Foundation of Education

Key Unit Competence:

Apply the knowledge of social psychology in the school context.

Introductory activity

Think about the situations of the group you belong to during morning work. As you answer to the questions, fill the following table with correct information of the best of your knowledge.

7.1. Key concepts

Activity 7.1

1. List and explain briefly branches of psychology.

2. In year 1 and two is there any concept you have had talking about the term “social” or “society”? Which one?

a. Social psychology

Social psychology is a branch of psychology that studies individuals as they interact with others. It is a part of human nature to be social.

Social psychology dated long time ago. For instance in 328 B.C, Aristotle wrote: “Man is by nature a social animal”.

It is not sufficient to study human beings in isolation; we must examine the psychology of the individual in the context of the social situations in which they live. To fully understand people, we must see how they are influenced by their social context.

According to Gordon Allport’s classic definition, social psychology is an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling, and behaviour of individuals is influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others.

b. Social behaviour

This term refers to the behaviour taking place between members of the same species. It is a result of interaction within people.

Examples of social behaviours: shaking hands, conversation, religious rituals, exchanging nonverbal signals, sharing meals, making music together, any act of cooperation between individuals.

c. Group behaviour

A group: is defined as two or more individuals who are connected to one another by social relationships. Those individuals are together because they share the same purpose or ideas. E.g. Religious, military & political groups

The group can have some naming depending on characteristics:

d. Group dynamics

The social psychologist Kurt Lewin (1890–1947) used the term group dynamics, to describe the positive and negative forces within groups of people. In 1945, he established the Group Dynamics Research Centre at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first institute devoted explicitly to the study of group

dynamics. Throughout his career, Lewin focused on how the study of group dynamics could be applied to real-world, social issues.

Group dynamics refers to a system of behaviours and psychological processes occurring within a social group (intragroup dynamics), or between social groups (intergroup dynamics). The study of group dynamics can be useful in understanding decision-making behaviour, tracking the spread of diseases in society, creating effective therapy techniques, and following the emergence and popularity of new ideas and technologies. Group dynamics are at the core of understanding racism, sexism, and other forms of social prejudice and discrimination.

e. Leadership

Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives enthusiastically. It is a human factor, which binds a group together and motivates them towards a goal.

A Leader is any person in the group who has the greatest amount of influence over others. A leader may be a person who holds a position of authority.

So, Teacher’s leadership is defined as the process by which teachers, individually or collectively, influence colleagues, principals and other members of school community to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of increasing student learning and achievement (York-Barr and Duke: 2004)T.

f. Conformity refers to the tendency of doing something that others do just simply because they are doing it.

g. Social perception refers to identifying and utilizing social cues (facial expression, vocal tone, body language, body posture, gestures, proximity) to make judgments about social roles, rules, relationships, context, or the characteristics (e.g., trustworthiness) of others. 

h. Social influence refers to the control of one’s behaviour by other’s behaviour.

i. Prejudice refers to the statements that show positive or negative comments or evaluation of another person on their group membership.

j. Peer pressure is about changing personal attitudes and believes due to direct influence of peers. The individual is encouraged to follow their peers by changing their attitudes, values or behaviours to conform to those of the influencing group or individual.

k. Social loafing refers to the tendency for people to spend less effort when in group than alone.

l. A Norm is a customary standard for behaviour that is widely shared by members of a culture.

m. Obedience is an act of doing what the authorities oblige you to do.

n. Persuasion is the change of attitudes or beliefs because of being influenced by a communication from another person.

o. Cognitive dissonance refers to personal inner conflicts caused by recognizing that there inconsistency of person’s actions, attitudes or beliefs.

p. Stereotyping is a situation by which people draw inferences or interpretations talking about others based on their knowledge they randomly have about them.

Application activity 7.1

Scenario about the term “cognitive dissonance”.

I know 10 commandments as Bible and Quran says. I also know and believe that I have to respect them all, but I sometimes find myself doing the opposite.

Question: Refer to the example above, choose three concepts and write a scenario that expresses each term.

7.2. Relevance of social psychology

Activity 7.2

Read again the definition of social psychology and write 5 ideas that justify your agreement about the message found in this definition.

Rationale behind the study of social psychology

- Human beings need to understand the causes and consequences of their interaction. Knowing about social psychology, the person is able to explain the reasons and process through which persons: show aggression, cooperate, belong to groups, and build friendship.

- Social psychology allows people to understand the process of social influence. This helps to justify the reasons why we follow a given mode of life and in turn people follow our ways of life. Social psychology increases the awareness of social norms in relationship with person’s attitudes.

- Studying about social psychology provides person with competences to deal with misjudging others. Knowledge about stereotypes and bias will help people to focus on social cohesion, harmony, peace… rather than social conflict, discriminations and alike.

Importance of social psychology in young children’s education Children’s relationships shape the way they see the world and affect all areas of their development. A child’s most important early relationships are with his/her parents, other family members and caregivers.

It is not just only the relationship between parents and their child that shapes his/her development; it is also parental relationships with others. Children see how their parents behave and communicate with other people in life – for example, husband/wife, family members, friends and neighbours.

As a teacher, it is important to try to find out about a child’s sense of stability, both now and in past; economic status; ethnic and racial background; cultural identity; language; religion; norms and values; and gender expectations. All of these elements have an influence on the child’s behaviour and learning. In a typical classroom, even in primary school, students rank themselves and each other in terms of success as students (academic status) and perceived attractiveness and popularity (peer status). Researchers have noted that children with “low status” talk less than others and are ignored by others even when they do speak up. They also have trouble getting to use materials during group work and may even be physically excluded. Consequently, low-status children learn less effectively and less efficiently than their high-status counterparts.

Teacher awareness of student status can be a starting point to making cooperative learning groups equitable. By assigning a group work that requires multiple intellectual abilities and forming groups so that no one person has all the capabilities, the teacher creates a learning situation that requires group interdependence.

Another strategy is for teachers to explicitly recognize “low status” or disadvantaged students for their competences. A very simple way to do this is through the use of paraphrasing. Paraphrasing sends three important messages: (1) I understand or am trying to understand what you’re saying, (2) I value your ideas, and (3) I care about you as a person. These are messages that every student, but particularly a low-status student, needs to hear.

Application activity 7.2

Write 2 paragraphs that shows the relevance of social psychology for a pre and primary teacher.

7.3. Types of groups

Activity 7.3

Think about the categories or groups that you belong to. How do you differentiate them in terms of self –choice or involuntary membership?

Example: I am a member of the school debate club. I have myself chosen to be a member (self-chosen)

Scientists have classified groups in terms of various considerations such as size, affiliation and structure. However, this section will be limited to the categorization of Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929).

• Primary group

This is a small social group whose members share personal and lasting relationships. People joined in primary relationships spend a great deal of time together, engage in a wide range of activities, and feel that they know one another well. In short, they show real concern for one another. In every society, the family is the most important primary group. Groups based on lasting friendships are also primary groups

• Secondary groups

In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups are large groups involving formal and institutional relationships. Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and little personal knowledge of one another. Most secondary groups are short term, beginning and ending without particular significance. They may last for years or may disband after a short time. The formation of primary groups happens within secondary groups.

Primary groups can be present in secondary settings. For example, attending a university exemplifies membership of a secondary group, while the friendships that are made there would be considered a primary group that you belong to. Likewise, some businesses care deeply about the well being of one another, while some immediate families have hostile relations within it.

• In-group

It is a social group toward which a member feels respect and loyalty. It is a group that an individual identifies in positive direction; it is hence a group in which you belong to.

• Out-group

It is a social group toward which a person feels a sense of competition or opposition. It is a group that an individual identifies in negative direction; it is therefore a group you don’t belong to.

• Planned groups

They are deliberately formed by their members or by an external authority for some purpose. They generally define their membership criteria clearly and so at all times know who is and who is not in the group. For example: Executive committee of an organization.

• Emergent groups

These groups are not explicitly organized, but they often develop elements of structure as their members determine what kinds of behaviours are expected of 

members, who is more or less liked, who leads and who follows, and so on. They often have unclear boundaries, for they allow members to come and go rather than requiring them to join in a formal way.

Examples of groups formed by purpose.

• Command Groups

Command groups are specified by the organizational chart and often consist of a supervisor and the subordinates that report to that supervisor. An example of a command group is an academic department chairman and the faculty members in that department.

• Task Groups

Task groups consist of people who work together to achieve a common task. Members are brought together to accomplish a narrow range of goals within a specified time period. Task groups are also commonly referred to as task forces. The organization appoints members and assigns the goals and tasks to be accomplished. Examples of assigned tasks are the development of a new product, the improvement of a production process, or the proposal of a motivational contest. Other common task groups are ad hoc committees, project groups, and standing committees. Ad hoc committees are temporary groups created to resolve a specific complaint or develop a process. Project groups are similar to ad hoc committees and normally disband after the group

completes the assigned task. Standing committees are more permanent than ad hoc committees and project groups. They maintain longer life spans by rotating members into the group.

• Functional Groups

A functional group is created by the organization to accomplish specific goals within an unspecified time frame. Functional groups remain in existence after achievement of current goals and objectives. Examples of functional groups would be a marketing department, a customer service department, or an accounting department.

In contrast to formal groups, informal groups are formed naturally and in response to the common interests and shared values of individuals. They are created for purposes other than the accomplishment of organizational goals and do not have a specified time frame. Informal groups are not appointed by the organization and members can invite others to join from time to time. Informal groups can have a strong influence in organizations that can either be positive or negative. For example, employees who form an informal group can either discuss how to improve a production process or how to create shortcuts that jeopardize quality. Informal groups can take the form of interest groups, friendship groups, or reference groups.

• Interest Groups

Interest groups usually continue over time and may last longer than general informal groups. Members of interest groups may not be part of the same organizational department but they are bound together by some other common interest. The goals and objectives of group interests are specific to each group and may not be related to organizational goals and objectives. An example of an interest group would be students who come together to form a study group for a specific class.

• Friendship Groups

Friendship groups are formed by members who enjoy similar social activities, political beliefs, religious values, or other common bonds. Members enjoy each other’s company and often meet after work to participate in these activities. For example, a group of employees who form a friendship group may have an exercise group, a softball team, or a potluck lunch once a month.

• Reference Groups

A reference group is a type of group that people use to evaluate themselves. According to Cherrington, the main purposes of reference groups are social validation and social comparison. Social validation allows individuals to justify their attitudes and values while social comparison helps individuals evaluate their own actions by comparing themselves to others. Reference groups have a strong influence on members’ behaviour. By comparing themselves with other members, individuals are able to assess whether their behaviour is acceptable and whether their attitudes and values are right or wrong. Reference groups are different from the previously discussed groups because they may not actually meet or form voluntarily. For example, the reference group for a new employee of an organization may be a group of employees that work in a different department or even a different organization. Family, friends, and religious affiliations are strong reference groups for most individuals.

Other types of groups:

• Peer group: a peer group is a group with members of approximately the same age, social status, and interests. Generally, people are relatively equal in terms of power when they interact with peers.

• Clique: a group of people that have many of the same interests & commonly found in a High School/College setting; most of the time they have a name & rules for themselves.

• Club: a club is a group, which usually requires one to apply to become a member. Such clubs may be dedicated to particular activities: sporting clubs, for example.

• Household: all individuals living in the same home make a household. Anglophone culture may include various models of household, including the family, blended families, share housing, and group homes.

• Community: a community is a group of people with a commonality or sometimes a complex net of overlapping commonalities, often–but not always–in proximity with one another with some degree of continuity over time.

• Gang: A gang is usually an urban group that gathers in a particular area. It is a group of people that often hang around each other. They can be like some clubs, but much less formal. They are usually known in many countries to cause social unrest and also have negative influence on the members and may be a target for the law enforcers in case of any social vices.

• Mob: a mob is usually a group of people that has taken the law into their own hands. Mobs are usually groups which gather temporarily for a particular reason.

• Posse : A posse was originally found in English common law. It is generally obsolete, and survives only in America, where it is the law enforcement equivalent of summoning the militia for military purposes. However, it can also refer to a street group.

• Squad: This is usually a small group, of around 3 to 15 people, who work as a team to accomplish their goals.

• Team: Similar to a squad, though, a team may contain more members. A team works in a similar way to a squad.

• Dyad: This is a social group with two members. Social interaction in a dyad is typically more intense than in larger groups because neither member shares the other’s attention with anyone else.

• Triad: This is a social group with three members, which contains three relationships, each uniting two of the three people. A triad is more stable than a dyad because one member can act as a mediator should the relationship between the other two become strained.

Application activity 7.3

With example, explain the following types of groups.

a) Small groups

b) Primary and secondary groups

c) In and out-groups

7.4. Behaviours created by individuals in group

Activity 7.4

1. Write and share 6 Kinyarwanda proverbs that reinforce the idea of working together.

2. You belong to various groups. Some of them are friendly others are not. What do you mind are the causes of problems within groups?

Social psychologically a person is a social animal. He/she has a need to affiliate with others. According to Baumeister and Leary (1995), the foremost of all human motivations is the need to belong and the English people says “No person is an Island”. In Kinyarwanda there are various proverbs and expressions that reinforce the fact of group behaviours for instance: Abishyize hamwe Imana irabasanga, Umutwe umwe wifasha gusara, igiti kimwe si ishyamba, inkingi imwe ntigera inzu, ushaka kwihuta agenda wenyine ariko ushaka kugera kure agendana n’abandi.

Because of the strong need to affiliate or to have belongingness, a lot of human behaviours occur in the groups. As we are born we automatically belong to a number of groups and as we grow we join different categories of people and communities with different goals and motivations.

Social psychologists highlight the following group behaviour/ features:

a. Social loafing: This is a kind of behaviour that individual person (s) tend to express within group activity/task by using less effort when working together than when working alone. For example, in a class, 6 students are tasked to carry a table of 40 kg but only 4 students use all of their effort. Other remaining 2 students just touch the sides of the table.

b. Social compensation: This is the opposite of social loafing. The individual member of the group works harder in group than alone so as to compensate the less effort (low input) of others. Social compensation is mostly observed in the group where the group members display different abilities. It is obvious that this situation happens in the classroom. The teachers should vary the complexity of group task so that every member participates. During teaching and learning the three types of activities are so important. That is remedial activities, consolidation activities, and extended activities.

c. Group polarization refers to the tendency of group to make decisions that are more extreme than initial preference of its members. The group members take extreme opinion than when they are in individual situations. There is a risk shift phenomenon for those who participated in the group discussions than those who did not attend.

Example: In a class, a learner may believe that Mathematics is a very difficult subject. But as he/she meets students doing SME option where all the classmates value mathematics and make easy to them; he/she finds it affordable. They all decide to succeed Mathematic at rate of 80% and he/she does the same. 

When group polarization is driven by positive effects, the teacher should give extra support to the individuals who were before at the initial preference. The target should be displayed and remind the group member to work accordingly.

In case group polarization leads to misbehaviour, the teacher has to discourage that through setting rules and regulations that unify the group members.

d. Groupthink: This is a group behaviour whereby group members suspend critical thinking due to the act of looking for agreement.

e. To support the idea that learners acquire from one another, the group members should contribute and at the same time receive contributions from others. To promote this in the classroom, teachers have to use and encourage debates, brainstorming, group discussions, gallery works, think-pair-share….

f. Deindividuation: This is about losing individuality that leads to disinhibited behaviour. Individuality is mainly caused by the anonymity to outsiders while in crowds. And again the condition that make an individual less identifiable to people outside the group reduce feelings of accountability and, slightly but consistently, increased the risk of antisocial action. In a positive way, deindividuation is good in the classroom to promote the classroom (Nondestructive group) norms in order to increase the sense of belongingness and camaraderie.

g. Imitation: Imitation is influenced by Social motivations and pressures towards the need to belong or acquire new attitudes. In teaching and learning process children imitate an action; they may either have a goal to learn or one of various possible social goals. Parents, teachers, relatives and the whole community are expected to model appropriate social behaviour as long young generation use imitation to learn a lot about social and group behaviour.

h) Contagion: Behavioural contagion is a social influence where by the tendency for certain behaviour showed by one person is copied by others who are either in the vicinity of the original actor, or who have been exposed to media coverage describing the behaviour of the original actor.

Behavioural contagion is referred to as a “spontaneous, unsolicited and uncritical imitation of another’s behaviour” that occurs when certain variables are met:

- The observer and the model share a similar situation or mood

- The model’s behaviour encourages the observer to review his condition and to change it

- The model’s behaviour would assist the observer to resolve a conflict by reducing restraints, if copied; and

- The model is assumed to be a positive reference individual.

i. Attribution of prestige: Individuals in the group tend to obey leaders’ commend basing on his/her status or prestige. Prestige of a given leader is defined in two ways. Firstly, there is formal prestige which is given through top-down leadership. For example: being assigned to control and manage institution.

Secondary, informal prestige is given to leader because of many reasons such as: Social achievement, age, Social economic status, …

For example, classmates likely prefer to listen to their colleague who masters and shares the subject content rather than the appointed class monitor.

Informal prestige is far a stronger predictor of team performance and rate of information transmission during group works than formal prestige.

j. Emergence of collective values:

In group, persons share many complexity characteristics which end by a common collective identity and value. This is not automatically done. Group Behaviours are non-additive, and outcomes are nonlinear rather group members tend to synchronize and become correlated by adjusting their attitudes and behaviours to be more consistent with group members with whom they interact. As product an individual shift from the identity “I” to the shared identity “we” which makes a powerful motivation to collective action. The shared identity enables the members and those outside of the group to distinguish the group, its attributes and its assumptions from other groups. Individuals are able to position themselves within a particular collective’s technique to the environment, and in so doing assume, either implicitly or through an explicit arrangement, that they will share in the success of the group as its exploits opportunities and mitigates risks in the environment.

The shared agency that results enables the group to engage in actions and empowers individuals to take positions on behalf of the collective.

Example:

On the assembly, head teacher asks a volunteer student to come and sing in front of the assembly. Unfortunately, no student decides to come. After 2 minutes, head teacher said: now I call class by class if none comes that class will be called “Coward”. As the head teacher says a name of the class all class members come in front.

Application activity 7.4

Suggest one thing or activity, related to each of the concept below, that the teacher can do to strengthen group connectedness:

1. Social loafing

2. Social compensation

3. Group polarization

4. Groupthink

5. Deindividuation

6. Imitation

7. Contagion

7.5. Group phenomena

Activity 7.5

Observe the pictures and answer to the questions:

1. What differences do you observe on the 3 pictures?

2. Make short story related to each picture.

Life in group presents some phenomena (observable facts or events) that shows individual changes in various ways; like conformity, cohesion, deviance, social conflicts (frustration & aggression), obedience, social roles, social norms, persuasion, etc.

A. Conformity

It involves the acceptance of the social and cultural goals and means of attaining those goals.

Example: a student who follows school rules even when the discipline master is not there.

Conformity can have either good or bad effects depending on the situation. Peer pressure leading to drug or alcohol abuse is harmful, but driving safely on the correct side of the road is a beneficial example of conformity.

Herbert Kelman identified three major types of social influence:

- Compliance: is public conformity, while keeping one’s own private beliefs.

- Identification: is conforming to someone who is liked and respected, such as celebrity or a favourite uncle.

- Internalization: is acceptance of the belief or behaviour and conforming both publicly and privately.

Humans are social creatures, so we tend to behave like others in the group, that is, we typically conform. To conform means to be in agreement or in harmony, although it has a somewhat negative, positive connotation, as if someone had persuaded you to do something not quite in line with your own wishes. Moreover, conformity refers to the respect or application of norms giving the way for the group to follow.

B. Persuasion

There are different forms of convincing someone to do something you want through verbal communication. The goal of persuasion is to make someone change his/her mind. Referring to their economic status or experience, parents may persuade their child to enrol to a certain school different from the child’s choice.

C. Social conflicts

In some groups, there are interpersonal conflicts. This makes the creation of antagonist sub-groups. The teacher should be aware of such sub-groups and why they were created in order to bring back the unity of the group. We love. We nurture. We help. But as current events and the history of humankind attest, we also harm. In humans, aggression represents any form of behaviour that is intended to harm another.

D. Cohesion

It is a union, solidarity between the group members. It is defined by the identification of every group member to the rest of the group. It is shown by the collaboration to reach a common objective, the loyalty toward other group members, and the disposition to defend against external threats. The cohesion will be strong when the common and particular objectives are attained.

E. Deviance

This is a behaviour of someone who goes astray the group norms or who escapes from the rules of his/her society or his/her group. For example: prostitute, delinquent, drunkard, thief...

F. Prejudice

Prejudice is unjustified or incorrect attitude towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group. It is a preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience.

Prejudice is held to be a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluation of a particular entity with some degree of favour (Hewstone et al., 1996). We may list: Gender prejudice, Racial/Ethnic minority prejudice, Sexual orientation prejudice, and Disability prejudice

Application activity 7.5

Conformity, Persuasion, Social conflicts, Deviance, Prejudice

1. Follow the indicators in the table and classify the above social phenomena accordingly. Given two examples for each phenomenon.

2. What can you do to decrease social conflicts in your classroom?

7.6. Factors affecting group behaviour

Activity 7.6

Read this story

When I work with my classmates, I don’t always understand what I am supposed to do. My classmates don’t say exactly what I should do, or how they feel. My classmates understand what other people mean without hearing from them. My brain doesn’t work this way, so sometimes I do things that my classmates don’t like. This makes it hard to work in group.

But, I need to work in a group so that I can learn. I like learning. I can ask my teacher for helping me learning how to work with my classmates better. My teacher can help me understand what they mean, and how I adopt good behaviour. That way, I will do well in group work, I can learn well. Then I will be happy because learning makes me happy.

Answer to the following questions

1. What are characters in this story?

2. Which challenge is addressed in the story?

3. Suggests the causes of the identified challenge

The success or failure of a group depends upon so many factors. The following factors are example of them: group member resources, structure (group size, group roles, group norms, and group cohesiveness) and group leadership.

i. Group Member Resources

Every member of a given group, join the group with set of competences and behaviour he/she expresses in terms of knowledge, abilities, skills; and personality characteristics (sociability, self- reliance, and independence). The quality of those resources that the group members bring in with them makes the group tasks successful.

ii. Group Structure:

• Group Size

Group size can vary from 2 people to a very large number of people.

Small groups of two to ten are thought to be more effective because each member has sufficient opportunity to take part and engage actively in the group.

Large groups may waste time by deciding on processes and trying to decide who should participate next. Evidence supports the notion that as the size of the group increases, satisfaction increases up to a certain point. Increasing the size of a group, beyond 10-12 members, results in decreased satisfaction of group members. It is increasingly difficult for members of large groups to identify with one another and experience cohesion.

• Group Roles

Group roles have much influence in the successfulness of the group. In formal groups, roles are always predetermined and assigned to members. Each group member shall have specific responsibilities and duties. The package of expectations and attributes given to a group member rank him/her to a social position. In groups, people expect certain sorts of behaviour from those they see as the leader.

• Group norms

Group norm is a standard of behaviour. In other words, group norm is a rule that tells the individual how to behave in a particular group. Thus, group norms identify the standards against which behaviour of group members will be evaluated and help the group members know what they should not do. Norms could be formal or could be non-formal. So the groups where norms are not clear will find it difficult to operate.

• Group cohesiveness

Cohesive group is that one with a high degree of mutual esteem and friendship. The greater group cohesiveness, the greater is the individual members’ desire to remain active and resistant to leaving. The research shows that the cohesive group may exert strong influence upon members to behave in accordance with group expectations (Coch and French, 1960).

iii. Group leadership:

Leadership is the ability to persuade others to fulfil defined objectives enthusiastically. It is a human factor which binds a group together and motivates them towards a goal. Leadership enhances group process through effective communication, deliberate decision making processes, power dynamics, and conflicting interactions.

It is evident that leadership varies from one organization to another. Therefore, no two leaders administer and lead organizations or group in the same way.

Different styles of leadership

a. Autocratic leadership

This style corresponds to authoritarian leader. In this type of leadership, the leader alone determines policy and assign tasks to individuals without any consultations with them. The subordinates are expected to carry out those directives without question or comment.

b. Democratic leadership

This type of leadership is at times called participative leadership. It rests on the idea that the workers or their representatives shall be involved in the making of decisions. A democratic leader makes decisions after the discussion or consultation of the group members. This style of leadership considers the needs, interests, rights and freedom of the subordinates.

c. Laisser-faire leadership

This style comes from a French word meaning “let people do what they wish”. It is a kind of leadership which does not encourage any rules within groups. The leader is merely a symbol since there is no hierarchy of authority

d. Pseudo-democratic leadership

This is the style of leadership whereby the leader pretends to be democratic. He/she makes decisions and brings them to the members of the groups. He/she rejects suggestions from other people only to bring them up later as his/her own suggestions.

e. Charismatic leadership

This is based on the leader’s magnetic personality and influence on his/her subjects which tends to draw them to him/her (self). The leader commands love, faith, respect and devotion because of personal attributes such as

attractiveness, good position, eloquent speeches and warm personality. His/her followers are converted and are champions of his/ her cause.

f. Transactional leadership

This style of leadership combines what is called nomothetic and idiographic styles. Nomothetic style is leadership that emphasizes the role of the work and the organization. It is task oriented. Idiographic leadership considers the needs and personalities of the workers. Workers are expected to be free in their participation towards organizational goals. What transactional leadership does is to balance personal needs and organizational demands within a given situation.

Power and Leadership

Power refers to a capacity that person A has to influence the behaviour of another person B, so that he/she (person B) acts in accordance with A’s wishes.

The Five Points of Power

• Coercive Power (force based power) - Power that is based on fear. A person with coercive power can make things difficult for people. These are the persons that you want to avoid getting angry. Employees working under coercive managers are unlikely to be committed, and more likely to resist the manager.

• Reward Power - Compliance achieved based on the ability to distribute rewards that others view as valuable. Able to give special benefits or rewards to people.

• Legitimate Power - The power a person receives as a result of his/her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization.

• Expert Power (competence based power) - Influence based on special skills or knowledge. This person earns respect by experience and knowledge.

• Referent Power (charismatic power) - Influence based on possession by an individual or desirable resources or personal traits. You like the person and enjoy doing things for him/her.

Application activity 7.6

1. Write 2 statements/ sentences for each of the factors below that prove their effects on group behaviour.

i. Group member resources

ii. Structure

iii. Group leadership

2. Write two advantages and two disadvantages for each type of leadership

7.7. Group work in class

Activity 7.7

Think about your experience in terms of working in groups from S1 up to Year 3.

1. How did the teacher help you form group?

2. What are the learning activities you were mostly asked to work in group?

3. What was the teacher doing when you were in group work/discussion? Group work refers to a multiplicity of techniques in which two or more learners are assigned a task that involves collaboration and communication (Linsin, 2011).

Group work techniques can be used to motivate learners, encourage active learning, and develop key critical thinking, communication, and decision-making skills. But without careful planning and facilitation, group work can frustrate learners and instructors and feel like a waste of time.

Benefits of group work

- Development of higher-level thinking, social skills, oral communication, self-management, and leadership skills.

- Promotion of learners’ interaction.

- Increase in learner engagement, commitment and initiative

- Exposure to an increase in understanding of diverse perspectives.

- Preparation for real-life social and employment situations

Some of the challenges associated with group work

- Sometimes all learners speak at once trying to accomplish their task, and this causes noise that may bother others.

- Some teachers may lose control of the class or have difficulties controlling the class, especially in terms of discipline.

- Learners with low English (medium of instruction) as a second language may find it harder to engage in group discussions.

- Learners who lack confidence may find it difficult to contribute to group discussions.

Effective ways of forming group work

- Consider learner’s ability to engage in group work.

- Mix learners in different groups, boy/girl, confident/less confident, more/less able,

- Clarify expectations and learning outcomes of the group work. This enables learner’s preparation and focus.

- Consider group size. When planning group work, consider the size that will best suit your outcomes, depending on factors such as time allocation, complexity of task, different roles needed.

- Ensure your learners have access to facilities in which to conduct group work. Make sure furniture is arranged in circles, U- shape, semi-circle… and use all the space in the room, have enough copies of any resources for each group

Strategies for organizing group work

- Plan the task

- Plan the exercise carefully to make sure that all learners contribute

- Decide what you want them to produce

- Arrange how the groups will feedback

- Decide how many will work together (Two = pair work, Three or more = group work

- Use small group where the task has roles for each member

- Decide who will be working together (Learners who are sitting together/ near each other, Planned by teacher.

- Organize the classroom (Move desks, help the learners to sit in groups and ask them to face each other

- Give the learners roles/jobs within the group for example: manager/leader, resource collector, scribe, reporter, developer.

- Arrange a stop signal and decide on a signal that tells the learners when you want them to stop talking and to listen to the teacher, such as: Clapping rhythm/1, 2, 3 look at me/shaker/5, 4, 3, 2, 1/hands up/mobile phone ringtone

- Teach learners what noise level is appropriate and model the volume of talking you want.

- Give a time target (don’t say “do quickly”! Tell them how much time they have before they begin the task.

- Remind them when they are working how much time they have left (“You have one-minute left!”).

- Monitor the groups by moving around the classroom monitoring the groups to check everyone is working.

- Assess the work done by the group

- Encourage sharing group findings (presentations, gallery works, learning stations, expert panel…)

The role of the teacher in group works

-The teacher should know deeply what to teach. He/she should master his subject so as to be able to face successfully any or unexpected situations.

- A teacher should also be omnipresent all along the lesson, he must know how group activities are being carried out, and make sure that all groups don’t go out of the topic. This is an active observation of works.

- A teacher should also facilitate an exchange between groups to establish a balance between all activities of the groups. He should therefore be omniscient. Then, a teacher should not only observe actively, but also intervene whenever needed.

- So, teacher should play leadership roles at school that is the process by which teachers, individually or collectively, influence colleagues, principals and other members of school community to improve teaching and learning practices with the aim of increasing student learning and achievement (York-Barr and Duke, 2004).

The leadership role of the teacher can be summarized as follow:

- Teachers are leaders as role models: where the students and other people in the society try to follow behaviours, dressing etiquette of the teachers.

- Teachers are leaders as influencers not dictators: they can also be catalysts for change. A teacher who takes on the catalyst role feels secured in his/her own work and has a strong commitment to continual improvement. Students are the ones to be strongly influenced by the teacher.

- Teachers are leaders as positive motivators and facilitators: Facilitating professional learning opportunities among staff members is another role for a teacher-leader. When a teacher learns with and from one another, they can focus on what most directly improves student learning.

- Teachers are leaders as learners: Learners’ model continual improvement demonstrates lifelong learning and use what they learn to help all students achieve.

- Teachers are leaders as problem solvers: He is the one who has problem solving skills. He solves different problems in the classroom, at school and outside in the society. Teachers are leaders as mentors. Mentors serve as role models and advise new teachers about instructions, curriculum, procedure practices and politics.

- Teachers are leaders as instructional specialists: An instructional specialist helps colleagues implement effective teaching strategies. This help might include ideas for differentiating instruction or planning in partnership with fellow teachers.

- The teachers can play leadership roles in showing professional roles in their teaching. They have to remember that:

• “A poor teacher tells;

• An average teacher explains;

• A good teacher demonstrates;

• And a great teacher inspires his/her students”

• The best curriculum and the most perfect curriculum remain dead without good teachers and the good teaching methods.

• To provide an efficient social life to the students in preparing them to live together.

• To have the notion of ethical responsibility with very high standards of integrity.

• To provide guidance to pupils on educational and social matters.

• To participate in national appraisal arrangements and in training and professional development schemes.

• To empower safety of pupils on a visit that takes them out of school.

Problems arising from group work

a. Problems related to the nature of the group

The nature of the group is mainly determined by its objectives, and the interactions between its members. This first (objectives) influence the second (interaction).

• Size of a group: when a group is very large, its members will not be satisfied as communication among group members is difficult even impossible; they will not have a chance to express their ideas (their points of view). The size of the group must be in relation to its objectives or its tasks, but a better group must be limited (generally between 5 and 7/8 members).

• Non-integration of the chief in the group: a group monitor must be accepted by all group members if not some negative effects can appear within a group.

b. Problems related to the inter-individual conflicts

Inter-individual conflicts sometimes lead to the formation of some groups which have contrasting interests and live in an atmosphere of hostility. The more there are conflicts; the more the realization of tasks will be difficult because the collaboration will be very poor.

c. Problems related to the nature of tasks

Considering the group discussion, the topic to debate about should be at the level of learners and limited enough. Otherwise, there will be very limited interventions and solutions.

During practical/manual works, insufficient materials and the lack of organization will hinder works from advancing.

d. Problems related to the nature of personalities

The teacher as a facilitator and animator of group works should always care for establishing the balance of personalities in group members.

There are different personalities which some:

- Manifest the lack of interest: indifferent learners,

- Search to dominate the group: dominant learners,

- Attack without a relevant reason the group or individuals: aggressive learners,

- Search to attract others’ attention to them,

- Reject, resist without reason, always against,

- Encourage others, say yes and show affection, understand others,

- Facilitate others’ participation, open communications,

- Search and facilitate the agreement,

- Propose an ideal, on which the group aspires and takes initiatives,

- Follow others voluntary or passively, say yes to decisions.

Of course nothing will go when one type of personality meet in one group. There must be a mixture of personalities to create mutual influences.

Group problem solving

- In general, small groups of people solve complex intellectual problems better in groups than they do when working alone.

- It is true that “two heads are better than one” and that the knowledge and skills of more than one person may be needed to solve a complex problem.

- The discussion of issues in groups often leads to the polarization of thinking, pushing our opinions towards “pole” of the issue. So, the teacher should intervene in group discussion

Application activity 7.7

Use primary syllabus of a subject from your choice (according to your option) and fill in the following table with appropriate information or answers.

7.8. Organizing and conducting a meeting

Learning objective: Outline steps involved when organizing and conducting meetings

Activity 7.8

During your school attachment, you have probably attended a school meeting or you did this elsewhere.

Write a short report to your teacher by informing him/her about the meeting you attended.

Teacher is one of the most important education stakeholders. He/she has all required professional competences. Teacher has to link learners with others who display any impact on teaching and learning. Since the teacher has to meet different education stakeholders, he/she must have skills about organizing and conducting meeting. Knowing about social psychology will help the teacher to effectively interact and influence participants to attain the objectives of the meeting.

Guidelines to plan and conduct a meeting

There are different ways to plan and conduct a meeting depending on the objectives. Below are some guidelines: (UR-CE (2019) Continuous Professional Development Diploma in Effective School Leadership, Student Manual, Volume 1, 3rd Edition, Kigali. Page 129-131)

Before the meeting

- Prepare the objectives and agenda of the meeting in advance. Consult other school staff to inform or decide on the main objectives of the meeting.

- Think about who should attend the meeting and prepare invitations. Use various communication channels to ensure that they are accessible to all parents or participants, including those with disabilities

- Send invitations on time

- Prepare the venue for the meeting, ensure adequate seating for all.

- Agree on how the meeting will be conducted to engage attendees to participate actively.

Main parts of meeting

Opening the meeting:

- Welcome word by Chair of the meeting (Teacher, the President of SGAC…)

- Presentation of the chair of the meeting, the minute-taker and any visitors

- Monitor attendance. Ensure there is a sufficient number of attendees required to hold the meeting

- Explain the objective of the meeting

- Run through the agenda of meeting and check if there are any additional points to be added

- Set ground rules, such as respecting ideas of others, staying on topic, avoid receiving calls inside the room, not interrupting others, etc. (Daniel S, 2012)

Review the minutes of the previous meeting (if applicable)

- Give a summary of the previous meeting

- Check if action points taken were put into practice

- Discuss challenges or future action points

- Approve minutes

During the meeting

- Address each agenda item

- Minute taker records a summary of ideas

- Action points, responsible people and time frames are decided for each item

Closing the meeting

- Share with attendees a summary of decisions and action points

- Agree on date of next meeting

- Thank participants

- Remind participants to sign attendance list

Things to be considered while chairing a meeting

- Good management of time. If necessary, end discussions or suggest that they can be continued after the meeting.

- Ensure communication remains positive and productive

- Encourage active participation of all participants, including men and women and people with disabilities.

- Discourage “sub-meetings” (small group discussions or meetings within meetings) of attendees discussing issues simultaneously

- Reach consensus after having discussed an issue

- Support attendees who have difficulty in expressing themselves, so they can also be heard

- Manage different behaviours of participants in the meeting

Application activity 7.8

Make a poster showing the steps and activities you will go through while organizing and conducting effective meeting with parents. Make sure that by the end of meeting, parents are able to contribute to feeding program at your school.

End unit assesment

1. Examine social situation in your classroom and identify how the following concepts appear in your classroom setting:

a. Conformity

b. Social influence

c. Peer pressure

d. Stereotyping

e. Small groups

f. Aggression

g. Group roles

h. Group leadership

i. Group work and related problems.

Notice: be as realistic as you can. Just base on your observations and experience so that you give real information. Not many sentences are needed.

2. In primary school, all pupils appreciate sport time. They are free, fun, happy and open. In your school no pupil has Sportswear. This is a very serious issue because this needs collaboration between school teaching and administration staff and parents/ community. Make a plan that shows how you can go about this issue until every pupil attend sport with his/her own sportswear.