Foundation of Education

Key unit competence: Apply different active teaching methods and techniques in specific situations during micro-teaching and teaching practice.

Observe a lesson and fill the table below:

4.1.1. Direct instruction method

 Direct instruction method refers to the method where the teacher explicitly presents, explains and models the information in front of class. This is an example of teacher-centered method. It involves step-by-step presentation and demonstration of the materials to the students. It is important to include it in some lessons to make sure that students get clear information and guidance.

4.1.2. Inquiry-based learning method 

 Inquiry-based learning is a form of active learning which emphasizes the student’s role in the learning process rather than the teacher telling students what they need to know. Students are encouraged to explore the material, ask questions and share ideas.

 Through inquiry-based learning method students are provided with opportunities to explore, inquire and discover new learning in a spontaneous and a self-directed way. 

 Teachers play the role of: 

– Defining the topic or introduce the question,

 – Guiding students plan where and how to gather data and information,

 – The students present findings through graph, charts, Power Point presentation, models, and writing.

4.1.3. Cooperative learning method

 Cooperative Learning method refers to the method where students of mixed levels of abilities are arranged into groups and rewarded according to the group’s success, rather than the success of individual member. 

Through cooperative learning method students are asked to work in small, heterogeneous groups to complete a problem, project, task, or other goal as the teacher facilitates. It works to reinforce a student’s own learning as well as the learning of his or her fellow group members; students must be taught interpersonal skills to work effectively as a team (i.e. leadership, conflict resolution, roles, consensus building and active listening).

4.2. Active teaching and learning techniques 

4.2.1. Teaching and learning techniques based on direct interaction between teacher and learners

a. Brainstorming 

• Definition

 Brainstorming is about writing down all ideas that come to mind in response to a question or problem/ situation. The ideas can be recorded in the form of a list or a web or any other convenient form. This technique can be used at various stages of a lesson to stimulate and enhance the creativity of learners, accelerate interactive, joyful learning and provoke thinking skills. It also enhances peer support and fosters learner-centred practices. 

• Key steps for brainstorming

i. Define the problem by the facilitator/teacher 

The first step should be to determine a problem question that the brainstorming session will address. The question should be clear and prompt students to think of solutions, such as “How can we handle the problem of drop out in primary and secondary schools?” If necessary provide any additional information students need to have the whole background of the problem.

ii. Brainstorming step

 Also called diverging step, students are given time to think on their own, explore and generate solutions to the problem. They write ideas on small papers/sticky notes. During this step the following rules are to be respected to have many and creative ideas:

– One idea per small paper 

– No judgments/criticism: this is the first  rule  of creativity in general. Accept all ideas.

 – Think freely. Encourage student to give any ideas from their mind. All ideas are welcome. 

– Big numbers of ideas: the more ideas, the better. It is better to allow students to produce as many ideas as possible in a given time.

iii. Evaluation of ideas 

Also called converging step, this is the time when ideas are sorted out and discussed in order to isolate the best ones. Categories of solutions are therefore created to facilitate the sorting out exercise. Some ideas can be merged.

 iv. Conclusion 

 To conclude, the teacher and students make a summary of the proposed solutions, give explanations one by one. Students b. S

 Story telling 

is used to present or demonstrate processes, introduce ideas, challenge learners or illustrate abstract concepts such as life, honour, wisdom and courage. Photo stories can give more body to a story as one image can tell more than thousand words.

 Story telling promotes creativity and critical thinking as well as confidence, fluency in speech, listening, reading and writing skills. It develops imaginative skills and inquiring minds and provides opportunities to transfer learning, deepens understanding of concepts and retains information. By capturing the attention and interest of the learners, storytelling boosts the teacher-learner relationship and makes the instructional process lively and interesting.

Key steps of story-telling

 – Identify ideas 

– Design a scenario or a plan 

– Collect data and resources: text, images, music, actors, voices, equipment etc. 

– Develop and rehearse the story 

– Prepare for sharing: presentation, publication etc.

Important tips 

– Select a story relevant to the concept(s) to be learnt. 

– Apply appropriate gestures, facial expressions, posture, movement, tone of voice and pace. 

– Keep the story short and lively. 

 – Design relevant questions about the story to check the learners’ understanding. 

 – Provide a conducive environment for the presentation and to enable sharing of ideas.

c. Demonstration 

Use physical materials and actions to show and explain how something works or is performed. The demonstrator performs the tasks step-by-step to enable the learners to repeat the same task independently or in groups. Here, the teacher supports the learners in their attempts, provides guidance and feedback, and offers suggestions for alternative approaches.

 Key steps 

– List the equipment, teaching aids and other materials that you will need during the lesson. 

– List relevant questions before, during and after the demonstration to engage the learners and assess their understanding.

 – Rehearse the demonstration before the lesson. 

– Prepare the equipment before the lesson. 

– Arrange the c

Important tips 

– Ensure that the demonstration is relevant to the concepts or skills studied in the lesson.

 – Clearly explain what you are doing at each step of the demonstration (why and how).

 – Allow time to try and to repeat until the required level of achievement is attained. 

 – The questions should provide opportunities for learners to predict what will happen, observe perceptible changes, record their observations and draw their own conclusions.

d. Expert panel 

Teacher should invite one or more guest speakers who have specialized skills and experiences which are related to a topic of study to come and speak to the class. The guests can share a small presentation about their work and respond to students’ questions. Students should prepare questions in advance.

 e. Singing 

Songs can be used in teaching and learning process as a method or in combination with other methods.

 Advantages of singing method 

– It motivates or makes learning interesting

 – It provides an opportunity for learners to develop and display talents

 – It enhances participation of learners in the lesson 

– It instils acceptable values such as team spirit, solidarity and socialization

 – It reinforces and commits to memory what has been learnt

 – It increases the understanding of concepts 

– It praises good behaviours

Disadvantages of singing technique 

– It can cause disruption in the neighbouring classes if not properly managed 

– Sometimes it is not easy to select or find a song relevant to the content being taught. 

– It is not effective if the teacher conversant with the word and tune of the song. 

f. Question and answer 

This technique is also referred to as questioning technique or the Socratic Method. It is one of the key teaching methods used in the classroom. The teacher may ask a series of questions to find out how much the learners know about the topic and to determine what needs to be taught. Testing is also a mode of questioning. Teacher tests or questions learners on what has been taught previously to investigate what they have learnt. 

 – Characteristics of good questions: A good question should be: 1. Clear, precise, brief and direct 

– Formulated to challenge and stimulate the learners thoughts

– Suitable for the age, abilities and interest of the learners 

– Within the experiences of the learners and in the language they clearly understand Advantages of question and answer method

 – It helps the teacher to find out if the learners had prepared for the lesson or not 

– It drills or gives practice in what has been learnt 

– It guides, leads and motivates learners 

– It helps the teacher to evaluate the level of understanding of the learners 

– It develops the learners’ ability to think and explain causes, effect and purpose of thins 

– It helps learners to organize material learnt 

– It emphasizes important points. 

– It helps learners to discover their interest or talents

Disadvantages of the questioning method

 – It encourages the teacher to focus on a few learners who are able to answer questions. 

– It discourages slow learners from participating in the lesson for fear or making mistakes 

– It may cause some learners to lose self-esteem and self-confidence

 – Some teachers may not be skilful at using probing questions to get desired responses 

 – It increases the possibility of poor class control due to chorus answers

 – Teachers with poor communication skills may not use it effectively. (all, 2011)

g. Miming 

This is the process by which the teacher or the learner acts or tells stories without speaking or producing sounds. It involves the use of movements of arms, legs, hands and feet (gestures). In addition, body postures and actions are also incorporated in communicating ideas. Basically this method involves using the major aspects of non-verbal communication in delivery of content.

Advantages of miming 

– It allows the teacher and learners to employ facial expression 

– It can effectively be used to learners who are auditory challenged (deaf). This can thus make it facilitate interaction between these learners and those with speech abilities 

– It can be used to train the deaf learners on how to read and write

 – It offers training to learners on observation skills – Through the use of facial expression, we are able to communicate our emotions and analyse the feelings and sentiments of others 

– It develops a spirit of competition among the learners

 – It cements good social relationship among the learners, for example cooperation – It instils confidence in how learners express themselves to each others

 – Makes the instructional process interesting thus stimulate learners’ interest to the content 

– It enables learners to develop the ability of interpreting information through imagination – It develops power of imagination and creativity in the learners as they initiate and interpret the miming activity

Limitations/disadvantages 

– It is time consuming 

– It may inhibit the development of spoken language among learners who are not auditory challenged 

– Liable for misinterpretation by learners because no speech is involved. (all A. M., 2009)

4.2. 2. Teaching and learning techniques that focus on inquiry and indirect interaction between teacher and learners

a. Case study 

Case study refers the strategy of writing down a real-life scenario for students to analyse, discuss, respond to, and learn from. This helps them to apply what they are learning to common situations that they are likely to encounter. 

b. Learning corner 

Set up a space in the classroom that allows easy access to a variety of learning materials in an interesting and productive manner. Learners can work by themselves or with others in self- directed activities on a content related to the curriculum and real life. These learning corners allow learners to deepen their understanding of subjects, apply their learning in a stimulating learning environment and engage in meaningful discoveries that match their individual interests. They provide learners with hands-on experiences they can pursue at their own pace and level of curiosity. Learners must be trained on how to use the materials, do the activities set up in each corner as well as the behaviors expected during corner work time. 

c. Research work 

In research work teachers Gives each learner or group of learners a research topic. Learners have to gather information or ask experienced people and they have to document their findings and present the results (orally and/or in written report or poster). 

 d. Practical work 

Teacher assigns learners, individually or in groups, practical tasks (i.e. conducting an experiment, doing community clean up, performing first aid, cooking a meal). To be effective, the task needs: a clear purpose with strong links and relevance to the curriculum, quality materials, learners’ engagement, time for preparation and carrying out the work, support from the teacher or other experts. Such activities encourage deeper understanding of phenomena and develop skills such as observation, practical work, planning, reporting, etc.

e. Project learning 

Project learning refers to teaching and learning technique whereby individual learner or group of them is/are tasked to find out information about a learning situation or topic. The topic may be taken from the syllabus or other learning resource. It is mostly curried out of the classroom setting. A project can be a book-based to mean that the student read information from books and print materials or a field-based where the learners go to the field to investigate the case with hands on information.

 f. Assignment 

This is a teaching and learning technique used by both teacher and learners. The teacher gives a piece of work to the learner. The learner carries the task more often after the formal classroom hours. The task should be linked to the curriculum content. Assignment includes individual work or group work. 

 Assignment should:

 – Be clearly defined 

– Challenge the learners so as to stimulate their interest. 

 – Be within the learners’ ability – Not be too long and big.

g. Discovery

 Discovery is a teaching and learning technique which gives learner or group of learner’s opportunities to find out something by which they were uncertain. Discovery helps leaners to figure out something mentally. A teacher asks puzzling questions that require leaners’ investigations. The discovery begins when a learner accepts to solve a problem as well as when one’s previous knowledge or patterns of behaviour are inadequate to solve the problem. This is what opens the wheels to long process of finding out a new or what was initially unclear in one’s mind. Discovery is also known as inquiry, enquiry, problem-solving or reflective thinking. Agumba M.Ndolah et.all,(2009).Primary Teacher Education (Page 195.)

 h. Programmed learning 

Refers to the teaching and learning technique that aims at breaking down subject matter into simple and easy to understand steps which are sequenced in a way that enables self-paced learning to proceed without the usual help of a teacher. The subject matter presented to the learner is broken down into simple steps called frames. Each step is generally in the form of question that requires a response.

As soon as the response is made, its correctness or otherwise is communicated to the learner. Explanations and further guidance are provided for both right and wrong answers.

 i. Field visit

 Field visit is also known as field study or educational visit. This refers to the teaching and learning technique whereby the teacher organizes visit and place/s and he/she takes students there in order to observe, analyse, record and interpret a given concept which was purposefully chosen from the syllabus. Field visit can take place within the school or outside the school either nearby or at distant place. Both teacher and learners go through three main steps of field visit namely: 

– Preparation for trip when possible instructions, basic information and expectations are shared. 

 – During the trip when participants/ learners and teachers are actively carrying out the due activity.

 – After the visit when it comes time to make follow up about the success or challenges during the trip.

4.2.3. Teaching and learning techniques that focus cooperative learning

a. Debate 

 This is a technique where two groups of speakers talk for or against a motion, some oppose it while others support it. The winners are the ones who will have raised more valid points by the end of the session.

 Preparing for and conducting a debate session

 When preparing for and conducting a debate session a teacher should: 

– Select a topic that is appropriate to the lesson and age of learners;

 – Choose the speakers or panellists in advance: have at list three speakers on each side to allow other learners to give their comments.

 – Assist the main speakers to prepare for the debate 

– Arrange the room so that the speakers can be seen and heard by all the learners; 

– Introduce the speakers and the topic to be debated or discussed;

 – Guide the debate by ensuring that each speaker is given adequate time to respond; 

– Make a summary of what has been debated.

b. Games

 Games design a play activity that allows students to review content in a fun, enjoyable manner (i.e. pick a card, memory, trivia, charades, concept ball). Games help students learn faster and better, and in enjoyable manner. Games/plays help to create a classroom experience that actively engages learners. They develop communication and other important skills such as social skills, critical thinking, problem-solving, numeracy and literacy skills in different subjects. 

 c. Group work 

 Group work is a form of cooperative learning that involves having learners work together. This is mainly used to generate ideas, increase learners’ confidence in their answers, encourage broad participation in plenary session, promote higher level of reasoning and learn concepts in-depth, develop skills such as teamwork, critical thinking, interpersonal, communication and peer teaching. Key steps for group work 

– Design the tasks for the group activities. 

– Determine the groups’ size and assign learners (apply gender or disability criteria when applicable). 

– Clearly describe the objectives and assignments given to each group, and identify member roles. 

– Set ground rules including duration of activities and time of transitions. – Distribute hand-outs to describe complex activities (print both sides). 

– Monitor the group activities; facilitate knowledge sharing and analysis of findings. Important tips 

– Be supportive: clarify the assignments, encourage and motivate the learners, praise good work. 

 – Group leadership is important for effectiveness of the group.

 – As learners share ideas, conflicts may arise. Some conflict is desirable allowing learners to disagree and argue about ideas. Some conflict is destructive if based on lack of respect, domination, or failure to contribute. Try to get the group to resolve the conflict themselves before intervening.

d. Role play

 Learners act out a scenario or scene to practice by putting information learned to use in an everyday situation. By interacting with their peers, learners experiment and learn to deal with unfamiliar real life situations while also exercising their observation and communication skills. 

Key steps for effective role play 

– Select or develop the role playing scenario: Teacher’s preparation

 – Tell the learners what they will be doing and why 

 – Select participants and explain their roles 

 – Explain what you expect from the audience 

 – Give learners time to prepare

 – Commence the role-play

 – Discuss, evaluate and debrief 

 – Summarize the learning points.

Examples: Learners can act as delegates from different countries who come together to decide upon important world issues (useful to explore environmental, political, cultural, social and other global issues). 

 e. Think-pair-share

 Students are given a question or topic to think about. They take some time to think independently first (with or without writing down notes). Next, they pair with a partner or small group to discuss the thoughts they’ve come up with. Finally, the whole group comes back together to highlight key points raised during their discussions. 

 f. Simulation 

Simulation is the setting-up of a realistic environment modelling a real life situation or a scientific process by using role-play, models, games, virtual labs, etc.

 Simulation involves learners trying out situations, such as future occupational experiences as it happens in reality. In this learning process, they will be able to learn by doing, predict outcomes and express their feelings, perceptions and experiences. Simulation is useful to analyse phenomena, objects or events. It can assist learners in identifying problems and solutions and enables them to apply previously learned theory in a realistic way. Teachers can use simulations to illustrate how things work so that learners get a better insight of complex processes.

g. Dramatization 

Dramatization is technique of teaching and learning which calls the learner to act various aspect of the content. During dramatization, the learners use muscles of the body and speech alongside rhythm in expressing their emotions and ideas in a free manner. Dramatization takes more participants and time in organization as learners memorize the words and actions to act. However, at times learners can improvise dram a thus allowing them to make up the words and actions. When this happens, the activity is not based on prepared scripts, instead they make up the words as the story progresses. M.Ndolah, Bernard Misigo,Margaret Ongek, Emmy Kipsoi and Catherine Simiyu (2009), Primary Teacher Education page 188.

 h. Round table

 A question is posed by the teacher to groups of learners. Each person in group writes one answer on a paper and passes it to the next team member. The group looks at each answer and decides which one to present to the class. Each group shares/presents their answer to the entire class. The suggestions are discussed by the class and conclusions drawn.

4. 2. 4. Teaching and learning techniques that focus on presentation of information

How do you appreciate the information presented in tables?

a. Concept mapping 

Put the concept you want learners to define or “unpack” in the center of a web. Surrounding that key term, write any associations they have with that concept. Encourage them to think of as many as possible.

Read through any pre and primary syllabi related to your option. Select 2 units, suggest 2 lessons and choose 4 appropriate active teaching and learning strategies you can use while facilitating those lessons. Fill in the following table with the collected information. Call it a plan