History

Key unit competence

Evaluate the major events that took place in Europe between 1836

and 1878, their causes, course and effects.

Introduction

The history of Europe from 1836 up to 1878 was characterised

by many revolutions and wars. Congresses were organised and

treaties signed to address the conflicts.

The 1848 revolutions affected diplomatic relations in Europe. The

congress system was weakened. It had been formed as an alliance

to maintain the peace in Europe. The success of these revolutions

inspired other people for example Italians, Germans and Greeks

who were under foreign domination to fight for their independence.

The weakness and collapse of the Congress system in Europe led to

conflicts between the European powers as a result of disagreement

on the Eastern question of 1815–1878. During the Berlin Congress

of 1878, organised by the German Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck,

European powers redefined the diplomatic principles and revised

their diplomacy. As a result of this congress, Bismarck maintained

peace in Europe until the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other units like Wars and conflicts in

General Studies and Communication and Skills.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤ Causes and effects of the 1848 European revolutions

࿤ Reasons for the success and the failure of the 1848 European

revolutions

࿤ Reasons why the 1848 European revolutions did not take place

in some countries

࿤ Italian unification

࿤ German unification

࿤ Eastern question

࿤ Berlin Congress

Part One

The 1848 European Revolutions

Activity 1

Carry out research on the possible reasons for the outbreak

of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. Present the results of your

research to the class.

The 1848 European revolutions were a series of uprisings in Europe.

The revolutions were started by the middle class and nobility who

demanded constitutional and representative governments, and by

workers and peasants who revolted against capitalist practices that

were responsible for poverty.

The revolutions broke out in France, Austria, and the Italian and

German states. People rose against conservative governments

and demanded for political, social and economic reforms. Those

revolutions were also against the negative consequences of the

Vienna settlement and Metternich system.

Despite the violent efforts of governments to crash the revolutions,

new revolutionary ideas such as democracy, liberalism, nationalism

and socialism gained popularity.

Causes of the 1848 Revolutions

The need to end the unfair decisions of the Vienna Settlement

The Vienna Settlement aimed at safeguarding against future French

aggression and formed buffer states by bringing the Italian and

German states under the control of Austria. This did not respect the

principle of nationalism. For this reason the Italians and Germans

revolted in 1848.

The oppressive regime of Metternich

Metternich the chancellor of Austria used a harsh-spy network that

terrorised people. This forced, the Germans and Italians to rise up

for independence.

The collapse of the Congress System

The success of the 1830 Belgian revolution marked the end of the

Congress System. This provided an opportunity for the oppressed

people to revolt against their leaders.

The growth of nationalism

Because of nationalistic feelings, the German and Italian states

rose up to demand for respective national unifications. Elsewhere

in Europe people demanded for constitutional rule and an end to

despotism.

The rise of new personalities in European politics

They included Mazzini and Garibaldi of Italy, Louis Kossuth of

Hungary, Von Bismarck and Stephen Baron of Prussia and Louis

Blanc and Lamartine in France. New personalities mobilised

support against the oppressive rulers of Austria.

The effects of epidemic diseases

The poor people were affected by diseases like cholera, typhoid

and tuberculosis and died in large numbers. The leaders provided

no solution to the situation. They became unpopular leading to the

outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.

The negative effects of the rapid population growth

In eastern and central Europe the rapid population growth led to

urban congestion, food shortage and unemployment. The masses

blamed this on their respective governments. This led to the

revolutions of 1848.

The corruption and inefficiency of the rulers

In many states of eastern and central Europe, the rulers were

corrupt and inefficient. This compelled the masses to revolt against

Louis Philippe for instance in 1848.

The influence of socialist ideas

Socialist ideas were initiated by Karl Marx. Socialists argued

that capitalism was responsible for unemployment, inflation and exploitation of the employees. This encouraged the people to join

the 1848 revolutions.

The success of the previous revolutions

The French revolution of 1789 and the 1830 Belgian revolution

encouraged the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions. The oppressed

people believed their struggle would be successful like in France

and in Belgium.

The negative impact of industrialisation

The spread of industrialisation to many European countries created

many economic and social problems like unemployment, low

wages, long hours of work, poor accommodation, rural-urban

migration, inflation, and starvation. These problems forced the

poor populations in urban areas to join the 1848 revolutions.

The long term effects of the 1789 French revolution

The French revolution had left behind strong ideas of liberty,

equality and fraternity. It had also overthrown dictatorship and

bad governance in France. Therefore, people in different European

states in 1848 were guided by those ideas and wanted to achieve

what the French had witnessed in 1789.

The Common Characteristics of the 1848

Revolutions

Activity 2

Examine the characteristics of the 1848 European

revolutions. Present your work to the class.

All the 1848 revolutions were urban based, meaning that they were

concentrated in cities and towns, while the countryside remained

peaceful.

Many of the 1848 revolutions were led by educated people like

professors, doctors, lecturers, lawyers, journalists and even teachers

who understood the weaknesses of their home governments. E.g. Mazzini in Italy, Louis Blanc and Lamartine in France and Kossuth

in Hungary.

The revolutions of 1848 lacked foreign assistance because they

occurred at the same time and each country was busy suppressing

its own revolution. This also explains why they were defeated.

Almost all the revolutions of 1848, except in France, were against

the unfairness of the Vienna Settlement which restored bad

leaders, neglected the principles of nationalism, and encouraged

domination of small countries by the big powers.

The 1848 revolutions took place at the same time: from January

to March 1848.

The revolutions took place in less industrialised and agricultural

states like Italy, German, Hungary and France.

All of them had an element of the French revolution of 1789: the

demand for constitutional changes.

All the revolutions failed, except in France where King Louis

Philippe was removed.

The revolutions, except the revolution in France, were organised

and carried out against the common enemy: Metternich of Austria

and his spy network system.

The revolutions were partly caused by the effects of natural

disasters like bad weather, epidemics, starvation and scarcity.

This explains why there were no revolutions in Britain where these

natural disasters did not occur.

The revolutions except in France lacked the support of the

national armies. For instance in Germany, Italy and Hungary the

revolutionaries were not supported by their national armies. This

was due to the ignorance of revolutionaries about the use of the

army. In Italy, and Austria the soldiers feared to participate because

their kings were dictators.

The revolutions had similar effects such as loss of lives, destruction

of property and exiling of the leading politicians except in France.

The Effects of the 1848 Revolutions

Activity 3

Analyse the effects of the 1848 revolutions in Europe. Present

the result of your analysis to the class.

The 1848 revolutions which occurred mainly in central and eastern

Europe resulted in positive and negative effects:

The 1848 revolutions caused loss of lives on a large scale. More

than 500 people were killed in France. In Berlin over 300 and

3000–5000 in Austria. In Hungary 13 generals and 1000 other

politicians were killed.

The 1848 revolutions caused many demonstrations against

Metternich who fled to exile in London. This led to the decline and

collapse of his system.

Apart from Metternich, many other people were forced into exile.

These included Louis Philippe, Mazzini, Kossuth, Garibaldi, Prince

Metternich and Charles Albert. In addtion, ordinary people rose to

high positions.

The 1848 revolutionary movements contributed to the Italian and

German unification in 1871 because the Metternich system which

posed obstacles to the unification had collapsed. In addition the

revolutions led to the rise of new men who provided able leadership

that led to the unifications. These included Otto Von Bismarck

and Stephen in Germany, and Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont,

Gavainag and Louis Blanc in France.

The revolutions ended feudalism and serfdom. In September 1848,

Emperor Francis I of Austria passed the Emancipation Act under which

peasants were permitted to own land. Serfdom was also brought to

an end in Hungary. This improved lives of peasants in Europe.

This marked the end of privileges for the nobles and clergy in many

parts of Europe.

The 1848 revolutions taught revolutionaries a lesson that for any

revolution to be successful it should be militarily strong instead of

relying solely on intellectual ideas.

The 1848 revolutions were successful for a short time in some

states. For example in Hungary, Lajos Kossuth established the

Hungarian republic and a parliament at Budapest in March 1849;

the Frankfurt Assembly was established in May 1848 for the

German states; in Italy, Garibaldi and Mazzini set up a Roman

republic in 1849. However, these republics were shortly lived.

The 1848 revolutions in central Europe marked the awakening of

various peoples to national consciousness. In that year the Germans

and the Italians started their movements for the unification and

creation of nation-states.

Although the attempts at revolution failed in 1848, the movements

gathered strength in subsequent years. After a long struggle, an

Italian kingdom was created in 1861 and a German empire in 1871.

Other European peoples who agitated for national independence

in 1848 include the Poles, the Czechs, the Hungarians, and the

Christian peoples in the Balkans under the rule of the Ottoman

sultan.

The 1848 revolutions led to the success of socialism in Europe.

The socialists successfully organised the workers and peasants

to fight against capitalism. Although socialism was suppressed,

it later dominated eastern Europe, divided Europe into the two

ideologies of communism and capitalism up to 1989 and beyond.

The 1848 revolutions also led to the rise of dictatorial governments

and the politics of revenge in the countries where they failed. For

example in Hungary and Austria, the constitutional reforms were

canceled. General Haynau forced Kossuth into exile and killed

many Hungarians. In Bohemia Winschgratz killed many Czech

rebels as revenge.

The Success of the 1848 Revolutions

Activity 4

Debate the different factors which made the 1848 revolutions

successful in some European countries. Consider France as a

case study. Present the outcome of your debate to the class.

Factors for the success of the 1848 Revolutions in France

Good leadership: Louis Blanc and Alphonse Marie Lamartine were

good leaders who mobilised the masses and demanded for change

during the 1848 revolution in France.

Support from the army: Like during the previous revolution of

1789, the revolutionaries in France were supported by the army.

This support encouraged the revolutionaries to succeed.

War experience: Most of the revolutionaries who fought in the

February revolution in France had also participated in the 1789

revolution where they got experience in fighting. This enabled them

to be successful in the 1848 revolution.

Support from the masses: Due to the poor social conditions, effects

of the bad weather and outbreak of epidemic diseases, the masses

supported the revolutionaries who promised them rapid reforms.

Nationalism and unity: Like in 1789, the people were strongly

united. They were determined to overthrow Louis Philippe who had

became unpopular.

Financial support from the middle class: Due to the economic

problems France was facing which included unemployment, low

wages, inflation, corruption and embezzlement of public funds, the

middle class preferred to support the revolutionaries who promised

better conditions.

Failure of the 1848 Revolutions

Activity 5

While the 1848 revolutions succeeded in France, they failed in

other countries. Analyse the reasons for the failure and present

the summary of your assessment to the class.

The 1848 revolutions failed in most of the European states like

Austria, Hungary, Italian and German states, except in France. The

failure of these revolutions was due to the following factors:

The revolutions were not supported by the peasants and lacked

foreign support because most countries were facing the same

situation.

As a result of economic hardships, the revolutionary leaders and

their supporters were very poor and could not finance a prolonged

struggle or afford to purchase fire arms.

Ideological conflicts and lack of proper common strategy weakened

the revolutions. For example in Germany the northern states wanted

a little Germany under Prussia while the southern states wanted a

big Germany under Austria.

Austria had a song army led by efficient army commanders like

General Windschgratz who defeated revolutionaries in Vienna and

Hungary, and Raditsky who defeated the Italian revolutionaries at

Novaro and Custozza.

The revolutionaries failed to fulfill the promise made to their

supporters. They concentrated on talking and failed to deliver what

they had promised, for example in the German and Italian states.

Poor mass mobilisation also contributed to the failure of the

revolutions. They were urban centred and failed to involve people

in rural areas.

Religious differences among the revolutionaries weakened the

revolutions. In Germany the southern states supported Austria,

a fellow Catholic state, while the northern states which were Protestant supported Prussia. Charles Albert, a Catholic did not

want to attack Austria while Pope Pius IX supported Austria against

the revolutionaries.

The dismissal of liberal ministers in September 1848 by King

Fredrick William IV also played a role in the failure of the revolution

in Prussia.

Unfair representation in the constituent assembly mainly in Prussia

also contributed to the failure of the revolutions in the German

states.

Why the 1848 European Revolutions did not

take Place in some Countries

Activity 6

Analyse why some countries did not experience the 1848

revolutions. Present the results to the class.

The 1848 revolutions mainly affected the central areas of Europe

which were under the control of Metternich and did not extend to

all European countries. Britain, Belgium, Holland and Russia did

not experience revolutions due to the following reasons:

In Belgium, a revolution was not possible because of the

constitutional arrangements achieved as a result of the 1830

revolution. For instance, the right to vote was already extended to

include members of the middle class. There was also improvement

in public works.

Britain and Belgium had already established the parliamentary

system. Many constitutional changes had taken place and they

were also easily implemented by parliament without the use of

force like in other countries.

In Britain the parliamentary system had focused on improving

working conditions. The working day was already shortened. The

working conditions of women and children were also addressed. 

In 1834, the British parliament passed a law to improve the living

conditions of the poor.

Britain was a more advanced industrialised society. It was able to

meet the needs of the growing population, especially employment,

compared to other European countries where the effects of

industrialisation caused political instability.

By 1846 Britain had a law to improve the living conditions in

slums. Improvements in sanitation, drainage, street lighting and

medical services led to better conditions of living in comparison to

central Europe.

Britain was also never affected by the Vienna settlement which

created a lot of political dissatisfaction in Europe. This helped

Britain to escape the revolutions of 1848.

Part Two

The Italian Unification

Activity 7

Analyse the political situation in Italy before 1815 and prepare

an essay to present to the class.

Italian unification refers to the amalgamation or union of various

Italian states to form one Italian kingdom in 1871. The various

states that formed a united Italy include Piedmont, Lombardy,

central states of Parma, Modena and Tuscany, Naples and Sicily,

Nice, Venetia, Savoy and the papal states.

Before 1815, Italians were under the control of Austria. In 1805,

Napoleon I forced Austria out of Italy in the famous “Italian

Campaign”. He divided the Italian states in three parts: the kingdom

of Italy in the north, kingdom of Naples in the south and central

Italian states. Many Italians had admired Napoleon for his victories

over the Austrians, and for the republican ideas that took root in

the parts of Italy under French control during the Napoleonic wars.

After the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte in 1815, the Italian states

had high hopes for regaining their independence and freedom.

However, by the Vienna Settlement these Italian states were put

under foreign domination as follows:

࿤ Lombardy, Venetia, Parma, Modena and Tuscany under Austria.

࿤ Papal states under Pope Pius IX.

࿤ Naples and Sicily under the Spanish King.

࿤ Piedmont and Sardinia were left under the Italian King Victor

Emmanuel II.

The Italian nationals hated foreign domination and they started

several nationalistic movements. In 1820, a secret society called

Carbonari Movement was formed by Giuseppe Mazzini. He believed

that Italy should not only be independent, but also a united republic.

However, due to the lack of massive mobilisation, the movement

failed to unify Italy before 1850. Even the 1848 revolutionaries

failed to unify the Italian states until 1871.

Factors that had Delayed the Italian Unification before 1850

Activity 8

Examine the obstacles to Italian unification. Present your work

to the class.

Several obstacles explain why the Italian unification failed before

1850.

Economic backwardness: The Italian economy lacked industries,

it was poor, and transport and communication networks were not

well developed. Therefore, without a strong economic base, Italian

unification was always frustrated.

Austria and Metternich system: Austria had a very large, well

trained, organised and equipped army which was effectively

commanded. Metternich had established a strong spy network,

and used a policy of divide and rule. The Italians were not militarily

strong by 1848 and that is why the Carbonari Movement and the

Young Italian Movement failed to unify Italy.

The Vienna Settlement of 1815: The Vienna settlement negatively

affected the unification of Italy, because the peacemakers enlarged

the Italian states and again put them under foreign control. This

made unification difficult.

Lack of strong leaders: Italian unification delayed because of lack

of capable leaders. The leaders who had tried like Mazzini and

Garibaldi did not get support from the nobles and clergy because

they were from peasant families.

Problem of Pope Pius IX: Pope Pius IX did not have the vision of

a united Italy. He was greatly opposed to the unification of Italy

because he did not want the two Catholic countries to go to war.

However, he had encouraged liberalism and nationalism to grow

throughout the Italian peninsula.

Foreign interference: In 1848 Mazzini and Garibaldi attacked the

papal states and formed the Roman republic. But in 1849, France

under Napoleon III intervened and the pope was restored by the

French troops under General Cudinol.

Geographical terrain: The Italian terrain made movement and

communication difficult. Communication across the rivers

was impossible as they freeze in winter. So, the movements of

nationalists spreading the ideas of unification were hindered.

High level of illiteracy: About 90 per cent of Italians were not

educated and therefore had no political ideas which made it difficult for the masses to understand the struggle for unification. This is

why, the struggle for unification only took place around urban areas

as the rural people were not actively involved.

Ideological differences: Many Italians lacked a common stand

while others served in the army. They had no common language

which made it hard to criticise and mobilise other Italian states for

unification.

Divisions among Italian nationalists: The Italians in piedmont

supported monarchism and used French as their language, while

Garibaldi and Mazzini who spoke Italian supported republicanism.

As a result they did not unite in their struggle and they were

defeated.

Lack of secrecy: As a result of Metternich’s spy network, the Austrian

police penetrated the secret societies by pretending to support the

Italian cause. The Austrian Secret Police was so effective that it

leaked the plans and activities of the Italian movements before

hand and as a result they were suppressed.

Military weaknesses: The Italians were militarily weak; they lacked

good weapons, military leaders, military bases and good military

tactics.

Anti-reform leaders: The leaders who led the different stages

during the early days of the unification never wanted to support

the struggle for the unification. In addition, some Italian kings

collaborated with Austrian rulers to persecute Italian nationalists

who wanted unification.

Negative attitude of European powers: Some European powers

had a negative attitude towards the Italian unification. France

feared an independent Italy as her neighbour. Austria never wanted

to allow Italians to get independence because Italy was her colony,

while Britain was indifferent about Italian unification.

Violet methods: The leaders of the unification process used a lot

of force to achieve their goal. This forced Austrian rulers to also

react violently. The use of violence scared away many Italians

who supported the unification struggle. This weakened the Italian

struggle.

Factors that Facilitated the Italian Unification Process of 1850–1870

Activity 9

Analyse the factors that favoured Italian unification by 1871.

Present the results of your analysis to the class.

The unification of Italy which was finally completed in 1871 was

as a result of a number of factors. These factors include:

Collapse of the Congress system: After 1856, there were no more

congresses in Europe because the big powers fought each other

during the Crimean War. Therefore, the revolutionary struggles in

Italy could not easily be suppressed due to the lack of unity among

European powers.

Downfall of Metternich: As a leader of the Austrian Empire,

Metternich had used Austrian spies and army to stop Italian

unification. However, in 1848 he was overthrown and exiled to

London. The collapse of Metternich’s system enabled Italian

freedom fighters to succeed.

Eatablishment of an internal base in Italy: Before 1848, there was

lack of an internal base for the unification struggle. However, after

1849, Piedmont was used as an internal base to coordinate the

unification activities. Therefore, the return of the nationalists from

exile to operate from Italy allowed unification activities to move

faster.

Support from foreign countries: During the Italian unification

process, the foreign powers supported Italy in the following ways:

࿤ France: The Italians received direct assistance from France in

1859 by which Lombardy was liberated from Austria. However,

Garibaldi disliked this because Italy lost Nice to France.

࿤ Britain: Britain extended loans which helped Piedmont to

overcome the economic crisis. Britain also maintained the

policy of non-intervention which helped Garibaldi to liberate

Naples and Sicily in 1860.

࿤ Belgium: Like Britain, Belgium had financially supported the

struggle for Italian Unification.

࿤ Prussia: In 1866 Prussia assisted in the liberation of Venetia

from Austria.

Emergence of capable leaders after 1848: Before 1850, Italian

leaders failed to lead unification. After 1850 new leaders who

provided strong leadership emerged. Victor Emmanuel and Cavour

strengthened the army and the economy and secured foreign

assistance. In addition Charles Albert helped emancipate Venitia

and Rome.

Change of government in Britain: This favoured the unification in

Italy because the coming to power of Gladstone as prime minister

of Britain and Lord John Russell helped the Italians as they assisted

them in the liberation of Parma, Modena and Tuscany through a

referendum in 1860.

Activities of the Carbonari and the Young Italian Movement:

The Carbonari and Young Italian Movement established a strong

foundation for the unification of Italy. They encouraged the growth of

nationalism, unity and the idea for independence. They mobilised

Italians against Austrian foreign rule. Those activities united

Italians, prepared them for the struggle and reduced ostacles to

unification.

The 1870 – 1871 Franco-Prussian war: During this war, Napoleon

III was forced to withdraw the French troops from Rome in 1870.

This enabled the Italian patriots to take over Rome and this marked

the completion of the Italian unification in 1871.

Role of the Italian scholars: The Italian philosophers, lecturers,

teachers and writers wrote publications which encouraged

nationalism, they condemned Austrian domination and revealed

atrocities committed against the Italians. This created the spirit

of nationalism and Italian nationalists decided to fight against the

Austrian domination.

Role of Pope Pius IX: Pope Pius IX rose to power in 1848 and

unlike Pope Grégoire he was a liberal. He supported libralism

and nationalism and liked the idea of Italian unification. It also

weakened Metternich who was an obstacle to unification.

Role of press: The Risogrimento which was a newspaper

introduced by Cavour exposed Austrian atrocities against Italians

and sensitised Italians about the importance of unity. 

Reform of Piedmont’s economy: By 1860, the economy of Piedmont

had been reformed and grown to the level of competing with the

Austrian economy and to challenge Austria. It became possible to

access adequate resources to support unification. Piedmont also

became strong enough to lead the unification process.

Reduction of the powers of the Catholic Church in Italy: The

Catholic Church was a big barrier in the unification of Italy because

it was opposed to fighting Austria a fellow Catholic country. In

1850, Camillo Benso di Cavour brought to an end the powers of the

Catholic Church. He stopped church control of politics, education,

and land. Thus, this allowed many liberal Catholics to fight against

Austria without condemnation from the Catholic Church.

Outbreak of the Franco–Prussian war of 1870–1: It was fought

between France and Prussia. Due to this war, France was forced

to withdraw her soldiers from Rome to go and fight in Prussia in

1870. This provided an opportunity for liberation forces to take

over control of Rome. This marked the completion of the Italian

unification in 1871.

The Role Played by Giuseppe Mazzini in Italian Unification

Activity 10

Evaluate the role played by Giuseppe Mazzini during the

struggle for Italian unification from 1850 up to 1870. Present

your work to the class.

Giuseppe Mazzini (22 June 1805 10 March 1872), nicknamed

“The Beating Heart of Italy”, was an Italian politician, journalist

and activist for the unification of Italy.

His efforts helped create the independent and unified Italy

composed of several separate states, that had been dominated by

foreign powers.

Giuseppe Mazzini was an Italian revolutionary who fought to oust

the Italian nobles and expel the Austrians from his country. He lived in France where he organised uprisings in Italy. While in exile

he was sentenced to death in absentia in 1832.

He helped define the modern European movement for popular

democracy in a republican state.

He bitterly resented the absorption of his native republic of Genoa

into the kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont in 1815.

In 1827 he joined the revolutionary Carbonari Movement, but

after his imprisonment at Savona (1830-31) he abandoned that

organisation as ineffective.

Exiled, he founded the Young Italy Movement (La Giovine Italia) in

Marseille, France, in July 1831. It established branches in many

Italian cities. Mazzini argued that through coordinated uprisings,

the people could drive the Italian princes from their thrones and

oust the Austrians from the Italian peninsula.

He used propaganda to mobilise and sensitise the Italians. This

is why they called him a “Prophet of the Italian unification”. By

1833 his movement had about 60,000 members.

On March 8,1848, Mazzini launched a new political

association, the Associazione Nazionale Italiana in Paris.

The high point of Mazzini’s career was the revolutions of 1848-49,

when he returned to Italy and was elected one of the leaders of the

new Roman republic. But when the republic fell in July 1849 to an

invading French army, Mazzini once again had to flee.

His efforts to spark republican uprisings in Mantua (Mantova)

(1852) and Milan in 1853 were unsuccessful. The leadership

of the Italian nationalist movement was taken over by Camillo di

Cavour of Sardinia-Piedmont who supported a liberal monarchy.

Mazzini came back to Italy during the wars of 1859 and 1860 but

took no pleasure in seeing the establishment in 1861 of a unified

Italian kingdom rather than a republic.

In 1862 he again joined Garibaldi during his failed attempt to free

Rome. In 1866 Venetia was ceded by France, which had obtained

it from Austria at the end of the Austro-Prussian war, to the new

kingdom of Italy, which had been created in 1861 under the Savoy

monarchy. In 1867 he refused a seat in the Italian Chamber of

Deputies. He was still plotting to gain Venice and Rome when he

was jailed in Gaeta from August to October 1870 at the time King

Victor Emmanuel II of Sardinia was seizing Rome. 

In failing health, Mazzini retired to Pisa, where he died on March

10, 1872.

The Role Played by Giuseppe Garibaldi in Italian Unification

Activity 11

Evaluate the role played by Giuseppe Garibaldi during the

struggle for Italian unification from 1850 up to 1870. Present

your work to the class.

Content

Garibaldi was a central figure in the Italian Risorgimento. He

personally commanded and fought in many military campaigns

that led eventually to the formation of a unified Italy. He generally

tried to act on behalf of a legitimate power, which does not make

him exactly a revolutionary. He joined the Young Italian Movement

in 1833 and become a follower of Mazzini.

In 1848, after a long period in exile in Tunisia, Brazil, Cuba, Uruguay

and USA, Garibaldi returned to Italy. Together with Mazzini they

participated in the 1848 revolution in the papal states, leading

to the formation of the Roman republic where he was appointed

general by the provisional government of Milan in 1848.

Emmanuel defeated Garibaldi at the battle of Aspromonte on

August 29, 1862. Garibaldi was wounded and captured in that

battle but was soon pardoned and released.

Despite the Aspromonte incident, the government went to Garibaldi

again in 1866. Italy had made an alliance with Prussia to defeat the

Austrians. Italy was promised Venice if the alliance was victorious.

Garibaldi successfully invaded Tyrol with a volunteer force. 

This was one of the few Italian victories in a war won primarily on the

strength of the Prussian army. Venice became part of Italy in 1866.

In 1867 Garibaldi again raised a volunteer force with the aim of

annexing the papal states to the kingdom of Italy. After a number

of initial engagements, he was defeated by combined papal and

French forces at the battle of Mentana on November 3, 1867. He

was taken prisoner to Varignano, near La Spezia but was held for

only a short time.

In 1870 he offered his services to the French government and

fought with his two sons in the Franco-Prussian war. Rome was

annexed to Italy in October 1870, and Garibaldi was elected a

member of the Italian parliament in 1874. In his last years he

sympathized with the developing socialist movement in Italy

and other countries. Garibaldi’s autobiography, Autobiography of

Giuseppe Garibaldi, was published in 1887.

In 1879 he founded the League of Democracy, which advocated

universal suffrage, abolition of ecclesiastical property, emancipation

of women, and maintenance of a standing army.

The Role Played by Camillo Benso di Cavour in Italian Unification

Activity 12

Evaluate the role played by Benso di Cavour during the struggle

for Italian unification from 1850 up to 1870. Present your

work to the class.

Sardinia, a position he maintained (except for a six-month

resignation) throughout the second Italian war of independence

and Garibaldi’s campaigns to unite Italy.

Between 1838 and 1842 Cavour began several initiatives in

attempts to solve economic problems in his area. Firstly he

experimented with different agricultural techniques on his estate,

such as the use of sugar beet, and was one of the first Italian

landowners to use chemical fertilisers. He also founded the

Piedmontese Agricultural Society. 

Cavour’s long term goal was to expel Austrian power from Italy

and expand Italy by annexing Lombardy and Venetia to Sardinia. In

1858, he negotiated a secret deal with Napoleon III who promised

to support Sardinia in case it faced a war with Austria.

A year later, he provoked that war. With the French help, Piedmont

- Sardinia defeated Austria and annexed Lombardy.

After his death on June 6, 1861, his successors completed his

dream by negotiating with Bismarck and Italy acquired Venetia in

a Peace Treaty that ended the Austro-Prussian war in 1866.

He is remembered for the following contributions during Italian

unification:

He founded a newspaper called Risorgimento which means

“resurrection” or “renewal”. In his newspaper, he published the

need for constitutional and parliamentary democracy. He also

exposed the oppressive administration of Austrian rulers. This

created nationalism and attracted support for independence from

Austria.

He solicited for funds from foreign powers especially from Britain

and France.

He improved the economy of Piedmont by signing commercial

treaties with Britain, France and Belgium which made it easy for

Piedmont to benefit from free trade with European countries.

He carried out military reforms in Piedmont which strengthened the

military base of Piedmont. This helped address military obstacles

to Italian unification.

He abolished the powers of the pope and Catholic Church in Italy

by stopping the church from controlling politics, education and

land. This encouraged the liberal Catholics to support the idea of

unification.

He reconciled revolutionary fighters like Mazzini, Garibaldi and

King Victor Emmanuel II.

He introduced political reforms like drafting of the constitution

for Piedmont which created a political base that favoured the

unification of Italy.

He fought against illiteracy and ignorance in Italy by introducing

learning centres in Piedmont. These schools acted as mobilisation

centres for supporting the unification struggle.

He improved the economy, trade and transport of Piedmont by

encouraging agriculture, industrialisation, building of roads,

railways, telegraph lines and canals. This partly solved economic

backwardness and supported the movement of nationalists and

troops.

He is credited for introducing civil reforms in land, education and

finance in the state of Piedmont which reduced the power and

influence of the church.

Cavour engaged European powers to provide diplomatic support

for the unification. He supported the allies against Russia in the

crimean war. He also supported France and Prussia against Austria.

This helped him get support against Austria which was an obstacle

to Italian unification.

The Role Played by Victor Emanuel II in Italian Unification

Activity 13

Examine the role played by King Victor Emmanuel II in the

struggle for Italian unification from 1850 up to 1870. Present

your work to the class.

King Victor Emanuel II (14 March 1820 – 9 January 1878) was

the eldest son of Charles Albert, Prince of Carignano and Maria

Theresa of Austria. His father succeeded a distant cousin as king

of Sardinia in 1831. 

Lastly, he continued with the struggle for the unification of Italy

after the death of Cavour in 1861. His role led to the liberation of

Rome and Venetia which completed the unification. He is credited

for the following contributions:

He accepted leadership of the struggle for Italian unification as

proposed by Cavour.

He appointed Cavour to various ministerial positions which enabled

Cavour to introduce economic and political reforms that helped the

Italians to attain their independence.

He accepted to use Piedmont as the centre of the unification; hence

he solved the problem of lack of an internal base from which the

Italians achieved their unification.

His foreign policy won for Piedmont foreign support and prestige.

He allied with Bismarck in 1866, and agreed to remain neutral

when Bismarck fought Austria and in return he would be supported

to liberate Venetia.

After the withdrawal of Cavour from the struggle in 1859, Victor

Emmanuel maintained the gains of the struggle. This encouraged

the central states to join Piedmont.

He marched his troops to occupy Rome after France had withdrawn

her soldiers to go and fight in the Franco - Prussian war of 1870– 1871.

Roles of Foreign Powers

Activity 14

Assess the role of the foreign powers in the Italian unification.

Present the results of your assessment to the class.

Besides the roles played by Italian nationalists to attain the Italian

unification, foreign powers also supported the Italians during their

struggle for their unification. 

They inspired the Italians as united monarchies like Britain and

France among others.

Britain and France supported the Piedmontees to annex the central

duchies of the Italian states i.e. Parma, Modena and Tuscany in

1860.

France provided military support of 200 000 troops to Piedmont in

the liberation of Lombardy from Austria in 1859.

Britain remained neutral during the liberation of Lombardy in 1859,

Venetia in 1866 and Rome in 1870. This allowed the Italians to

carry out the liberation.

Prussia assisted the Italians in the liberation of Venetia in 1866

when Austria was defeated in the Austro-Prussian war.

Disagreement between the great powers served the interests of the

Italians. These included Russia vs. Austria from 1820 onwards,

Britain, France and Turkey vs. Russia in the Crimean War of 1854–

1856, and the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871.

Foreign powers provided financial support. Britain and Prussia

financed some of the expeditions of Piedmont.

France, Britain and Switzerland provided asylum to Italian

revolutionaries and patriots.

There was neutrality of the foreign powers following the invasion

and the annexation of the papal states (Rome).

Some European powers like France, Britain and Belgium concluded

economic ties and exchange of technology with Piedmont.

Different Stages in the Italian Unification

Activity 15

Describe the different stages taken to achieve the Italian

unification by 1871. Present your work to the class.

The Prombières pact and liberation of Lombardy

After the 1856 Paris treaty, France delayed to assist Italians.

However an attempt by an Italian patriot called Felice Orsini to

assassinate Napoleon III, forced Napoleon III to form a military

alliance with Cavour.

In 1858, Cavour and Napoleon III of France signed a secret military

agreement at Prombières known as the Pact of Plombières. Cavour

and Napoleon III agreed to a joint war against Austria. Piedmont

would gain the Austrian territories of Lombardy and Venetia and

some territories of the former Venetian Commonwealth in the

Adriatic, as well as the duchies of Parma and Modena, while

France would be rewarded with Piedmont’s territories in Savoy and

Nice. Central and southern Italy, being largely under-developed and

of little interest to the wealthier north, would remain largely as it

was, although it was suggested that the emperor’s cousin Prince

Napoleon would replace the Habsburgs in Tuscany. To allow the

French to intervene without appearing as aggressors, Cavour was

to provoke the Austrians by encouraging revolutionary activity in

Lombardy.

By this first stage, Austrian troops under Emperor Francis Joseph

I had been defeated by the French forces led by Napoleon III

at the battle of Solferino on June 24th, 1859. The Piedmontese

forces commanded by Victor Emmanuel II later had the better of

the Austrians at San Martino. The Austrians accepted to sign the

armistice of Villafranca on July 12th 1859 and Piedmont annexed

Milan and Lombardy. Austria left the peninsula and there was a

creation of a confederation of seven states of northern Italy.

The revolt of the central states and their annexation to Piedmont

In December 1859, Tuscany, Parma, Modena, and the papal

states were unified into the United Provinces of Central Italy,

and, encouraged by the British, began seeking annexation by the

kingdom of Sardinia. Cavour, who triumphantly returned to power

in January 1860, wished to annex the territories, but realised that

French cooperation was necessary. Napoleon III agreed to recognise

the Piedmontese annexation in exchange for Savoy and Nice. On

March 20, 1860, the annexations occurred. Now the kingdom of

Sardinia controlled most of northern and central Italy.

Liberation of Naples and Sicily and annexation to Piedmont

Garibaldi, a native of Nice, was deeply resentful of the French

annexation of his home city. He hoped to use his supporters to

regain the territory. Cavour, terrified of Garibaldi provoking a war

with France, persuaded Garibaldi to instead concentrate his forces

on the Sicilian rebellions. On May 6, 1860, Garibaldi and his force

of about a thousand Italian volunteers landed near Marsala on the

west coast of Sicily.

Garibaldi’s army attracted bands of rebels, and the combined

forces defeated the opposing army at Calatafimi on May 13. Within

three days, the invading force increased to 4,000 men. On May

14, Garibaldi proclaimed himself dictator of Sicily, in the name of

Victor Emmanuel. With the support of the population he captured

Palermo, the capital of sicily at the end of May.

Garibaldi then crossed over to the mainland and entered Naples

where he declared himself dictator of the two sicilies, a territory

that covered Italy and the Island of sicily.

After organising a plebiscite in both southern Italy and Naples,

Garibaldi handed over the territory to Victor Emmanuel whom he

gave the title of king of Italy.

Garibaldi then retired to the Island of Caprera, while the remaining

work of unifying the peninsula was left to Victor Emmanuel.

Liberation of Venetia

In the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 known as The Seven Weeks

War, Austria contested with Prussia the position of leadership among

the German states. The kingdom of Italy seized the opportunity to

capture Venetia from Austrian rule and allied itself with Prussia.

Austria tried to persuade the Italian government to accept Venetia

in exchange for non-intervention. However, on April 8, 1866 Italy

and Prussia signed an agreement that supported Italy’s acquisition

of Venetia, and on June 20, 1866 Italy declared war on Austria.

Victor Emmanuel led the Italian army but it was defeated by the

Austrian army at the battle of Custrea on June 24. Garibaldi’s

volunteers defeated an Austrian force in the battle of Bezzecca,

and moved toward Trento.

Meanwhile, Prussian Prime Minister Bismarck saw that his own

ends in the war had been achieved, and signed an armistice with

Austria on July 27, 1866. Italy officially laid down its arms on

August 12, 1866.

Prussia’s success on the northern front obliged Austria to cede

Venetia. Under the terms of a Peace Treaty signed in Vienna on

October 12, 1866, Emperor Franz Joseph had already agreed

to cede Venetia to Napoleon III in exchange for non-intervention

in the Austro-Prussian war and thus Napoleon III ceded Venetia

to Italy on October 19, 1866 in exchange for the earlier Italian

acquiescence to the French annexation of Savoy and Nice.

Annexation of Rome

Victor Emmanuel negotiated the removal of the French troops from

Rome through a treaty, with Napoleon III in September 1864, by

which the emperor agreed to withdraw his troops within two years.

The pope was to expand his own army during that time so as

to be self-sufficient. In December 1866, the last of the French

troops departed from Rome. After their withdrawal, Italy excluding

Venetia and Savoy, was freed from the presence of foreign soldiers.

In July 1870, the Franco-Prussian war began. Napoleon III recalled

his army from Rome.

In September Victor Emmanuel took over control of Rome after the

French withdrawal. A plebisute was held that supported annexation

of Rome by the kingdom of Italy. This marked the completion of the

unification of Italy.

The German Empire and Otto Von Bismarck

Activity 16

Examine the contributions of Otto Von Bismarck to the rise and

consolidation of the German Empire. Present your work to the

class.

The German Empire was born in 1871 after the defeat of France

during the Franco-Prussian war. It was proclaimed at the Hall of

Mirrors in France by Emperor William I and survived for 47 years 

under the three emperors. These include William I who reigned

from 1871 up to 1888, Emperor Fredrick William III in 1888 and

Kaiser William II who reigned from 1888 up to 1918. Bismarck

was chancellor from 1871 until 1890.

Otto von Bismarck was born in 1815, in a wealthy family in the

Prussian province of Saxony. His father, was a junker estate owner

and a former Prussian military officer. Bismarck was well educated

and fluent in English, French, Italian, Polish, and Russian.

He was a conservative German statesman who dominated European

affairs from the 1860s to 1890. After a series of short victorious

wars he unified numerous German states into a powerful German

Empire under Prussian leadership, and then created a “balance of

power” that preserved peace in Europe from 1871 until 1914.

In 1871, Otto von Bismarck was chancellor of the German Empire,

but retained his Prussian offices (including those of ministerPresident and Foreign Minister). 

Bismarck’s domestic and foreign policies 1871–1890

Internal policy

Bismarck’s internal policy had the following features:

The policy against Catholics: The Catholics were not in good

relationship with the new German Empire because it was led by

Protestant Prussia. They wanted to teach the dogma of papal

infallibility in schools while Bismarck could not accept this.

To solve this problem, Bismarck introduced the May Law in 1873

by which he expelled stubborn Catholics from Germany, imprisoned

and killed some Catholic bishops, took over the authority to appoint

priests and bishops, withdrew the German ambassador from the

Vatican, and forced Catholic schools to sit examinations set by the

state.

However, this law caused much criticism from socialists so that he

was forced to repeal it.

The constitution of 1871: Bismarck introduced a new constitution

which guaranteed the freedoms and rights for all the Germans and

provided for two assemblies in the parliament, i.e. the Bundesrat

(lawmaking body) and the Reichstag (for debating and suggesting

amendments to the laws).

The policy against socialists: The socialists were another problem

in the new empire of Germany. They demanded the abolition of

capitalism, introduction of state socialism and for more powers to

vote in the parliament.

To solve this problem, Bismarck introduced the exceptional laws in

which he exiled the stubborn socialists, arrested and killed some of

them, and banned socialist meetings and newspapers.

However, these laws failed and Bismarck was forced to withdraw

them. He introduced sickness insurance in industries, old age

insurance for workers, laws against child labour and the public

employment board to supervise the working conditions.

Military reorganisation: Bismarck introduced compulsory military

service and built new military industries to produce new military

equipment. He also nominated able military commanders. This

strengthened the German army which helped him to prevent a war

of revenge from France.

Administrative policy: Bismarck introduced a federal government

in which he allowed states to control their own local affairs in

education, religion and culture among others. The central

government controlled taxation, army, trade and foreign affairs

among others.

External policy

After the German unification with the defeat of France during the

Franco-Prussian war, the main aim of Bismarck’s foreign policy 

was to focus on the isolation of France and prevent her from getting

allies and preventing a war of revenge. To do so, he implemented

the following policies:

Maintaining an occupation army in France: After the defeat of

France in 1871, Otto Von Bismarck sent an army to occupy France

with the purpose of ensuring that France paid the war reparation

and to intimidate France so that she did not fight the war of

revenge. In 1873, he withdrew this army which showed that he

was a peacemaker in Europe.

Formation of the Dreikaiserbund in 1872: This was a league based

on agreement of the three emperors of Austria, Russia and Germany

formed in 1872. This term Drei Kaiser bund is a German term that

means the three (drei) emperors (kaiser) and league (bund).

The objective of this agreement was to allow Bismarck capture the

friendship of Austria and Russia in order to isolate France. In this

agreement, all members accepted to support one another in case

of a war from a non-member. It was to be renewed every year. By

this league, Bismarck succeeded in keeping France isolated and

therefore prevented the French war of revenge.

Maintaining good relationship with Britain: In order to keep good

terms with Britain, Bismarck sent his son Herbert Bismarck to

London as an ambassador. This way he won the attention of Britain

and ensured that Britain could not ally with France, leading to the

isolation of France.

Calling of the 1878 Berlin Congress: In 1878, there was a crisis

in the Balkans resulting into potential conflicts between Britain and

Austria on one side and Russia on the other side. Bismarck who

now never wanted to lose friendship with both sides got involved

and called the Berlin congress to settle the conflict.

In this congress, Bismarck tried to support British interests in the

region, he supported Austrian control in Bosnia and Herzegovina

and also supported France in Tunisia.

Consequently, Bismarck succeeded in preventing war between

Britain, Austria and Russia but he was under the risk of losing

Russia because he never supported her. He also succeeded in

diverting French attention in Tunisia and prevented any war of

revenge from France.

Formation of the Dual alliance in 1879: After the 1878 Berlin

Congress, Bismarck feared the possible alliance between Russia

and France. He concluded an agreement with Austria in 1879

known as the dual alliance.

In this alliance, Austria agreed to support Germany if France,

Russia and any other power attacked her. In case France alone

attacked Germany, Austria would remain neutral. Equally, Germany

accepted to support Austria if Russia and France and any other

power attacked her, while in case Austria was attacked by Russia

alone, Germany would remain neutral. This alliance enabled

Germany to maintain a strong relationship with Austria up to 1914.

The formation of the Triple alliance in 1882: This alliance was an

agreement between Germany, Austria and Italy. The triple alliance

was signed because Bismarck never wanted France to ally with

Italy and he wanted to convince Italy to abandon Tunisia for France

as one way to divert French attention from the war of revenge.

In this triple alliance, Germany, Austria and Italy accepted to

support one another in case of war from a non-member. Again,

Bismarck succeeded in isolating France in Europe.

Renewal of the Dreikaiserbund in 1883: Attempts to renew this

agreement had been failing since 1878 due to misunderstandings

between Russia and Germany in the 1878 Berlin Congress. However,

Tsar Alexander II who had refused to renew the Dreikaiserbund

died and was replaced by Tsar Alexander III who accepted to renew

the Dreikaiserbund with Bismarck.

As a result, Tsar Alexander III promised to support Germany in case

of war with France. Bismarck also promised to assist Alexander III to

recover Bulgaria. By this renewal of the Dreikaiserbund, Bismarck

succeeded in winning back Russia to his side hence leaving France

further isolated.

Calling of the Berlin Conference (1884–1885): This conference

was called by Bismarck in order to prevent any war between

European powers during the partition of Africa. He also called this

conference to announce that Germany had intentions of occupying

some territories in Africa like other European powers. But

strategically, he called the conference to divert French attention to

her colonies through the principle of effective occupation. 

Factors that Delayed German Unification

Activity 17

Examine the factors that delayed German unification. Present

your work to the class.

Attempts to form the German-speaking populations into a federation

lasted for nearly a century. Unification exposed religious, linguistic,

social, and cultural differences between and among the inhabitants

of the new nation.

After the Napoleonic era, the Vienna settlement created The

German Confederation of States. States like Bohemia, Moravia,

Württemberg, Saxony, Hanover, Holstein, Schleswig, Baden,

Hesse, Silesia and Posen among others were subjected to foreign

rule except Prussia which remained under the control of the German

King Frederick William I.

The German states that were under Austrian foreign rule, were

brought together to form a single German state in 1871. However,

before attaining this unification, the Germans had encountered the

following obstacles:

Economic hardships: The Germans were poor with no industries,

low income and low levels of education. Such an economic status

could not challenge Austria.

Role of Prince Metternich of Austria: Metternich had spies in

Germany and in 1819 he passed The Carlsbad Decrees that

stopped political activities in German universities. This made it

impossible for the Germans to unify themselves. Germans were not

willing to identify with in the revolutionary movement in order to

liberate Germany and this was because of the fear of Austrian spies.

Effect of the Reformation: The reformation which was championed

by Martin Luther in 1517 led to the breakup of the Catholic

Church and, consequently, the Protestant Church. This divided

the Germans. The northern Germans were Protestants. While the

southern states were Catholic. These religious differences were a

hindrance to German unification.

Lack of strong army: Germany didn’t have a well trained single

army for all states to fight Austria. All states except Prussia never

had an army and even the Prussian army was too weak to challenge

Austrians. This delayed German’s unification.

Lack of foreign support: The Germans did not get external support

like the Italians and this made it difficult for them to address the

major obstacle which was Austrian military strength.

Social class differences: The difference between the poor working

class and the middle class undermined the success of the German

unification. On December 15, 1848 the middle class supported

Austria against the Frankfurt parliament members who wanted a

socialist revolution.

Poor mass mobilisation: Before the year 1860, majority of the

Germans were not informed about the importance of the German

unification because of poor mobilisation due to the lack of mass

media to sensitise the people.

Opposition from the conservatives: The conservative Prussian

junkers and liberals at the May 1848 Frankfurt Assembly ignored

the establishment of a strong army against Austria and concentrated

more on patriotic issues.

Lack of good leadership: The German states agreed to unite

but lacked strong leaders who would challenge Metternich and

Austria. Frederick William IV believed in unification but he was a

supporter of Austria while leaders of other states wanted to remain

independent.

Factors that enabled German unification

Activity 18

Discuss the factors that enabled the Germans to achieve their

unification in 1871. Present the outcomes of your discussion

to the class.

The collapse of the Congress system by 1830 left Austria with no

foreign assistance to check German nationalism.

The downfall of Metternich and his system which were the greatest

obstacles in 1848 favoured unification because his successors

were weak. They were not strong enough to maintain Metterich’s

regressive system.

Military reforms like increasing the Prussian army from 500,000

to 750 000 under the effective command of Von Roon and Von

Moltke provided military power to challenge Austrian control of

German states.

Improvements in the Prussian education system greatly solved the

problem of ignorance and disunity that had hindered the unification

among the Germans.

Prussia introduced reforms in industry, transport and military

theology from 1860 onwards. This enabled her to finance the

unification activities and also get modern weapons of war.

Improvements in transport, trade, agriculture, industry and

military technology strengthened Prussia’s economy and army

which helped support unification activities, especially wars with

Denmark, Austria and France.

The rise of King William I in 1855 in Prussia. He appointed

Bismarck a minister president in 1861 who used his position to

fight for German unification. William also strengthened the army

and the economy and this supported unification efforts.

The 1848 revolutions exposed the weaknesses of the army and

disunity as obstacles to unification. This enabled the Germans to

address the obstacles to unification.

Foreign support enabled unification efforts because in 1863

Bismarck allied with Austria and Russia to defeat Denmark.

With Napoleon III of France and Alexander II of Russia, Bismarck

defeated Austria in 1866. With Belgium and the southern German

states Bismarck defeated France in 1871.

Mistakes and military weakness of the German enemies favoured

unification. For example, the annexation of Schleswig by Denmark

violated the 1852 London Treaty and left Denmark isolated in

international affairs making it easy to defeat Denmark.

Role of Field Marshal Von Roon and Von Maltke who commanded

the Prussian army that defeated Denmark in 1864, Austria in

1866 and France in 1871 contributed to success of the German

unification.

Improvements in the transport and communication network like

the construction of roads, railways and bridges facilitated the

movements of Germans patriots from one place or state to another

while spreading the propaganda and message of unification. This

also explains the success of German unification.

Role Played by Otto Von Bismarck in German Unification

Activity 19

Evaluate the role played by Otto Von Bismarck in the struggle

for German unification, from 1850s to 1871. Present your

work to the class.

To achieve the German unification, Bismarck played the following

roles:

He advised King William I of Prussia not to resign and encouraged

him to implement fundamental reforms in Prussia.

He suppressed the Prussian liberals from the Frankfurt parliament.

They had spent much time in making speeches and opposed the

coalition of a strong army.

He carried out fundamental reforms in the Prussian educational

system which reduced on the illiteracy levels that had hindered

mobilisation efforts.

He increased the Prussian army from 500,000 to 750,000 under

the efficient command of Field Marshal Von Moltke and Von Roon.

He won diplomatic relations with European statesmen and states

like Benjamin Disraeli of Britain in 1861 and in 1863 with Russia

which enabled Prussia to defeat her enemies without Russia and

Britain interfering.

He prepared Germany for the 1866 Austro-Prussian war through the

Biarritz treaty with Napoleon III by which France promised neutrality

hence facilitated the German unification in 1871.

In 1864 he defeated Denmark in an attempt to liberate Schleswig

which was added to Prussia in 1865 following the August 1865

Gerstein convention.

Through his efforts, Prussia defeated Austria at Sadowa in 1866

and this resulted into the liberation of Holstein.

In 1869 he completed the unification of the northern German

states and, as a result, a new constitution was promulgated which

eliminated Austria from German affairs.

In the 1870 – 1871 Franco-Prussian war was led by Von Bismarck,

Prussia defeated France at Sedan and the German unification was

officially proclaimed at Versailles in the Hall of Mirrors.

Stages in the German Unification

Activity 20

Describe the different stages taken by the Germans to attain

their unification in 1871. Present your work the class.

Defeat of Denmark and annexation of Schleswig

From the late 15th century, Schleswig-Holstein was controlled

by Denmark. In 1852, the great powers had agreed to continue

this status, but in 1863 the Danish king, Christian IX, annexed

Schleswig-Holstein and integrated it more closely into Denmark.

Bismarck feared the Schleswig-Holstein question would unite

German nationalists and also strengthen liberal and parliamentary

forces in Prussia. He also had a conflict between Prussia and

Austria, that would allow foreigners to intervene and determine the

fate of the German states. Bismarck took the lead in denouncing

Denmark’s behaviour. He also turned to Austria and stressed the

merits of Austrian-Prussian cooperation both to pre-empt the

German nationalists and to forestall possible action by Britain,

France, and Russia.

Austria was convinced by Bismarck’s arguments and issued a joint

demand with Prussia in January 1864 that Denmark restore the

status quo. When Denmark refused, a joint Austrian-Prussian force

occupied Holstein, and then invaded Schleswig. The Danish army

was easily crushed by the combined Austrian and Prussian forces.

Denmark’s refusal to compromise, combined with the fact that its

position was not legal, kept the rest of Europe from intervening.

By midsummer 1864 the fighting was over. By the Gerstein

Convention, of August 1865, Holstein was given to Austria as a

reward while Schleswig was added to Prussia. 

Defeat of Austria and annexation of Holstein

In 1866, Bismarck planned a war against Austria by forming the

German Confederation which eliminated Austria. He had asked

the Italians to unite with Germany against a common enemy and

promised that at the end of the war he would hand over Venetia

to Italy.

Besides, Bismarck secretly met Napoleon III and requested him to

remain neutral in case war broke out between Austria and Prussia.

Napoleon was promised territories along River Rhine but with no

written document. Russia had insured Bismarck support because

he had chased the Russian rebels who were in Prussia.

In June 1866, Austria declared war on Prussia. Prussia defeated

Austria at the battle of Königgrätz. The king and his generals

wanted to push on, conquer Bohemia and march to Vienna, but

Bismarck, worried that Prussia might be defeated or that France

might intervene on Austria’s side, decided to make peace with

Austria.

By the Peace of Prague of 1866, the German Confederation

was dissolved; Prussia annexed Schleswig, Holstein, Frankfurt,

Hanover, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), and Nassau; and Austria

promised not to intervene in German affairs.

To strengthen Prussian influence, Prussia and several other north

German states joined the North German Confederation in 1867. King

Wilhelm I served as its president, and Bismarck as its chancellor.

Annexation of south German states

After the victory in Austro-Prussian war and creation of North

Rhine Confederation, Bismarck planned for the annexation of

German states south of Rhine River. He had disappointed and

humiliated Napoleon III by refusing to respect the agreement of

1865. Napoleon III requested Bismarck to support him to annex

Belgium and Luxembourg. However, his request was rejected.

Bismarck used this opportunity to publicise French intentions to

the German states. As a result he won the economic and military

alliance with southern German states.

At this stage, the unification of Germany was almost completed

because all German states were now under a single administration

by 1868.

Isolation and defeat of France in the Franco – Prussian war

(1870–1871)

A suitable situation for war arose in 1870, when the German Prince

Leopold of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was offered the Spanish

throne, which had been vacant since 1868. France blocked the

candidacy and demanded assurances that no members of the House

of Hohenzollern become king of Spain. To provoke France into

declaring war with Prussia, Bismarck published the Ems Telegram, a

carefully edited version of a conversation between King Wilhelm and

the French ambassador to Prussia. This conversation had been edited

so that each nation felt that its ambassador had been disrespected,

thus provoking anger on both sides in favour of war.

France mobilised and declared war on 19 July. The German states

saw France as the aggressor. Swept up by nationalism and patriotic

fanaticism, they rallied to Prussia’s side and provided troops. The

Franco-Prussian war (1870) was a great success for Prussia. The

German army under the command of the king but controlled by

Helmuth von Moltke, won victory. France was defeated at the

battle of Sedan.

By the Frankfurt Treaty, all the southern states and the French

provinces of Alsace and Loraine were annexed to the northern

German states to form the United German Empire. King William of

Prussia was proclaimed German emperor on 18 January 1871 in

the Hall of Mirrors in Versailles.

Similarities and Differences in Italian and German Unification

Activity 21

Compare and contrast the Italian unification to the German

unification. Present the results of your work to the class.

Similarities

Both unifications had Austria as a common obstacle in their

unification struggle.

Both unifications had the Franco-Prussian war as the final event

after which they concluded the unification.

Both unification struggles were an attempt to overthrow the

arrangement of the 1815 Vienna Settlement which had put both

German and Italian states under foreign domination.

Both unifications used force and violence to accomplish the goal.

Both unifications were held and delayed by the Metternich system

where it was not possible to organise revolutions.

In both unifications, there was one state that led the struggle. That

was Piedmont in Italy and Prussia in German.

In both unifications there was one outstanding leader who played

a big role, Cavour in Italy and Bismarck in Germany.

Both unifications were frustrated by their kings, Charles Albert of

Piedmont and Frederick William I of Prussia.

To some extent, all the unifications used diplomacy by their leaders;

Bismarck and Cavour.

Both unifications were achieved in the same year: 1871.

Differences

While the unification of Italy was achieved mainly through foreign

assistance, that of Germany was achieved by the military strength

of the Prussian army.

The unification of Germany was supported by the economic unity

of the German states as a result of the customs union which was

established by 1844. This was not the case in Italy.

The sensitivity of the pope’s position, which was an obstacle in the

Italian unification was absent in the German unification.

The Italian unification struggle took a long time (1859 – 1871)

while the German unification struggle took a shorter time (1864

– 1871).

The Italian unification was achieved at the expense of some Italian

states like Nice which was given to France while no German state

was lost during unification efforts.

In the German unification, the capital of Prussia, Berlin, remained

the capital of the united Germany while the capital of Piedmont

Turino was changed and Rome became the capital of united Italy.

Part Three

The Eastern Question

Activity 22

Analyse the factors that led to decline of the Ottoman Empire

in 1820s. Present your work to the class.

The Eastern Question was a term by European powers to refer to

the problems in the Ottoman Empire (Turkey) from 1815 to 1878.

During this period various European powers struggled to control

Turkish territories.

From the 14th century, Turkey became aggressive and conquered a

large area that included part of north Africa (Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco,

Algeria and Libya), and eastern Europe (such as Romania, Bulgaria,

Serbia, Greece and Crete). It further expanded to cover Walachia,

Moldavia and Arabian states up to Mesopotamia and the Indian Ocean.

Within these boundaries, Turkey had many nationalities including

Serbs, Bulgarians, Romanians, and Africans. This made Turkey a

very heterogeneous nation with many races.

Most of these were Christians under Muslim rule. They took

advantage of internal administrative problems to demand for their

independence.

The Eastern Question started with the decline of the Ottoman

Empire and this decline was due to the following factors:

Big size: The Ottoman Empire had become too large to be effectively

controlled by one administration based at Constantinople. This

encouraged the captured states to break away and get their

independence.

Growth of nationalism: This was prompted by the desire of

different nationalities to struggle for independence from Turkey. For example, Serbia and Egypt became independent in 1805, Algeria

in 1807, and Greece in 1832.

Financial crises: The Turkish administrators were corrupt and

embezzled funds which led to a financial crisis, and the decline of

the empire.

Decline of military strength: The empire had lost its military

strength by the end of the 18th century. That was why revolts like

the 1821 Greek war of independence were successful.

Religious differences: The Muslims leaders exposed Christians to

a lot of suffering and discrimination in education, administration

and unfair taxation. Most of the revolts against Turkey were caused

by the persecution of Christians. Revolts of Christians in Greece

and Bulgaria weakened Turkey. The persecutions attracted the

attention of the Christian countries of Russia, Austria and France.

Their intervention worsened the problem leading to the success of

the revolts in Greek and Bulgaria.

Influence of French revolutionary ideas: The states under the

Turkish domination took advantage of the success of the French

revolution to also demand for their independence.

Presence of powerful rival states: The interests of the big powers

also contributed to the collapse of the Turkish Empire. Britain

competed with Turkey in international trade while Austria and

France were opposed to the influence of Turkey over the many

states that it controlled.

Weak leaders: After its expansion to the Middle East, the Ottoman

empire was ruled by weak sultans such as Muhammad and Abdul

Al Madjid.

Rise of influential personalities: Popular leaders in Greece like

Prince Alexander Hypslant and Capdistrious who challenged the

sultans of the Ottoman Empire led to conflicts.

European selfish interests: European major powers like Britain,

France and Russia aimed to break up the Ottoman Empire so as to

expand their influence.

Russia constantly attacked Turkey and even exaggerated the

problems in Turkey to the extent of referring to Turkey as “the

sick man of Europe”. This was because of the various political,

economic, military and administrative weaknesses. Russia and other foreign powers incited and supported the Greeks, the Wallachians,

Moldavians, Bosnians and Bulgarians to revolt against Turkey.

The Greek War of Independence

Activity 23

Examine the reasons for the Greek war of independence against

Turkey. Present your work to the class.

Nationalism: The Greeks were part of the Ottoman Empire since

the 14th century when the Turks conquered and colonised them. By

the beginning of the 19th century, nationalism had grown in Greece.

In 1821 the Greeks started demanding for their independence in

one of the districts called Morea where the Christians started killing

Muslims and Muslims reacted by killing Christians. This led to the

war for Greek independence.

The Greeks revolted against Turkish administration because of the

desire for self rule and liberation from Turkish domination.

Greek ancient glory: The Greeks are credited with the beginning

of modern civilisation. They believed in their superiority over the

Turkish colonial masters. They revolted against Turkey in order to

revive their ancient glory.

Level of literacy: Greece was the most civilised of Turkey’s colonies.

The Greeks were well educated. Because of their education, they

were able to organise a rebellion against the Turkey.

Religious persecutions: The Ottoman Empire consisted of different

religious groups that often turned against one another and the

Muslim leaders of the empire did not respect other religions. There

was no freedom of worship and many Christians were killed by the

Muslims. The Greeks rose up in 1821 in order to get freedom of

worship.

Influence of the French revolution of 1789: The success of the

French revolution and the spread of revolutionary ideas in the

empire inspired the Greeks to revolt. The Greek nationalists used

the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity to mobilise

the Greeks to fight for their independence.

Foreign assistance: The Greeks were supported by other European

countries like France, Britain and Russia which inspired them to

fight Turkey for their independence.

Collapse of the Congress System: The Congress System which was

formed in 1815 as an association to fight the forces of nationalism

and liberalism, had by 1821 started to collapse. The Greeks took

advantage of this demand for their independence.

Unfair taxation: The Muslims imposed unfair taxation on Greeks.

Greeks paid a lot of taxes and Muslims benefited at the expense

of taxpayers. The Greeks rose up to get their independence and to

stop unfair taxation.

Weaknesses of Turkey: In the 19th century, the Turkish military and

political control weakened. This encouraged the Greeks to revolt

against Turkish domination. The Greeks had also acquired naval

supremacy over the Ottoman Empire and this encouraged them to

go in for war to gain their independence.

Birth of a secret society: This was known as Heteria Philika, or

the association/society of friends, lead by Alexandros Ypsilantis

and Capodistrous. It was founded in 1814 with the major aim

of driving the Turkish administration from Greece. By 1821, the

society had become the official mouthpiece of the Greek war of

independence with over 20,000 members.

Course of the Greek War of Independence

Activity 24

Describe the course of the Greek war of independence and

present the result of your work to the class.

In March 1821, Ypsilantis organised a revolt in Moldavia and

Wallachia against the Turkish Ottoman Empire. His aim was to

first liberate the two islands before embarking on Greece. He also

wanted to divert Turkish attention to the two islands and give the

Greeks chance to declare their independence. They massacred

many Turkish officials and nationals.

However, this revolt failed due to poor organisation and lack of

full support from Wallachia. The result was that Ypsilantis was 

defeated and fled to Austria where he was imprisoned for seven

years by Metternich. Meanwhile, the Greeks massacred about 25

000 Muslims. The sultan of Turkey retaliated by massacring about

30 000 Greeks and hanged Bishop Gregorios in Constantinople on

easter day. 

In 1825, Tsar Alexander I of Russia called the Saint Petersburg

Congress which was only attended by four powers over the Greek

crisis and therefore failed to solve the crisis. The failure of the Saint

Petersburg Congress to settle the Greek revolt and the continued

massacring of Christians by Muhammad Ali gave Russia chance to

openly assist the Greeks. Britain and France which were against

this idea later joined Russia to assist the Greeks because they did

not want to see Russia acting alone and increase her influence in

the Balkan region to their disadvantage.

Despite protests from Austria and Prussia which sympathised with

Turkey, Britain, France and Russia signed a treaty with Turkey

in which Greece was granted self rule, but under the Turkish

overlordship. This treaty, however, insured that force had to be

applied if Turkey failed to accept the terms. Turkey refused to

accept these terms expecting support from Prussia and Austria.

As a result, the French sent troops to Greece, the Russians marched

an army to Turkey, and the British fleet sailed to Alexandria, Egypt.

However, hostilities did not end until Russia and the Ottomans

signed the treaty of Adrianople on September 14, 1829, and the

Ottomans agreed to give up control of Greece. Britain, France, and

Russia proclaimed Greece’s independence in the London Protocol, 

signed in February 1830. In treaty of Constantinople in 1832, the

powers formalised their protection of Greece. This treaty included

only southern mainland Greece and the Peloponnesus, excluding

vast areas that are now part of Greece, but its signing was of

importance.

Effects of the Greek War of Independence

Activity 25

Evaluate the consequences of the Greek war of independence.

Present your work to the class.

The Greek war of independence led to massive loss of life as it led

to the death of soldiers and civilians.

The Greeks got their independence in 1832. The Greeks together

with the French and the British defeated the Turks at the battle

of Navarino Bay in 1827 and in 1832 Greek independence was

declared.

The war forced the sultan of Turkey to get conditional support from

Egypt. It was agreed that at the end of the war Egypt was to be

rewarded with Syria.

It contributed to the decline of Turkey and that was why Tsar

Nicholas of Russia referred to Turkey as “a sick man of Europe”.

It led to the Syrian question which was a result of sultan’s failure to

reward Mohamed Ali of Egypt for his assistance against the Greeks.

This forced Mohamed Ali to occupy Syria by force. This led to war

between Turkey and Egypt.

The Greek war increased the rise of nationalism in Turkey. The

success of the Greek war of independence encouraged other small

states in the Ottoman Empire to demand for independence like in

Wallachia, Moldavia, Bulgaria, Montenegro and Bosnia.

The war led to the collapse of the Congress system. When the

European powers met at Verona in 1822 and at Saint Petersburg

in 1825, they were divided over the Greek war. Russia, France and

Britain supported the Greeks while Austria and Prussia supported

the Turks.

The war increased Russian influence in the Balkans through

different treaties signed with Turkey like the treaty of Adrianople

in 1829 and the Unkiaar Skelessi treaty in 1833 in which Russia

gained military control of some Turkish territories.

The Greek war of independence led to hostility between European

powers against Russia. Britain and France were not happy with the

increase of Russian influence in the Balkans. Russian interests in

Turkey also threatened the British and French economic interests

in Turkey. Later this led to the Crimean war.

The Syrian Question

Activity 26

Examine the causes of the Syrian question in 1832–1841.

Present your work to the class.

The Syrian question or the Second Egyptian–Ottoman War or

Second Turco-Egyptian War lasted from 1832 until 1841 and was

fought mainly in Syria. This is why it is called the (second) Syrian

war. It was a conflict between the Sultan Mahmud II of Ottoman

Turkey and Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt over the control of Syria,

Morea and Damascus from 1832 to 1841. This war was caused

by the following factors:

The Greek war of independence: This war forced the sultan

of Turkey, Mahmud II to request Egypt in 1822 to support him

to suppress the Greek revolt in Morea. He promised him some

territories as reward for this assistance. This is how Muhammad

Ali Pasha of Egypt got involved in the Balkan affairs, leading to

conflicts with sultan in Syria.

The failure of Sultan Mahmud II of Turkey to honour his promise to

Muhammad: Muhammad accepted to help the sultan in return for

the territories of Morea, Damascus, Syria and Palestine. However,

after the war with the Greeks, the sultan of Turkey failed to fulfill

his promise. This caused the war between him and Muhammad

resulting in the Syria question.

The military weaknesses of Turkey: Turkey had become militarily

weak and this encouraged the sultan of Egypt to send his army to

occupy Syria. This resulted in the Syrian question.

The economic strength of Egypt: Egypt was economically stronger

than Turkey and this enabled her to arm her soldiers and capture

Syria. Egypt also wanted to use Syria as her economic base in Turkey.

The success of the Greek war of independence: The Greeks

achieved their independence after defeating combined forces of the

Turkey and Egypt. So, the sultan of Turkey did not see any reason

to reward Egypt. This forced Egypt to capture Syria, leading to the

Syrian question.

The London treaty of 1827: This granted self-governance to

Greece which meant that Muhammad Ali had not fully assisted

the sultan to defeat the Greeks. The sultan of Turkey therefore

refused to give Syria to Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, leading to

misunderstanding between them.

Course of the Syrian Question

Activity 27

Describe the course of the Syrian question. Present your work

to the class.

The Syrian question was caused by the failure of the sultan to

Turkey respect the promise that he had made to Muhammad Ali

after the Greek war of independence. He had promised Egypt the

territories of Syria and Damascus as a reward for Egyptian military

support against the Greeks.

Muhammad Ali decided to occupy Syria by force. In 1832 Egyptian

troops overran Syria. The Egyptian invasion forced Mahmud II to

seek Russian assistance. Russian forces poured into the Balkans

and this worried Austria, Britain and France. The three powers

fearing Russian expansion were forced to put pressure on the

sultan Mahmud II to surrender Syria to Muhammad Ali, which the

Sultan did in April 1833.

This was confirmed by the treaty of Unkiar Skellessi of July

1833. This treaty placed the Ottoman Empire under the exclusive

protection of the Russians. This allowed them to dominate the

straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles. Britain, wanted to nullify any

Russian gains, by seeking to internationalise the straits.

Russia influenced the sultan to include a secret clause in the treaty

which stated that the straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles would

be closed in times of war to all ships except those of Russia. Thus

Russia militarily and politically benefited to the disappointment of

other European powers.

On June 29, 1839 an invading Ottoman army was again destroyed

in Syria by Muhammad’s general, Ibrahim Pasha at the battle

of Nezib, putting him in possession of the whole of Syria. This

threatened to place Istanbul and the entire eastern Mediterranean

under his control. After the battle, the Ottoman fleet defected to

Muhammad Ali. Britain, Russia and Austria promised to support

the Ottoman Empire and to force Muhammad Ali (who had the

support of France and Spain) to withdraw from Syria. Britain,

Russia, France and Prussia signed the Straits Convention of London

in 1841 by which the Syrian question was settled.

Muhammad Ali was forced to denounce his claims in Syria. He was

confirmed as the hereditary ruler of Egypt and Turkey recovered

Crete and Arabia. This convention also forced Russia to denounce

the treaty of Unkiar Skellessi of 1833. Turkey would close the

straits of Bosporus and Dardanelles to the warships of all nations

including Russia so that no state threatened her. This was a great

diplomatic victory for the British Prime Minister Lord Palmerstone.

Russia and France lost in the Syrian question and they were not

to disturb Europe again. The situation remained calm and there

was no war in the region up to 1853 when the Crimean war

broke out in the Balkan region.

Effects of the Syrian Question

Activity 28

Assess the impact of the Syrian question. Present the outcomes

of your assessment to the class.

It increased Russian imperialism in the Balkans: After taking Syria

by force, Egypt threatened Constantinople and in order to save the

city, Turkey requested for help from Russia. This enabled Russia to

intervene in the Balkans.

It led to the unpopularity of Louis Philippe in France: Philippe had

achieved glory by helping Muhammad Ali of Egypt to control Syria.

However, he later withdrew his troops from Egypt and this made

the glory seekers unhappy with Louis Philippe and discredited him

in France.

Big powers intervention in the Balkans: This was when those

big powers come as saviors, because Russia wanted to protect

Constantinople while France and Britain wanted to stop Russia

from dominating the Balkans.

Rivalry and suspicion between European powers: Russian influence

increased in the Balkans as a result of the Syrian question through

the treaty of Unkiar Skelessi which allowed Russia to intervene in

Balkan affairs. As a result, up to the 1870s, Britain and Austria

threatened to declare war on Russia.

Poor relations between Egypt, France and Britain, Russia, Austria

and Prussia: The expulsion of France and Egypt by big powers from

Syria in 1841 after signing the Straits Convention, caused tension

among European powers.

It worsened the conditions of the Ottoman Empire: It was another

blow to the empire after the Greek war of independence which had

hit the life of the empire. It weakened the Ottoman Empire because

many small states also demanded for independence.

Hatred between Egypt and Turkey: The two countries never

reconciled until Turkey totally disintegrated in 1914.

The Crimean War

Activity 29

Examine the causes of the Crimean war of 1854–1856. Present

the result of your work to the class.

The Crimean war was fought between Russia and the allied forces

of the United Kingdom, France, the Ottoman Empire, and Sardinia.

It began on the Crimean peninsula in 1853. The allies objected to

expanding Russian power in the Black Sea area and to the seizing

of land from the Ottoman Empire. Russia was defeated in 1856.

The war was part of a long-running contest between the major

European powers for influence over territories of the declining

Ottoman Empire. Most of the conflict took place in the Crimean

peninsula, but there were smaller campaigns in western Anatolia,

Caucasus, the Baltic Sea, the Pacific Ocean and the White Sea.

The Crimean War is known for the logistical and tactical errors

during the land campaign on both sides (the naval side saw a

successful allied campaign which eliminated most of the ships of

the Russian navy in the Black Sea). Nonetheless, it is sometimes

considered to be one of the first modern wars as it “introduced

technical changes which affected the future course of warfare,”

including the first tactical use of railways and the electric telegraph.

It is also famous for the work of Florence Nightingale and Mary

Seacole, who pioneered modern nursing practices while caring for

wounded British soldiers.

Causes of the war

Many factors contributed to the outbreak of the Crimean war.

The violation of 1841 Straits Convention: Russia had violated

this convention by capturing Wallachia and Moldavia which were

Turkish territories.

Guardianship of the holy places of Jerusalem and Bethlehem:

France and Russia were struggling to control the holy places of

Jerusalem and Bethlehem which made the outbreak of the Crimean

war inevitable. The sultan of Turkey Abd al-Madjid refused to give

the control of the holy lands to Russia, and gave them to France.

This prompted Russia to invade the Turkish territories of Wallachia

and Moldavia, leading to the Crimean war.

Napoleon III of France: He wanted to revenge for his uncle’s defeat

in the 1812 Moscow campaign and this led to the Crimean war

where France got a chance of fighting with Russia in 1854.

The refusal of Tsar Nicholas of Russia to recognise Napoleon III as

an emperor: Napoleon III greatly detested the idea of Tsar Nicholas

referring to him as “My friend” instead of “My dear brother” as was

the norm of saluting fellow emperors in Europe. This worsened the

conflict between them and lead to the war.

The collapse of the Congress system: The idea of the congress

system was promoted by Metternich. However, the 1830 and

1848 revolutions led to the fall of Metternich and eventually

the collapse of the congress system. European matters could no

longer be diplomatically solved and that is why the conflict among

European powers ended in war.

Protection of British commercial interests: This forced the British

ambassador in Constantinople to encourage the sultan of Turkey to

stand firm in his decision to give the right to protect the holy places

to France and not Russia. This forced Russia to occupy Turkish

territories, leading to the war.

The weakness of Turkey as the “sick man of Europe”: Turkey

mistreated her subjects and this led to revolts. Those revolts

attracted the attention of the big powers who intervened in the

empire’s affairs. Besides, at the end of the 18th century the captured

states of Turkey began breaking away. This encouraged Russia to

occupy Wallachia and Moldavia leading to war in 1854.

The Russian occupation of Wallachia in July 1853: Moldavia

and Wallachia were semi independent provinces of the Ottoman

Empire under the sultan of Turkey. Russia occupied them to force

the sultan to accept her claim of protecting the holy places. The

sultan protested Russian occupation and declared war against

Russia in October 1853. France and Britain joined Turkey and they

shifted the war from Wallachia and Moldavia to the Crimean Island

in Russia.

The role of some personalities: Strafford the British Ambassador in

Constantinople encouraged the sultan of Turkey to give holy places to

France and not Russia and this led to the war.

The Sinope massacre 1853: It was the most immediate event

that led to the Crimean war. When Turkey declared war on Russia,

she reacted by bombing a Turkish warship at Sinope, a Turkish

province, in the Black Sea, killing many Turks on board. This

attracted France and Britain to help Turkey by declaring war on

Russia in March 1854.

Course of the Crimean War

Activity 30

Describe the course of the Crimean war, and then present your

work to the class.

The war in the Danubian provinces: March – August 1854

The Danube campaign was opened when the Russians occupied

the Danubian principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia in May

1853, bringing their forces to the north bank of the river Danube.

In response, the Ottoman Empire also moved their forces up to the

river. This established monopolies at Vidin in the west, and Silistra,

in the east, near the mouth of the Danube.

An Anglo-French naval expedition went to the Baltic in August but

this was not effective and the area was in any case irrelevant to the

causes of the war. Troops were also sent to Gallipoli to make a thrust

into the Balkans. However, in August the Russians withdrew from

Moldavia and Wallachia because Austria threatened to intervene, but never actually intervened because she was internally too weak

to risk war. Austria remained neutral in the Crimean war.

The war in the Crimea: September 1854–January 1855

The Crimean campaign opened in September 1854 with the

landing of the allied force of 50,000 soldiers at Eupatoria, north of

Sevastopol. After crossing the Alma River on September 30, 1854,

the allies under the command of the British and French generals,

Raglan and Saint Arnauld moved on to invade Sevastopol. The

Russian army retreated to the interior. A Russian assault on the

allied supply base at Balaclava was repulsed on October 25, 1854.

The failure of the British and French to follow up the battle of

Balaclava led directly to another and much more bloody battle—

the battle of Inkerman. On November 5, 1854, the Russians

attempted to raise the siege at Sevastopol with an attack against

the allies near the town of Inkerman which resulted in another

victory for the allies.

Meanwhile, at Sevastopol, the allies had surrounded the city

with entrenchments and, in October 1854, unleashed an all–

out bombardment (the first of many) against the city’s defenses.

Winter, and a deteriorating supply situation on both sides, led to

a halt in ground operations. Sevastopol remained invested by the

allies, while the allied armies were hemmed in by the Russian

army in the interior.

The war in the Crimea: January–September 1855

In February 1855 the Russians attacked the allied base at Eupatoria,

where an Ottoman army had camped and was threatening Russian

supply routes. The battle saw the Russians defeated, and led to

a change in command. On the allied side the emphasis of the

siege shifted to the right-hand sector of the lines, against the

fortifications on Malakoff hill. In March there was fighting over

the fort at Mamelon, located on a hill in front of the Malakoff.

Several weeks of fighting saw little change in the front line, and the

Mamelon remained in Russian hands.

In April the allies staged a second all-out bombardment, leading

to an artillery duel with the Russian guns, but no ground assault

followed. In May the allies landed a force at Kerch, to the east,

opening another front in the Crimea in an attempt to outflank the Russian army. The landings were successful, but the force made

little progress thereafter. In June a third bombardment was followed

by a successful attack on the Mamelon, but a follow-up assault on

the Malakoff failed with heavy losses. During this time the garrison

commander, Admiral Nakhimov, suffered a fatal bullet wound and

died on 30 June 1855.

In August the Russians again attacked the base at Balaclava. The

resulting battle of Tchernaya was a defeat for the Russians, who

suffered heavy casualties. September saw the final assault. On 5th

September another bombardment was followed by an assault on 8th

September resulting in the capture of Malakoff by the French, and

the collapse of the Russian defenses. The city fell on 9th September

1855, after about a year-long siege.

At this point both sides were exhausted, and there were no further

military operations in the Crimea before the onset of winter. In

1856, the Crimean war ended with the signing of the Paris Peace

Treaty between Russia and the allied powers.

Effects of the Crimean War

Activity 31

Analyse the effects of the Crimean war in European politics.

Present the results of your work to the class.

The war and the treaty had political, social and economic effects

on Europe.

The war marked the highest loss of lives and massive destruction

of property in the history of Europe, 300,000 – 375,000 on the

side of the allied powers and 220,000 troops dead on the side of

Russia.

It marked the foundation of the nursing profession by English nurses,

Florence Nightingale and Mary Seacole, and the establishment of

the Red Cross Society 1864. This improved on medical services.

During the Crimean war, from 1853 to 1856, many British

soldiers died from wounds and disease. Florence Nightingale set

up a hospital near the battlefront and helped reduce the death rate

among the sick and wounded.

The Russian revolution of 1917 broke out because the Tsar’s

regime became unpopular due to the defeat.

The war led Alexander II the successor of Nicholas I to start off

efforts to overcome Russia’s backwardness so as to achieve high

levels of development like other European powers, especially in

agriculture and industry.

The Italian unification efforts were boosted because Cavour was

able to get assistance from France that helped in the liberation of

Lombardy.

Napoleon III’s prestige and popularity increased in France because

of victory over Russia, their traditional enemy.

The Orthodox Christians in the Balkans were exposed to harsh

treatment under Turkish rule.

The war marked the final collapse of the Congress System since the

powers in the alliance fought against each other.

Free navigation on big waters like Black Sea, Mediterranean Sea

and Danube River was guaranteed as a result of this war.

The independence of Turkey was guaranteed and was temporarily

saved from Russian imperialism.

Tsar Nicholas I of Russia was forced to resort to fundamental

reforms mainly in agriculture and industry.

The war led to the manufacture and use of more sophisticated

weapons that were to be used during the world war II.

Because of siding with Russia, Austria lost the support of France

and Britian and this paved the way for the unification of Germany

and Italy.

The war attracted visitors from different parts of Europe. This

changed the outlook towards political and social life in Turkey.

The 1856 Paris Treaty and its Impact on Europe

Activity 32

Assess the impact of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty on European

politics. Present your work to the class.

The Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 was a document that concluded

the Crimean war of 1854–1856. It was signed by France, Britain,

Turkey and Russia under the chairmanship of Napoleon III of

France. It had the following impact on Europe.

The Paris Peace Treaty ensured the integrity and independence of

the Turkish Empire and admitted Turkey to the concert of Europe.

This treaty forced the sultan of Turkey to grant fair treatment to

his Orthodox Christian subjects and temporarily checked Russian

ambitions in the Balkans.

The Paris Peace Treaty also revised the Straits Convention of 1841

declaring the Black Sea neutral. It also made territorial adjustments

by giving Bessarabia to Moldavia from Russia.

The treaty internationalised the navigation of Danube River and

increased Napoleon III’s prestige and popularity both in France and

in Europe.

The treaty recognised Italy and Italy got support for her unification.

The treaty humiliated Russia following her territorial losses and

worsened relations between the European powers with Russia.

Finally, the treaty led to the disintegration of the Turkish Empire by

granting self governance to Moldavia and Wallachia. 

The the Berlin Congress of 1878

Activity 33

Evaluate the reasons that led to the calling of the 1878 Berlin

congress. Present your work to the class.

The congress of Berlin, which lasted from June 13, 1878 to July

13, 1878, was an assembly of representatives from Germany,

Russia, Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Italy, and the Ottoman

Empire. Delegates from Greece, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro

attended the sessions concerning their states, but were not

members of the congress. It was presided over by the German

chancellor Otto Von Bismarck and called to resolve the problem

of the Eastern Question by renegotiating the treaty of San Stefano.

That treaty, which had concluded the Russo-Turkish war in 1878,

imposed extremely harsh terms on the Ottoman Empire. The other

European powers objected.

After winning the Russo-Turkish war, Russia by the San Stefano

treaty of 1878 imposed extremely severe terms on the Ottoman

Empire. Other European powers, notably Austria-Hungary and

Britain, were alarmed at the growth of Russia’s power and of the

independent states created in the Balkans by the treaty. Concerned

for their own interests in the Middle East, they insisted that the

treaty be modified. Count Gyula Andrássy, foreign minister of

Austria-Hungary, invited the European powers concerned to meet

at Berlin.

Reasons for the calling of Berlin Congress

The failure of the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856 to settle revolts

within the Balkans forced Otto Von Bismarck to organise the Berlin

Congress in 1878.

Sultan Abd al-Madjid of Turkey failed to treat Christians fairly as

promised during the Paris Peace Treaty of 1856.

Russian interests in the Ottoman Empire and the signing of the

treaty of San Stefano in 1878 contributed to the calling of the

congress.

There was need to settle territorial disputes among the European

powers; for example, those between Russia, Turkey and Austria in

the Balkans.

The congress was aimed at saving the Ottoman Empire from

disintegrating as a result of Russia’s imperialism.

The congress was also called to address the commercial rivalry

between Russia, Britain and Russian imperialism which threatened

Britain’s trade.

Rebellions like in Bosnia and Herzegovina which were crashed

with extreme brutality attracted the attention of the great powers.

This led to the calling of the congress.

There was need to address the complaints of different states which

were struggling for independence. These included Serbia, Romania

and Bulgaria which had been subjected to the oppressive rule of

the Ottoman Turks for a long time.

Bismarck wanted to maintain good relations with Austria-Hungary

and Russia so as to maintain the balance of power in Europe.

Bismarck’s desire to promote German supremacy and glory after

unification in Europe also contributed to the calling of Berlin

Congress in 1878.

Impact of the Berlin Congress on Europe

Activity 34

Assess the impact of the Berlin congress on European affairs.

Present your work to the class.

France was given Tunisia in North Africa to compensate her for

the loss of Alsace and Loraine during the 1870–1871 Franco –

Prussian war.

The congress forced the Turkish sultan to promise better treatment

to his Christian subjects.

The San Stefano treaty which was imposed on Turkey by Russia in

March 1878 was brought to an end in order to save the Ottoman

Empire from disintegrating.

Otto Von Bismarck who chaired the Berlin Congress gained

international influence as a peace loving figure.

Italy lost her territory of Tunisia in North Africa which was handed

over to France.

Russia lost control over Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria.

The congress ignored and suppressed nationalism in Bosnia and

Herzegovina. This increased the conflicts in the Balkans in later

years

The relationship between Russia and Germany became worse as

Russia refused to the renew the Dreikaiserbund League of 1872–

1873 between Russia, Germany and Austria because Russia felt

that Germany and Austria were not true friends.

It greatly led to the outbreak of the 1912–1913 Balkan wars which

left a lot of damages in central Europe.

The Balkan wars broke out in two phases; the first in 1912 and the

second in 1913. The first were organised by the Balkan Christians

in mainly Bulgaria, Serbia, Montenegro and Greece against the

oppressive policies of the Turkish Sultan. The second broke out

mainly due to conflicts among the Christian states over sharing the

disintegrating Ottoman Empire. 

There was peace in Europe for about 30 years, from 1878 to 1914

when world war I broke out.

The period 1836–1878 was marked by great events in the history

of Europe. It was a period dominated by revolutions, where almost

all European countries were affected. Other major events were the

unifications achieved by the Italians and the Germans in 1871 after

defeating Austria. This inspired other oppressed people to demand

for their independence. This led to the outbreak of a series of wars

in the Balkans. For example, the Greek war of independence.

Glossary

Abdicate: to give up the position of being king or queen.

Absorption: the process of a smaller country, group, etc.

becoming part of a larger country or group.

Activist: a person who works to achieve political or

social change, especially as a member of an

organisation with particular aims.

Armistice: a formal agreement during a war to stop

fighting and discuss making peace.

Atrocity: a cruel and violent act, especially in a war.

Bankruptcy: the state of being bankrupt; without enough

money to pay what you owe.

Buffer state: a small country between two powerful states

that helps keep peace between them.

Capitulation: act of agreeing to do something that you have

been refusing to do for a long time. Act of

ending resistance or accepting defeat.

Claim: to demand or ask for something because you

believe it is your legal right to own or to have it.

Complain: to say that you are annoyed, unhappy or not

satisfied with somebody/something.

Confederation: an organisation consisting of countries,

businesses, etc. that have joined together in order to help each other.

Conservative: opposed to great or sudden change; showing

that you prefer traditional styles and values.

Convince: to make somebody/yourself believe something is true

to persuade somebody to do something

Dissatisfaction: a feeling that you are not pleased and satisfied.

Divert: to make somebody/something change direction

To take somebody’s thoughts or attention away

from something

Entrenchment: the fact of something being firmly established.

Extravagancy: state of being extravagant; spending a lot more

money or using a lot more of something than

you can afford or than is necessary.

Federation: a country consisting of a group of individual

states that have control over their own affairs

but are controlled by a central government for

national decisions, etc.

Forestall: to prevent something from happening or

somebody from doing something by doing

something first.

Infallibility: act of never being wrong, never making mistakes

or always doing what it is supposed to do.

Interference: act of helping people by addressing problems

they face.

Nation-state: group of people with the same culture, language,

etc. who have formed an independent country.

Peacemaker: a person who tries to encourage people or

countries to stop arguing or fighting and to

make peace.

Peninsula: an area of land that is almost surrounded by

water but is joined to a larger piece of land.

Persecution: act of treating somebody in a cruel and unfair

way, especially because of their race, religion

or political beliefs.

Plebiscite: a vote by the people of a country or a region on

an issue that is very important.

Resign: to officially tell somebody that you are leaving

your job, an organisation, etc.

Slum: an area of a city that is very poor and where

the settlements are dirty and in bad condition.

Supremacy: a position in which you have more power,

authority or status than anyone else.

Unification: act of unity; to join people, things, parts of a

country, etc. together so that they form a single

unit or country.

Uprising: a situation in which a group of people join

together in order to fight against the people

who are in power.

Revision questions

1. Account for the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.

2. What were the effects of the 1848 revolutions?

3. What were the common characteristics of the 1848

revolutions?

4. Explain why Britain escaped the 1848 revolutions.

5. All the 1848 revolutions in Europe failed with the exception

of France. Why?

6. Explain the factors which delayed the Italian unification.

7. Why was the struggle for Italian unification successful between

1850 and 1871?

8. Explain the contribution of Camillo Benso di Cavour in the

Italian Unification.

9. Examine the role played by foreign powers in the unification

of Italy.

10. Assess the role of King Victor Emmanuel II in the unification

of Italy.

11. Explain the obstacles to the German unification before 1860.

12. Account for the success of the unification of Germany.

13. Describe the role played by the Prince Otto von Bismarck in

the German unification.

14. Compare and contrast the Italian unification with German

unification.

15. Why did Tsar Nicholas II of Russia describe the Turkish Empire

as the ‘sick man of Europe’?

16. Account for the outbreak of the Greek war of independence

in 1821.

17. Assess the impact of the 1821–1832 Greek war of

independence on Europe.

18. What were the causes of the Crimean war of 1854–1856?

19. What were the effects of the 1854–1856 Crimean war?

20. Assess the significance of the 1856 Paris Peace Treaty in

Europe.

21. What were the reasons for summoning the Berlin Congress in

1878?

22. Assess the impact of the Berlin Congress of 1878 on Europe.