Foundation of Education

GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO EDUCATION

Key unit competence: Analyse the components and linkages between elements of the national education system

1.1. Introduction to Foundations of Education

 Activity 1.

1. Observe your weekly time table and identify how frequent the subject of foundation of education (FoE) is scheduled and periods lengths it is taught in comparison with other subjects. Has anybody ever told you something about foundations of education (FOE)?

2. What perceptions and expectations do you have about the course of FoE with regards to new knowledge, importance etc?

Foundations of Education (FoE) is a critical course for TTC student teachers in all options as it encompasses educational topics that equip student teachers with basic principles, theories required for knowledge transfer and progressive acquisition of professional competences. The course provides students teachers with knowledge, skills and attitudes that enable them to apply different theories, pedagogical approaches, teaching methods and techniques taking into consideration learner’s ages and needs in different learning environment or contexts.

In Year one, student teachers will be equipped with competences about the elements indicated in the following chart:

Write a friendly letter to your colleague from the ordinary level to share your perception about Foundations of Education subject. Please highlight knowledge and skills you expect to gain in this subject by the end of Year one.

1. Read the following paragraph and write down the terms that have relationship with education! The government of Rwanda is interested in competence based teaching. This philosophy of education will help all educational institutions to produce competent learners. However, this will be achieved if only curriculum, instructions, didactic aids and other academic related activities are reviewed and adjusted in competence based approach perspective. You are all called to show positive attitudes toward this new philosophy being either in general education, vocational training or professional education. We start with a Competence Based curriculum, we go through with Competences and we end up with Competent People!!!

2. Write other terms you think can be related to education.

Education 

According to Oxford University Press, East Africa (2011), the term ‘education’ in its literal meaning is derived from two Latin words: ‘educare’ which means to rear, to bring up or to nourish a child. ‘educere’ which means to bring forth, to lead, to draw out or to train. Therefore, to educate a child would mean drawing or leading out what is in the child, i.e. facilitating the realization and development of the child’s potential and talents.

According to Plato, education is the process of guiding people toward the truth.

J.J. Rousseau defines education as the process of helping learners to learn according to knowledge, skills and attitudes which result into changing the behavior.

DURKHEIM (1968, 41) defines education in its totality saying that it is: the action exercised by the adult generations on those who are not yet mature for the social life.

Therefore, education is a process of transmitting or teaching knowledge, values, skills, competences and correct social behaviours, to prepare someone for life and for social, political, economic participation, for a better society where there is happiness and satisfaction of its members, due to the activities of educated people. This process may be carried out by adults, schools, colleges, universities, churches or special institution or person.

Learning: It refers to the process of acquiring knowledge, skills or attitudes through study, experience or teaching. Learning is a lifelong process that leads to long-term changes in behavioural potentials.

Teaching: It is the activity of educating or instructing; activity of imparting knowledge or skills. It is the act, practice, occupation or profession of a teacher.

Instruction: It is defined as transmission of knowledge judged necessary to a child (learner)

Schooling: It is the action of undertaking educational programs in an institution such as a school for the purpose of acquiring knowledge, skills, attitudes and values.

School: An institution where instruction is given.

 Academics: Areas of study that are required by formal education to conform to a set of standards, often without a direct application. Vocational Training: Practical instruction which prepares an individual to take up a specific occupation. 

Didactics: This refers to the science of teaching. Didactics comes from the Greek word” didactikos” which means to “teach” which is similar to “instruct” Curriculum: A curriculum is a broad concept which includes all planned activities and subjects which takes place during the normal school day. It also includes after school planned co-curricular activities such as sport, clubs and drama. These takes place within a specific system and aim to lead and assist student so that they can be useful citizens within the community (REB the teacher training colleges competence based curriculum orientation manual, 2019). Pedagogy: This is the art or a science of helping a child learn. Initially, a pedagogue was the slave in charge of taking the child to everywhere especially to school.

Progressively, pedagogue came to lose its etymological meaning of accompanying a person and by extension, a pedagogue appeared later (dates 1485 and was mostly used in 19th century) to become synonymous of master, teacher or tutor.

According to DURKHEM (1911): Pedagogy is the practical theory of Education.

Pedagogy is a discipline whose concern is the education of a child. It implies the science of the child, the knowledge of educational techniques and the art to put them into practice.

Observe the picture below showing different people successfully working in different domains.

The purpose of education is defined differently in different societies and has continued to evolve and change throughout history. Broadly speaking, there are personal purposes for growth and self-improvement; political purposes for improved citizenship, social functioning; and economic purposes for having a skilled workforce.

Generally, the aims of education are:

– Bring people to their full potential;

 – Develop intellectual basic skills such as reading and math, for a literate society; 

– Improve social skills and sense of moral responsibility for a better society; 

– Prepare people for success in life (socially and economically); 

– Prepare people with skills to join the workforce and contribute to the economy; 

– Develop skills and curiosity so that individuals can learn on their own; 

– Promote the democratic process (sharing views, debating, making decisions, taking action to solve problems, evaluating progress made, etc.);

Rwandan Education Sector Objectives

The Education Sector objectives are the reference point by which educational issues are included into other Rwandan policy documents. These objectives are aligned with those recommended in the Eastern African Curriculum Framework proposals.

The Government of Rwanda through Law number 36/2018 of 29th June, 2018 determining the organization of education revised the objectives of the sector. They are to:

– Provide Rwandans with adequate skills at all levels of general education as well as technical and vocational skills; 

 – Offer quality courses and education at all levels; 

 – Promote science, technology and research in order to equip Rwandans with capacity to speed up national development; 

 – Promote the culture of peace, tolerance, justice, respect for human rights, solidarity, democracy and that of avoiding any form of discrimination or favouritism;

– Provide each Rwandan with an integrated education based on ethical values, science and social welfare and directed towards building a nation to ensure its sustainable development;

 – Instil into Rwandans, the love of a job well done, the value of hard work, punctuality and promotion of competence; – Train the Rwandan to have freedom of thought, be innovative, have abilities to acquire and be analytical towards other people’s opinions and to communicate his or her own ideas, to be patriotic and encourage him or her to be updated on the situation prevailing elsewhere;

 – Eliminate all grounds and obstacles that hinder the development of girls and women education as well as of any other groups that need special attention.

Activity 1.4 

Observe the pictures below and answers to questions.

Formal education 

• Formal education corresponds to a systematic, organized education model, structured and administered according to a given set of laws and norms, presenting a rigid and prescribed curriculum in regards with objectives, content and methodology. It is classroom-based and provided by trained teachers. It leads to some form of certification at the end of a course or level.

 • Formal education is important for standardization and ensuring learners achieve basic academic competencies.

Informal education

 • Informal education does not correspond to an organized and systematic view of education. it happens outside the classroom, through communitybased organizations, museums, libraries, mass media and at home. These are some examples of activities under informal education: visits to museums or to scientific exhibits; listening to radio broadcasting or watching TV programmes on educational or scientific themes; reading texts on sciences, education, technology in journals and magazines.

 • Informal education is generally more flexible and individualized but also more short-term than formal education. There is no control over the performed activities; it does not necessarily provide degrees or diplomas; it supplements both formal and non-formal education. 

• Informal education is important for developing life skills and talents.

 • Some students feel intimidated by a formal educational environment yet thrive in a more relaxed informal educational environment. 

 • It supplements both formal and non-formal education.

Non-formal education 

 • Non-formal education is any organized learning activity outside the structure of formal educational system that is consciously aimed at meeting specific learning needs of particular groups of children, youths or adults in the community.

 • It includes various kinds of educational activities such as skill training, health and family planning, sensitization in project creation and management. 

 • The defining characteristics of non-formal education are that it is an edition, alternative and/or a complement to formal education within the lifelong learning process.

• Examples of non-formal education: Capacity building sessions (training), Civic education training “Itorero”, Community sports programs, adult literacy programs.

Fill the following learning environments in the T-chart according to whether they are formal or informal education: park, museum, computer lab, primary classroom, university, carpenter’s workshop, science lab, home.

Bearing in mind the three historical eras (Pre-colonial, Colonial and Post-Colonial Periods) and their effect on the history of education, fill in the K&L of the following KWL chart and highlight what you know (K) and what you want to know (W) about the history of Rwandan education.

The historical development of education in Rwanda is linked with the political history of the country as the major changes in education were dictated by political changes. As Rwanda has wide history, it is important to take into account the three main periods such as pre-colonial, colonial and post-colonial period. These periods describe the development of education in Rwanda as discussed below.

Before Adolescence, education in Rwanda was informal and delivered largely through the family. Non formal education was organised for adolescent. Young adolescents were trained through Urubohero for girls and Itorero for boys. 

 During Urubohero sessions, girls learnt households keeping and other skills that prepared them to be effective prospective wives. Among these skills, there is basket making and other handicrafts.

Boys were trained in Itorero. Courses they received included the military and war skills, iron smith and foundry, poetry…

1.5.2 Education during the colonial period

With the arrival of catholic missionaries in 1900, small schools were built nearby their churches. Rwandan children especially boys started to attend them though they were in small number. In these schools, they received rudimentary skills such as writing, reading and calculations with the purpose of enhancing evangelical mission.

Later with the arrival of Belgians, the educational system was strengthened. Churches were supported reinforcing their education.

Apart from primary schools, secondary ones were also created. The purpose of secondary education was to prepare carefully sons of chiefs (abatware) for colonial administrative activities. Therefore, prestigious schools such Astrida secondary school, were attended by these authorities ‘children.

It is important to note that during this period, the curriculum that taught was based on Belgian curriculum and context.

The educational system left by Belgians was as follows:

 – Primary: 6 years of primary education (1– 2 – 3 – 4 – 5 – 6)

 – Post-primary: 

2 years of vocational training (Enseignement artisanal et ménager) 

– Secondary:

 • 4 years of teacher and professional education with one year preparatory (7– 1– 2 – 3 – 4); 

• 7 years of general education (7– 6 – 5 – 4 – 3 – 2 – 1)

1.5.3. Education under the first and second Republic

During the first Republic and second one, primary and secondary schools increased in number. The intention was schooling all children at the age of attending the school. With this regard, double shift was applied in primary schools to have a big number of children accessing primary education. In 1963, National University of Rwanda was created in Butare at Ruhande. According to educational law of 1966, schools were classified into two categories: public schools and private ones.

The structure of education system left by the second Republic 2nd Republic before the 1979/1980 reform was structured as follows:

Primary education:

 6 years including 3 years of lower primary and 3 years of upper primary.

 – Post- primary education: 

3 years (CERAR -Centre d’Enseignement Rural et Artisanal au Rwanda- for boys and Section familiale for girls) for vocational training (farming, construction, carpentry, culinary, …)

– Secondary: 

 • 3 years for ordinary level (1– 2 – 3) 

• 2 years of short cycle of advanced level for technical and professional training after ordinary level (4– 5) with a D5 certificate at the end of the program. The leavers were not qualified for tertiary education.

 • 4 years of advanced level for technical and professional training after ordinary level (4 – 5 – 6– 7 with a D7 certificate at the end of the program. The leavers were qualified for further studies in tertiary education after some years of professional work. 

• 3 years of general education after ordinary level (4 – 5 – 6). The leavers were qualified for further studies in tertiary education immediately after Senior 6. 

– Tertiary education was for 3 years and the leavers were qualified as ‘Baccalauréat’ holders (diploma holders).

The 1978 education system reform introduced a new education structure of 8 years of primary education where the language of instruction was the mother tongue (Kinyarwanda) from Primary 1 up to Primary 8 and 6 years of secondary education where the language of instruction was French. There was no lower secondary, the choice of career path and specialization in various disciplines of study started immediately after primary education (starting from senior one).

The reform was made effective in the academic year 1979/1980. It continued up to 1991. The reform made the following structure of the education system:

8 years for primary education: 

3 year of lower primary; 3 years of upper primary and 2 years for …… the language of instruction was Kinyarwanda.

 – 3 years for post primary education (ERAI: Enseignement Rural Artisanal Integré) 

– 6 years for secondary education (without ordinary level). 

The choice of career path and specialization in branches of study started immediately after primary education. The language of instruction was French.

 – Tertiary education lasted between depending upon the faculties.

Though both 1st and 2nd Republics made a significant step in increasing the number of both primary and secondary schools and hence increased the number of children in these schools, education was ethnically and regionally discriminative. Girls were also few in the schools compared to boys.

1.5.4. Summary of changes of education system after the genocide against Tutsi

After 1994 genocide, schools were rehabilitated and new ones were constructed. The number of children attending the school has been far increased compared to those who attended before the genocide.

 Different government policies have been implemented to ensure that there is a high literacy rate among the population.

To meet Universal Primary Education and Education for All, Rwanda has introduced a program of Nine and twelve Years Basic Education - 9 and 12 years basic education (9/12YBE), a program which required to building a significant number of schools as way of responding to the growing demand of enrolment. This education is against any discrimination be it ethnical, regional and gender-based.

Since 1994, the education system in Rwanda has undergone remarkable reforms. Progress has been made over two decades in the areas of education and skills development. However, barriers still remain especially in terms of the competences required for the labour market and for international competitiveness.

Such historical educational changes have dictated the change in curriculum as far as a high quality curriculum is regarded as the foundation of an effective education. Its adequacy, relevance and coherence have to be regularly updated to keep pace with the changing global situation and to address issues which conflict educational principles.

In line with efforts to improve the quality of the curriculum, Rwanda has been through different phases of significant change in recent decades as highlighted below:

• 1996: a major review restructured the education system to provide 6 years of primary, 3 years of lower secondary and 3 years of upper secondary schooling. The curriculum and syllabi were harmonised and elaborated and the language of instruction in lower primary became Kinyarwanda with French or English as the languages of learning from upper primary onwards.

2009: There have been mini-curriculum reviews in some learning areas and subjects to address the issues of relevance, adequacy and alignment to the teaching and learning processes. Compulsory and elective vocational subjects in lower and upper secondary were constituted to provide the learners with general knowledge and vocational competences.

2009: The language of instruction shifted from French into English from P4 onward for all subjects exclusive of Kinyarwanda. This reform was initiated to align Rwanda with regional English-speaking nations, strengthen Rwanda’s relationship with the Commonwealth, and increase Rwanda’s competitiveness in regional and global settings.

• 2009: The 9YBE program became the catalyst for the expansion of education from P1 to S3 using unconventional construction methods, teacher specialization, double shifting and reduction of subject areas.

• 2011: ECD Policy adopted and an attempt made to formalize the sub-sector

• 2013: Teacher Training Colleges began offering an ECE option. 

• 2014-2015: A major education reform was undertaken to move from knowledge-based to a Competence-Based Curriculum (CBC). 

 • 2016-2018: The roll-out of CBC happened in a three-year phased approach (2016-2018) starting with P1, P4, S1, S4.

 • 2016-2019: UR-CE and REB revised the Teacher Training College curriculum to equip future teachers with knowledge, skills attitudes required to implement the CBC introduced in pre-primary and primary education.

Complete the “L” column left from the KWL chart (Activity 1.5.) with everything you think you learnt

Formal education is typically divided into different levels with respect to age groups of students. Each level has its specific aim and certification which differs from another level. For example: pre-primary, primary, secondary, vocational, and tertiary (University or college education).

In Rwanda, the education system has the following structure:

Pre-primary Education

Pre-primary is organized in nursery schools for a period of three years for children of 3 to 6 years of age. It is established to prepare children to enter primary school. This education aims to encourage the socialisation of children and to stimulate their learning potentials by allowing them to engage and play with other children and to practice physical, rhythmic and manual activities. Initially pre-primary was not obligatory and was in the hands of parents and the private sector and the role of the government was to give limited support in terms of learning materials and provision of syllabus to follow. The policy now is to provide nursery education at village level and to encourage public private partnership at local level.

Primary Education

 Primary education in Rwanda is free and compulsory for 6 years. The official school enrolment age at this level is from 6 or 7 years to 11 or 12 years. All children sit for national examinations at the end of primary 6 for selection into secondary education. The dramatic increase in enrolment has required a double shift system to be implemented in primary schools across the country.

Secondary Education

Secondary education in Rwanda is for 6 years, composed of 3 years of lower secondary or ordinary level (O- Level) and 3 years of upper secondary or advanced level (A-Level). The official school age for this level is from 13 years to 18 years although there are some children who start school early and join secondary by the age of 12. Lower secondary education is free and compulsory and the government, in partnership with the community, is building additional classrooms to increase access into upper secondary so that it also gradually becomes free and compulsory. All children sit for national examinations at the end of lower secondary for selection into upper secondary or technical and vocational education.

Secondary education

 in Rwanda is for 6 years, composed of 3 years of lower secondary or ordinary level (O- Level) and 3 years of upper secondary or advanced level (A-Level). The official school age for this level is from 13 years to 18 years although there are some children who start school early and join secondary by the age of 12. Lower secondary education is free and compulsory and the government, in partnership with the community, is building additional classrooms to increase access into upper secondary so that it also gradually becomes free and compulsory. All children sit for national examinations at the end of lower secondary for selection into upper secondary or technical and vocational education.

Draw a framework chart showing the education progression from nursery up to university and show the links between educational levels. Remember to add a brief description under each level.