Foundation of Education

Key Unit competence: Describe how heredity and environment work together to shape human behavior.

1. A child can resemble and acts like father or mother, which leads to the proverb that says “Like father like son’’. In Kinyarwanda, we say “Inyana ni iya mweru” or “Mwene samusure avukana isunzu”, now based on these Rwandan adage and the pictures below brainstorm and give examples of how a child can resemble and act like parents.

2. Anne and Rebecca are the true twins but they grew up in different environment. Anne is good at music but she cannot play basketball while Rebecca is good at playing basketball but it is not the same thing when it comes to music. Based on the picture below explain why they have these differences yet they are true twins.

14.1. Biological factors (nature / heredity)

Observe your hair, your skin, your fingers, your face etc.? Whom do you resemble much in your family? Try to justify the reason behind that resemblance.

All species transmit characters from one generation to the other through the mechanisms of genetics. It implies that every human being carries genetic traits which are inherited from parents. Those genetic traits are located within every cell in our body. Heredity is therefore the transmission of traits from one generation to the other.

It is known that heredity is a necessary factor for human development but likewise the environment is also necessary. Neither of the factors alone is necessary and sufficient to cause all complex human behaviour. Psychologists concentrate their research on the mechanism of the interaction between heredity and environment. Each new human being has a set of characteristics. When a male sperm combines with the female ovum, at the same time the child’s parents/ grand parents have each contributed genes that will determine skin, colour, general body shape and size, hair and eyes colour and a thousand other characteristics.

It has long been known that certain physical characteristics are biologically determined by genetic inheritance. For example:

 – Color of eyes 

– Color of hair 

– Straight or curly hair

 – Pigmentation of the skin

 – Certain diseases (such as Huntingdon’s chorea)

Other physical characteristics, if not determined, appear to be at least strongly influenced by the genetic make-up of our biological parents. 

– Height

 – Weight 

– Hair loss (in men)

 – Life expectancy

 – Vulnerability to specific illnesses (e.g. breast cancer in women)

These facts have led many to speculate as to whether psychological characteristics such as behavioral tendencies, personality attributes and mental abilities are also “wired in” before we are even born.

1. Explain the meaning of heredity? 

2. Outline 3 examples of physical characteristics which are determined by biological factors.

14.1.1. Function of genes and chromosomes in determining traits

A trait is any gene-determined characteristic. Many traits are determined by the function of more than one gene. For example, a person’s height is likely to be determined by many genes, including those affecting growth, appetite, and muscle mass, and activity level. However, some traits are determined by the function of a single gene.

 All living beings have genes, and they exist throughout the body. Genes are a set of instructions that determine what the organism is like, its appearance, how it survives, and how it behaves in its environment. Genes are made of a substance called Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA). They give instructions for a living being to make molecules called proteins (Wu, 2017).

Where do genes come from?

A gene is a basic unit of heredity in a living organism. Genes come from our parents. We may inherit our physical traits and the likelihood of getting certain diseases and conditions from a parent. 

Genes contain the data needed to build and maintain cells and pass genetic information to offspring. Each cell contains two sets of chromosomes: One set comes from the mother and the other comes from the father. The male sperm and the female egg carry a single set of 23 chromosomes each, including 22 autosomes plus an X or Y sex chromosome. A female inherits an X chromosome from each parent, but a male inherits an X chromosome from their mother and a Y chromosome from their father.

Function 

Genes decide almost everything about a living being. One or more genes can affect a specific trait. Genes may interact with an individual’s environment too and change what the gene makes. Genes affect hundreds of internal and external factors, such as whether a person will get a particular color of eyes or what diseases they may develop. Some diseases, such as sickle-cell anemia and Huntington’s disease are inherited, and these are also affected by genes.

In search of hereditary functions of genes, through his experiments on garden peas and fruit flies, Mendel hypothesised that some genes are dominant and others recessive. Like chromosomes, the genes also occur in pairs. Each of the pair is donated by one of the parents. An offspring thus may be found to derive a gene pair in one of the following forms:

 – A dominant gene from one of the parents and recessive gene from the other.

 – Dominant genes from both the parents. – Recessive genes from both the parents.

In simple meaning a dominant gene must exhibit his dominance over the recessive ones. For example, if one parent furnishes a gene for brown eyes (known to be dominant) and the other provides a gene for a blue (a recessive gene), the offspring will have the brown eyes (characteristics of the dominant gene).

However, the fact that a particular trait is recessive in one generation is no way rules out its appearance in the future. For example, in above example of the mutation between brown and blue genes resulting into brown eyes, a recessive blue gene lies in a wait. If that offspring is copulated with someone with another gene for blue eyes (even if he or she may not possess blue

eyes) their offspring, the third generation might have blue eyes (MANGAL, 1988).

1. Write true or false

 a. A child inherits 23 pairs of chromosomes from each parent. 

b. Recessive gene exhibits its dominance over dominance ones. 

2. Explain the function of genes and chromosomes in determination of our traits. 

3. Differentiate the term recessive and dominant.

14.1.2. Genetic abnormalities

Ali is a P1 student; he has flattened face, small nose, almond-shaped eyes because of large eyelid folds, respiratory and heart problems. He hardly finishes his work and participates in group. He struggles in many activities and this is the 4th year in p1. His teacher advises the parents to seek advice from the doctor. When the father asked the doctor about the behaviour of his son, he diagnoses Ali and found that he has genetic abnormality. 

1. Outline the unusual behaviour and characteristics of Ali 

2. What is the effect of Ali’s unusual behaviour to his performance? 

3. What is the cause of the unusual behaviour and characteristic of ALI?

A genetic disorder is a detrimental trait caused by an abnormal gene. The abnormal gene may be inherited or may arise spontaneously as a result of a mutation. Gene abnormalities are fairly common. A genetic disorder is a genetic problem caused by one or more abnormalities formed in the genome. Most genetic disorders are quite rare and affect one person in every several thousands or millions.

Genetic disorders may be hereditary or non-hereditary, meaning that they are passed down from the parents’ genes. However, in some genetic disorders, defects may be caused by new mutations or changes to the DNA. In such cases, the defect will only be passed down if it occurs in the germline.

Genetic disorders can be monogenic, multifactorial, or chromosomal. 

 Some types of  recessive gene disorders confer an  advantage in certain environment when only one copy of the gene is present.

A chromosome is made of a very long strand of DNA and contains many genes (hundreds to thousands). The genes on each chromosome are arranged in a particular sequence, and each gene has a particular location on the chromosome (called its locus). In addition to DNA, chromosomes contain other chemical components that influence gene function.

Mutation 

To prevent mistakes during replication, cells have a “proofreading” function to help ensure that bases are paired properly. There are also chemical mechanisms to repair DNA that was not copied properly. However, because of the billions of base pairs involved in, and the complexity of, the protein synthesis process, mistakes can happen. Such mistakes can occur for numerous reasons (including exposure to radiation, drugs, or viruses) or for no apparent reason. Minor variations in DNA are very common and occur in most people. Most variations do not affect subsequent copies of the gene. Mistakes that are duplicated in subsequent copies are called mutations. Chromosome anomaly, abnormality or aberration is missing, extra or irregular portion of chromosomal DNA.

Break down in the transmission of chromosomal information can also cause physical or mental defects. Occasionally sperm or ova are produced having more or fewer than the normal 23 chromosomes. During the process of crossing over, chromosomal fragment may not accurately separate and reattach. During the next step in meiosis, a pair of autosomes or sex chromosomes may end up in the sane gamete. Another gamete then is missing a chromosome from that pair.

Examples of chromosomal abnormalities

There are several types of  chromosome abnormalities. A person may have an abnormal number of chromosomes or have abnormal areas on one or more chromosomes. Many such abnormalities can be diagnosed before birth (Testing for chromosome and gene abnormalities).

Abnormal numbers of non-sex chromosomes usually result in severe abnormalities. For example, receiving an extra non-sex chromosome can be fatal to a fetus or can lead to abnormalities such as Down syndrome, which commonly results from a person having three copies of chromosome 21. Absence of a non-sex chromosome is fatal to the fetus.Large areas on a chromosome may be abnormal, usually because a whole section was left out (called a deletion) or mistakenly placed in another chromosome (called translocation). For example, chronic myelogenous is sometimes caused by translocation of part of chromosome 9 onto chromosome 22. This abnormality can be inherited or be the result of a new mutation

1. Write true or false 

a. Down syndrome is characterised by Severe mental retardation; nearly all die less than a year ........................................... b. A person who has Turner Syndrome Female in appearance, but sterile; short stature and minor physical abnormalities. .................. .....................

 c. Many chromosome abnormalities cannot be diagnosed before birth. 

2. What are the causes of mistakes that happen during replication?

 3. Where do Genetic disorders come from? 

4. Revise the scenario of Ali (see tthe first activity 14.1.2)and state the type of syndrome that he had.

14.1.3. Temperament

Let us have a scenario, 4 groups of students each has 4 members and try to behave in the following situation. 

Group1: have a tour outside in school ground and explore the environment( include the wife, husband and 2 children) Group 2: make a family and have a celebration of birth day party of one of your child. 

 Group 3: as a family, go outside the classroom and imagine that you are going to meet your child who is from abroad (select one child and behave as if he/she is from outside the country to study and he/she meets the family at Kanombe airport). 

Group 4: imitate behavior of a family where the husband is always drunkard and abuse the members of the family. The rest of the classroom should observe the families in different situations. 

1. How do family members from each family characterize their behavior and emotion?

Personality is determined by the interaction of temperament traits with the environment. Each person (including your child) comes with a factory installed wiring. How your child is wired can determine whether they will be easy or difficult to raise. How well their temperament fits with the environment and how well they are received by the people in the environment will determine how a child sees himself and others.

• Concept of the temperament 

 Temperament refers to personality traits that determine how someone reacts to the world. Are they quiet or rambunctious? Easygoing or apprehensive? The traits of temperament are mostly innate traits that we are born with, although they can be influenced by an individual’s family, culture or their experiences. They are instrumental in the development of the child’s distinct personality. These traits also determine how the child goes about learning about the world around him. These traits appear to be relatively stable from birth. 

 There are generally 5 characteristics that describe an individual’s temperament: 

• Emotional intensity 

• Activity level 

• Frustration tolerance 

• Reaction to new people 

• Reaction to change

A person’s temperament style plays a role in how they behave and how they interact with other people and within their world as shown in the following example: trait of intensity of reaction.

• Example: intensity of reaction

 Individuals differ in how strongly they react to situations. Some people react very mildly to situations, while others have more powerful reactions. Those with lower intensity may only smile when they receive good news, whereas individuals who react more intensely may jump up and down and run around the house when they get the same good news.

High intensity

 More intense children will have very powerful reactions to things. When something negative occurs, their reaction will be very strong even if the situation isn’t serious. For instance, if they want to wear their favourite purple shirt and it’s in the washer, they may have an intense outburst. Similarly,

they may be hard to contain even when positive things occur. Children with high intensity reactions may be labelled as dramatic and it may seem like they are making a big deal out of nothing.

Low intensity 

Children with low intensity will react very mildly to negative and positive situations. They will have a restrained reaction to things that happen to them or may not appear to react much at all. It may be difficult to recognize how a low intensity child is feeling.

Parenting and intensity of reaction

 When parenting high intensity children, it’s important to remember they are not purposely being difficult or dramatic. Understand that your child’s strong reactions are part of their temperament and help them learn appropriate ways to express those strong emotional reactions.

For low intensity children, it is often more difficult for parents to recognize how their low intensity child is feeling because they may not show those emotions in their reactions or will not show them very strongly. Knowing that your child is low intensity, you can work on picking up on your child’s cues and even asking about their feelings so that you are tuned in to how they are feeling.

Letting your daily schedule and expectations vary to meet your child’s intensity of reaction can prevent conflict and stress, and allow your child to have their needs met in a way that plays to their strengths and builds upon their natural temperament. (Rymanowicz, 2007)

Why is it important for parents to understand the temperament of their child?

 • When parents understand the temperament of their children, they can avoid blaming themselves for issues that are normal for their child’s temperament. Some children are noisier than other. Some have more regular sleep patterns than others.

When parents understand how their child responds to certain situations, they can learn to anticipate issues that might present difficulties for their child. They can prepare the child for the situation or in other cases they may avoid a potentially difficult situation all together.

 • Parents can tailor their parenting strategies to the particular temperamental characteristics of the child. They can also avoid thinking that a behaviour that reflects a temperament trait represents a pathological condition that requires treatment. Parents feel more effective as they more fully understand and appreciate their child’s unique personality. 

• Early on, parents can work with the child’s temperamental traits rather than in opposition to them. Later as the child matures the parents can help the child to adapt to their world by accommodating to their temperamental traits.

1. How does a child who has high emotion and intensity look like? 

2. What can parent and teachers do to support such a child?

14.2. Environmental factors (Nurture/ Experiential)

Introductory activity 14.2

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors. (1930). John Broadus Watson, Behaviorism. What does this statement teach you about the influence of environment?

14.2.1. Impact of relationships (serve and return)

Nyirarukundo is a working mother who has a 9 moths baby. In her absence, the baby stays with Mutoni, the caregiver. Mutoni is a good caregiver who is very responsive to the baby’s needs.. The baby always enjoys staying with Mutoni. The baby would cry in her (Mutoni) absence instead of her mother. She (the baby) even cries when in his/her mother’s hands.

 1. Why does the baby cry when in her mothers’ hand?

 2. What advice would you give to other mothers to avoid the same situation?

Brain research shows that early experiences affect how the brain develops. And the most important factor for a child is to have loving relationships with a caregiver. When a child has responsive parent who is warm, interactive, and gentle, this lays a foundation for all of the child’s future relationships and shapes the adult he/she will become.

Children’s relationships shape the way they see the world and affect all areas of their development. Through relationships children learn about their world. That’s because relationships let children express themselves – a cry, a laugh, a question – and get something back – a cuddle, a smile, an answer. What children ‘get back’ gives them very important information about what the world is like and how to act in the world – how to think, understand, communicate, behave, show emotions and develop social skills. This back-and-forth communication strengthens relationships. It also helps children learn more about the world all the time. A child’s most important early relationships are with his/her parents, other family members and caregivers.

It’s not just the relationship between parents and their child that shapes his/ her development. It’s also parental relationships with others. Children see how their parents behave and communicate with other people in life – for example, husband/wife, family members, friends and neighbors. This gives children a model of how to be and behave with others and how other people will behave in return. If children see kind and respectful relationships, they will learn to act this way in relationships with others.

From the moment they’re born, babies are very social. They want to spend time with you and communicate with their parents. And how parents respond help babies to learn. For example, it’s natural for baby to want to communicate through babbling, facial expressions and gestures – for example, waving, nodding and shaking his head. It’s important for parents to respond with the same kind of ‘talking’ and gesturing.

By responding in a warm, loving and gentle way, parents help their child learn about communication, behaviour and emotions. Parents make their child feel safe and secure, and promote a strong relationship with their child.

When the child feels safe and attached, s/he is likely to have the confidence to explore  the world. That’s because  s/he knows a caring adult is there to support, encourage and share new experiences with her/him. Warm and loving interactions between parents and children develop confidence, resilience and communication. This prepares children for things they’ll come across later in her life, like working through problems, dealing with stress and forming healthy relationships with other people in adolescence and adulthood. Strong attachments and relationships early in life also means children are more likely to have better mental health and fewer behaviour problems.

Explain the importance of a good back-and-forth interactions between children and parents.

14.2.2. Influence of physical /natural environment

Kabibi and Kayesu are identical twins. Last year they sat for O-Level examination and Kabibi performed well. Kabibi went to study at TTC Bicumbi in SME option while Kayesu continued his studies at G.S NKANA where both children attended O-Level. Explain how different will environment influence their behaviours ?

Physical Environment is another factor which affects a child’s development. There are various environmental factors that determine human development; we can say for example physical and social factors.

Physical factors 

 These factors include climate pure air and water. All these factors affect the growth of the body and mind. Many phenotype factors in human being are genetically transferred from parent to offspring. However, people who live in a particular place express similar traits. This is because of the environmental situation they are exposed to. The role of environment impact on individual’s behaviour can be seen on its effects on prenatal and post natal development. Environment begins to affect an organism as soon as conceptions take place.

The influence of environment on human development can be well shown by the following examples: 

• The wild child Victor of Aveyron who was found in Aveyron, in the central forest of France in 1785 and died in 1928. The boy was baptised victor and taken care of by a physician called Jean Mark from national institute of deaf mute. He could not speak any word and dress in cloth. He was used to sleeping on trees, but after training he could pronounce very few words and could dress to please his caretakers.

• Another example is two girls Amala and Kamala who were 4 years and 8 years respectively. They grow up with wolves and they walk and back like wolves. They were discovered in 1920 and cared for by missionaries. One died after one year and the other 4 years later but could speak very few words.

Environmental factors 

 These factors include family members, peer group, the school environment and the community. All of these influence much the development of the child.

• The family is the fundamental unit of the society. It helps us to learn sex roles, social skills and language. The pattern of family interaction, family size and quality of attention among family affect profoundly the development of an individual. • Peers: This is where children come under the influence of others of their own age group. This mostly affects their development and patterns of responses. These influences continue throughout life.

 • School: Schools influence a person’s intellect, social skills, mental health and other aspects of behaviour through formal and informal programmes. 

• Media: It is believed that what we read and watch and listen to, from news paper, TV, or Radio greatly influences our behaviour and personality, values and expression of emotions. These factors influence how children think, socialise and become self aware. Economic and political institutions, the media and cultural values all guide children how they live their lives.

14.2.3. Impact of toxic stress

Mugisha is a primary one student. His father and mother always quarrel at evening. Mugisha many times hide himself under the bed when it is evening because the father likes to bit them when he is too much drunkard. Think about the impact of this family relationship to the future behaviour of Mugisha.

Stress occurs continually, or is triggered by multiple sources that can take a toll on child’s health. Toxic stress that children suffer not only shapes their emotional lives as adults, but also affects their physical and longevity. 

Stress may have different forms: Positive stress which is response to a normal and essential part of a health development (an example of positive stress is being called for interview which requires an individual to prepare more and try harder).

Tolerable stress which is response to activates the body’s alert systems to a greater degree (an example is when a person is frightened by a car accident).

Toxic stress is a response that occurs when a child experiences a strong, frequent and/or prolonged adversity which results in changes to their baseline state. Examples of toxic stress include physical or emotional abuse, chronic neglect, caregiver substance abuse or mental illness, exposure to violence or the accumulated burdens of family economic hardship. The prolonged activation of the stress response systems can disrupt the development of brain architecture and other organ systems and increase the risk for stressrelated disease and cognitive impairment, well into adult years.

Toxic stress has the potential to change your child’s brain and brain anatomy and even gene expression. Toxic stress weakens the architecture of the developing brain, which can lead to lifelong problems in learning behaviour, physical and mental health. When a child experiences toxic stress, the hypothalamic pituitary and adrenal hormone axis is over activated. This result in blood levels of the stress hormone cortisol being higher which can result in long term changes in inflammation and immunity. Studies have shown association between toxic stress and changes in brain structure. The consequences of this can include more anxiety as well as impaired memory and mood control. Toxic stress responses can also include changes in gene expression, meaning which genes in your DNA are turned on or off.

Choose one of the possible causes of toxic stress and describe what it might look like in your community context by writing a case study of a child in such situation.

14.2.4. Relationship between heredity/nature and environment on human development/nurture

The picture below shows two identical twins brought up in the same family until marriage. Jane got married in a rich family while Janet was unlucky and got married in a very poor family as observed in the pictures. How both heredity and environment influenced these twins to differ in their development?

The basic mechanism or causes of development change are genetic factors (nature) and environmental factors (nurture). Thus every traits of organism depend on heredity and environment. This notion, throws light to the fact that the nature-nurture relationship may be conceived in terms of additive contribution where both contribute to all behavioural development. This view is accepted by many people but it doesn’t hold for all the analysis. For instance, attempts have been made to determine the above view on intelligence and the result showed that heredity contributes about 75% and environment 25%. It should also be noticed, the extent of influence of each factor either nature and nurture depends on the contribution of the other for instance a nurture factor will exert a different influence depending

upon specific material it contributes similarity, any nature factor will operate differently under varying environmental conditions. For example: diet and exercises lead to body weight and shape due to inherited traits. 

Furthermore, a person’s IQ (Intelligence Quotient), nurture, may be retarded by metabolic disorder (nurture) which is attributed to a single recessive gene. We can conclude that it is difficult to determine what is contributed by heredity and environment as for as human is concerned. In order to understand this, let try to analyse two examples:

The first one is on identical twins (monozygotic twins) comparing with fraternal twins (dizygotic twins). On monozygotic twins, any genetic information concerning physical and psychological predisposition should be exactly the same for these twins. For the zygotic twins, the genetic profiles are similar only to extent they share the same set of biological parents. By doing research comparing the correlation of identical on some particular dimension such as intelligence, they find that they resemble 86%, while fraternal twins resemble 55%. This means for both identical and fraternal twins there are the influences of the environment (Njagi, E.B, 2013).

The second one is on adoption related studies. There are two typical variations in adoption related studies: ones involving comparison of identical twins reared apart and others comparing the degree of similarity between adopted children and their biological and adoptive parents.

Findings from these studies revealed that: 

– Identical twins reared apart share genetic pattern with each other, yet they do not share the same environmental experiences.

 – Adopted children, by contrast, typically share with the rest of adoptive family similar environmental experiences but do not share any gene with them.

In general, the interaction for both heredity and environment is responsible for the following characteristics and traits: somatic structure, physical appearance, mental make-up, social behaviour, emotions

1. In your own words, explain how do fraternal twins differ from identical twins. 

2. With clear example how can heredity and environment work together to influence human development.

1. Environment is one of the factors that influence human development. Describe the components of good and stimulating environment for holistic development of a child. 

 2. If parents can influence negatively or positively the child’s development. What do you think the parents should do to influence the child’ development in positive ways.

REFERENCES 

1. Anderson, L.W., Krathwohl, D.R., Airasian, P.W., Cruikshank, K.A., Mayer, R.E., 

 2. Pintrich, P.R., Raths, J., Wittrock, M.C. (2001). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A revision of Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives. New York: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon. 

3. Benjamin,B. (2012). Psychology: An ntroduction, 11th edit., Chicago, MC Grow. Hill. 

4. Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H.,

 5. Krathwohl, D.R. (1956). Taxonomy of Educational objectives, handbook I: The Cognitive Domain. New York: David McKay Co Inc. 

6. Bloom, B.S. (Ed.). Engelhart, M.D., Furst, E.J., Hill, W.H., 

 7. Clark, R., Chopeta, L. (2004). Graphics for learning: proven guidelines for planning, designing, and evaluating visuals in training materials. A Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer. 

8. Dave, R. H. (1975). Developing and Writing Behavioral Objectives. (R J Armstrong, ed.) Educational Innovators Press.

 9. Green R.C.,Sanford W.R.(1983), Psychology: a way to grow, Amsco school publication, inc new york, USA. 

10. Kahiga, R. (2015). Physical and Psychomotor Activities. Nairobi: Kenya Literature Bureau. 

11. Krathwohl, D. R., Bloom, B. S., & Masia, B. B. (1973). Taxonomy of educational objectives, the Classification of educational goals. Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.

 12. Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S., Masia, B.B. (1973). Taxonomy of educational objectives, the classification of educational Goals. Handbook II: Affective domain. New York: David McKay Co., Inc.

 13. Krgh. (2008). Inquiry Learning Through Integration. Washington: McGraw-Hill.

 14. Macmillan (2000), Primary teaching methods, Macmillan publishers Limited, Malaysia. 

15. McGraw.Hill. (2008). Inquiry Learning Through Integration. Morehouse. (Washington). 

16. MINEDUC, (2013). Education Sector Strategic Plan 2013/14 – 2017/18. Kigali.

 17. Mwangi. (2013). Mathematics activities. Nairobi, Sasa Sema.

18. NZABALIRWA.W. (2004). General teaching methods, KIE, Kigali, Rwanda.

 19. Peter O, Kaleba A. NIZEYIMANA G. (2004). Developmental psychology. Kigali: Kigali Institute of Education.

 20. REB, 2015. Teacher Training Manual: Roll-out of the Competencebased Curriculum, by Partnership for 21st Century Learning. Kigali. 

21. REB. (2019). the teacher training college competence based curriculum orientation manual. Kigali.

 22. REB/MINEDUC, 2015 (p. 16-31, 39-40). Competence-Based Curriculum, Summary of Curriculum Framework Pre-Primary to Upper Secondary. 

 23. REB/MINEDUC. (2015). teacher training manual. Kigali: 

 24. Rymanowicz, K. (2007). Nine traits of temperament. education news. 

25. Smith L. (2006), Dictionary of psychology, Lotus press, New Delhi. 

26. Thungu J. (2008). Mastering PTE education, oxford university press, Kenya. 

27. VSO.(2015). Guidance for making and using teaching and learning materials. Kigali.

 28. Waigera, K. (2012). Instructional and Learning Approaches. Kampala: Longhorn.

 29. Taylor, T. (2014). Using Play as a Medium for Learning. http://www. imaginative-inquiry.co.uk/2014/05/using-play-as-a-medium-forlearning/ 

 30. Moffitt, M.W. (n.d) Play as a Medium for Learning. https://www.csun. edu/~sb4310/playmediumlearning.htm