UNIT 6 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY
Key Unit Competence:
Recognize and respond appropriately to different personalities in classroom situations.
Introductory activity
1. In our daily life, people react differently.
Some are easy going, intellect, warmth, reserved, introvert or extrovert, impatient, rude; others are out going, moody, stable, aggressive, docile, and dominant. They are emotional, prudent, conscious, and talkative, and so on. This characterizes the way individuals live and interact with others.
From the list above, what characteristics do you have?
2. The following list represents the well-known psychologists. As a student teacher in Year 3, based on your prerequisites, write their views in psychology.
6.1. Theories of personality
https://www.verywellmind.com/personality-perspectives-2795950
6.1.1. Psychoanalytical approach
Activity 6.1.1
It was noon and students were from school and running to get home early. P5 students, KALISA, CYUZUZO and MIZERO were together and passed near sugar canes plantation. KALISA who was sharp and impolite told his colleagues to steal the sugar canes and eat because they were all hungry and the journey was still long. CYUZUZO the youngest boy and shy reminds them that stealing is not good and it is a sin as their Religious teacher taught them last week in the topic called “Ten commandments of God”. KALISA insisted and MIZERO who seemed to be careless in all his activities supported KALISA, finally they stole sugar canes and eat them as they continue their journey.
i. Why did MIZERO and KALISA insist to steal sugar canes?
ii. Why did CYUZUZO want them to avoid stealing?
iii. How did every one’s behaviour match with what they did during their journey?
iv. Imagine if they were caught and brought in front of assembly at school to explain what they did. What would happen to them?
v. Have you ever met with the same situation? How did you manage it? Share your story with your friends showing the effect of your decision.
In psychology, psychoanalytic and psychodynamic are two words that can often be confused as most people tend to use these interchangeably. But there is a key difference between psychoanalytic and psychodynamic. Psychoanalytic refers to the perspective and theoretical ideas that were originated by Sigmund Freud while Psychodynamic refers to the ideas and perspective that came from Sigmund Freud and his followers. As you can see, psychoanalysis is the original creation of a psychological perspective which enables the psychologist to focus on the human mind. Psychodynamic theories drew inspiration from psychoanalysis. In this Unit, we shall link them together in order to clarify their relevance to personality development.
What is Psychoanalysis?
Psychoanalysis refers to the theoretical basis that includes a specific approach, theories, and techniques that assist the psychologist to comprehend the human mind. These were founded by Sigmund Freud through his clinical work. In psychoanalysis, Freud spoke of many important concepts. Some of the key concepts that he emphasized on are the role of unconscious, consciousness and pre-consciousness; id, ego and superego; defence mechanisms, dreams, etc.
He specifically believed that the unconscious was important when understanding the human mind. This theory attempts to understand behaviour by looking at the unconscious mind and its desires, which are said to impact how people live their lives. They look for the causes of behaviour in a dynamic interplay of inner motivational forces that often conflict with one another. They also suggest that many of these motivational determinants of behaviour are unconscious. The unconscious mind develops its characteristics through early childhood experiences, social pressures, and subconscious needs for self-realization and superiority.
i. Levels of Consciousness
The preconscious refers to anything that could potentially be brought into the conscious mind with little efforts.
The conscious mind comprises all of the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. This also includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily and brought into awareness (Cherry, 2019).
The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.
To explain the concept of conscious versus unconscious experience, Freud compared the mind to an iceberg. He said that only about one-tenth of our mind is conscious, and the rest of our mind is unconscious.
Our unconscious refers to that mental activity of which we are unaware and are unable to access. According to Freud, unacceptable urges and desires are kept in our unconscious through a process called repression.
For example, we sometimes say things that we don’t intend to say by unintentionally substituting another word for the one we meant. You’ve probably heard of a Freudian slip, the term used to describe this. Freud suggested that slips of the tongue are actually sexual or aggressive urges, accidentally slipping out of our unconscious. Speech errors such as this are quite common. Seeing them as a reflection of unconscious desires, linguists today have found that slips of the tongue tend to occur when we are tired, nervous, or not at our optimal level of cognitive functioning (Motley, 2002).
Source: McLeod, 2013
Freud separated personality into three sub-systems or components. The three sub-systems interact harmoniously to produce a well-adjusted individual:
1o. The Id
This is present at birth, the most primitive and illogical part of personality. It mainly deals with basic biological drives, instincts and reflexes. It is totally unconscious and has no contact with reality. It acts on the pleasure principle because its primary goal is to maximize satisfaction and minimize pain or reduce tension or anxiety.
The Id is a pool of instinctual biological drives present at birth physical needs for food and elimination of faeces or any other bodily requirement.
Thus, the id that is all the instincts together is the energy force for the ego and the superego which develop later in childhood. The instincts are called Libido, which are sexual and positive impulses and the other is called Thanatos which refers to destructive and aggressive impulses. The id operates at the pleasure principle which means that it strives for the maximum satisfaction of needs. New-born babies are essentially pure id.
2o. The Ego
It is the individual’s personal identity and conscious mind. It develops after the child is appropriately six months old. The ego takes for itself part of the energy of the id and proceeds to serve as the mediator between the id and reality. It operates on the reality principle which means that it is rational and is devoted to preserving the individual.
3o. The Superego
The superego emerges at the end of pre-operational stage of child cognitive development, that is, between the ages of 5 and 7 approximately.
The superego contains the rules, values and morals that regulate our behaviour. It is the individual’s interpretation of what the society will permit. Its function is to prohibit what is morally wrong and to promote what is morally right. Thus, it is up to the ego to find a way to satisfy the Id without giving pain to the superego – pain experienced as remorse or guilt.
Personality represents the effort to arrange a compromise between these processes, though such compromises are rarely free of tensions.
When the superego becomes dominant, the result is that people become over controlled, rigid and excessively frightened of their own inner needs.
If the Id becomes too powerful, then people will struggle unceasingly with socially unacceptable, selfish and anxiety producing impulses.
ii. Defence mechanisms
According to Freudian theory, defence mechanism is a mental strategy that the Ego uses to block harmful behaviour and thus reduce anxiety. Defence mechanisms work by altering the Id impulses into acceptable forms, or by unconscious blockage of these impulses.
Note:
There are theorists who disagreed with certain aspect of Freud’s thinking and developed their own theory. Among them were Alfred Adler, Karen Horney, Erik Erikson and Carl Jung. They developed a theory called Neo-analytic or neo -Freudian theory and believed that Freud did not give social and cultural factors a sufficiently important role in the development and dynamics of personality.
In particular, they believed that he stressed infantile sexuality too much. The second major criticism was that Freud laid too much emphasis on the event of the childhood as determinants of adults’ personality.
Alfred Adler
Alfred Adler, a colleague of Freud’s was the first major theorist to break away from Freud. He subsequently founded a school of psychology called individual psychology, which focuses on our drive to compensate for feelings of inferiority.
Adler proposed the concept of the inferiority complex. An inferiority complex refers to a person’s feelings that they lack worth and don’t measure up to the standards of others or of society. Adler’s ideas about inferiority represent a major difference between his thinking and Freud’s. Freud believed that we are motivated by sexual and aggressive urges, but Adler believed that feelings of inferiority in childhood are what drive people to attempt to gain superiority and that this striving is the force behind all of our thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.
Adler also believed in the importance of social connections, seeing childhood development emerging through social development rather than the sexual stages Freud outlined. Adler noted the inter-relatedness of humanity and the need to work together for the betterment of all. He said, “The happiness of mankind lies in working together, in living as if each individual had set himself the task of contributing to the common welfare” with the main goal of psychology being “to recognize the equal rights and equality of others”.
With these ideas, Adler identified three fundamental social tasks that all of us must experience: occupational tasks (careers), societal tasks (friendship), and love tasks (finding an intimate partner for a long-term relationship). Rather than focus on sexual or aggressive motives for behaviour as Freud did, Adler focused on social motives. He also emphasized conscious rather than focus on sexual or aggressive motives for behaviour as Freud did, Adler focused on social motives. He also emphasized conscious rather than unconscious motivation, since he believed that the three fundamental social tasks are explicitly known and pursued. That is not to say that Adler did not also believe in unconscious processes but he felt that conscious processes were more important
Another major contribution of Adler to personality psychology was the idea that our birth order shapes our personality. He proposed that older siblings, who start out as the focus of their parents’ attention but must share that attention once a new child joins the family, compensate by becoming overachievers. The youngest children, according to Adler, may be spoiled, leaving the middle child with the opportunity to minimize the negative dynamics of the youngest and oldest children. Despite popular attention, research has not conclusively confirmed Adler’s hypotheses about birth order.
Carl JUNG
Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and the most loyal and heir apparent to Freud, who later split off from Freud and developed his own theory, which he called analytical psychology. Jung’s split from Freud was based on two major disagreements.
First, Jung, like Adler and Erikson, did not accept that sexual drive was the primary motivator in a person’s mental life. Second, although Jung agreed with Freud’s concept of a personal unconscious, he thought it to be incomplete.
In addition to the personal unconscious, Jung focused on the collective unconscious.
The collective unconscious is a universal version of the personal unconscious, holding mental patterns, or memory traces, which are common to all of us. These ancestral memories, which Jung called archetypes, are represented by niversal themes in various cultures, as expressed through literature, art, and dreams.
Jung said that these themes reflect common experiences of people over the world, such as facing death, becoming independent, and striving for mastery. Jung believed that through biology, each person is handed down the same themes and that the same types of symbols such as the hero, the maiden, the sage (wise), and the trickster are present in the folklore and fairy tales of every culture. In Jung’s view, the task of integrating these unconscious archetypal aspects of the self is part of the self-realization process in the second half of life. With this orientation toward self-realization, Jung parted ways with Freud’s belief that personality is determined solely by past events and anticipated the humanistic movement with its emphasis on self-actualization and orientation toward the future.
Jung also proposed two attitudes or approaches toward life: extroversion and introversion. These ideas are considered Jung’s most important contributions to the field of personality psychology, as almost all models of personality now include these concepts. If you are an extrovert, then you are a person who is energized by being outgoing and socially oriented: You derive your energy from being around others. If you are an introvert, then you are a person who may be quiet and reserved, or you may be social, but your energy is derived from your inner psychic activity. Jung believed a balance between extroversion and introversion best served the goal of self-realization.
Eric Erikson
He is influential for having proposed psychosocial theory of development, which suggests that an individual’s personality develops throughout the lifespan based on a series of social relationships, a departure from Freud’s more biological oriented view. In his psychosocial theory, Erikson emphasized the social relationships that are important at each stage of personality development, in contrast to Freud’s emphasis on sex. Erikson identified eight stages each of which represents a conflict or development task. The development of a healthy personality and a sense of competence depend on the successful completion of each task (see also stages of psychosocial development, year one, unit 12, lesson 12.1.3).
Karen Horney
Karen Horney was one of the first women trained as a Freudian psychoanalyst. Like Jung, Horney believed that each individual has the potential for selfrealization and that the goal of psychoanalysis should be moving toward a healthy self rather than exploring early childhood patterns of dysfunction. Horney also disagreed with the Freudian idea that girls have penis envy and are jealous of male biological features. According to Horney, any jealousy is most likely culturally based, due to the greater privileges that males often have, meaning that the differences between men’s and women’s personalities are culturally based, not biologically based.
She further suggested that men have womb envy, because they cannot give birth. Horney’s theories focused on the role of unconscious anxiety. She suggested that normal growth can be blocked by basic anxiety stemming from needs not being met, such as childhood experiences of loneliness and/or isolation.
How do children learn to handle this anxiety?
Horney suggested three styles of coping.
• The first coping style, moving toward people, relies on affiliation and dependence. These children become dependent on their parents and other caregivers in an effort to receive attention and affection, which provides relief from anxiety. When these children grow up, they tend to use this same coping strategy to deal with relationships, expressing an intense need for love and acceptance.
• The second coping style, moving against people, relies on aggression and assertiveness. Children with this coping style find that fighting is the best way to deal with an unhappy home situation, and they deal with their feelings of insecurity by bullying other children. As adults, people with this coping style tend to lash out with hurtful comments and exploit others.
• The third coping style, moving away from people, centres on detachment and isolation. These children handle their anxiety by withdrawing from the world. They need privacy and tend to be self-sufficient. When these children are adults, they continue to avoid such things as love and friendship, and they also tend to gravitate toward careers that require little interaction with others.
Application activity 6.1.1
1. What was Freud’s view of personality and its development?
2. How did Freud think people defended themselves against anxiety?
3. Which of Freud’s ideas did his followers accept or reject?
4. Select explanations from list II to match the type of defence mechanisms that goes with each in list I
6.1.2. Humanistic approach
Activity 6.1.2
1. How many levels of hierarchy of human needs according to Maslow. List them from the top level to the bottom.
2. Using Maslow’s pyramid of hierarchy of needs, classify each individual shown on the photo on the appropriate level.
3. Which level is rarely achieved?
Key words
Congruence: state of being in which our thoughts about our real and ideal selves are very similar
Ideal self: person we would like to be
Incongruence: state of being in which there is a great discrepancy between our real and ideal selves
Real self: person who we actually are
Self-concept: our thoughts and feelings about ourselves.
As the “third force” in psychology, humanism is raised as a reaction both to the pessimistic determinism of psychoanalysis, with its emphasis on psychological
disturbance, and to the behaviourists’ view of humans passively reacting to the environment. It does not suggest that psychoanalytic, behaviourist, and other points of view are incorrect but argues that these perspectives do not recognize the depth and meaning of human experience, and fail to recognize the innate capacity for self-directed change and transforming personal experiences.
Humanistic theories see inherent desires for actualization and satisfaction of needs as driving forces behind behaviour. Abraham Maslow’s famous hierarchy of needs falls into this category, stating that basic needs drive human behaviour initially until the needs are consistently met, at which point the individual moves up the hierarchy to more complex desires.
Humanistic theory argues that an individual’s subjective free will is the most important determinant of behaviour. Humanistic psychologists such as Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers believed that people strive to become self-actualized the “best version” of themselves.
This perspective focuses on how healthy people develop. One pioneering humanist, Abraham Maslow found that people share similar characteristics, such as being open, creative, loving, spontaneous, compassionate, concerned for others, and accepting of them. When you studied motivation, you learned about one of the best-known humanistic theories, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory, in which Maslow proposes that human beings have certain needs in common and that these needs must be met in a certain order. The highest need is the need for self-actualization, which is the achievement of our fullest potential.
Characteristics of self-actualized people
Although we are all, theoretically, capable of self-actualizing, most of us will not do so, or only to a limited degree. Maslow (1970) estimated that only two per cent of people would reach the state of self-actualization. He was especially interested in the characteristics of people whom he considered to have achieved their potential as individuals. By studying 18 people he considered to be selfactualized (including Abraham Lincoln and Albert Einstein) Maslow (1970) identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualized person.
Characteristics of self-actualizers:
Behaviour leading to self-actualization:
- Experiencing life like a child with full absorption and concentration.
- Trying new things instead of sticking to safe paths.
- Listening to your own feelings in evaluating experiences instead of voice of tradition, authority or the majority.
- Avoiding pretence (game playing) and being honest.
- Being prepared to be unpopular if your views do not coincide with those of the majority
- Taking responsibility and working hard.
- Trying to identify your defences and having the courage to give them up
The characteristics of self-actualizers and the behaviours leading to selfactualization are shown in the previous list. Although people achieve selfactualization in their own unique way, they tend to share certain characteristics. However, self-actualization is a matter of degree; there are no perfect human beings.
It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualized and not only self-actualized people will display them. Maslow did not equate self-actualization with perfection. However, self-actualization merely involves achieving one’s potential.
Carl Rogers
Another humanistic theorist was Carl Rogers. One of Rogers’s main ideas about personality regards self-concept.
In Rogers’s view, the Self-Concept is the most important feature of personality, and it includes all the thoughts, feelings, and beliefs people have about themselves. Rogers believed that people are aware of their self-concepts, our thoughts and feelings about us.
How would you respond to the question, “Who am I?” Your answer can show how you see yourself. If your response is primarily positive, then you tend to feel good about whom you are, and you see the world as a safe and positive place. If your response is mainly negative, then you may feel unhappy with who you are.
Rogers further divided the self into two categories: the ideal self and the real self.
The ideal self is the person that you would like to be while the real self is the person you actually are. Rogers focused on the idea that we need to achieve consistency between these two selves.
“If you compare yourself with others, you may become vain and bitter; for always there will be greater and lesser persons than yourself. To love oneself is the beginning of a life-long romance.” (Myers, 2008)
Congruence and Incongruence
Rogers said that people’s self-concepts often do not exactly match reality. For example, a person may consider himself very honest but often lies to his boss about why he is late to work. Rogers used the term “incongruence” to refer to the discrepancy between the self-concept and reality.
Congruence, on the other hand, is a fairly accurate match between the selfconcept and reality. According to Rogers, parents promote incongruence if they give their children conditional love. If a parent accepts a child only when the child behaves a particular way, the child is likely to block out experiences that are considered unacceptable. On the other hand, if the parent shows unconditional love, the child can develop congruence. Adults whose parents provided conditional love would continue in adulthood to alter their experiences in order to feel accepted.
Results of Incongruence
Rogers thought that people experience anxiety when their self-concepts are threatened. To protect themselves from anxiety, people modify their experiences so that they can hold on to their self-concept. People who have a high degree of incongruence are likely to feel very anxious because reality continually threatens their self-concepts.
“The Good Life”
Rogers described life in terms of principles rather than stages of development. These principles exist in dynamic processes rather than static states. He claimed that a fully functioning person would continually aim to fulfil his/her potential in each of these processes, achieving what he called “the good life.” These people would allow personality and self-concept to emanate from experience. He found that fully functioning individuals had several traits or tendencies in common
Criticisms of Rogers’ Theories
Like Maslow’s theories, Rogers’ were criticized for their lack of empirical evidence used in research. The holistic approach of humanism allows for a great deal of variation but does not identify enough constant variables to be researched with true accuracy. Psychologists also worry that such an extreme focus on the subjective experience of the individual does little to explain or appreciate the impact of society on personality development.
Application activity 6.1.2
1. How did humanistic psychologists view personality, and what was their goal in studying personality?
2. How did humanistic psychologists assess a person’s sense of self?
3. How has the humanistic perspective influenced psychology?
4. What criticisms has it faced?
5. Are we helped or hindered by high self-esteem?
6. Describe Maslow’s self-actualizing personality
6.1.3. Social cognitive approach
Activity 6.1.3
1. Explain the theory of social learning according to Albert Bandura.
2. How does the Rwandan adage “Uwiba ahetse aba abwiriza uwo mu mugongo” much relate to Bandura’s social learning theory?
3. Explain how students copy from teacher’s behaviour.
Key Terms
Self-efficacy: The term used to describe how one judges one’s own competence to complete tasks and reach goals.
Locus of control: The extent to which individuals believe that they can control events that affect them; can be either internal or external.
Social learning theory: A theory assuming that people learn certain behaviours through observing and imitating the behaviours of others, and then being rewarded or punished for behaving that way.
Learned helplessness: The condition of a human or animal that has learned to behave helplessly, failing to respond even though there are opportunities for it to help itself by avoiding unpleasant circumstances or by gaining positive rewards.
Introduction
Social cognitive theories see personality as the result of observational learning, through which an individual observes others and consciously chooses to pursue behaviour that is rewarded or avoid behaviour that is punished. This type of learning can best occur if the individual has a high level of confidence in his/her abilities, resulting in greater motivation to accomplish tasks.
• Social- cognitive theories of personality emphasize the role of cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging, in the development of personality.
• Albert Bandura is a behavioural psychologist who came up with the concept of reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes, behaviour, and context all interact with and influence each other.
• Rotter expanded upon Bandura’s ideas and developed the term locus of control to describe our beliefs about the power we have over our lives.
• A person with an internal locus of control believes that their rewards in life are guided by their own decisions and efforts. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to their own lack of effort.
• A person with an external locus of control believes that rewards or outcomes are determined by luck, chance, or other people with more power than them. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to forces outside of their control.
Social-cognitive theories of personality emphasize the role of cognitive processes, such as thinking and judging, in the development of personality. Social cognition is basically social thought, or how the mind processes social information; social-cognitive theory describes how individuals think and react in social situations. How the mind works in a social setting is extremely complicated emotions, social desirability factors, and unconscious thoughts can all interact and affect social cognition in many ways. Two major figures in social cognitive theory are behaviourist Albert Bandura and clinical psychologist Julian Rotter.
A. Albert Bandura (1925-present)
Albert Bandura is a behavioural psychologist credited with creating social learning theory. He agreed with B.F. Skinner’s theory that personality develops through learning; however, he disagreed with Skinner’s strict behaviourist approach to personality development. In contrast to Skinner’s idea that the environment alone determines behaviour, Bandura (1990) proposed the concept of reciprocal determinism, in which cognitive processes, behaviour, and context all interact, each factor simultaneously influencing and being influenced by the others. He pointed reciprocal determinism to explain that for individual to repeat an agreeable behaviour, he must include his intellectual process, in contrast with Skinner’s belief that thinking only occurs inside a “black box”. In this sense, Bandura agreed that environment causes behaviour, but behaviour can also cause environment. An example is when an adolescent shows his aggressive personality trait because he is maltreated by his peers. When this person expresses his aggression by way of violent acts, he can trigger either a higher level of aggression or fear inside his peers’ minds, therefore changing his environment.
After theorizing that personality as revealed in his behaviour and environment belong to a two ways process, Bandura later proposed that there is a Third factor that must be considered in this kind of interaction “the person’s cognitive process”.
Cognitive processes refer to all characteristics previously learned, including beliefs, expectations, and personality characteristics. Behaviour refers to anything that we do that may be rewarded or punished. Finally, the context in which the behaviour occurs refers to the environment or situation, which includes rewarding/punishing stimuli.
Reciprocal determinism: Bandura proposed the idea of reciprocal determinism, in which our behaviour, cognitive processes, and situational context all influence each other.
This theory was significant because it moved away from the idea that environment alone affects an individual’s behaviour. Instead, Bandura hypothesized that the relationship between behaviour and environment was bi-directional, meaning that both factors can influence each other. In this theory, humans are actively involved in moulding the environment that influences their own development and growth.
B. Walter Mischel
Somehow similar to Bandura’s proposal, Walter’s states that an individual’s behaviour is influenced by two things: the specific attributes of a given situation and the manner in which he perceived the situation. In contrast to traditional social cognitive theories, Walter argued that a person only behaves in a similar manner whenever these actions are highly probable to yield into the same results. He emphasized that we have individual differences, so our values and expectancies must be considered in predicting a person’s behaviour and personality.
According to Walter Mischel, there are five personal variables that contribute to the conditions of a specific situation. They are used in predicting how a person will most likely behave. These variables are:
- Competencies: our intellectual capabilities and social skills.
- Encoding strategies and personal constructs: what people pay attention to, and what meaning they attach to the stimulus to attend to...
- Expectancies: the expected result of different behaviours that are realized by the person inside his mind.
- Subjective values: the respective value of each possible outcome of various behaviours.
- Self-regulatory systems: the groups of rules and standards that people adapt in order to regulate their behaviour.
C. Julian Rotter
He is a clinical psychologist who was influenced by Bandura’s social learning theory after rejecting a strict behaviourist approach. He expanded upon Bandura’s ideas of reciprocal determinism and developed the term locus of control to describe how individuals view their relationship to the environment. Distinct from self-efficacy, which involves our belief in our own abilities, locus of control refers to our beliefs about the power we have over our lives and is a cognitive factor that affects personality development. Locus of control can be classified along a spectrum from internal to external, which determines the extent to which people believe they can affect the events around them.
Locus of control:
Rotter’s theory of locus of control places an individual on a spectrum between internal and external.
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-psychology/chapter/social-cognitiveperspectives-on-personality/
Internal locus of control:
A person with an internal locus of control believes that their rewards in life are guided by their own decisions and efforts. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to their own lack of effort. An internal locus of control has been shown to develop along with self-regulatory abilities. People with internal locus of control tend to internalize both failure and success. Many factors have been
associated with an internal locus of control. Males tend to be more internal than females when it comes to personal success, and hence more aggressive. Another example is that a student with an internal locus of control may receive a poor grade and conclude that he/she did not revise enough and realize his/her effort was the cause of poor grade and decide to study harder next time.
A person with an external locus of control sees their life as being controlled by luck, chance, or other people, especially others with more power than them. If they do not succeed, they believe it is due to forces outside their control.
People with an external locus of control tend to externalize both successes and failures. Individuals who grow up in circumstances where they do not see hard work pay off, as well as individuals who are socially disempowered (such as people in a low socioeconomic bracket), may develop an external locus of control. Evidence has supported the theory that locus of control can be learned and can be modified. However, in non-responsive environment, where an individual actually does not have much control, an external locus of control is associated with greater sense of satisfaction. An example of external locus of control can be seen on student who, after getting poor marks, concludes that the test was poorly written and the teacher was incompetent, thereby blaming external factors out of his/her control.
D. Criticism of social cognitive theory
The theory does not provide a full explanation of how social cognition, behaviour, environment and personality are related like in the theory known as reciprocal determinism.
Another criticism is that the theory is not a unified theory. This means that the different aspects of the theory may not be connected. For example, researchers currently cannot find a connection between observational learning and selfefficacy within the social cognitive perspective.
Another limitation is that not all social learning can be directly observed. Because of this, it can be difficult to quantify the effect that social cognition has on development. Similarly, many aspects of personality are subjective and can be equally hard to measure and quantify.
Finally, this theory tends to ignore maturation throughout the lifespan. Because of this, the understanding of how a child learns through observation and how an adult learns through observation are not differentiated and factors of development are not included.
Application activity 6.1.3
1. In the view of social-cognitive psychologists, what mutual influences shape an individual’s personality?
2. What are the causes and consequences of personal control?
3. What underlying principle guides social-cognitive psychologists in their assessment of people’s behaviour and beliefs? Social-cognitive researchers study how people interact with their situations.
4. What has the social-cognitive perspective contributed to the study of personality, and what criticism has it faced?
6.1.4. Trait approach
6.1.4.1. Introduction to trait approach
Activity 6.1.4.1
Suppose that you are asked to describe your friend’s personality. You may say that he/she is cheerful, sociable, and fun to be with. Explain how these characteristics can be shaped with environmental influence.
What is personality trait?
Personality trait is a personality characteristic that endures (lasts) over time and across different situations. It focuses on measuring, describing and identifying individual differences in personality in terms of traits.
Trait theories look to identify specific traits that form the basis for personality and behaviour types. Different models and catalogues of traits have been proposed, and different personality types can be understood through different arrangements of traits within individuals.
Trait theorists believe that personality can be understood by positing that all people have certain traits, or characteristic and ways of behaving.
Do you tend to be sociable or shy, passive or aggressive, optimistic or pessimistic?
Individuals have certain characteristics that partly determine their behaviour. These traits are trends in behaviour or attitude that tend to be present regardless of the situation.
An example of a trait is extraversion and introversion. Extraversion (or extroversion) tends to be manifested in outgoing, talkative, energetic behaviour, whereas introversion is manifested in more reserved and solitary behaviour. An individual may fall along any point in the continuum, and the location where the individual falls will determine how he/she responds to various situations.
The modern theories come from Gordon Allport, Raymond Cattell, and Hans Eysenck.
Gordon Allport (1897–1967)
Allport organized these traits into a hierarchy of three levels:
• Cardinal traits: dominate and shape an individual’s behaviour, such as Ebenezer Scrooge’s greed or Mother Theresa’s altruism. This includes people who sacrifice their own good for the benefits of others. They stand at the top of the hierarchy and are collectively known as the individual’s master control. They are considered to be individual’s ruling passions. Cardinal traits are powerful, but few people have personalities dominated by a single trait. Instead, our personalities are typically composed of multiple traits.
• Central traits: these are general characteristics found in varying degrees in every person (such as loyalty, kindness, agreeableness, friendliness, sneakiness, wildness, or grouchiness).
They are the basic building blocks that shape most of our behaviour. They are general characteristics that we use to describe people. Examples include kind, sincere, cool, jolly, etc.
• Secondary traits exist at the bottom of the hierarchy and are not quite as obvious or consistent as central traits. They are plentiful but are only present under specific circumstances; they include things like preferences and attitudes. These secondary traits explain why a person may at times exhibit behaviours that seem different with their usual behaviours. For example, a friendly person gets angry when people try to tickle him; another is not an anxious person but always feels nervous speaking publicly.
All report hypothesized that internal and external forces influence an individual’s behaviour and personality, and he referred to these forces as genotypes and phenotypes. Genotypes are internal forces that relate to how a person retains information and uses it to interact with the world. Phenotypes are external forces that relate to the way an individual accepts his/her surroundings and how others influence his/her behaviour.
Strength and limitations of traits theory
- Provide useful description of personality and its structure,
- Provide a foundation of valid and reliable personality devices,
- Can lead people to accept and use an oversimplified classifications and descriptions,
- Underestimate socio-culture influences on behaviour.
Main assumptions of traits theory
- Personality traits are relatively stable and therefore predictable overtime,
- Personality traits are relatively stable across different situations,
- Trait theories take into account that personality consists of a number of different traits, and that some people have more or less of each trait than others,
- Some traits are more closely interrelated than other traits and tend to occur together,
- Personality traits are described on a continuum showing either end of trait (i.e. confidence continuum).
Application activity 6.1.4.1
1. Think of your personality traits and classify them into three levels of Gordon Allport.
2. Explain the main focus of trait approach to personality
3. Here is a checklist that can help you discover more about your
personality traits. Go through them and answer them accordingly.
a) What makes you happy?
b) What are some things that make you angry?
c) Are you happy with your personality?
d) Would you like to be different?
e) Are you a determined person? Are you a stubborn person?
f) Are you shy? In which occasions are you shy?
g) Do you consider yourself selfish? Why?
h) Is your personality suited to your friends?
i) In what way has your personality changed over time? Why has it changed? What was changed?
j) Are you more introverted (focused on your inner world) or more extraverted) (focused on other people and the outer world)?
k) Do you think you can change a major characteristic of your personality if you try?
l) Do you think you have an unusual personality? Why?
m) If you could change any aspect of your personality, what would it be?
n) What sort of things would you do to amuse yourself during a leisure time?
o) What personality traits do you consider important in a good friend /a tutor / a partner?
p) Do you consider yourself to be even-tempered?
q) What is one thing that many people don’t know about you?
r) Do you think that birth order makes a difference in your personality
(Example: being the first born, last born)?
s) Who is your role model?
t) What are some characteristics of your personality?
6.1.4.2 Typological method
Activity 6.1.4.2
Last month, Mary celebrated her 20th birthday. Her friends organized a surprise to her and brought her in a decorated room with birthday cake on the table. He failed to manage her emotion and cried in front of her friends. Mugeni said that it is normal and she may behave in the same way. Rachael said that it was unusual and she disliked that manner. The girls were talkative and continued to discuss in their way from the party. Kagoyire who was very quiet among the three girls did not comment and show her position.
1. Based on the story, who is introvert and who is extrovert?
2. List other traits that can be attributed to everyone stated in the story. How do they differ in personality according to their traits?
Introduction
The typology is defined as the system in which people are classified into a limited number of categories. By observing and describing a great number of people, psychologist identified several typologies:
- Morphological typologies: They are based on searching the resemblance and difference of behaviour traits through individual form and structure.
- Physiological traits: They are based on the difference between the nervous system functioning and endocrine gland functioning.
- Psychological typologies: They are based on the observation and description of different behaviour traits.
- Mixed typologies: They establish the correspondence between morphological, physiological and psychological aspects.
Some typologies
i) Sheldon’s Somatotypes
William Sheldon (1898-1977) was an American psychologist who devoted his life to observing the variety of human bodies and temperaments.
In the 1940s, Sheldon developed a theory that there are three basic body types, or somatotypes (based on the three tissue layers: endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm), each associated with personality characteristics, representing a correlation between physique and temperament.
ii) Typology of Kretschmer
The German Ernest Kretschmer says that the type of character and each deep orientation of mental life can be deducted from body structures of individuals.
He distinguishes 4 types:
- Pyknic type refers to people with short and round body, they are mostly extraverts (can be compared to endomorph)
- Asthenic type refers to people with slender or slim body; they are mostly introverts (can be compared to ectomorph)
- Athletic type refers to people with strong body; they are more energetic and determined (mesomorph)
- Dysplastic type refers to people with unproportionate body due to hormonal imbalance
iii) Typology of Carl Gustav Jung
Jung also emphasized on two attitudes:
- Introversion: shyness, reclusiveness and inner directedness
- Extroversion: friendship, sociability and interested in people and events in external world.
iv) Typology of HEYMANS and WIERSMA
Inspired by Ernest Kretschmer and by Jung, Heymans and Wiersma, Dutch psychologists, created a personality (or temperament) classification based on a cube with three axes:
- Activity (x-axis): energy and quantity of action in response to a motive or stimulus
- Emotivity (y-axis): strength and frequency of emotional response to an event or stimulus
- Secondarity: degree to which emotions, events, or images have longterm effects
With every dimension having two poles: + and –; this cube gives rise to eight temperaments:
- Passionate: E+ A+ S+
- Phlegmatic: E- A+ S+
- Choleric: E+ A+ S-
- Sanguine: E- A+ S-
- Sentimental: E+ A- S+
- Apathetic: E- A- S+
- Neurotic: E+ A- S-
- Amorphous: E- A- S
Strengths of trait theories
- Provide useful descriptions of personality and its structure
- Provide the foundation of valid and reliable personality devices Limitations of trait theories
Limitations of trait theories
- Can lead people to accept and use oversimplified classifications and descriptions
- Underestimate socio-cultural influences on behaviour
Application activity 6.1.4.2
1. IHow do psychologists use traits to describe personality?
2. Distinguish the following types of personality
i. Extroverts and
ii. Introverts
6.1.4.3 The big 5 dimensions of personality traits
Activity 6.1.4.3
“God gives us grace to accept with serenity the things that cannot be changed, courage to change the things which should be changed, and the wisdom to distinguish the one from the other.”
1. Think of the personality traits you have and categorize them into two groups. Negative and positive
2. How can you shape negative traits of your personality?
3. What possible selves do you dream of or fear becoming? To what extent do these imagined selves motivate you now?
These are called also big 5 personality traits or major personality factors. As noted above, the five factors grew out of decades of personality research, growing from the foundations of Cattell’s 16 factors and becoming the most accepted model of personality to date.
These five factors do not provide completely exhaustive explanations of personality, but they are known as the “Big Five” because they encompass a large portion of personality-related terms. The five factors are not necessarily traits in and of themselves, but factors in which many related traits and characteristics fit.
For example, the factor agreeableness includes terms like generosity, amiability, and warmth (on the positive side) and aggressiveness and temper (on the negative side). All of these traits and characteristics and many more make up the broader factor of “agreeableness.”
Below we explain each factor in more detail, with examples and related terms to help you get a sense of what aspects and quirks of personality these factors cover.
A popular acronym for the Big Five is “OCEAN or CANOE.” The five factors are laid out in the following order: Openness to experience; Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism.
i. Openness to experience
Openness to experience has been described as the depth and complexity of an individual’s mental life and experiences. It is also sometimes called intellect or imagination. Openness to experience concerns an individual’s willingness to try to new things, to be vulnerable, and the ability to think outside the box.
• An individual who is high in openness to experience is likely someone who has a love of learning, enjoys the arts, engages in a creative career or hobby, and likes meeting new people (Lebowitz, 2016a).
• An individual who is low in openness to experience probably prefers routine over variety sticks to what they know and prefers less abstract arts and entertainment.
ii. Conscientiousness
Conscientiousness is a trait that can be described as the tendency to control impulses and act in socially acceptable ways, behaviours that facilitate goaldirected behaviour (John &Srivastava, 1999). Conscientious people excel in their ability to delay gratification, work within the rules, and plan and organize effectively.
• Someone who is high in conscientiousness is likely to be successful in school and in their career, to excel in leadership positions, and to doggedly pursue their goals with determination and forethought.
• A person who is low in conscientiousness is much more likely to procrastinate, to be flighty, impetuous, and impulsive.
iii. Extroversion
This factor has two familiar ends of the spectrum: extroversion and introversion. It concerns where an individual draws their energy and how they interact with others. In general, extroverts draw energy or “recharge” from interacting with others, while introverts get tired from interacting with others and replenish their energy from solitude.
• People high in extroversion tend to seek out opportunities for social interaction, where they are often the “life of the party.” They are comfortable with others, gregarious, and prone to action rather than contemplation.
• People low in extroversion are more likely to be people “of few words,” people who are quiet, introspective, reserved, and thoughtful.
iv. Agreeableness
This factor concerns how well people get along with others. While extroversion concerns sources of energy and the pursuit of interactions with others, agreeableness concerns your orientation to others. It is a construct that rests on how you generally interact with others.
• People high in agreeableness tend to be well-liked, respected, and sensitive to the needs of others. They likely have few enemies, are sympathetic, and affectionate to their friends and loved ones, as well as sympathetic to the plights of strangers (Lebowitz, 2016a).
• People on the low end of the agreeableness spectrum are less likely to be trusted and liked by others. They tend to be callous, blunt, rude, illtempered, antagonistic, and sarcastic. Although not all people who are low in agreeableness are cruel or abrasive, they are not likely to leave others with a warm fuzzy feeling.
v. Neuroticism
Neuroticism is the one Big Five factor in which a high score indicates more
negative traits. Neuroticism is not a factor of meanness or incompetence, but
one of confidence and being comfortable in one’s own skin. It encompasses
one’s emotional stability and general temper.
• Those high in neuroticism are generally given to anxiety, sadness, worry, and low self-esteem. They may be temperamental or easily angered, and they tend to be self-conscious and unsure of themselves (Lebowitz, 2016a).
• Individuals who score on the low end of neuroticism are more likely to feel confident, sure of themselves, and adventurous. They may also be brave and unencumbered by worry or self-doubt.
A brief description of 5 dimensions of personality traits
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wmopen-psychology/chapter/biological-approaches/
Criticisms of the Five Factor Model
Critics of the five-factor model in particular argue that the model has limitations as an explanatory or predictive theory and that it does not explain all of human personality. Some psychologists have dissented from the model because they feel it neglects other domains of personality, such as religiosity, manipulativeness, honesty, sexiness/seductiveness, thriftiness, conservativeness, masculinity/femininity, snobbishness/egotism, sense of humour, and risk-taking/thrillseeking.
Factor analysis, the statistical method used to identify the dimensional structure of observed variables, lacks a universally recognized basis for choosing among solutions with different numbers of factors.
A five-factor solution depends, on some degree, on the interpretation of the analyst. A larger number of factors may, in fact, underlie these five factors; this has led to disputes about the “true” number of factors. Proponents of the fivefactor model have responded that although other solutions may be viable in a single dataset, only the five-factor structure consistently replicates across different studies.
Another frequent criticism is that the five-factor model is not based on any underlying theory; it is merely an empirical finding that certain descriptors cluster together under factor analysis. This means that while these five factors do exist, the underlying causes behind them are unknown.
Application activity 6.1.4.3
1. Which traits seem to provide the most useful information about personality variation?
2. Explain the criticism of big five dimensions of personality traits
3. Where would you place yourself on the five personality dimensions: conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism (emotional stability vs. instability), openness, and extraversion? Where might your friends place you?
6.2. Educational implications of personality
Activity 6.2
As we have seen in unit 6, there are 3 types of temperament, which also explain the behaviour of children. There are also different personalities according to typologies, which may also unveil why people behave differently and this may help us to understand how we can relate and socialize with them accordingly.
Explain how the study of personality can help you to interact with different learners in classroom.
Studies conducted on college students have concluded that hope, which is linked to agreeableness, has a positive effect on psychological well-being. Individuals high in neurotic tendencies are less likely to display hopeful tendencies and are negatively associated with well-being (Singh, 2012). Personality can sometimes be flexible and measuring the big five personality for individuals as they enter certain stages of life may predict their educational identity.
There are many causes of individual performance such as intelligence, selfconcept, maturation, home background, study habit and psychologists agree that personality traits is one of the prevailing effect of performance. Students have been scored highly in academic subjects but their behaviour and discipline made them to stop their studies, which explain how much individual’s personality, also play a role in performance. Therefore, personality can be also the stability of person’s behaviour across different situations.
There has been an increasing in the big 5 personality traits and the role they play in the academic performance of the students. These personality traits affect academic performance in students, either positively or negatively.
McCrae and Costa (1980) researched extensively on these traits.
A high score on conscientiousness shows a student who is self-disciplined, careful, thorough, organized and determined. On the other hand, low scores on this trait portray indiscipline, careless, disorganization and indifference. Then student who scores highly on this trait is expected to perform excellently well academically and vice versa.
Agreeableness describes one who is sympathetic, trusting and cooperative. Student with a high score on this trait are selfless, flexible and pleasant. Such students work with others easily with little or no friction. Those scoring low on this trait, find it difficult to get along with others. McCrae and Costa in Daminabo (2008) noted this to be psychotic, which refers to a person who is skeptical, unsympathetic, uncooperative and rude. Low scores are expected to affect academic performance negatively.
Having a strong personality is the key to success. This is also a key determinant of good leadership. A good personality enables one to establish self-control and self-direction to discover the reality of freedom of choice. A person with a positive attitude can direct his thoughts, control his emotions and regulate his attitude. In order to have a good personality, self-development is needed. An executive’s self is the sum total of all that he can call his own. Self is something of which he is aware of. The self-concept which an executive brings to his job is the amalgamation of many things.
Personality traits are expressed in learning styles, which are in turn reflected in learning strategies, which eventually produce a certain learning outcome.
Personality traits serve as directors or blocks for motivation and learning strategies (Mumford & Gustafson, 1988 in Blickle, 1996).
Conscientiousness and openness to experience are of special educational interest.
Blickle (1996) has compared the Five Factor Model personality traits with learning strategies and learning outcome. He found that particularly conscientiousness and openness were related to learning style. The student’s personality was related to learning outcome mediated by learning strategies.
Conscientiousness is related to work discipline, interest in subject matter, concentration and considering studying as quite easy.
Students using the strategic approach are good at organizing their work, managing their time and work hard in their studies. They care about their working conditions and have clear goals for their studies. They have an intrinsic motivation and a positive study attitude.
Openness is linked with questioning and analysing arguments. It is further related to critical evaluation, searching literature and making relationships (deep approach).The students with a deep approach want to find out the deeper meaning in the text. They are critical, logical and relate what they learn to their previous knowledge. Their motivation is intrinsic and they look for a personal comprehension independent of the syllabus.
Neuroticism is linked to lack of concentration, fear of failure and experiencing studying as stressful. Moreover neuroticism is linked with a lack of critical ability and problems in understanding how things relate to each other.
This can be linked to the surface learning style. The student with a surface approach concentrates on memorising without any concern of finding a deeper meaning or understanding of the material. They are most concerned about getting through the exams and are not really interested in the material itself. Their motivation is extrinsic and they take on a strategic, syllabus-bound approach to studying.
As a teacher who understands the effect of negative words on students’ identity and self, you should never say students are wrong or blame them because this may distort their personality. Enhance and develop friendship and a good relation with your students as it may improve students’ self-image and have positive image towards you. You should begin with a praise and honest appreciation and try honestly to see things from your students’ point of views before shifting to criticism. Use encouragement and call attention to your students’ mistakes indirectly but do not use negative figures and example to students.
Try to make your students happy about doing the thing you suggest as this may help them to shape positively their personality. Much of these will be possible only when the teachers are prepared mentally and avoid projecting their problems to students. Be kind and considerate with a sense of humour. Understanding temperament equips the teacher to successful handle interpersonal relationships. Studying one’s own temperament helps establish personal weaknesses and strengths. Studying other people’s temperaments allows individuals to adapt their communications skills to others.
Another implication of personality is the learning style described by Carl Jung and the teacher should understand how they are helpful in classroom setting
Jung’s Theory of Personality Types
One learning styles theory is based on the work of analytical Psychologist Carl Gustav Jung who developed a theory of psychological types designed to categorize people in terms of various personality patterns. Jung’s theory focuses on the following basic types:
i. Extraverted learning style
The first component of the Jungian learning style dimensions indicates how learners interact with the outside world.
Extraverted learners enjoy generating energy and ideas from other people. They prefer socializing and working in groups. Some of the learning activities that benefit extraverted learners include:
- Teaching others how to solve a problem
- Collaborative / group work
- Problem based learning
If you enjoy teaching others, participating in a group and learning by experience, you are probably an extraverted learner.
Characteristics of Extravert learners
- Learns best through direct experience
- Enjoys working with others in groups
- Often gathers ideas from outside sources
- Willing to lead, participate and offer opinions
- Jumps right in without guidance from others
ii. Introverted learning style
While introverted learners are still sociable, they prefer to solve problems on their own. Introverted learners enjoy generating energy and ideas from internal sources, such as brainstorming, personal reflection and theoretical exploration.
These learners prefer to think about things before attempting to try a new skill. If you enjoy solitary studying, individual work and abstract ideas, you are probably an introverted learner
Characteristics of Introvert Learners
- Prefers to work alone
- Enjoys quiet, solitary work
- Often generates ideas from internal sources
- Prefers to listen, watch and reflect
- Likes to observe others before attempting a new skill
iii. Sensing Learning Style
Sensing learners are focused on aspects of the physical environment. Jung described these individuals as being interested in the external world. They tend to be realistic and practical, preferring to rely on information gained through experience. While people with a sensing learning style enjoy order and routine, they also tend to be very quick to adapt to changing environments and situations.
Characteristics of Sensate Learners
- Focuses on the present
- Practical and reasonable
- Utilizes experience and common sense to solve problems
- Keenly observe the surrounding world.
iv. Intuitive Learning Style
Intuitive learners tend to focus more on the world of possibility. Unlike sensing learners who are interested in the here and now, intuitive learners enjoy considering ideas, possibilities, and potential outcomes. These learners like abstract thinking, daydreaming and imagining the future.
Characteristics of Intuitive Learners
- Prefers to work in short sessions, rather than finishing a task all at once
- Enjoys new challenges, experiences, and situations
- More likely to look at the big picture rather than the details
- Like theories and abstract ideas
v. Thinking Learning Style
Individuals with a thinking learning style tend to focus more on the structure and function of information and objects. Thinking learners utilize rationality and logic when dealing with problems and decisions. These learners often base decisions on personal ideas of right, wrong, fairness, and justice.
Characteristics of Thinking Learners
- Interested in logic and patterns
- Dislike basing decisions on emotions
- Bases decisions on reason and logic
vi. Feeling Learning Style
People with a feeling style manage information based on the initial emotions and feelings it generates. Individuals with this learning style are interested in personal relationships, feelings, and social harmony. If you base decisions on emotions and dislike conflict, you might have a feeling learning style.
Characteristics of Feeling Learners
• Interested in people and their feelings
• In tune with their own emotions and those of other people
• Base decisions on immediate feelings
• Generates excitement and enthusiasm in group settings
vii. Judging Learning Style
Judging learners tend to be very decisive. In some cases, these learners may actually make decisions too quickly before learning everything they need to know about a situation. These learners prefer order and structure, which is why they tend to plan out activities and schedules very carefully. If you are highly organized, detail-oriented, and have strong opinions, you might be a judging learner.
Characteristics of Judging Learners
- Do not like ambiguity or mystery
- Tend to be firm in their decisions
- Very organized and structured
- Strong opinions
- Generally follows the rules
viii. Perceiving Learning Style
Perceiving learners tend to make decisions impulsively in response to new information and changing situations. However, these learners tend to focus more on indulging their curiosity rather than making decisions. Unlike judging learners who tend not to change their minds, perceiving learners prefer to keep their options open. If you tend to start many projects at once (often without finishing any of them), avoid strict schedules, and jump into projects first without planning, you might be a perceiving learner.
Characteristics of Perceiving Learners
- Often make impulsive decisions
- Change decisions based on new information
- Dislike structure and organization
- Tends to be very flexible and adaptable
- Sometimes have trouble making decisions.
All of these views imply the relevance and implication of personality development, which is useful for teachers and all community in wide.
Application activity 6.2
Discuss the implication of personality development to education.
End unit assesment
1. What are the big five traits
2. Explain what you understand by psychoanalytic theories
3. In Freud’s view, what causes anxiety
4. Describe Maslow’s self-actualizing personality
5. Is sharing family environment likely to lead to similarities in
personality? Why or why not?
6. Match the name given in the column A with the concept of the column B
