Foundation of Education

Key Unit competence: Cater for holistic development of learners at different ages

13.1. Prenatal Period

 13.1.1 Prenatal Stages

Watch videos/images on prenatal period and discuss the events that happened before birth and write it down on the piece of paper.

The average length of time for prenatal development to complete is 38 weeks from the date of conception. During this time, a single-celled zygote develops in a series of stages into a full-term baby. The three primary stages of prenatal development are the germinal stage, the embryonic stage, and the foetal stage. This period of pregnancy is divided into 3 trimesters which have different characteristics for expectant mothers and the developing foetus.

This is the first period of pre-natal development that occurs in the first two weeks after conception. During this period a zygote is created, continued cell division takes place and attachment of the zygote to uterine wall also takes place. The zygote is a single cell formed by the union of male gamete and that of female through fertilization. The zygote is made up of 100- 150 cells a week after conception. The inner and outer layer of organism is formed at this stage. This period is also called zygotic period because it is in that time zygote is created. The implantation which is the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall occurs ten days after conception.

Soon after implantation, the cells continue to rapidly divide and clusters of cells begin to take on different functions. A process leads to the formation of three distinct layers called germ layers: the ectoderm (outer layer), the mesoderm (middle layer), and the endoderm (inner layer). As the embryo develops, each germ layer differentiates into different tissues and structures. For example, the ectoderm eventually forms skin, nails, hair, brain, nervous tissue and cells, nose, sinuses, mouth, anus, tooth enamel, and other tissues. The mesoderm develops into muscles, bones, heart tissue, lungs, reproductive organs, lymphatic tissue, and other tissues. The endoderm forms the lining of lungs, bladder, digestive tract, tongue, tonsils, and other organs.

The process of differentiation takes place over a period of weeks with different structures forming simultaneously. During this period the life supports develop, these are: placenta, the umbilical cord and the amnion. The placenta is the life support system that consists of tissues in which small blood vessels from the mother and the offspring intertwine but are not joined at all. The amnion is a bag-like structure filled with fluid in which the developing embryo floats. Some of the major events that occur during the embryonic stage are as follows:

Week 3: Beginning development of the brain, heart, blood cells, circulatory system, spinal cord, and digestive system. 

Week 4: Beginning of the development of bones, facial structures, and limbs (presence of arm and leg buds); continuing development of the heart (which begins to beat), brain, and nervous tissue. 

Week 5: Beginning of the development of eyes, nose, kidneys, and lungs; continuing development of the heart (formation of valves), brain, nervous tissue, and digestive tract. 

Week 6: Beginning of the development of hands, feet, and digits; continuing development of brain, heart, and circulation system. 

Week 7: Beginning of the development of hair follicles, nipples, eyelids, and sex organs (testes or ovaries); first formation of urine in the kidneys and first evidence of brain waves. 

Week 8: Facial features become more distinct, internal organs are well developed, the brain can signal for muscles to move, heart development ends, external sex organs begin to form. By the end of the embryonic stage, all essential external and internal structures have been formed.

c. Foetal stage 

 Prenatal development is most dramatic during the foetal stage. When an embryo becomes a foetus at eight weeks, it is approximately 3 centimetres in length from crown to rump and weighs about 3 grams. By the time the foetus is considered full-term at 38 weeks gestation, he or she may be 50 centimeters or 3.3 kilograms. Although all of the organ systems were formed during embryonic development, they continue to develop and grow during the foetal stage. Examples of some of the major features of foetal development by week are as follows:

 Weeks 9–12: The foetus reaches approximately 8 cm in length; the head is approximately half the size of the foetus. External features such as the face, neck, eyelids, limbs, digits, and genitals are well formed. The beginnings of teeth appear, and red blood cells begin to be produced in the liver. The foetus is able to make a fist.

Weeks 13–15: The foetus reaches approximately 15 cm in length. Fine hair called lanugo first develops on the head; structures such as the lungs, sweat glands, muscles, and bones continue to develop. The foetus is able to swallow and make sucking motions. 

Weeks 16–20: The foetus reaches approximately 20 cm in length. Lanugo begins to cover all skin surfaces, and fat begins to develop under the skin. Features such as finger and toe nails, eyebrows, and eyelashes appear. The foetus becomes more active, and the mother can sometimes begin to feel foetal movements at this stage. 

Weeks 21–24: The foetus reaches approximately 28.5 cm in length and weighs approximately 0.7 kg. Hair grows longer on the head, and the eyebrows and eye lashes finish forming. The lungs continue to develop with the formation of air sac (alveoli), the eyes finish developing. A startle reflex develops at this time.

Weeks 25–28: The foetus reaches approximately 38 cm in length and weighs approximately 1.2 kg. The next few weeks mark a period of rapid brain and nervous system development. The foetus gains greater control over movements such as opening and closing eyelids and certain body functions. The lungs have developed sufficiently that air breathing is possible. 

Weeks 29–32: The foetus reaches approximately 38-43 cm in length and weighs approximately 2 kg. Fat deposits become more pronounced under the skin. The lungs remain immature, but breathing movements begin. The foetus’s bones are developed, but not yet hardened. 

Weeks 33–36: The foetus reaches approximately 41-48 cm in length and weighs 2.6-3.0 kg. Body fat continues to increase, lanugo begins to disappear, and fingernails are fully grown. The foetus has gained a high degree of control over body functions. Weeks 36–38: The foetus reaches 48–53 cm in length is considered to be full-term by the end of this period. Lanugo has mostly disappeared and is replaced with thicker hair on the head. Fingernails have grown past the tips of the fingers. In a healthy foetus, all organ systems are functioning.

Foetal Learning

Today, doctors realize that babies begin to engage many of their senses and to learn about the world around them during the last trimester of pregnancy and may be even before. A baby can hear the sounds of his mom’s body her stomach growling, her heart beating, the occasional hiccup or burp, but he can also hear noises from beyond. Perhaps the most significant one a baby hears in uterus is his mother’s voice.

Around the seventh and eighth month, a foetus’s heart rate slows down slightly whenever his mother is speaking, indicating that mom’s voice has a calming effect. A developing foetus gets all the information needed just by listening in on his mother’s conversations with others. He also may be picking up something from any books she reads aloud. Besides being able to tell the difference between English and French, a study shown that babies in the womb may be able to recognize the specific rhythms and patterns of the stories they hear. A baby’s eyes, which form in the first trimester, are sealed, shut until about the seventh month. After they open, the foetus is able to see, but there’s little or no light to see anything. Some doctors have reported, however, that if you shine a very bright light up inside the uterus, the foetus will turn away from it. 

Taste buds develop in a foetus around the seventh or eighth week and, by week 14; there are some evidences which indicate that he can taste bitter, sweet, or sour flavours in the amniotic fluid. As with his other senses, he uses taste to explore the womb around him. Ultrasounds have even shown that foetuses lick the placenta and uterine wall. Studies indicate that the flavours and aromas of the foods mom eats during pregnancy, which pass through to her amniotic fluid, may affect her baby’s taste preferences long after birth.

An unborn baby not only tastes foods, but can smell them as well. Doctors have noted that, at birth, amniotic fluid sometimes carries the scent of cumin, garlic, fennel, and other spices a mother has eaten while pregnant. Amniotic fluid, which babies swallow and breathe in during their time in utero, not only has the smells of the foods mom eats, but of mom herself. That, in fact, may be how new born recognizes their mothers.

Babies eagerly investigate whatever they can get their hands on and the fun starts before birth. As early as 20 weeks, foetuses react to what’s around them. But it isn’t until the third trimester that they really begin to grow curious about their intrauterine world. Though there isn’t a whole lot in there to play with, foetuses entertain themselves by sucking on their hands and fingers (especially their thumb, which they discover at about 18 weeks). They also ‘walk’ around by pushing on the uterine walls with their feet, and yank, pull, and swing their umbilical cord they even practice breathing. All this playing around helps them develop important reflexes they’ll need once they’re born.

Labour and childbirth

 Labour refers to the energy and effort used to move the baby out of the mother’s body. It is accomplished through a series of contractions in the uterine muscles. These contractions cannot be controlled by the mother.

Therefore, they are referred to as involuntary. Hormones inside of the mother control the onset, length, and strength of these contractions. The average length of labour for a first baby is between 12 and 14 hours. However, each woman’s labour will vary and may be as short as three hours or last 24 or more hours.

There are several signs indicating the beginning of labour. These include: 

– Lightening: this is a change in the position of the baby. The baby drops lower in the pelvis, relieving the abdominal pressure on the mother and making her breathing easier.

 – Contractions of the uterus: these contractions begin as weak cramps and a backache gradually increasing in intensity and coming at more frequent and regular intervals. 

– Passage of the mucous plug from the cervix. Sometimes referred to as “the show” or “the bloody show” because it is blood tinged. 

– Rupturing of the bag of water as the mio-chorionic membrane ruptures. This may be a small trickle or a gush of fluid.

Labour is divided into three stages a. Dilation stage In order for the baby to pass from the uterus to the vagina, the cervix must first stretch and expand. This is referred to as dilation. At first, the cervix is approximately inch in diameter. The contractions push the baby’s head against the cervix, causing it to widen. At the end of this stage of labour, the cervix is approximately 4 inches in diameter. If the bag of water has not ruptured by this time, the physician will break it.

This stage of labour is further divided into three categories. These categories are: 

– Early labour 

– The cervix dilates from 0-4 cm in diameter. Contractions may or may not be regular, coming 5-10 minutes apart. Most women are still home at this time. 

– Active labour: The cervix dilates from 4-8 cm. The uterine contractions will be longer, more regular, and more frequent. The mother should be in the hospital by this time.

 – Transition: The cervix dilates from 8-10 cm or complete dilation. The Mother’s contractions become more frequent and much stronger. They are 1-3 minutes apart. During transition the baby’s head moves from the uterus and into the vagina or the birth canal. This is the most difficult period of childbirth and is the time when anaesthetic will most likely be given.

The dilation stage lasts the longest. The length of time varies with each birth; however, the average length for first pregnancies is eight hours. Remember, during this time, most hospitals will use a foetal monitor to record the strength and duration of contractions, as well as the baby’s heartbeat. 

b. Expulsion stage

 This stage begins when the baby’s head is in the birth canal and ends when the baby is born. This stage does not last long, usually 5-10 minutes. During this stage, contractions become more frequent and longer. 

The contractions occur 1-3 minutes apart and last about 1 to 1 minutes and 30 seconds. During the first stage, the function of the contractions is to dilate the cervix. In the second stage, their function is to push the baby out through the pelvis and the birth canal. 

Crowning refers to the time when the baby’s head is first seen. At the time of crowning, the physician or midwife will decide whether or not to perform an episiotomy. This is a small incision from the vagina to the anus in the perineum to prevent tearing. At the completion of birth, the incision is stitched closed.

c. Afterbirth stage

 The contractions of the uterus continue, causing the placenta to separate from the wall of the uterus and be expelled. The afterbirth, which is expelled, consists of placenta, umbilical cord, amniotic sac, and lochia. Childbirth, although a natural process, is difficult for both the mother and the baby. Fortunately, nature makes this easier.The unborn baby’s skull is soft and flexible so it can become longer and more narrow, allowing it to pass through the pelvis more easily.

During the birth process, complications may arise.The baby experiences great pressure as it is pushed out of the uterus and through the birth canal. At times, the umbilical cord may be constricted, restricting blood flow to the baby. In some instances, the mother’s pelvis may not be large enough to allow passage of the baby. Sometimes the placenta is positioned close to or covering the cervix and must be delivered before the baby. In these instances, t h e doctor may decide to perform a caesarean section to avoid danger to the mother or baby. This is performed by making an incision in the mother’s abdomen and uterus. The baby is then removed from the uterus before it enters the birth canal.

However, a vaginal birth, if possible, i s best for the infant for several reasons: it helps expel any fluid out of the lungs, and the baby must fight more, which develops strength in the baby. 

In most instances, the baby’s face is looking downward as the head emerges. This is called a posterior position. Some babies are born in an anterior position. The head then rotates to the side; the shoulders come out one at a time, followed by the abdomen and legs. In some instances, the baby is not positioned correctly and will emerge buttocks, feet, or shoulders first. This is referred to as “breech.” This type of birth is more difficult for both the mother and the child and, in many instances the doctor will try and turn the baby or a caesarean section will be performed.

1. Make a poster with the timeline of prenatal development and label it correctly. 

2. Explain how babies learn before birth.

13.1.2. Risk factors for women and infants during pregnancy

Catherine is an expectant mother. She is not good at home since she is living in extreme misery. In addition to that Catherine is suffering from malnutrition and an intense fatigue. 

Do you think Catherine’s life experience will impact on her baby? Explain how and why?

There is a number of factors or influences or hazards that can harm an unborn child and there is essential that prospective parents and teachers as well have to be aware of these influences. Thus prenatal risk factors include:

• Chronic maternal illness: Maternal illnesses increase the chance that your baby will born with a birth defect or have a chronic health problem. Diabetes, cytomegalovirus, toxoplasmosis and Strep B are just a few of the illnesses that can cause an adverse outcome to pregnancy.

Certain maternal infections: Maternal infection is an infection acquired by the mother who then transmits the  infection  to the foetus. This transmission can occur via the placenta before delivery or via the birth canal during labor and delivery when the baby is exposed to maternal blood.

• Maternal health and illness: Stress during pregnancy may cause the child to be hyperactive while severe malnourishment may lead to the death of the foetus. Less severe malnutrition may contribute to condition such as cerebral palsy and brain damage. Disease such as rubella, syphilis, gonorrhoea or malaria during pregnancy may cause the unborn child to suffer from condition such as mental deficiency, blindness or deafness.

• Maternal age: Young mother are likely to have children with neurological defects. Children of over 40 years old mother face a chromosomal abnormality risk for example Down syndrome. 

• Rhesus factors: Children inherit the blood group from the parents. A problem arises when one of the parents is Rh + (positive) and the other one is Rh - (negative). Due to blood incompatibility interaction of the maternal and foetal blood produce antibodies in the mother’s blood. These antibodies will not affect the first baby, but they will stay in the mother’s blood and affect the second baby. Fortunately, Rhesus factor problems are preventable.

Mother’s emotional state: When the emotional state of the mother changes, there is a release of chemical product into the blood stream. These chemical reaches the foetus and irritate it. Depending on the emotional state of the mother, the duration and the intensity of the emotion, effect on the foetus may be short or long-term.

 • Radiation Large doses of radiation such as those used in X-rays photography are known to damage the foetus or induce abortions. The most dramatic illustrations of the effect of atomic bomb on Hiroshima in Japan in 1945 during the Second World War shows that pregnant mothers less than 20 weeks and within half mile of the center of explosion gave birth to physically or mentally abnormal child. 

• Maternal diseases: Foetal infection can occur from maternal diseases since the foetus receives its nourishment from the mother through the placenta and umbilical cord. Some maternal diseases are: 

 Rubella: is a maternal disease that damage prenatal development of children. Children born with rubella may have defects, such as mental retardation, blindness, and deafness and heart problems.

The greatest danger of this disease is in the 3rd or 4th week of pregnancy. Hence it occurs during organogenesis (when organs are being formed)

Syphilis: This is devastative later in prenatal development in 4th or more months after conception. Unlike rubella that damages organogenesis, syphilis damages organs that have been formed.

Genital herpes: This may be contracted during birth; newborns contract the herpes simplex virus II when they are delivered through the birth canal of mothers with genital herpes. Nearly 1/3 of babies delivered through the birth canal die and ¼ become brain damaged. This can be prevented by using caesarean section to keep the virus from infecting the newborn.

HIV/AIDS: Today the number of women with HIV is growing steadily especially in developing countries. There are three ways a mother can who suffers from HIV/AIDS can infect her offspring: 

* During gestation across the placenta.

 * During delivery through contact with maternal blood or fluids. 

* Postpartum through breast-feeding.

Miscarriage and abortion : a miscarriage or spontaneous abortion occurs when pregnancy is brought to an end before the developing organism is mature enough to survive outside the womb. Today’s spontaneous abortion is brought about by abnormalities of reproductive tract, viral or bacterial infections and sometimes by severe traumas.

• Maternal nutrition: this can affect normal development especially of the foetal brain as well as physical aspect. The foetus depends on its mother for nutrition, which comes from the mother’s blood. A pregnant woman requires appropriate level of proteins, vitamins, minerals, etc. A woman’s nutrition influences her ability to reproduce and give birth to a healthy child. Otherwise she may stop menstruating, hence making conception impossible.

• Environmental hazards 

Radiation, chemical and environment pollutants and toxic waste of modern industrial world are dangerous to the foetus. For instance, radiation can cause gene mutation (abrupt but permanent change in genetic material). Fathers who are often exposed to a high level of radiation have higher level chances of producing children with chromosomal abnormalities. X-ray can also affect development of embryo during pregnancy.

• Psychological hazards: Maternal stress can easily be transmitted to the foetus. When an expectant mother is exposed to intense fears, anxieties and depression, physiological change occurs in respiratory and glandular systems.

For instance, due to fear, adrenaline may be produced with restricts blood flow to the uterus and may deprive the foetus of adequate oxygen. The mother’s emotional state during pregnancy can influence the birth process. An emotional mother might develop irregular contradictions and more difficult labour period.

• Drugs: Excessive smoking and drinking are dangerous to normal development especially during embryonic and foetal periods. Taking the wrong drugs at the wrong time may make on offspring physically handicapped for life for instance: Thalidomide, when taken during pregnancy might prevent growth of arms and legs. Heavy drinking during pregnancy can lead to deformed limbs, face, heart and mental retardation. Cigarette smoking by pregnant woman can cause foetal and neonatal death as well low birth weights.

1. Describe risks or influences that are most likely to occur in our society and suggest ones that we can learn to manage.

2. Growth and development are a continuous process that is one stage of development lays the foundation for the next stage of development. Refer to this principle of human growth and development to explain why we should cater for pregnancy

13.1.3. Key message and recommended practices during pre-natal period

Advise mothers who experience problems similar to those she encountered in order to help them diliver their babies successfully and ensure the smooth development of their children.

a. Pregnancy birth and thereafter

 – Once the pregnancy is confirmed, the mother needs to visit a healthcare worker or clinic and continue to go for regular check-up at the clinic during the pregnancy to allow health care workers to treat and prevent potential health problems (Antenatal care). 

 – Pregnant mothers need to get information about their pregnancy, what to expect and how to remain healthy while pregnant. – They need to take some vaccinations and engage in dialogues with their health care worker in order to increase the chances of delivering a health child. 

 – Pregnant mothers are encouraged to be tested for HIV when they visit their health care worker. 

 – Mothers who are pregnant and/or breastfeeding must eat healthy food. This helps to sustai the mother and the baby’s good healthy. 

 – Mothers who are pregnant and/or breastfeeding should neither drink alcohol, use drugs nor smoke. The failure to do so, can cause serious harm to the foetus/ unborn child in womb. Mothers who are pregnant and/or breastfeeding must careful talk to their phyisician when the need to take some medicine arise. This is due to the fact that certain medication can be harmful to the unborn child or young baby when breastfed.

b. Maternal mental health v/s child health and development

 Good mental health and strong motivations of affections are important for caregivers to be able to empathize with a young child’s experiences and to manage their own emotions and reactions to their baby’s dependence without hostility. Mental health problems among women who are pregnant or have recently given birth are among the most common pregnancy related morbidity. In resource constrained low and middle-income countries prevalence of common perinatal mental disorders, including depressive, anxiety and adjustment disorders, is much higher than in high-income settings because of additional risk factors such as socio-economic stresses, unplanned pregnancy, being younger or unmarried, lacking intimate partner empathy and support or being subject to violence, or having hostile in-laws. Protective factors include having more education and secure income-generating work, and having a kind, trustworthy partner.

Emotions, concentration, judgment and thinking are affected with mental health problems, and affected women are more likely to have depressed mood, irritability, pessimism and difficulty expressing warmth, affection, and pleasure; instead, they are likely to be pre-occupied with worries and anxiety,

including about infant care. These influence social interactions, including with the baby. Depression among mothers has been linked directly to higher rates of child diarrheal and respiratory diseases, stunting and hospital admissions, lower completion of recommended immunization schedules, and worse socio-emotional development among young children.

Effective interventions to reduce depression and promote maternal mental health have been developed and tested in low and middle income countries where there are very few mental health specialists, and are generally implemented by trained community health workers under professional supervision. Interventions designed to improve maternal mental health have a positive impact on infant health and development, and interventions to promote infant health and development positively impact maternal mood. The effects on infant health and development are stronger when the maternal and infant components are integrated.

c. Effect of Health, hygiene and balanced diet and rest to the pregnant mother

Talk to your doctor about any over-the-countered and prescription of medicines you are required to use. These include dietary or herbal supplements. Some medicines are harmful during pregnancy. At the same time, stopping medicines you need also can be harmful. Your physician may suggest taking prenatal vitamins with iron and folic acid to help protect you against anemia. These vitamins also protect the foetus against serious problems with the brain and spinal cord. Keep blood sugar level up by eating whole, healthy foods and plenty of proteins. Vary your diet as much as possible and do this in small, frequent meals throughout the day. Example: Mother should try to have three meals every day or six smaller meals if she has problems with nausea or heartburn. Choose fruits, vegetables, whole grains, calcium-rich foods, and foods low in saturated fat.

The foetus gets all its food from you, so mother should try to make healthy food choices, wash fruits and vegetables before eating. Don’t eat uncooked or undercooked meats or fish. Always handle, clean, cook, eat, and store foods properly. Taking plenty of fluids, especially water to keep one hydrated. Plain water is great. Get early and regular prenatal care physical examinations. Whether this is the first pregnancy or third, health care is extremely important. Avoid very hot baths. The high heat raises the risk of miscarriage and birth defects.

Get plenty of rest and sleep, a nap before dinner and around lunch time, find ways to control stress is much recommended. Read books, watch videos, go to a childbirth lessons, can help a mother to prepare for the birth of a baby. Stay away from chemicals like solvents (like some cleaners or paint

thinners), lead, mercury, and paint (including paint fumes). Not all products have pregnancy warnings on their labels. If unsure, if a product is safe, ask your doctor before using it. Do physical exercises and avoid drugs like cocaine, heroin, marijuana, tobacco and alcohol to void birth defects. Cocaine, heroin, marijuana and other drugs increase risk of miscarriage, premature birth and birth defects. A baby could also be born addicted to the drug you have been abusing, which can cause serious health problems.

Source: Nurturing care for early childhood development: A framework for linking survive and thrive to transform health and human potential, May 2018.

1. Suggest the reasons why the above mentioned practices are strongly recommended during pregnancy.

 2. Suggest other recommended practices during pregnancy for either mothers or their husbands to help pregnant women.

1. Discuss how effectively the mother should take care of the child since his first 1000 days and outline the implication of this care for learning while the time comes for a child to attend the school.

 2. Discuss how genes and chromosomes during prenatal period contribute in shaping our behaviour.

13.2. Developmental Milestones During Infancy (0-2 Years)

Babies are learning many different things during twenty-four first months, and parents are learning about their babies too. Parents should observe their baby to learn how he/she likes to be talked to, held, and comforted. Additionally, they should be aware that all babies are different.

13.2.1. Some milestones that babies reach during 0-3 months

1. Describe the main developmental milestones of an infant aged 0-3 months on the following aspects 

a. Physical 

 b. Cognitive 

c. Social and emotional 

d. Communication

 2. Identify the appropriate games and/or activities to use so as to boost the holistic development of the infant aged 0-3 months.

13.2.2. Some milestones babies reach during 4-6 months

1. Describe the main developmental milestones of an infant aged 4-6 months on the following aspects

 a. Physical

 b. Cognitive 

c. Social and emotional 

d. Communication

 2. Identify the appropriate games and/or activities to use so as to boost the holistic development of the infant aged 4-6 months

13.2.3. Some milestones babies reach during 7-9 months

Referring to the behavior of a baby aged 4-6 months as you studied it and the knowledge you have about the theories of child development select among the following behaviors those that can be manifested by a child aged 7-9 months. 

 • Starts to move with alternate leg and arm movement e.g. creeping, crawling 

• Focuses on objects near and far

 • Moves in and out of various positions to explore environment and get desired toys 

• Enjoys imitating people in play 

• Looks at familiar objects and people when named

 • Combines sounds and gestures 

• Looks at correct picture when the image is named

1. Describe the main developmental milestones of an infant aged 7-9 months on the following aspects 

a. Physical

 b. Cognitive 

c. Social and emotional 

d. Communication 

2. Identify the appropriate games and/or activities to use so as to boost the holistic development of the infant aged 7-9 months.

13.2.4. Some milestones babies reach during 10-12 months

Referring to the behavior of a baby aged 7-9 months as you studied it and the knowledge you have about the theories of child development select among the following behaviors those that can be manifested by a child aged 10-12 months.

• Moves in and out of various positions to explore environment and get desired toys

 • Walks independently and seldom falls 

• Finds hidden objects easily 

• Plays make-believe 

• Points to things of interest 

• Combines sounds and gestures

 • Responds to simple directions, e.g. “Come here”

 • Responds to questions

1. Describe the main developmental milestones of an infant aged 10- 12 months on the following aspects

 a. Physical

 b. Cognitive c. Social and emotional

 d. Communication 

2. Identify the appropriate games and/or activities to use so as to boost the holistic development of the infant aged 10-12 months.

13.2.5. Some milestones babies reach during 13-18 months

Referring to the behavior of a baby aged 10-12 months as you studied it and the knowledge you have about the theories of child development select among the following behaviors those that can be manifested by a child aged 13-18 months.

• Stands on tiptoe

 • Sorts by shape and color 

• Coordinates movements needed to play and explore 

• Enjoys playing with musical toys 

• Uses at least 50 words 

• Aware of herself as separate from others 

• Imitates simple words.

1. Describe the main developmental milestones of an infant aged 13- 18 months on the following aspects 

a. Physical 

 b. Cognitive 

c. Social and emotional 

d. Communication 

2. Identify the appropriate games and/or activities to use so as to boost the holistic development of the infant aged 13-18 months.

13.2.6. Some milestones babies reach during 18-24 months

Referring to the behavior of a baby aged 13-18 months as you studied it and the knowledge you have about the theories of child development select among the following behaviors those that can be manifested by a child aged 18-24 months.

• Coordinates movements needed to play and explore 

• Sorts by shape and color 

• Can speak like an adult

 • Is generally happy when not hungry or tired

 • Can stand on one leg 

• Names objects and pictures

 • Can go to school and study like adult.

1. Describe the main developmental milestones of an infant aged 18- 24 months on the following aspects 

a. Physical

 b. Cognitive

 c. Social and emotional 

d. Communication 

2. Identify the appropriate games and/or activities to use so as to boost the holistic development of the infant aged 18-24 months. 

3. As the development pace of children differ from one another and thus all have go through the same developmental stages, conduct a research and indicate when to confirm that a child has particular problems which hamper his development.

13.2.7. Key message and recommendation practices during infancy period

The future development of a child depends up on good parenting during the first months of life, particularly in his 1000 days. Again an infant is like little a seed that needs to grow and develop in the perfect and nourishing environment for its fullest potential. If you agree with these statements, make recommendations to parents and caregivers on how they should practice so as to help their children earlier in infancy in order to determine their future development.

Sometimes children catch up, but their physical development may be slower and sometimes their cognitive development is very premature. This brings up the importance of good prenatal care and good nutrition for the pregnant mother to-be. Additional to mothers ‘health, there are other key supporting and protective factors such as:

Family environment: Children need a lot of love and attention, supportive caregivers and they need exposure to the secure and stimulating environment from early age.

Friendly community: A child should have close relationship with neighbour who is able to provide time to help a child, to talk to him/her and show warm love to them. Children’s development is helped by these kind of relationships.

Effect of Nutrition, health and hygiene: Nurturing care consists of five inter-related and indivisible components: Good health, good nutrition, safety and security, responsive caregiving and opportunities for early learning. In the first years of life, parents, intimate family members and caregivers are close to the young child and thus are the best providers of Nurturing Care. This is why secure family environments are important for young children. Access to clean water and sanitation, good hygiene practices, clean air and a safe environment are all essential to protect children’s health and support their development.

Infant: Breastfeeding is good for child’s health and development. Breast milk is the perfect food for the baby to get immunities, nutrition and to line the brain cells for a smart start.

 Feeding is a great time to touch and hold baby close. Singing and humming soothes baby while feeding. Talking with your child as she eats will encourage her to eat more and be healthy.

 A child needs a mixed, nutritious diet with adequate amounts of vitamins and minerals to grow and develop. If your child does not receive sufficient amounts of vitamins and minerals, provide him with vitamin and mineral supplementation.

Toddlers: Washing food before cooking will help keep away certain diseases. Eating a mixed diet including vegetables, fruit and meat is important. Feeding a child 3 to 5 times a day will be enough to keep growing strongly. Vitamins and minerals are important to prevent malnutrition and later learning problems. 

Nurturing and responsive care to the child 

 Children learn to trust in the first few years of life. When you provide responsive care with a safe place to explore, they learn to trust you when they meet their needs.

Even little babies can communicate. They use crying, smiling and cooing. Babies are learning words every day. So tell them the names of things all around, part of body, name of family members... The more words they hear, the smarter they are. Babies can learn from books too. So share picture books or stories with them every day. Talk about the pictures over and over. 

Toddlers enjoy the rhythm of language. Tell stories to the child, rhymes and songs while encouraging clapping and hand motions. Toddlers are learning words every day. So tell them the names of things all around, name party of body, how picture books, share stories and sing. Talking with your toddler is the best path to a smarter child. Twos are rapidly learning new words. They may know 300 now and up to 900 words by the end of this year of growth. It is very important to share stories and read picture books.

Nurturing care starts before birth, when mothers and other caregivers can start talking and singing to the fetus. The growing fetus is able to hear by the end of the second trimester of pregnancy and the baby is able to recognize mother’s voice after birth. Immediately after birth, skin-to-skin contact, breastfeeding and the presence of a companion to support the mother facilitate early bonding and build the foundations for optimal nutrition and quality interactions and care. Soon after birth, babies respond to faces, gentle touch and holding, as well as the sound of baby talk. Caregivers soon learn to appreciate how babies can be engaged in responsive interactions, which are essential to the optimal development of the baby’s rapidly growing brain.

Reading contributes to the children’ learning 

 When reading to an infant, remind them to point to the pictures and just say the word. It can be simple like, “Bird, see the pretty bird?” They should watch for the baby to give clues. If the baby is interested, watch to see the arms and hands moving around. Some infants will even reach for the picture in the book. Encourage babies to reach and touch the pictures or pat at them. When they do, name the picture they are touching. This really helps them to understand words early. However, they do get tired of the book sometimes. This will be easy to see if the baby turns away from the book or stretches to move around. Parents should stop the book when this happens and change activity.

Playing with your child 

Infants:Play is the way that infants learn about their world. Play is children’s work! Through play they discover how the world works. Playing with your baby expands learning while building bonds. 

By giving the baby objects with a variety of colors, sounds and textures, you are helping the baby learn many new skills and concepts. Baby learns about cause and effect through play. They use their bodies and all senses to check out the world.

Toddlers: Toddlers like to do things over and over. Their brains get stronger when things are repeated. So sing the same song again, read the same book or tell that story again. Play is how toddlers learn to solve problems so let them explore. Describe the play so that the child learns new words while playing with you. Follow the child’s lead. Watch to see what they like and then offer more play.

Two year olds can pretend play now. Provide props like: purses, hats, aprons, and scarves. Join in the play to add on to your child’s ideas. Make homemade toys using things around house. 

Two year olds are getting very social. So encourage play with other family children like siblings or cousins. Children that can share and cooperate are more successful in school.

Supporting children for emotional development

 Babies that have loving relationships are smarter. When they can count on you for safety, they are free to explore and more confident. Babies that are confident are going to learn and brain grows faster. 

When infants feel loved, they can listen better. Some challenging behaviors like crying or not eating are normal. When baby has a guiding parent that teaches, their self-esteem will grow and they will be safe.

Toddlers are very emotional and get frustrated when they want things and can’t ask yet.

 Toddlers can’t stop themselves because they can’t understand right from wrong; don’t have impulse control from front part of brain to stop from doing wrong; and they don’t know their own emotions

Toddlers need guidance and protection. They can get on your nerves but they don’t do it on purpose. They just simply can’t help themselves.

 Punishment like yelling, hitting or beating does not work because they get confused and hurt. 

Protect them by moving them away from problems and redirect to something better to do.

1. Discuss how proper and enough breastfeeding is the most important practice for mothers to ensure holistic development of children in infancy. 

 2. After studying this sub-unit (infancy) provide a general recommendation to the parents and caregivers on how they should help their children to develop holistically.

After observing Keza, her mamy realised at certain age she was able to bring her hands to mouth and grasp toys, she could recognize familiar objects and people at distance, she could show her smile when she was happy, she could as well be quiet or smile to sounds and voices. What do you think might be her age? 

 At certain age, Amina, a child of Keza’s age was able to walk independently and seldom fall, sorting objects by shape and color, has a regular sleep schedule, and understand 50 words. Between Amina and Keza, whom do you think was behind in the development? What do you think might be the age of either Amina or Keza who was able to perform the above activities?

13.3. Early Childhood (2-5 Years)

13.3.1. The benefit of early learning

During play time at pre-primary school, observe three young children in baby class, middle class and top class child. Write down the activities and abilities that you see from those different children.

The work of Early childhood educators is about supporting a child in these critical early age, and provide holistic access to learning opportunities. 

 At this age, children are characterized by the following features: 

 – At this stage, children are now free to roam around their world.

It is a time for active exploration of their environment. 

 – Language development takes major leaps which leads to learning the names of objects of interest, the ability to ask for things and as they discover their independent nature, they develop the ability to say “NO!”.

– During this developmental stage, a major challenge is developing what psychologists call emotional regulation. 

  – Meltdowns (reactions to something. Example, child can have meltdown or temper tantrum because of missing what they like such as food, a toy, …). Both meltdowns and emotional regulation are common during this period, but parents can use the bond developed during infancy to help the child learn to modulate their emotional expression and begin to grasp the difficult concept of delay of gratification.

  – While they instinctively seem to be able to say “NO” toddlers also need help in learning how to accept “No” from others. 

– Early childhood stage is also a stage of rapid physical and intellectual development preparing these children for starting school which includes interacting cooperatively with peers while at the same time being able to compete physically and intellectually. 

 – This is the stage when children typically first enter pre-school (3-4 years). Being in a school setting is a great opportunity for a child to interact with others for developing social skills. Being with others will also challenge him/her to compete with others physically and mentally.

Children benefit: Children who participate in programmes such as this, that aim to develop their physical, social, psychological and intellectual capacities early, particularly before the age of 6, see many benefits later in life. They are more likely to attend school and perform better once they are there compared to other children. ECE programmes can also free time for older, female siblings to go to school rather than staying at home to care for younger siblings.

Families benefit: When children are physically and emotionally healthy and have well-developed social and cognitive skills, the whole family benefits. Parents/caregivers have more disposable income to support their families than parents/caregivers who must spend money on medical or remedial expenses.

Schools benefit: when children are better prepared for school, schools can spend less money on remedial learning, and more money enhancing education programmes. Ministries of Education around the world are recognising that an investment in ECD programmes is crucial to improving primary school enrolment, retention and completion rates; this is especially true for girls and disadvantaged children.

13.3.2. Physical development during early Childhood ages

Watch a video which shows what children of 3 to 4 years are able to do, thereafter you highlight the actions/activities related to physical development.

During the early childhood age, there are specific features of gross and fine motor development for specific periods ranging from 30 months up to 4-5/6 years that are summarised below:

c. Promotion of physical development of preschoolers

 Given that a child needs more physical exercise to grow, parents, guardians, caregivers and specifically teachers will need to help children grow physically in order to achieve the aforementioned gross motor development skills. 

 It is with that respect that they will need to: 

 – Give child the space and freedom to use large muscles, through activities such as running, climbing and swinging on playground equipment. 

– Make sure child gets adequate sleep and nutrition to fuel overall development and activity. 

– Take child to a pediatrician in case of any concerns. Even small problems, caught and addressed at this age, can greatly enhance motor skill development and confidence. 

– Use equipment to develop large muscles (i.e. hula hoops, bean bags, tricycle, large balls). 

– Set up empty water bottles like bowling pins, and let child use a soft ball to “bowl.”

 – Join child in active play like tag, hide and seek, or set up a simple obstacle course. 

– Give child opportunities to practice small motor skills using child safety scissors, blocks, dice, and buttons.

Play match game with your classmates: Developmental milestones abilities with different ages ( 2-5/6) and discuss on factors that can promote or delay these milestones.

13.3.3. Cognitive development during early childhood age

a. Student teachers visit multi-age centre and observe children in free play: put down on paper what they have observed, how children interact, level of thinking, how they change everything in into reality how they share ideas, …..the role of care givers during children activity/play , the tome children keep concentration on one activity etc 

 b. Watch a video which shows the activities a child of 3-4 and 5 years is able to do.

a. Cognitive milestones during early childhood 

The physical development of a child goes hand in hand with intellectual development. Here below are the intellectual abilities which characterize a child whose age range varies from 2 to 5/6 years.

b. Promotion of cognitive development of preschoolers 

Given that a child needs to grow intellectually, parents, guardians, caregivers and specifically teachers will need to help children with the following tasks: 

 – Give child tasks of sorting by matching shape, type, color or size.

 – Play “sizes” games where child puts things in order. 

– Have simple puzzles available for child to play with. 

– Have child arrange pictures in a sequence, such as photos of a child different ages (e.g., baby, toddler, pre-schooler). – Play games that require child to match objects that are the same or different.

 – Encourage pretend play, and give child props and space in which to enter an imaginary world. If you join in, ask questions, but let child direct the play.

 – When child encounters a problem, have her/him help devise a possible solution.

Based on the key knowledge gained from above presentation, student teachers in small four groups do a gallery work discussing on given topic relating to the cognitive development: ability and activities that promote this domain tothe child aged 2-6. They discuss on points, decide and move to another paper to add on what another group find out

13.3.4. Early childhood social and emotional development

Case study: 

 Explore Case study that shows socio- emotional development, risk and protective factors that may affect or promote Socio-emotional development of a child aged 2-5years. Discuss and find out risk factor that may hinder socio-emotional development and other factors that promote them at early childhood children. Student-Teacher may add some factors from prior experience they have.

a. Social and emotional skills 

As the child grows intellectually and physically, he/she needs to grow socially, here below are some features of emotional development that a child of early childhood exhibit throughout different stages.

b. Promotion of socio and emotional development of preschoolers

 Given that a child needs to grow emotionally, parents, guardians, caregivers and specifically teachers will need to help children with the following tasks: 

– Provide structure and daily routines to create a secure environment 

– Encourage child’s independence by giving chances to practice and master self-care skills.

- Teach child to recite his first and last names, his parents’ names, his gender and age, and his home address. 

– Give child regular social contact with other children his/her age, both one-on-one and in a group.

 – Observe child playing with others, and listen to what he says about his friends. 

 – Teach child to cooperate with peers, resolve conflicts, and build and maintain friendships. 

– Play games that require child to cooperate with others, wait his turn, and learn to be a gracious winner or loser. Example: Play a ball with others children or with adults, …...

Watch a video below which show the social and emotional development activities that children of 3, 4 and 5 years are able to exhibit .

 Explain characteristic of social/emotional development.

13.3.5 Early childhood and language development

Play a game that reinforce speaking and listening skills. A game is called “ I went to the market and I bought ……( Child will complete with his/her favourite food after repeating what his/her two previous colleague said)

a. Language skills 

The children’s language development in early childhood is considered based on three distinctive stages—stage of 2-3 years, stage 3-4 years, and the stage of 4-5/6 years. As for the first stage (2-3 years), the language development is viewed from two distinctive periods (30 months and 36 months).

b. Actions to promote language development 

 – Speak to child in a clear, correct, and simple manner. Avoid using baby talk.

 – Make conversation a two-way street. Take time each day to listen to and talk with child. 

– Model good listening behavior when child speaks (i.e. pause an activity and make eye contact)

 – Encourage child to use language (and not just gestures or actions) to express ideas, observations, and feelings. 

– Ask questions that require child to make and express a choice. 

– Try to enrich and expand child’s vocabulary.

 – Engage child in activities and games that require listening and following directions.

 – Read and sing nursery rhymes – Read and tell stories that have interesting characters and easy-to-follow plots. – Discuss the stories together.

Sorting and classification game: Make a table with developmental milestones of different domaines and ages. Sort them out and classify them according to the ages: between 2-3 years, between 3-4 years and between 4-5 years Asks lots of questions,

• Likes to talk and have conversations with people, 

 • Uses proper grammar most of the time, 

 • Uses pronouns “I”, “you” and “me, 

 • Stand on tiptoes if shown first, 

 • Enjoy playing games, but might change the rules as he goes, 

 • Stick with a difficult task for longer period (controlling frustration or anger better), 

 • Show an understanding of right and wrong, 

 • Listen while others are speaking, 

 • Play games with simple rules,

 • Jump from bottom step, 

 • Draw straight lines and circles, 

 • Imitate you drawing a cross, 

 • Turn single pages in a book, 

 • Snip the edges of paper with scissors (by 30 months), 

 • Hold crayons using the thumb and,

 • Begin to ride a tricycle, moving forward with feet on the floor,

 • Copy a square,

 • Begin to draw diagonal lines, like in a triangle, 

 • Start to color inside the lines of a picture, 

 • Start to draw pictures that are recognizable, 

 • Build things with smaller linking blocks, 

 • Put on his own clothing, but may still need help with fasteners like buttons/zippers,

• Start to spread butter or cut soft foods with a small table knife (with supervision),

 • Continues to learn lots of new words very quickly,

 • Vocabulary of 4,000-6,000 words, 

 • Uses sentences of 4-6 words, 

 • Talks a lot and about everything they are doing or thinking,

 • Tells long stories about own personal experiences,

 • Asks “who” and “why” questions, 

 • Interested in explanations for their “how” and “why” questions, 

 • Understands and uses “tomorrow” and “yesterday”,

 • Uses past, present and future tense, 

 • Stand on balance beam with two feet and attempt to step forward, 

 • Catch a large ball with arms straight out,

 • Stand on 1 foot momentarily, 

 • Walk up the stairs alone with alternating feet, 

 • Walk downstairs with two feet on same step,

 • Walk on tiptoe Ride a tricycle,

 • Walk up and down stairs with alternating feet, without support, 

 • Jump from 12 inches with feet together,

 • Use a slide independently, 

 • Climb well (not including ladders),

 • Skip, leading with one leg ; 

 • Build a tower of 9-10 small blocks

13.3.6. Key Messages and recommendations practices

Working into small group and discuss on given topics. Then share with whole students the discussion outcomes. 

 The proposed topics :

 1. Play is a key in development and impacts all developmental domains

 2. Reading a book with a child impact language development 

 3. Parental involvement for children development and learning, 4. Safe place for children’s life and learning against harmful

Introduction

 Cognitive, social-emotional (mental health), and physical development are complementary, mutually supportive areas of  growth all requiring active attention in the preschool years. Social skills and physical dexterity influence cognitive development, just as cognition plays a role in children’s social understanding and motor competence. All are therefore related to early learning and later academic achievement and are necessary domains of early childhood pedagogy. To ensure holistic development and elementary school readiness in early childhood the following practices are recommended to all parents, caregivers, teachers and other stakeholders.

• Play is fun and leads to positive emotions that are important for children’s physical and mental well-being, health and quality and life. Play provides children with a way for coping with real life challenges. It offers the opportunity for every caregiver (teachers/parents) to engage with her/his child and build healthy relationships.

 • Play is the way in which children learn and develop. Learning through play starts with parents in the home where children play, learn and develop with the support of parents, caregivers, older siblings and family members. 

 • Play allows children to explore, discover, negotiate, take risks, create meaning and solve problems, which are the important foundations for developing literacy, numeracy and social skills. 

 • Play is a foundational principle in learning and development for children with disabilities. It is an important “tool” to ensure that children with disabilities participate fully in an inclusive and rights respecting society.

 • Children who engage in quality play experiences are more likely to have well-developed memory skills, language development, and are able to regulate their behaviour, leading to enhanced school adjustment and academic learning (Bodrova & Leong, 2005) 

• Lack of play and communication, known as “under-stimulation”, can have long-term negative consequences on a child’s learning and physical and mental health. 

• The foundations of mathematics is rooted in playing with puzzles, blocks and construction toys. • Language development is fast-tracked when parents, educators and practitioners talk to children when they are playing; describing and sharing new words that leads to forming concepts needed for formal learning.

 • Routines help a child feel safe and secure. Having same order of routines helps brain grow stronger. When routines are predictable, they make toddler’s brain grow with strong pathways. Routines offer a way for toddler to help and start building some independence routines build trust and positive relationships.

When reading to an infant, remember to point to the pictures and just say the word. It can be simple like, “Bird, see the pretty bird?” Parents or caregivers should watch for the baby to give clues. If the baby is interested, watch to see the arms and hands moving around. Some infants will even reach for the picture in the book. Encourage babies to reach and touch the pictures or pat at them. When they do, name the picture they are touching. This really helps them to understand words early.

However, they do get tired of the book sometimes. This will be easy to see if the baby turns away from the book or stretches to move around. Parents should stop the reading when this happens and change activity

Reading to young toddlers: Young toddlers also need simple talk around the pictures. Make the reading fun and interactive. Ask the toddler to touch the picture as you name the object. They delight in books, use simple and few words. If too many words are on the page, just talk about the pictures and avoid reading long passages. When toddlers lose interest, they usually try to close the book and walk away.

Reading to older toddlers: Older toddlers are ready to hear more words in the story. They really like rhyming too. If you leave off a word in predictable book, they can sometimes fill it in for you. This is a good skill that can build later reading comprehension and sound awareness. Ask many questions to a two-year-old as you discover the book together. Reading play a key role to the children. They see, they hear and there is coordination between head (brain), heart (emotion) and hands (touch pictures he is seeing in the book).

Reading to older toddlers: Older toddlers are ready to hear more words in the story. They really like rhyming too. If you leave off a word in predictable book, they can sometimes fill it in for you. This is a good skill that can build later reading comprehension and sound awareness. Ask many questions to a two-year-old as you discover the book together. Reading play a key role to the children. They see, they hear and there is coordination between head (brain), heart (emotion) and hands (touch pictures he is seeing in the book).

• Language and Communication begins at birth Early on, babies try to have “conversations” with the people they love. They start by back-and-forth smiling and cooing. Later they “talk” by using movements (e.g., kicking happily to show excitement), gestures (e.g., pointing), and sounds (e.g., babbling and later words). Toddlers are learning so many words every day. The more words they hear, the more they learn. 

 Toddlers learn words so they can talk to somebody or communicate what they need. They see what they want. Their brain finds the word. They say the word. When you hear the word, you say more about it this makes the language part of their brain stretch and learn more. 

 Between two and three the toddler’s communication skills grow in so many ways. During this year a child will listen to and enjoy rhyming in books and songs, point to or find objects when asked, use describing words (like big cow), can carry on a conversation. The more you talk, read, sing and play with 2 year old, the larger their bank of words will grow.

• Protecting Children against harmful objects

 During different activities engaging children to manipulate objects, caregivers should first check if the place is safe for children. Young children need to grow-up in environments (home. Community, service points) that are safe.

safety measures need to be taken all the time in the home, at centers/ schools to avoid injuries due to electricity, gas, paraffin, fires, sticks, stones, etc. Children need to be taught from an early age in an appropriate manner about risk and dangers. 

 Any form of abuse of babies and young children need to be reported immediately to the security agents. Any kind of abuse affects children in different way: physically, emotionally and psychologically. Examples: beating a child affect their physical aspect, socio-emotional.

Preventing children from playing affect them cognitively, physically, emotionally…. Vulnerable families need to receive necessary support to ensure in turn they provide support to their children. It takes village to raise children! In community, all members should contribute for children ‘security. Community awareness raising should be a key responsibility of local leaders to ensure children are growing up in safe environment.

• Parental involvement for children development and learning

 A child needs a strong support at home as at school/center. Parents should serve as primary teacher for the mastery of basic learning skills and encourage active discussion and experimentation of new concepts and skills

They should give enough time to the child and give message to children that strengthening what a child learn at preschool /center. Example: In everyday activity parents should invite a child and spend time discussing, telling a story, asking question to her/him, responding the question that a child may ask, briefly parents should be listening attentively to the child. And parent provide resources that a kid may need in the process or exposure her/him to the environments when a child himself may discover on her/his own.

You have learnt more about developmental milestones of children in all domains. In partnership that your school has with Mabano Cell where your school based, you are selected to represent your school and play a role of Cell Advisor. Therefore, Cell leaders are organizing campaign for engaging families in child development and learning showing them their irreplaceable role in Society.

 • Write a brief concept note and point out the purpose of campaign and key message to be given to participants during campaign 

• Formulate two specific objectives of the Campaign

You are student at Teacher Training College of Muramba in Ngororerpo District. Around your school there is primary school which has nursery. School leaders consistently receive complaints from parents. They say that they contribute for Caregivers salary every quarter but their children do not real study. Their schedule is from 7:30-12:00, but their children waste time in playing, singing, rhyming, telling stories instead of learning English, Kinyarwanda, Kinyarwanda and Maths. Last month head teachers they gave last warning to head teacher that if caregivers do not change approach they use teaching children, they will take decision as parents and take their children at another school.

Head teacher invites parent meeting with purpose to listen careful to the parents and explain them about pre-primary curriculum and children development and learning. As student knowledgeable on matter, you are invited to give “ Ikiganiro” to the parents. You are asked to emphasize on child development, learning, and role of parents in the learning journey.

Develop purposeful and summarized message to be given to the parents aimed to change their mind-set and behaviour and track out about play for learning, what children need for growing and learn well, and role of parents in children ‘learning.

13.4. Middle And Late Childhood

13.4.1. Some milestones children reach during 6-8 years include

You have already learnt about the developmental milestones in infancy and early childhood and you learnt different aspects of child development as well as the theories of human development. Now referring to all these knowledge and skills you acquired sort among the following the abilities/ skills and behaviour that characterize children aged 6-8 years. a. Children are able to take into account other people’s needs and feelings and show the need to help them.

 b. Children take part in various games and socialize more and more. Children in collaborating with their peers are fully involved in the success of the game. They stick to the rules of the game to reach the final victory of their team. 

c. Height and weight increase, but more slowly

 d. Understand his/her place in the world

 e. Pay more attention to friends f. Say what they think and feel honestly

1. Describe the main developmental milestones of a child aged 6-8 years on the following aspects 

a. Physical 

 b. Cognitive

 c. Social and emotional

 d. Communication 

2. Identify the appropriate games and/or activities to use so as to boost the holistic development of the child aged 6-8 years.

13.4.2. Some developmental milestones of 9-12 children

You have already learnt about the developmental milestones in infancy and early childhood and you learnt different aspects of child development as well as the theories of human development. Now referring to all these knowledge and skills you acquired, sort among the following abilities/skills and behavior that characterize children aged 9-12 years.

 1. Fine motor skills are refined 

2. Longer attention span, ~30 minutes if engaged 

3. Develop a stronger preference for same-sex friends

 4. Thinks more about how what they say will be interpreted by others

 5. Have opposition to leaders 6. Always think abstractly

With respect to physical, cognitive, social/emotional and communication development, parents, guardians, particularly teachers are required to do the following for the sake of children’s development.

1. Describe the main developmental milestones of a child aged 6-8 years on the following aspects

 a. Physical

 b. Cognitive 

c. Social and emotional 

d. Communication

 2. Identify the appropriate games and/or activities to use so as to boost the holistic development of the child aged 9-12 years.

13.4.3 Positive key messages and recommendations for middle and late childhood

Referring to the key message and recommendation practices in infancy and early childhood brainstorm what should be the recommendations to parents and care givers in order to facilitate their children who are in primary school to grow and develop holistically.

In upper primary, as children approach adolescence, their independence and capabilities increase. They may also start puberty which brings physical and emotional changes. Family becomes a lesser priority than friends.

Healthy friendships are therefore very important to a child’s development, but peer pressure can become strong during this period. Children who feel good about themselves are more able to resist negative peer pressure and make better choices for themselves. This is an important time for children to gain a sense of responsibility along with their growing independence.

Remember that this is the stage at which children are eager to develop and manifest competences. They want to be accepted and to develop confidence and self-esteem. They learn to be responsible and take decisions on their selves.

Here are the key messages and recommendations for parents and teachers so as to help these children grow and develop holistically:

- Spend time with your child: Talk with her about her friends, her accomplishments, and what challenges she will face.

 – Be involved with your child’s school: Go to school events; meet your child’s teachers.

 – Encouragement: Encourage your child to join school and community groups, such as a sports team, or to be a volunteer for a charity. 

– Help your child develop his own sense of right and wrong: Talk with him about risky things, friends might pressure him to do, like smoking or dangerous physical dares.

 – Help your child develop a sense of responsibility: Involve your child in household tasks like cleaning and cooking. Talk with your child about saving and spending money wisely.

 – Meet the families of your child’s friends. – Talk with your child about respecting others: Encourage him/her to help people in need, and talk with him/her about what to do when others are not kind or are disrespectful. 

– Help your child set his own goals: Encourage him to think about skills and abilities he would like to have and about how to develop them.

 – Make clear rules and stick to them: Talk with your child about what you expect from her (behavior) when no adults are present. If you provide reasons for rules, it will help her to know what to do in most situations.

 – Use discipline to guide and protect your child, instead of punishment to make him feel badly about himself. 

– Use of praise: When using praise, help your child think about her own accomplishments. Saying “you must be proud of yourself” rather than simply “I’m proud of you” can encourage your child to make good choices when nobody is around to praise her. 

– Human development talk: Talk with your child about the normal physical and emotional changes of puberty. 

– Reading culture reinforcement and academic success: Encourage your child to read every day, talk with him about his homework. 

– Love and affection: Be affectionate and honest with your child, and do things together as a family.

Amina has a young boy aged 9 years; her child is neither confident, nor responsible and does not take care of himself. She heard that you attended TTC and you are able to help her child to improve. If she comes to consult you on how to help her child, explain what you will help her.

IZERE is a boy who studies in primary 4. When he is at school, he doesn’t not talk to others, he is always busy on himself. When it comes to written exams he got higher marks and he is the first in the class, but when it is oral presentation he is not confident to stand in front of others and he cannot speak. Their classmates hate him because is not collaborative, but when it comes to playing football other students who play football prefer to be in the team with IZERE. 

According to this case study identify the areas in which IZERE is well developed and the areas in which is not well developed. What are the recommendations you can give to the teacher and parents of IZERE to help him develop in all domains?

Introduction 

The term adolescence is derived from a Latin word ‘adolescere’ that means to grow to adulthood. Adolescence begins as a separate developmental stage at about the age 11 and ends at about the age of 22. The age boundaries of adolescence vary so, the adolescence developmental stage can be distinguished on the basis of physical and psychological characteristics and social roles. Adolescence is considered the transitional stage from childhood to adulthood that occurs between ages 13 and 19. But the physical and psychological changes that take place in adolescence can start earlier, during the preteen years between ages 9 and 12. 

G. Stanley Hall (1844-1924) is known as the father of adolescent psychology. He constructed a psychological theory of teenage development and one major aspect of his theory was that this stage of life is characterized by ‘storm and stress” that most teens are by nature moody and untrustworthy.

The many physical, sexual, cognitive, social, and emotional changes that happen during this time can bring anticipation and anxiety for both children and their families. Understanding what to expect at different stages can promote healthy development throughout adolescence and into early adulthood.  

Adolescence has generally 3 stages: Early adolescence, Middle adolescence and late adolescence.

13.5.1. Early Adolescence (Ages 10 to 13)

Hirwa Hirwa is a P6 student and has 12 years old. He many times get home at night. When it is time to go home after class, Hirwa and his friends Mugabe, and Sibomana pass by at Premier betting officer. They spend much money in betting and their parents always claim missing money at home 

1. Do these children obey their parents? 

2. Why do you think they are disobedient to parents?

 3. Where do you think they get money for betting? 

4. What can you do if you are a parent of one of these three boys?

Major characteristics of early teens 

During the early adolescence stage, children often start to grow more quickly. They also begin notice other body changes, including hair growth under the arms and near the genitals, breast development in females and enlargement of the testicles in males. They usually start a year or two earlier in girls than boys, and it can be normal for some changes to start as early as age 8 for females and age 9 for males. Many girls may start their period at around age 12, on average 2-3 years after the onset of breast development.

These body changes can inspire curiosity and anxiety in some especially if they do not know what to expect or what is normal. Some children may also question their gender identity at this time, and the onset of puberty can be a difficult time for transgender children.

 Early adolescents have concrete, black-and-white thinking. Things are right or wrong, great or terrible, without much room in between.  It is normal at

this stage for young people to center their thinking on themselves (called “egocentrism”).  As part of this, preteens and early teens are often self-conscious about their appearance and feel as though they are always being judged by their peers. 

Pre-teens feel an increased need for privacy.  They may start to explore ways of being independent from their family. In this process, they may push boundaries and may react strongly if parents or guardians reinforce limits.

Effects of early maturation

 Early maturation happens when girls and boys attain physical maturation much earlier than the average expected age. Irrespective of an early or late mature, a youngster will often experience social and psychological consequences of the physical changes on his /her body. Girls worry about menarche and it is a negative experience especially when it starts at very early age. They experience a high level of depression, especially those who had not been prepared for menstruation. On the other hand, girls who are prepared for this event usually accept it as a sign of femininity.

Early maturation in Girls Girls

 who mature early, are characterized by the following: 

– They are attractive to older boys, but not emotionally mature enough for more intimate relationships.

 – They are popular among their female peers because of superior status.

 – They feel socially isolated because they are in marginal social position, that is half-child, half-woman and do not fit in older groups or groups of their own age. 

– Develop primary and secondary sex characteristics as early as 9 years or less. 

– Early physical maturation in girls is often linked to poor academic performance and unplanned pregnancies. 

– They seem to be more flexible, independent and more satisfied with their lives in later years than those who mature late.

Early maturation in boys

 Boys who mature early, they generally show the following characteristics: 

– They tend to be self-controlled, self-confident and attractive to the opposite sex and are likely to get earlier sexual experience than those with the late maturation.

– They behave in a socially appropriate way and are popular and assertive in their peer groups and social situations.

 – They have a better body image and higher self-esteem than boys who mature late. 

– They are regarded as competent. 

– They are regarded as competent, natural leaders and often assume leadership roles 

– Due to their strength and size, they often do well in sports. 

– They are expected to live to the adult‘s expectation and should act more maturely than they are capable of doing. 

– They often join older adolescents who mislead them into deviant behaviors like substance abuse, truancy, rebelling against teachers and parents, etc.

Physical Development

 – There is wide variation in the onset of puberty, creating early and late matures. 

– Girls begin puberty, on average, two years earlier than boys. 

 – The physical changes of puberty become outwardly apparent, and children are more aware of their changing bodies. 

 – Rapid growth and physical changes cause fidgeting, squirming and difficulty being still. Children benefit from lots of physical activity.

Cognitive Development

 – Thinking matures as children’s attention, memory and problem-solving abilities improve. 

– Teens develop greater abilities for logic and reason; their thinking is predominantly concrete rather than abstract. 

– Teens begin to question rules and beliefs they previously accepted at face value; for example, they begin to realize that fairness cannot be measured or quantified. 

– Special athletic, artistic, academic or musical talents may emerge.

 – Girls move ahead of boys in terms of cognitive development.

Emotional Development 

– Youth are more self-conscious and worried about what others think of them. However, because of the onset of puberty, they are less able to recognize the emotions of others.

– Adolescents seek independence and test adult authority, but retain a great need for parental support and guidance. Adult role models and heroes are important. 

– Self-esteem issues may develop. Early developing boys often have higher social status/ self-esteem while early developing girls may experience more attention from boys, but are uncomfortable with the attention. 

 – Some boys repress their emotions and, instead, express themselves more physically

Social Development 

 – It becomes more emotionally important for children to have and keep friends, especially of the same sex; although, some opposite-sex interaction begins.

 – Peers’ attention and approval is very important. Young people feel peer pressure intensely and may develop “best friend” relationships and cliques. 

– Children are beginning to learn social skills (i.e., how to enter groups, how to read social cues and how to deal positively with conflict) and appreciate the social value of conversation. 

 – Youth may begin experimentation with sexual behaviours and illicit substances.

1. Who is the father of adolescence psychology?

 2. How does an early mature adolescent girl differ from early mature adolescent boy? 

3. Describe emotional development of early adolescents.

13.5.2. Middle Adolescence (Ages 14 to 17)

Kagoyire is a S2 student at G.S MUSENYI. She has been reclaiming of acne in his face and she is not proud of herself. She told her friend Anita who is older than her and Anita told her that she has heard other talking that if you sleep with a boy the acne immediately cures. Kawera who tracked their conversation secretly reported them to her aunt Mutesi. Next day at evening, Mutesi called the three girls and told them that the acne that keep coming in their face are due to their development and time will come and disappear. The three girls thank Kawera and her aunt Mutesi for real information. 

1. Why did Kagoyire feel inferior? 

2. What would happen if Kagoyire had accepted the advice of Anita?

Physical changes from puberty continue during middle adolescence.  Most males will have started their growth spurt, and puberty-related changes continue.

 They may have some voice cracking, for example, as their voices lower.  Some develop acne. Physical changes may be nearly complete for females, and most girls now have regular periods. 

At this age, many teens become interested in romantic and sexual relationships. They may question and explore their sexual identity which may be stressful if they do not have support from peers, family, or community. Some of adolescence enter this stage later and this may have effect to their development.

Effects of late physical maturation 

Late maturation is when girls and boys attain physical maturation much later than the average expected age. Boys get concerned very much with the uncontrolled erection of the penis and ejaculation. Although most boys are very proud of this ability and see it and see it as a sign of virility, the ability to control erections leads to embarrassment. Nocturnal emissions also make some boys feel humiliated and guilty. Uncontrolled erections make some boys afraid of participating in activities like dancing or standing up in class or social gatherings.

Late maturation in girls

 Late maturating girls show the following characteristics: 

– Have a more positive image than those who mature early. 

– Are more likely to be successful

 – They tend to be assertive, active, socially poised and higher in position of leadership ability than early mature girls.

 – They are more likely to acquire a tall slender figure than early mature girls. 

– Develop primary and secondary characteristics between 15-17 years

Late maturation in boys

 Late maturating in boys is characterized by the following: 

– They are seen as less attractive, less well balanced and more tense and anxious than boys who mature early.

 – Their academic achievement is often poor than that of boys who mature early. 

 – They are more attention seeking than their peers. 

– They are restless, talkative and bossy. 

– They experience feelings of guilt, inferiority, depression, rejection and general anxiety. 

 – They have a greater need of encouragement, sympathy and understanding from other boys than boys who mature early.

 – They have difficulties in dealing with authority figures.

Physical, social, emotional and cognitive development

 Many middle adolescents have more arguments with their parents as they struggle for more independence. They may spend less time with family and more time with friends. They are very concerned about their appearance, and peer pressure may peak at this age.   

 The brain continues to change and mature in this stage, but there are still many differences in how a normal middle adolescent thinks compared to an adult. Much of this is because the frontal lobes are the last areas of the brain to mature development are not complete until a person is well into their 20s! The frontal lobes play a big role in coordinating complex decision making, impulse control, and being able to consider multiple options and consequences.

Middle adolescents are more able to think abstractly and consider “the big picture,” but they still may lack the ability to apply it in the moment.  For example, in certain situations, kids in middle adolescence may find themselves thinking things like: 

 “I’m doing well enough in math and I really want to see this movie… one night of skipping studying won’t matter.”

 “Do I really have to wear a condom during sex if my girlfriend takes the pill?” While they may be able to walk through the logic of avoiding risks outside of these situations, strong emotions often continue to drive their decisions when impulses come into play.

Physical Development 

 – Puberty continues. Both boys and girls show outward, physical signs of maturation. 

– Boys’ voices deepen and many girls are menstruating.

 – By age 15, boys have begun their growth spurt and are taller and more muscular than girls. – By age 14 or 15, most girls have reached their final adult height. 

 – Rapid physical growth may cause clumsiness and many youth worry that this transitional awkwardness will last into adulthood. 

 – Regular exercise and games help develop coordination, reduce stress and provide an outlet for excess energy.

 – Acne and body odour, along with other characteristics of their changing bodies, are concerns for adolescents.

 – Young teens’ need for sleep and physical rest increases.

Cognitive Development 

– Youth develop a greater ability for complex thought (i.e., they can think abstractly, use reasoning skills, show more intellectual curiosity and can understand the hypothetical). 

– They have hypothetical deductive reasoning which is reasoning from possible to real.

 – Goal-setting, including for long-term goals, becomes important. 

– Youth need guidance to avoid risky behaviors as they may not recognize the consequences of their actions. 

– Young teens often feel all-powerful, all-knowing and invulnerable. There is a focus on the self, alternating between high expectations and lack of confidence.

– The distance between those who are succeeding in school and those who are struggling is magnified.

 – Youth experience anxiety from more challenging school work. 

– Youth in this age group are the most likely to drop out of school when they are not catered and advised a lot.

Emotional Development 

– Young teens often show less affection toward parents, with occasional rudeness. They seek independence, but still need structure and limits set by parents and other adults. 

– Although teens want some distance from their parents, they often want close relationships with other adults outside the family. 

 – They may return to childish behaviors, particularly when under stress. 

– Youth are skilled at masking their true state of mind; they often give neutral responses about whether they are happy or sad. 

– Young teens have intense desire for privacy. 

– Teens’ self-esteem may suffer as rapid hormonal and body changes reduce their confidence.

Social Development

 – Friendship and romance are increasingly important. Teens may feel confusion over emerging sexuality and may worry about sexual orientation.

 – Peer pressure is at its peak; young teens want to spend time with older teens. Teens are trying to establish their own identities separate from their families. 

– Parental influence lessens, and increased tension is an issue between teens and parents regarding rules and relationships. – Relationships deepen and become more mutual and trusting as young teens learn to step outside themselves and see others’ points of view. 

– Young teens may form opinions and beliefs based on unreliable sources of information (Internet and other forms of media) and are not easily persuaded to seek the real truth. 

– Teens experiment with sexual behaviors and illegal substances.

1. Outline 2 changes that characterise both male and female during middle adolescence 

2. Write true or false a. During middle adolescent, most of adolescents may spend less time with family and more time with friends b. In middle adolescence, the brain continues to change and mature in this stage c. Late maturation in adolescence is when girls and boys who are in this stage attain physical maturation much later than the adults.

13.5.3. Late Adolescents (18-21)

Muhizi is a senior six student at St KIZITO. He is always thinking about the kind of a person he will become after his studies. He is quiet and disciplined at school and all his teachers appreciate his behaviour. He was assigned the responsibility to advice O-Level students in the school and he guides them effectively. Now he is 20 years old, but he behaves like adults. 

1. Why do you think that the behaviours of Muhizi differ from O-Level students?

Late adolescents generally have completed physical development and grown to their full adult height. They usually have more impulse control by now and may be better able to gauge risks and rewards accurately. In comparison to middle adolescents, youth in late adolescence might find themselves thinking

 “While I do love movies, I need to study for my final.” 

During this stage, Teens are entering early adulthood and have a stronger sense of their own individuality now and can identify their own values. Late adolescence has two meanings. First of all, it represents the final years of adolescence. It is when all the changes have taken place and the young person is ready to properly enter adulthood.

They may become more focused on the future and base decisions on their hopes and ideals. Friendships and romantic relationships become more stable. They become more emotionally and physically separated from their family. However, many re-establish an “adult” relationship with their parents, considering them more an equal from whom to ask advice and discuss mature topics with, rather than an authority figure.  

 Physical Development

 – Physical changes are leveling off. 

 – Most girls have completed puberty and achieved their full height. 

 – Boys may still be maturing physically; in particular, boys’ muscles continue to develop 

 – Boys also develop greater heart and lung capacity. 

– Boys in generally are considerably taller and heavier than girls at this stage. 

– Appetite increases and eating disorders may become common, especially among girls, as concerns about body image remain intense 

– Most older teens experience strong sexual feelings.

Cognitive Development

 – Most older teens can now think abstractly and hypothetically. They can discern the underlying principles of a situation and apply them to new situations; can think about the future; and can consider many possibilities and logical outcomes of possible events. 

– A teen may not be fully able to connect knowledge and consequences with appropriate actions because the brain continues to develop until about age 24. – Living out of the family brings independence, including choices about vocation, post-secondary education and parenting, is the central development task. 

– Older teens develop an increased capacity to understand multiple perspectives, leading to the ability for many to grasp bigger societal issues and become interested in justice or politics as they clarify their own values and morals.Cognitive Development

 – Most older teens can now think abstractly and hypothetically. They can discern the underlying principles of a situation and apply them to new situations; can think about the future; and can consider many possibilities and logical outcomes of possible events. 

– A teen may not be fully able to connect knowledge and consequences with appropriate actions because the brain continues to develop until about age 24.

 – Living out of the family brings independence, including choices about vocation, post-secondary education and parenting, is the central development task.

 – Older teens develop an increased capacity to understand multiple perspectives, leading to the ability for many to grasp bigger societal issues and become interested in justice or politics as they clarify their own values and morals.

Emotional Development 

– Youth continue to form their own identity and may experiment with different styles, sexuality, friendships and occupations. 

– As older teens develop a sense of personal identity, self-esteem continues to develop.

– Older teens continue to worry about their bodies and physical appearance. 

– All experiences are intense and emotional.

 – Some will experience sadness, hopelessness or depression, which can lead to (or be caused by) poor grades at school, further experimentation with sexual behaviors and illegal substances, family problems and many others.

Social Development 

– Friendships with peers remain important, but older teens rely less on their peer group for their sense of identity as they begin to define themselves on their own. 

– One-to-one relationships are becoming increasingly important, as friendships are based more on real intimacy rather than simply on common interests and activities. 

 – Cross-gender friendships become more common. 

– Peer pressure levels off and there is an increased ability to view parents as individuals with their own perspectives.

 – Teens need a balance between time spent with peers and with parents or other adults.

 – The senior year of high school is particularly

 - stressful for teens and his/her relationships with parents or other adults

 – Friendships with peers remain important, but older teens rely less on their peer group for their sense of identity as they begin to define themselves on their own.

 – One-to-one relationships are becoming increasingly important, as friendships are based more on real intimacy rather than simply on common interests and activities.

Why late adolescents are considered as adults?

13.5.4. Adolescent egocentrism and social problems

a. Adolescents egocentrism 

This refers to the tendency by adolescent to be thoroughly embedded in their new found ideals, concepts and principles without considering the views of significant others. The egocentric problems which are common during the adolescence period include:

• Argumentativeness: Adolescents have a tendency of regarding their views and principles as the best and most accurate. Parents and teachers should therefore, take parts in discussing with adolescent about new issues they discover and how they (adolescents) should react to them.

• Indecisiveness: Adolescents face a problem of deciding on things. This is because they have a great number of choices in every aspect of life.

 • Self-centred: Adolescents have a particular perception of themselves. They think that they are special, unique and not subjected to natural rules that govern the world. For instance, a girl may think that she cannot get pregnant or a boy may think that he is wise enough and cannot be addicted to smoking or cannot make a girl pregnant. They think that these things only happen to other people, but not them. This kind of thinking and reasoning make them fearlessly indulge in many risks ventures.

• Finding fault with authority: Since adolescence now have the ability to imagine an ideal word, they realize that people they have honoured ant given esteem to are not perfect as they thought. They therefore feel compelled to try to bring reality closer and to fantasy by pointing out all the shortcomings they notice.

• Self-consciousness: Adolescents have the mentality that others constantly watch and make comments about them. Adult should therefore avoid making public criticism or ridicule. 

b. Examples of social problems that adolescents face during adolescence

 i. Juvenile delinquency 

Juvenile delinquency is the habitual committing of criminal acts or offences by a young person, especially one below the age at which ordinary criminal prosecution is possible. A delinquent can be defined as a child or youth between ages 6-18 years who breaks laws enacted by authorities.• During adolescence, many adolescents are more concerned with their body image.

Causes of delinquency

 – Some youngsters commit crimes to relieve boredom and frustration. Adolescents ‘needs for recognition, independence and affection may make them to turn to antisocial behavior so as to reduce tension. The following are other causes: 

– Some delinquents are drug addicts who need money to support their habits.

 – Conflicts in families: rejection by the family generally by the father, conflict in the family, brutal or overly weak and inconsistent discipline at home.

Signs of delinquency 

The following are the signs of delinquency: 

– Delinquents are characterized by behaviours such as: violation of disciplinary measures of parents, truancy, stealing, robbery, disobedience, violence, vandalism, student unrest, student protest as well as uncontrolled premarital sex. 

 – Premature school dropout

 – Poor participation in extra-curricular school activities 

– Poor personal and social adjustment

 – Excessive experimentation with drug abuse 

– Low self-esteem and poor self image

Ways of preventing delinquency: 

 – Both the school and the home should create an atmosphere that will strengthen the resistance of children to the pressures of delinquency. A child should not be subjected to any unnecessary temptation. The school should be made an interesting and rewarding experience. 

– A child should clearly understand that delinquent acts are punishable, but once punished, accept the child again as a member of the class, family or community. – Ensure that there is security and certainty in both the home and the school, otherwise the young person might want to escape from an emotionally intolerance situation.

 – Establish good child-parent and teacher-child relationships and ensure that there is affection, security and certainty in both home and the school. Adolescents should be encouraged to talk about their problems and discuss freely the consequences of delinquency.

 – Try to identify the early signs of maladjustment as well as the child‘s mixing with problematic friends in life. 

– Both the school and the home should emphasize a stable system of moral values and the value of self-discipline. 

– Direct the energies of these young growing people into socially acceptable channels. Provide ample opportunities, that is outdoor and indoor activities where aggression and frustration can be reduced. 

– Potential delinquents should be given some special, responsible tasks. Show them that they are worth something.

ii. School dropout

 For a number of reasons, situation can arise where the child can no longer cope with school, subsequently, she/he may drop out. The most obvious reason for dropping out of the school might include: Poor teacher-student and student-student relationship, continual failures, Peer group influence and Family background. 

 Ways of preventing learners from dropping out of school 

Teachers have an important role to play in helping your students from dropping out of school. They can: 

– Inculcate positive attitudes in students and adapt learning content to the needs and abilities of individual groups of learners so that learning should happen in a conducive environment Establish a strong school guidance and career service.

Positive attempts should be made to build the children‘s morale, the general image they have of themselves. 

– Early intervention programmes should form an integral part of a developing society‘s education programme.

iii. Drug abuse 

Drug abuse or substance abuse is the use of certain chemicals for the purpose of creating pleasurable effects on brain (By Dr. Ananya Mandal, 2019). This may cause many problems to drug abusers such as: distortion in thinking, disrespect, auto accidents and senseless crime, unwanted pregnancies and many of drugs provoke psychological dependence.

The reasons of abusing drugs are various and include the following: 

– Curiosity and peer pressure especially among school children and young adults. 

– The use of prescription drugs had been originally intended to target pain relief many have turned into recreational use and become addictive. 

 – Beliefs held about drugs 

 – Peer pressure 

– Availability of drugs in community. 

– Once a person is addicted, it becomes difficult for him or her to refrain from it.

The task of the school, teachers, parents and all those concerned with youth in Rwanda today should be: 

– To sensitize the youth about the dangers of using drugs and alcohol 

– Set a good role model to adolescents 

– Combine effort and provide advice to adolescents

13.5.5. Key messages and recommendation practices during adolescence

 Children and their parents/teachers often struggle with changing dynamics of family/school relationships during adolescence, but parents and teachers are still a critical support throughout this time. The following are some pieces of advices that parents and teachers can do to help children effectively navigate their adolescence for smooth transition from childhood to adulthood:

• Help your child anticipate changes in his or her body

 Learn about puberty and explain what›s ahead. Reassure them that  physical changes  and emerging  sexuality  is part of normal, healthy development. Leave room for questions and allow children to ask them at their own pace.

 • Start early conversations about other important topics and keep conversations positive.

 Maintain open communication about health relationships, sex, sexuality, consent, and safety. This will build a good framework for discussions later. 

• Discuss risky behaviours: 

There might be discussions around the topics of sexual activities , substance use and the related consequences. Be sure to set a positive example yourself.  This can help teens consider or rehearse decision-making ahead of time and prepare for when situations arise.

 • Honor independence and individuality

 This is all part of moving into early adulthood. Always remind your child/ student you are there to help when needed. By maintaining positive and respectful parent-child relationships during this period, your family can (try to) enjoy the ride!

. Remember you’re a parent and a friend Teens crave the security of knowing that their parents and teachers understand them, appreciate them, and love them. They do want the relationship to be a form of friendship.

 • Try to be there after school Never think that the adolescents drug use or sex abuse happens only over the week end in night clubs, however in some evening hours during work days they can happen as well. Arrange flex time at work if you can, if your child will be with friends, make sure there’s adult supervision, not just an older sibling.

• Keep your standards high

Your teen wants to be his or her best self. Our job as parents is to support our teens in doing that. But, don’t expect your child to achieve goals you decide for him/her; she needs to begin charting his/her own goals now, with the support of a parent who adores her just as she is and believes that she can do anything he/she aims to. Support your teen’s passions and explorations as she finds her unique voice.

• Make it a high priority to have meals together

Meals are a great opportunity to talk about the days’ events, to unwind, reinforce and bond. They’re also your best opportunity to keep in touch with your teen’s life and challenges, and to spot brewing problems. Finally, an important factor in kids’ happiness and overall success is whether they feel they get time to “just hang out and talk” with parents every day.

• Keep the lines of communication humming 

If you don’t know what’s going on, you lose all hope of influencing the outcome.

• Continue family meetings 

Held regularly at a mutually agreed upon time, family meetings provide a forum for discussing triumphs, grievances, sibling disagreements, schedules, any topic of concern to a family member. Ground rules help, everyone gets a chance to talk; one person talks at a time without interruption; everyone listens, and only positive, constructive feedback is allowed.

1. Identify any 3 common social problems of adolescents during adolescence period.

 2. How can we prevent delinquency in adolescents? 

3. In your own words explain tips parents can use to effectively help their adolescents navigate adolescence stage.

 4. Discuss: Delinquents are largely a product of the environment in which they grow up from or of the upbringing they have received or a combination of the two.

1. Outline 4 emotional characteristics of an adolescent that can affect learning in your class.

 2. Give reasons why many adolescents’ social development and interpersonal relationships with parents are difficult. 

3. Explain the cognitive development during adolescent?

4. Amina is a S2 student. She passes many hours without eating. When asked the reason he said that she is fear that her boyfriend Elisa may not like her size but on the other side Elisa eat too much with the intention of developing his chest and building his body. 

a. Which problem does Amina have? 

b. Think of the causes of such problem? 

c. How can you advise her? 5. Compare and contrast an adolescent and an early childhood boy’s characteristics on the dimension of social/ emotional development

Introduction

 Being older doesn’t necessarily mean being unable to do things and not enjoy life. These seniors look as if they thoroughly enjoy life. According to Psychologist Malcolm Knowles (1989), there are four definitions of adult.:

 Biological definition: We become adult biologically when we reach the age at which we can reproduce….

Legal definition: We become adult legally when we reach the age at which the law says we can vote, get a driver’s license, marry without consent…. 

 Social definition: We become adult socially when we start performing adult roles. 

 Psychological definition: We become adult psychologically when we arrive at self-concept of being responsible for our own lives, of being self-directing. From the view point of learning, it is the psychological definition that is most crucial. Conventionally, we define adulthood as three age periods or stages: young adulthood (20s and 30s), middle adulthood (40s and 50s), and later adulthood (age 60 and over)

a. Early adulthood

 Introduction

 Early adulthood coincides with the 20s and early 30s. During early adulthood, people generally form intimate relationships, both in friendship and love. Many people become engaged or marry during this period. Often they are completing their education and becoming established in a career. Health problems in young adults tend to be minor. Selecting a mate, learning to live with a married partner, starting a family, rearing children, managing a home, getting started in an occupation, taking on civic responsibility and finding a congenial social group.

Physical development 

Physical maturation is complete. Physical abilities are at their peak, including muscle strength, reaction time, sensory abilities, and cardiac functioning. Many women have children in the early-adulthood years.

 – The aging process, although not overt, begins during early adulthood. 

 – Around the age of 30, many changes begin to occur in different parts of the body, the lens of the eye starts to stiffen and thicken, resulting in changes in vision (usually affecting the ability to focus on close objects). 

 – Sensitivity to sound decreases: this happens twice as quickly for men as for women. 

 – Hair can start to thin and become grey around the age of 35, although this may happen earlier for some individuals and later for others. 

 – The skin becomes drier and wrinkles start to appear by the end of early adulthood. 

 – The immune system becomes less adept at fighting off illness, and reproductive capacity starts to decline.

Cognitive development

 – Cognition begins to stabilize, reaching a peak around the age of 35. 

 – Early adulthood is a time of relativistic thinking, in which young people begin to become aware of more than simplistic views of right vs. wrong.

 – They begin to look at ideas and concepts from multiple angles and understand that a question can have more than one right (or wrong) answer. 

 – The need for specialization results in pragmatic thinking using logic to solve real-world problems while accepting contradiction, imperfection, and other issues.

– Finally, young adults develop a sort of expertise in either education or career, which further enhances problem-solving skills and the capacity for creativity 

– Young adults tend to score higher on tests of fluid intelligence, while middle adults tend to score higher on tests of crystallized intelligence. 

– They may want absolute answers from absolute authorities.

 – Many young adults particularly those who have attended college develop the ability to reason logically, solve theoretical problems, and think abstractly. They have reached Piaget’s formal operations stage of cognitive development.

 – Cognition begins to stabilize, reaching a peak around the age of 35.

Psychosocial development 

As human beings get old in age, there are some changes that happen in his/ her thinking abilities and his relationship with others as well is affected. With respect to decision making, they become independent while as to relationship, their understanding about love differs much from that of adolescents.

• Independence: Age 17-28 

Much psychosocial development occurring during this period is in conjunction with significant life changes, such as leaving home, finding a long-term romantic relationship, beginning a career, and starting a family. An important aspect of establishing intimacy with a partner is first being able to separate from the family of origin, or family of procreation. Most young adults have familial attachments from which they are separating. This process normally begins during Daniel Levinson’s early adult transition (ages 17–22), when many young adults first leave home to attend college or to take a job in another city.By age 22, young adults have attained at least some level of attitudinal, emotional, and physical independence. They are ready for Levinson’s entering the adult world (ages 22–28) stage of early adulthood, during which relationships take centre stage.

Love, intimacy, and adult relationships go hand-in-hand. Robert Sternberg proposed that love consists of three components: passion, decision/ commitment, and intimacy: 

 – Passion concerns the intense feelings of physiological arousal and excitement (including sexual arousal) present in a relationship, 

 – Decision/commitment concerns the decision to love the partner and maintain the relationship.

 – Intimacy relates to the sense of warmth and closeness in a loving relationship, including the desire to help the partner, self-disclose, and keep him or her in one’s life. People express intimacy in the following three ways: physical intimacy, or mutual affection and sexual activity; psychological intimacy or the sharing of feelings and thoughts; Social intimacy,  or having the same friends and enjoying the same types of recreation.

Establishing a Career: Age 22–33 

Another important activity during Levinson’s entering the adult world (ages 22–28) and age-30 transition (ages 28–33) stages is establishing a career. This process normally begins in college or trade school, where young adults prepare themselves to enter the work force. Young adults commonly explore various career options before settling into one field of work.

As young adults enter the culminating phase of early adulthood (ages 33–45), they enter the settling down (ages 33–40) stage. By this time, their careers (at least the first one) have been established and a spouse found. 

Parenthood is generally thought to strengthen marriages, even though research indicates that marital satisfaction often declines after the birth of the first child. This decline may be due to such stressors as changes in usual roles and routines, increases in family responsibilities, and additional strains on finances.

Note that Adulthood does not have a definite starting point. A person may be physically mature by age 16 or 17, but not defined as an adult by law until older ages. As we get old, our bodies change in physical ways. One can expect a variety of changes to take place through the early and middle adult years. Each person experiences age related changes based on many factors: biological factors such as molecular and cellular changes are called primary aging, while aging that occurs due to controllable factors, such as lack of physical exercise and poor diet, is called secondary aging.

b. Middle adulthood Middle 

adulthood is the period of age beyond young adulthood, but before the onset of old age. In general, the middle adulthood is characterised by the following: decline of physical skills, increase of responsibilities, increase of self-satisfaction and increase of awareness of time.

Physical development characteristics

 The following are the physical characteristics of a person experiencing the middle adulthood:

 – There is a decrease of height, and after 55 years, approximately 2 inches lost for men, and 1 inch for women.

– There is an increasing of weight – Their bone’s density decreases as well and the loss is twice fast for women. 

– There is decreasing of strength, whereby 10% of their strength lose by 60 years. 

– The organs no longer function as efficiently as they once did. 

– Lung and heart capacities decrease. 

– There is a decreasing of vision and light sensitivity, and the hearing abilities decrease.

 – The biopsychosocial changes that accompany midlife are menopause (the cessation of menstruation) in women and male climacteric (male menopause) in men.

Cognitive development characteristics

 – Two forms of intelligence: crystallized and fluid are the main focus of middle adulthood. Crystallized intelligence  is dependent upon accumulated knowledge and experience we have gathered throughout our lifetime. 

Fluid intelligence is more dependent on basic information-processing skills and starts to decline even prior to middle adulthood. Cognitive processing speed slows down during this stage of life, as does the ability to solve problems and divide attention.

Increase of practical problem-solving skills. These skills are necessary to solve real-world problems and figure out how to best achieve a desired goal. – Decision making is making is based upon personal responsibilities towards others this is called executive stage) Cognitive decline.

1. During which period of development do most people generally form intimate relationships, both in friendship and love. 

2. Think of people either in your village or in your academic daily life who are in middle adulthood and explain their physical characteristics. 

3. Differentiate fluid intelligence from crystallized intelligence.

13.6.2. Late adulthood and aging

1. Based on the above picture, think of physical characteristics of people who are in this period of development.

 2. What are the problems associated with this stage of development?

 3. Umusaza/umukecuru upfuye ni nk’isomero rihiye  »  explain this Rwandan adage based on the importance of old people in Rwandan society.

Introduction 

Old age consist of ages nearing or surpassing the average life span of human beings, and thus the end of human life cycle. 

 Daniel Levinson depicts the late adulthood period as those years that encompass age 65 and beyond.

Other developmental psychologists further divide later adulthood into young-old (ages 65–85) and old-old (ages 85 and beyond) stages. The study of old age and aging is called gerontology. 

Late adulthood is the stage of life from the 60s onward; it constitutes the last stage of physical change. Aging inevitably means physical decline, some of which may be due to lifestyle, such as poor diet and lack of exercise, rather than illness or the aging process.

Physical development 

– Energy reserves dwindle(diminish).

 – Cells decay. Muscle mass decreases.

 – The immune system is no longer as capable as it once was in guarding against disease. 

 – Body systems and organs, such as the heart and lungs, become less efficient. Overall, regardless of people’s best hopes and efforts, aging translates into decline.

 – while energy is lost, the ability to conserve energy is gained

 – Most hearing loss is not noticed. 

 – There is lessening or cessation of sex, sometimes because of physical symptoms such as erectile dysfunction in men, but often simply a decline in libido.

– Effect on appearance, sensation, and motor abilities.

 – An older adult’s appearance changes as wrinkles appear and the skin becomes less elastic and thin. 

– Hair thins and turns gray as melanin decreases, and height lessens perhaps by an inch or two as bone density decreases. 

– The senses begin to dull. 

– It is estimated that at age 65, fifty percent people have lost all their teeth. This increases the risk of tooth decay.

Health

 – The mental, emotional, and behavioural problems typically encountered by older adults are depression, anxiety, and dementia (mental deterioration, also known as organic brain syndrome). 

– The mental, emotional, and behavioural problems typically encountered by older adults are depression, anxiety, and dementia (mental deterioration, also known as organic brain syndrome

– Depression is the whole body illness, mood and thought.

 – Anxiety is a general term for several disorders that cause nervousness, fear and worrying. It is characterised by a long lasting fear or worry about nonspecific life events, objects and situations.

 – Dementia is the progressive deterioration in cognitive function, the ability to process thought (intelligence). Dementia is characterised by memory loss, moodiness because the part of brain that control emotion become damaged, communicative difficulties because the affected person finds it harder to talk, read and write. Dementia can be caused by Alzheimer’s disease. 

– Alzheimer’s disease which is called also Senile Dementia is a progressive neurological disease of the brain leading to the irreversible loss of neurons and the loss intellectual abilities, including memory and reasoning, which become severe enough to impede social or occupational functioning.

Intelligence and memory

 – Older adult tend to learn more slowly and perform less well on tasks involving imagination and memorization than do young adults, but what older adults may be lacking in terms of specific mental tasks, they make up for wisdom, or experts and practical knowledge based on life experience. 

– Practice and repetition may help minimize the decline of memory and other cognitive functions. 

– Many older adults complain about not being able to remember things as well as they once could. Memory problems seem to be due to sensory storage problems in the short-term rather than long-term memory processes. 

 – That is, older adults tend to have much less difficulty recalling names and places from long ago than they do acquiring and recalling new information.

1. Write short notes on: dementia, senescence 

 2. Define menopause 

3. Discuss why people over 75 years old have significant hearing impairment.

 4. Describe the general effect of Alzheimer’s disease and its likely outcome. 

5. Discuss the difference between crystallized and fluid intelligence. 

6. Discuss neuronal death and aging.

Being introduced on developmental psychology, developmental milestones and theories of human growth and development create by drawing a narrative story of human growvth and development during the whole lifespan. 

1. Invent a poem that dignifies teachers or adults who assisted in your development considering domains of development and milestones. 

2. Role play adolescence period. Involve in how to deal with social, emotional and cognitive development of adolescents. 3. Arnaud is two months. What do you think will be parents ‘activities to ensure proper parenting and education during infancy, early, middle and late childhood periods? 

4. After schooling in TTC, you may be appointed as a Head teacher or a Teacher in pre-primary or primary school. Plan a sensitization session to help the community to understand the proper care needed from conception onwards through age twelve.