History

Key unit competence

Identify lessons that can be learnt from successful self-reliance

policies of African leaders.

Introduction

Dignity means receiving respect from people and an individual’s

belief in his ability to do what is good. Self-reliance means making

personal choices, rather than allowing other people to decide

for you. It also means being independent. People have to avoid

expecting foreign assistance from developed countries.

Dignity and self-reliance are the two ways suggested by the

government in order to address socio-economic and political

problems. This does not mean opposing international cooperation

Rwandans, just do not want to be dependant on foreign aid.

Self-reliance provides self-confidence and pride. This leads to

sustainable and durable development.

With the concept of dignity and self-reliance. Rwandans can make

individual choices. This means that Rwanda is on the right course

of development.

Links to other subjects

Nationalism in General Studies

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤ Examples of African leaders whose self-reliance policies succeeded

࿤ Factors for the success of self-reliance policies of some African

leaders

࿤ Lessons learnt from successful self-reliance policies of African leaders

Examples of African Leaders whose SelfReliance Policies Succeeded

Activity 1

Carry out research on African self-reliance and then analyse

the success of some African leaders. Present your work to the

class.

Self-reliance in Kenya under Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya

Following Kenya’s independence in 1963, the first prime minister,

and later first president of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta adopted

“Harambee” as a concept of pulling the country together to build

the new nation. He encouraged communities to work together

to raise funds for all sorts of local projects, pledging that the

government would provide their startup costs. Under this system, 

wealthy individuals wishing to get into politics could donate large

amounts of money to local harambee activities, thereby gaining

legitimacy. However, such practices were never institutionalised

during Kenyatta’s presidency.

Ujamaa policy in Tanzania

Ujamaa (‘familyhood’ in Swahili) was the concept that formed the

basis of Julius Nyerere’s social and economic development policies

in Tanzania after it gained independence from Britain in 1961.

࿤ The creation of a one-party system under the leadership of

the Tanganyika African National Union (TANU) in order to

consolidate the cohesion of the newly independent Tanzania.

࿤ The institutionalisation of social, economic, and political equality

through the creation of a central democracy.

࿤ The abolition of discrimination based on ascribed status.

࿤ The nationalisation of the economy’s key sectors.

࿤ The villagisation of production, which essentially collectivised

all forms of local productive capacity.

࿤ The fostering of Tanzanian self-reliance through two dimensions:

the transformation of economic and cultural attitudes.

Economically, everyone would work for both the group and for

him/herself; culturally, Tanzanians had to free themselves from

dependence on developed countries. For Nyerere, this included

Tanzanians learning to do things for themselves and learning to be

satisfied with what they could achieve as an independent state.

࿤ The implementation of free and compulsory education for

all Tanzanians in order to sensitise them on the principles of

Ujamaa.

࿤ The creation of a Tanzanian rather than tribal identity through

the use of Swahili.

Julius Nyerere’s leadership of Tanzania commanded international

attention and attracted worldwide respect for his consistent

emphasis on ethical principles as the basis of practical policies.

Tanzania under Nyerere made great strides in vital areas of social

development. Infant mortality was reduced from 138 per 1000

live births in 1965 to 110 in 1985; life expectancy at birth rose

from 37 in 1960 to 52 in 1984; primary school enrolment was

raised from 25per cent (only 16per cent of females) in 1960 to

72per cent (85per cent of females) in 1985 (despite the rapidly

increasing population); adult literacy rate rose from 17per cent in

1960 to 63per cent by 1975 (much higher than in other African

countries) and continued to rise.

A major change in the structure of

Zambia’s economy came with the Mulungushi Reforms of April

1968 where Kaunda declared his intention to acquire an equity

holding (usually 51per cent or more) in a number of key foreignowned firms, to be controlled by his Industrial Development

Corporation (INDECO).

By January 1970, Zambia had acquired majority holding in the

Zambian operations of the two major foreign mining interests,

the Anglo American Corporation and the Rhodesian Selection 

Trust (RST). The two became the Nchanga Consolidated Copper

Mines (NCCM) and Roan Consolidated Mines (RCM), respectively.

Kaunda also announced the creation of a new parastatal body,

the Mining Development Corporation (MINDECO), while the Finance

and Development Corporation (FINDECO) enabled the Zambian

government to gain control of insurance companies and building

societies. Major foreign-owned banks, such as Barclays, Standard

Chartered and Grindlays Bank successfully resisted takeover. In

1971, INDECO, MINDECO, and FINDECO were brought together

under an omnibus parastatal, the Zambia Industrial and Mining

Corporation (ZIMCO), to create one of the largest companies in

sub-Saharan Africa, with Francis Kaunda as chairman of the board.

The management contracts under which day-to-day operations of

the mines had been carried out by Anglo American and RST were

terminated in 1973. In 1982, NCCM and RCM were merged into

the giant Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines Ltd (ZCCM).

Mandela’s vision

Mandela’s administration inherited a country with a huge disparity in wealth and services between white and black communities. 

In a population of 40 million, around 23 million lacked electricity or adequate sanitation; 12 million lacked clean water supplies, with 2 million children not in school and a third of the population illiterate. 

There was 33 per cent unemployment, and just under half of the population lived below the poverty line.

Government financial reserves were nearly depleted, with a fifth

of the national budget being spent on debt repayment, meaning

that the extent of the promised Reconstruction and Development

Programme (RDP) was scaled back, with none of the proposed

nationalisation or job creation. Instead, the government adopted

liberal economic policies designed to promote foreign investment,

adhering to the “Washington consensus” advocated by the World

Bank and International Monetary Fund.

Under Mandela’s presidency, welfare spending increased by 13

per cent in 1996/97, 13 per cent in 1997/98, and 7 per cent

in 1998/99. The government introduced parity in grants for

communities, including disability grants, child maintenance 

grants, and old-age pensions, which had previously been set at

different levels for South Africa’s different racial groups. In 1994,

free healthcare was introduced for children under six and pregnant

women. The provision extended to all those using primary level

public sector health care services in 1996. By the 1999 election,

the ANC could boast that due to their policies, 3 million people were

connected to telephone lines, 1.5 million children were brought into

the education system, 500 clinics were upgraded or constructed, 2

million people were connected to the electricity grid, water access

was extended to 3 million people, and 750,000 houses were

constructed, housing nearly 3 million people.

The Land Restitution Act of 1994 enabled people who had lost their

property as a result of the Natives Land Act, 1913 to claim back their

land, leading to the settlement of tens of thousands of land claims.

The Land Reform Act 3 of 1996 safeguarded the rights of labour

tenants who live and grow crops or graze livestock on farms. This

legislation ensured that such tenants could not be evicted without a

court order or if they were over the age of 65. The Skills Development

Act of 1998 provided for the establishment of mechanisms to finance

and promote skills development at the workplace.

The Labour Relations Act of 1995 promoted workplace democracy,

orderly collective bargaining, and the effective resolution of labour

disputes. The Basic Conditions of Employment Act of 1997 improved

enforcement mechanisms while extending a “floor” of rights to all

workers. The Employment Equity Act of 1998 was passed to put an

end to discrimination and ensure the implementation of affirmative

action in the workplace.

He reformed the education system by constructing several

primary, secondary and tertiary institutions such as Ghana

University.

He introduced scientific methods of farming like irrigation,

mechanised farming, use of fertilisers and pesticides.

He Africanised the civil service by replacing European expatriates

with Africans.

He emphasised the need to respect African culture and supported

local artists to compose African songs and plays.

He ended sectarian and regional tendencies by defeating all the

sectarian parties in the 1954 and 1956 elections. After winning

them, he called for unity.

Factors for Success of Self-Reliance Policies of some African Leaders

Activity 2

Account for the success of self-reliance policies of some African

leaders. Afterwards, present your findings to the class.

Some African leaders were successful in their self-reliance policies

due to many factors including:

Favourable population mindset: In many countries, the African

leaders took advantage of the situation because it was immediately

after the achievement of African independence. The Africans

massively supported their new African leaders, leading to the

success of their policies.

Negative effects of colonialism: Africans had for long suffered

from colonial constraints. This is why self-reliance policies were

successful in many African countries.

Economic crisis after the independence: The economic crisis was

among the immediate problems faced by Africans. Self-reliance

was seen as solution to these problems. This led to their success

because they were supported by the population.

Recovery of African identity: During colonisation, all African

initiatives were undermined by Europeans. When Africans

recovered their independence, their leaders wanted also to

recover the African identity by implementing internal solutions to

their problems. It was due to this that they found these policies

successful.

Sign of obedience to their own leaders: Another factor for the

success of the self-reliance policies is that Africans accepted them

as one way to express their obedience to their new leaders.

Lessons Learnt from Successful Self-Reliance

           Policies of African Leaders

Activity 3

Analyse lessons from the success of the self-reliance as initiated

and achieved by some African leaders. In the classroom, present

the results of your analysis. 

The success of self-reliance in some African countries inspires

other developing countries and especially other African countries.

We also learn about the importance of dignity. The need to

encourage Africans to be proud of our continent, our culture and

customs.

We appreciate the importance of home growth solutions. It is a

testimony that only Africans can find solutions to their problems.

The success of self-reliance supports respect of human rights

and the campaign against racial discrimination. During European

colonial rule, Africans were denied their rights. They were

considered unable to manage their own affairs.

On the dawn of independence African leaders initiated policies

aiming at achieving self-reliance. For instance, the first president

of Kenya, Jomo Kenyatta adopted harambee as a concept of pulling

the country together to build the nation while Julius Nyerere used

ujamaa to achieve social and economic development in Tanzania.

Rwanda emphasised home grown solutions in order to address

socio-economic and political problems. The two concepts of dignity

and self-reliance guide the implementation of home grown solutions.

Home grown solutions such as umuganda, ubudehe, Gacaca, and

Agaciro development funds have been used to address problems

in Rwanda.

Glossary

Grid: a pattern of regularly spaced horizontal and

vertical lines

Pledging: promise solemnly and formally or give as a

guarantee

Takeover: a sudden and decisive change of government

illegally or by force

Revision questions

1. Identify three African leaders and explain their self-reliance

policies.

2. Describe factors for the success of self-reliance policies of some

African leaders.

3. What are the lessons from successful self-reliance policies of

African leaders?