the importance of environmental conservation.

The community leaders of your village (Umudugudu) have nominated or selected you to be part of the trainers at the district level.

1. Suppose the district land officer asks you to address the trainees:

a) Prepare how practically you would address the problem of landslides, severe soil erosion and flooding in your village.

b) Address one of the participants who asks the following question: “I planted trees but recently the whole land was affected by land slide.”

2. In spite of the hard work and serious land conservation measures the district has used, still landslides are common as per the case study above.

a) Referring to the short story entitled “Save our mother Earth” how would you advise the land office of Gakenke District on how practically it is possible to solve the environmental concerns in the district.

b) Show how you would creatively use local available resources to assist local farmers to conserve natural resources.

2.5.4. Designing a marking scheme

Whether you are marking exam answers or students’ assignments, the time spent making, a good marking scheme can save you hours when it comes to marking a pile of scripts. It can also help you to know (and show) that you are doing everything possible to be uniformly fair to all students. As you may be required to show your model answers to some people including external examiners and quality reviewers, it is important to design schemes in the first place so that they will stand up to such analysis.

The following suggestions should help:

• Write a model answer for each question, if the subject matter permits. This can be a useful first step towards identifying the markbearing ingredients of a good answer. If you have difficulties answering the questions, the chances are that your students will too! Making model answers and marking schemes for coursework assignments can give you good practice for writing exam schemes.
•  Make each decision as straightforward as possible. Try to allocate each mark so that it is associated with something that is either present or absent, or right or wrong, in students’ answers.
• Aim to make your marking scheme usable by a non-expert in the subject. This can help your marking scheme be useful resources for students themselves, perhaps in next year’s programme.
• Aim to make it so that anyone can mark given answers, and agree on the scores within a mark or two. It is best to involve colleagues in your piloting of first-draft marking schemes. They will soon help you to identify areas where the marking criteria may need clarifying or tightening up.
• Allow for ‘consequential’ marks. For example, when a candidate makes an early mistake, but then proceeds correctly thereafter (especially in problems and calculations), allow for some marks to be given for the ensuing correct steps even when the final answer is quite wrong.
• Pilot your marking scheme by showing it to others. It’s worth even showing marking schemes to people who are not closely associated with your subject area. If they can’t see exactly what you’re looking for, it may be that the scheme is not yet sufficiently self-explanatory. Extra detail you add at this stage may help you to clarify your own thinking, and will certainly assist fellow markers.
•  Look at what others have done in the past. If it’s your first time writing a marking scheme, looking at other people’s ways of doing them will help you to focus your efforts.
•  Learn from your own mistakes. No marking scheme is perfect. When you start applying it to a pile of scripts, you will soon start adjusting it. Keep a note of any difficulties you experience in adhering to your scheme and take account of these next time you have to make one.

2.5.5. Administration role during examination

The administration has a great role in making assessment effective. Below are enumerate some of its attributions:

• Preparing rooms for examinations
• Sitting arrangements (Creating seating plans)
• To provide a lead invigilation service including the provision of support and guidance to other invigilators including the invigilation of examinations.
•  Setting invigilation timetable
• Ensure copies are available in required quantities
• To maintain student files to agreed standards within the record management procedures.
• To record notifications of student absence and maintain the student absence reporting system.
•  Creating examination entries
• Updating notice boards
• Assisting students with queries
• Packing examination scripts

Application Activity 2.5

Depending on your option, choose any topic from the pre-primary or primary syllabus, read the content material for that topic, set 10 questions to assess that topic and then set a marking scheme.

Tips for doing that activity successfully:

• Respect revised Bloom Taxonomy when setting questions.
• Consider the pupils’ age
• Vary formats of questions.

2.6. Marking, records keeping and results analysis

Activity 2.6

Question1

Read the following scenario and answer the question that follows:

Butera and Dusenge teach P3. Butera teaches P3 A and Dusenge teaches

P3 B. By the end of the unit, they give assessment that covers the whole unit.

When marking Butera marks one by one question for all copies. Dusenge

marks one copy, when he finishes marking all questions, he takes another copy.

── Between Butera and Dusenge, who do you think has good practice of marking? Why?

── What do you think both teachers have done before, to make marking effective?

Questions 2

Both teachers record marks after marking. Below, there are their marks records sheets.

Questions 2

Both teachers record marks after marking. Below, there are their marks records sheets.

2.6.1 Marking

Marking is defined as the process of judging the correctness of a student’s academic work based on a specified criterion.

Marking should be always conducted in such a way as to ensure validity of result. Marking schemes should be well elaborated so that teachers mark in similar ways and learner results can be comparable.

Guiding principles for effective marking

• Timely Feedback: Students need timely feedback. If feedback is not given within a couple of days the meaning and value is lost.
•  Specific: The commonly used phrase “Great work” is not particularly powerful in providing constructive and purposeful feedback to students. Try to give feedback that is pointed and personal. For example “Good imagery at the beginning of your story. Try to keep that imagery throughout” or “Remember capital letters for every sentence start.”
•  Positive and constructive: Positive reinforcement is far more motivating for students than a list of errors. Always try to find a point of praise when recording feedback. It is important to provide some point of constructive feedback to inform future work.
• Student reflection: Students should always reflect on their work. Intrinsic motivation is far more effective than extrinsic and personal motivation for improvement is vital for student progress. Once you have marked student work provide time in the subsequent lesson for students to look over your feedback and provide their own personal reflection.

Factors that influence subjectivity in marking

The following are common factors that may interfere with the attribution of marks during the marking process:

•  Stereotypes effect: Marker (examiner) maintains a constant judgment on students’ activities despite progress that he/she has made.
•  Hallo effect: This is when the marker is influenced by the way the candidate has presented his/her work.( handwriting, spelling) or information he/ she has about the candidate’s background.
• Contrast effect: Examiner is influenced by the quality of the previous work. Eg: a good work following an excellent one will appear as mediocre compared to the previous one.
•  Pygmalion effect: The work of candidate, who is well known, will be marked not according to its content but instead according to the way the candidate is treated.
•  Assimilation effect: There is tendency that examiner attribute high marks to the brilliant students though their work deserved less marks.
•  Relativation effect: The value (quality) of a given work is judged according to the set or group of work in which it is located.
•  Central tendency effect: Examiners tend to take a middle position when attributing marks to students’ work as they fear to over or under evaluate them.
• Contamination effect: The marks attributed successively to different aspects of a work influence one another.

Some tips to reduce subjectivity

• To reduce contamination effect you may mark one question for all copies until all questions are finished.
• Hallo effect and contrast effect should be reduced by marking without consulting the name of the candidate and marks attributed to previous work. Changing the order in marking, mixing copies and anonymous marking are other strategies.
• Marking anonymously help teachers to be objective in marking. If the teacher knows the identity of the student, his overall impressions of that student's work will inevitably influence the scoring of the test. The teacher can fold the part of the paper to make student’s names not visible or ask students to use their student identification numbers rather than their names.
•  Ensure a marking rubric is well elaborated before marking especially for essay questions. Marking rubrics, or grids, is a typical way to do avoid subjectivity during marking. Having received the criteria with an assignment, students are able to answer toward specific goals. Later, when they look at their grades, they can see at a glance the strengths and weaknesses of their work.
• Segment your marking session into more manageable chunks of time to avoid marking when you are tired, bored, or frustrated.

Marking criteria

A detailed set of Marking Criteria must be submitted with each paper. A satisfactory set of marking criteria would allow:

• Someone other than the setter to mark the students’ answers fairly,
• Teachers in future years to see what was required as an answer to that question, and
• The external examiners to confirm the cognitive level required by the assessment.

These marking criteria will normally include:

•  Model solutions to problems, annotated with how many marks are to be awarded for each stage.
•  Marking schemes for essays indicating how marks are to be awarded.
•  Within a question, marks must be allocated according to the mark distribution indicated on the question paper and the approved marking criteria.

•  The marker must use a pen (not a pencil) which writes in red or green ink.
•  Unless annotation within the text of an answer is unavoidable, the marker should write only within the margins of the answer sheet.
• Marks for individual parts of the question should be written in the outer margin. The total mark for the question, ringed for ease of identification, should be written in the outer margin at the end of the answer. The total mark should be copied into the mark table on the front of the answer book and into the module mark sheet.
• Half-marks may be allocated to component parts of questions but the total mark for each question must be rounded to a number. In all cases, the final mark for the examination script must be returned as a numeral percentage. To facilitate checking, marks must not be indicated by ‘+/−’ symbols, or any other cryptic notation.
• The marker must inspect all rough work (generally at the back of the answer book) for material which deserves credit. If the mark table on the front page includes marks derived from rough work, this should be indicated by a note next to the mark table.
•  Each page that has been considered by the marker (including all rough work) must have some indication to this effect. If a page attracts no mark or comment, the marker should put a line down the outer margin to indicate that the page has been seen.
• For the benefit of external examiners and checkers, in cases where the rationale for allocation of an individual mark may not be self-evident, the marker should provide an explanatory note in the outer margin.
•  All answers submitted by a candidate must be marked. If the candidate has answered more questions than indicated by the examination rubric, the marks from one or more questions must be disregarded in order to obtain the appropriate number of question marks.

2.6.2. Record keeping

This is gathering evidence from assessments and using them to judge the learner’s performance by assigning an indicator against the set criteria or standard.

Purposes of recording

•  Tracking each learner’s performance and for remedial actions.
•  Evaluating the extent to which learners’ progress matches their potential.
•  Providing learners with feedback about their performance and guidance as to how to improve.
• Informing strategic planning of teaching and learning.
•  Informing parents about the learning progress of their children and give advice accordingly.

What to record and when to record?

Frequency of a particular behaviour or a particular competence may be recorded for the duration of a lesson, or for a set time of period within a lesson or within the learning unit. At times the teacher may need to record the learner’s response for the teacher to analyse these responses to redirect future instruction. At times anecdotal comments which refer to written notes describing events or incidents that occur about the learner’s behaviour might be helpful.

Methods and formats of recording

For informal assessment of generic competencies, attitude and values, either a simple check list method or a rating scale or grade or both can be used to show the extent to which a learner has achieved a task against the set criteria.

2.6.3. Assessment results analysis and strategies

The assessment results need to be analyzed to learn whether or not, the criteria on the student learning outcomes were met. To give meaning to the information that has been collected, it needs to be analyzed for context, understanding, and to draw conclusions. This step gives the information meaning; it is essential to effectively communicate and utilize the assessment results.

Analyzing assessment results includes determining how to organize, synthesize, interrelate, compare, and present the assessment results. These decisions are guided by what assessment questions are asked, the types of data that are available, as well as the needs and wants of the audience/stakeholders. Since information may be able to be interpreted in various ways, it may be insightful to involve others in reviewing the results.

Assessment results can be compared to findings from previous assessments, baseline data, existing criteria/standards, etc.

Assessment results analysis can be done quantitatively or qualitatively.

Quantitative analysis: Assessment results are measured numerically (counts, scores, percentages, etc.) are most often summarized using simple charts, graphs, tables, and descriptive statistics- mean, median, mode, percentage, etc.

Qualitative analysis: Assessment results focus on words and descriptions and produce verbal or narrative data. Descriptions or words are more difficult to quickly summarize and present.

Once an appropriate analysis technique is applied to the assessment results, the next step entails making decisions based on those results.

By taking decisions, consider the extent to which your findings can help you answer the following questions:

• What does the data say about students’ mastery of subject matter, research skills, or writing?
•  What does the data say about your students’ preparation for taking the next step in their careers?
•  Are there areas where your students are outstanding?
• Do you see weakness in any particular skills, such as research or critical thinking skills?
•  Are there any student who needs remedial activities?
• Etc

Application Activity 2.6

1. Did you have some issues about how your works were marked by teachers in primary or O’ level? 

   If yes what was the issue and how can you avoid that once appointed as a teacher?

2. If you return to your former schools, do you think you can find your assessment results? Explain.

2.7. Providing feedback

Activity 2.7

Did your teachers show you your results after quiz or exam? What did your teacher write on your copy? Did they tell you anything? Were you interested in the feedback given? Why? Are you the only one to see your results?

2.7.1. What is feedback?

Feedback can be defined as any comment or reflection (written or oral) provided by others (i.e. teachers, peers) on learners’ work so they are given opportunities to improve. Although teachers are most often the ones who provide feedback to learners, peers can also be excellent sources of feedback. Feedback can be given in different forms or ways. It can be in the form of oral, written, or facial expression or gesture (clapping etc).

2.7.2. Purposes of feedback

The main purposes of feedback are to:

• clarify what good performance is (goals, criteria, expected standards),
• facilitate the development of self-assessment (reflection) in learning,
• deliver high quality information to learners about their learning,
• encourage teacher and peer dialogue around learning,
•  encourage positive motivational beliefs and self-esteem,
•  provide opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance,
• provide information to teachers that can be used to help shape teaching,
•  help students understand the subject being studied and gives them clear guidance on how to improve their learning.

2.7.3. Giving and receiving feedback

Giving constructive feedback in the form of verbal or written comments is a vital aspect of ongoing classroom assessment. Feedback can be provided in a range of situations: from an instant, informal reply to a more formally planned review. While giving oral feedback, the teacher should:

• Emphasize the positive. Always give specific feedback on what a learner has done well.
• Appreciate what has been achieved and be clear about exactly what needs to be improved next and how.
• Seek learners’ views and value their contribution. This will help them to get better at assessing their own work, which is vital to them to become independent learners.
•  Invite the learner to comment on what the teacher does as well. Feedback is not a one- way process.
•  Frame questions carefully. Use open questions and resist asking more than one question at a time.
•  Use prompts/cues such as ‘Would you like to say more about that?’
•  Give a few seconds after posing a question or a response has been given, to encourage learners to carefully consider and expand on what they have said.
•  Avoid generalizations such as ‘There are a lot of inaccuracies. Instead focus on specific areas for development which you can discuss with the learner.
• Focus on things that each learner can change, and avoid overloading them with too much feedback at once.
•  Be sensitive if the teacher has to give feedback to one person in a group. The learner might feel undermined if others hear.
•  Look for ways forward together. Share ideas and explore solutions rather than always putting forward teacher’s own suggestions.
• Create a situation on how learners agree on the given feedback. This could include agreeing new targets or planning learning opportunities.

2.7.4. While giving written feedback

• Don’t jump straight to the errors. Praise first the strengths.
•  Respond to the content and the message rather than focusing on writing is poor, select one or two particular areas to draw attention to. Don’t cover work in red ink.
• Be specific. Indicate what action the learner should take in relation to weaknesses that have been marked.
•  Encourage the learner to make corrections. Don’t simply write correct answers, spellings and so on.
•  Link the comments to the competences.

2.7.5. Strategies for effective feedback

.Using Positive comment

      - Negative information should be ‘sandwiched’ between positive information;

      - Constructive criticism with explanation of how to improve

• Using Contextual statement

    - I liked….because….

    - Now/Next time…

    - Interactive statement e.g. a question based on the work

• Giving the feedback as soon as possible after performance

     - Reducing uncertainty for learners by increasing knowledge and by eliminating alternative or competing explanations  

     for behaviour

     - Allowing learner to act on feedback

     - Use lesson time to redraft work

     - Allow learners time to focus on the feedback for improvement

     - Reinforce the value of the feedback and working in a supportive environment

• Following-up

     -Time in the lesson to talk individually

     - Have a written dialogue in learners’ books

     - Use a comment tracker or target sheet to formalize the dialogue in a workbook

2.7.6. Ways of giving feedback

There are three ways of giving feedback:

   - Feedback that compares a learner with others

    - Feedback on the outcome a learner produces, or the thinking process a learner uses

    - Feedback that describes or evaluates the learner’s work

• Feedback for target users and stakeholders

Feedback to learners

Assessment results should be conveyed to learners and used to strengthen

successful performance and assist in the remediation of weak performance.

This feedback should be:

    - Immediate

    - Detailed (showing where the learner went wrong or what should have been right)

    - Emphasize strengths and weaknesses of performance

    - Indicate remediation

    - Be positive in nature

    - Only on minor errors

     - Further develop their knowledge, understanding and skills

    - Support their future learning

    - Indicate areas of success in their work

    - Indicate areas for future improvement

    - Enable them to improve and plan their next steps

Example of feedback to learners

Feedback to teachers should:

    - Help them to check the effectiveness of instruction

     - Make decisions about learners’ needs to carefully plan for the next lesson

     - Help them to know how well their learners could reach the stated competences

      - Provide them opportunities to be reflective about the academic and social progress of their learners

     - Support them to gain a deeper understanding of each learner’s strengths and needs

Feedback to parents should:

    -Provide them with clear and concrete evidence of their children’s progress

    - Provide adequate information to them to monitor, supervise and support their children’s work and assignments

    - Increase parents’ involvement in school activities

    - This feedback to parents is provided when giving reporting to them. The wider range of learning in the new curriculum means that it is necessary to think again about how to share learners’ progress with parents. A single mark is not sufficient to convey different expectations of learning relating to competences and in the learning objectives. The most helpful reporting system is to share what learners are doing well and where they need to improve. Further guidance will also be produced in relation to reporting to parents in due course.

Application Activity 2.7

Describe the qualities of assessment feedback for learners

2.8. Special considerations when assessing young children

Activity 2.8

When assessing young children, the following should be considered:

• Complete and meaningful assessment in early childhood necessitates an understanding of family context, including getting to know family language and culture, gathering developmental information from parents, and conducting home visits with parent approval. Understanding family expectations and experience places a child’s behavior in context and can prevent harmful decisions that result from misinterpretation of assessment data.
• Younger children present some complex challenges and require flexible procedures for gathering meaningful and useful assessment information. Constitutional variables such as fatigue, hunger, illness, and temperament can easily overshadow the abilities of a young child. Time of day, setting, testing materials and other situational factors also affect performance.
• The younger a child, the more likely he or she is to fall asleep, become distressed, and refuse to comply with directions, or be distracted from assessment activities. Professionals should be prepared to modify activities, explore alternative procedures, and/or reschedule rather than risk gathering faulty information that compromises assessment results.
• Young children learn by doing and demonstrate knowledge and skills through action-oriented activities. Authentic assessment of youngsters as they participate in daily activities, routines, and interactions generally produces the most valuable information for assessment. Assessment methods should, therefore, allow for observation of young children engaged in spontaneous behaviors in familiar settings and with familiar people.
•  More assessments and increased data do not necessarily result in better assessment information. Early childhood professionals should only gather information they need and know ahead of time how they will use all the information collected. It is generally most desirable to identify a set of appropriate methods and instruments that provide necessary information and refine the use of those procedures over time.
• Some assessment instruments and procedures are better than others. Of primary importance is the quality of information gathered and the decisions made as a result of assessment. Ultimately, whatever assessments we conduct should benefit the children, families, and programs we serve.

Application Activity 2.8

Compare and contrast the assessment of pre-schoolers and primary pupils.

End Unit Assessment

1) How can formative assessment be used to establish instructional priorities?

2) What role will students play in the design of the assessment or the assessment process?

3) How can formative assessment support the curriculum?

4) How valid will the assessment be?