History

Key unit competence

Describe European domination, exploitation in Africa and its

consequences in the 19th century.

Introduction

In the 19th century, due to a number of factors many European

countries conquered and began to control the African continent.

After the occupation of the so-called dark continent, European

countries used different methods to exploit their colonies. This

included taxation, forced cash crop growing, forced labour, land

alienation, development of legitimate trade, and discouraging of

industrialisation.

Such European practices negatively affected African countries in

diverse ways. Economically, the European colonial methods led

to the following effects: forced labour, migration of labour force,

resettlement of Africans, over exploitation of Africans and over

dependence of the African economy on Europeans.

At the socio-political level, the domination of Africa by European

masters also negatively affected African countries. Colonisation led

to the disruption of the traditional African cultures and introduction

of Christianity, the creation of new political and administrative

entities and the authoritarian rule.

Links to other subjects

Migration in Geography, wars and conflicts in General Studies and

Communication Skills, commercial relations in Economics.

Main points to be covered in this unit

࿤ European domination in the 19th century

࿤ Colonial methods of African exploitation

࿤ Consequences of European domination and exploitation of Africa

in the19th century

European Colonial Methods used in the Economic Exploitation of African Countries

Activity 1

Carry out research on the colonial conquest and domination of

Africa and answer the following questions. Then, present the

results of your findings to the class.

1. What are the main factors that motivated European

imperialists to come to Africa?

2. Explain the different reasons that led Otto von Bismarck

to convene a diplomatic summit of European powers in

the late nineteenth Century.

Activity 2

Explain the European colonial methods of taxation and forced

cash crop growing in the economic exploitation of Africa.

Present the results of your discussion to the class. 

Activity 3

Analyse the European colonial methods of forced labour and

land alienation in the economic exploitation of the African

countries. Present the results of your discussion to the class.

Activity 4

Examine the use of legitimate trade in the economic exploitation

of African countries. Present the results of your discussion to

the class.

Activity 5

Discuss the colonial method of discouraging industrialisation

in the economic exploitation of African countries. Present the

results of your discussion to the class.

Activity 6

Describe the colonial transport policy in the economic

exploitation of Africa. Present the results of your discussion to

the class.

Activity 7

Discuss the colonial education policies in the economic

exploitation of the African countries. Present the results of your

discussion to the class. 

The Colonial Conquest and Domination of theAfrican continent

Between the 1870s and 1900, Africa faced European imperialist

aggression, diplomatic pressures, military invasions, and eventual

conquest and colonisation. At the same time, African societies put

up various forms of resistance against the attempt to colonise their

countries and impose foreign domination.

By the early twentieth century, however, much of Africa, except

Ethiopia and Liberia, had been colonised by European powers.

European imperialists push into Africa was motivated by three

main factors: economic, political, and social.

Colonisation developed in the nineteenth century following the

collapse of the profitability of the slave trade, its abolition and

suppression, as well as the expansion of the European capitalist

industrial revolution.

The imperatives of capitalist industrialisation—including the

demand for assured sources of raw materials, the search for

guaranteed markets and profitable investment outlets—spurred

the European scramble and the partition and eventual conquest

of Africa. Thus the primary motivation for European intrusion was

economic.

The Scramble for Africa

But other factors played an important role in the process. Britain,

France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Portugal, and Spain were competing

for power within European power politics. One way to demonstrate

a country’s power was through the acquisition of territories around

the world, including Africa. The social factor was the third major 

element. As a result of industrialisation, major social problems

emerged in Europe: unemployment, poverty, homelessness, social

displacement from rural areas, and so on. These social problems

developed partly because not all people could be absorbed by the

new capitalist industries. One way to resolve this problem was

to acquire colonies and export this “surplus population.” This led

to the establishment of settler-colonies in Algeria, Tunisia, South

Africa, Namibia, Angola, Mozambique, and central African areas

like Zimbabwe and Zambia. Eventually the overriding economic

factors led to the colonisation of other parts of Africa.

Thus it was the economic, political, and social factors and forces

that led to the scramble for Africa and the attempts by European

commercial, military, and political agents to declare and establish

control in different parts of Africa through commercial competition,

the declaration of exclusive claims to particular territories for

trade, the imposition of tariffs against other European traders, and

claims to exclusive control of waterways and commercial routes in

different parts of Africa.

This scramble was so intense that there were fears that it could

lead to inter-imperialist conflicts and even wars. To prevent this,

the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck convened a diplomatic

summit of European powers in the late nineteenth century. This

was the Berlin Conference, held from November 1884 to February

1885. The conference produced a treaty known as the Berlin

Act, with provisions to guide the conduct of the European interimperialist competition in Africa. Some of its major articles were

as follows:

࿤ Notification (notifying) other powers of a territorial annexation

࿤ Effective occupation

࿤ Freedom of trade in the Congo basin

࿤ Freedom of navigation on the Niger and Congo Rivers

࿤ Freedom of trade to all nations

࿤ Suppression of slave trade by land and sea

This treaty, drawn up without African participation, provided the

basis for the subsequent partition, invasion, and colonisation of

Africa by various European powers.

Causes of scramble and partition

Need for raw materials for European industries

There was need for raw materials to supply European industries

which had grown as a result of industrial revolution. The raw

materials included gold, diamonds, copper, iron ore, cotton, coffee,

cacoa, tea and palm oil.

Market for the manufactured goods

There was mass production of goods by European industries and

European countries could not provide market to all the commodities.

European countries were also practicing protectionism in order to

protect their markets. They thus came to Africa to get markets; e.g.

the occupation of Senegal by the French.

Need for areas where to invest their surplus capital

European countries had accumulated a lot of capital from their

industrial products; they had to look for areas outside Europe

where they could invest their surplus capital.

Need to control economically strategic areas to improve trade

In order to be sure of their improvement of trade, the European

countries were ambitious to control the economically strategic

areas. For example, the occupation of Egypt by the British was for

such reasons.

Discovery of minerals in most parts of Africa

This encouraged the Europeans to come and control some parts of

Africa in order to be the masters of those areas rich in minerals.

There was gold in Ghana, diamonds and gold in South Africa,

copper and diamonds in Congo.

To give protection to European traders and trading companies

European traders asked their home governments to come and

occupy areas in Africa where they operated in order to protect them

from hostile tribes and chiefs who had created insecurity to their

business.

To resettle high population from Europe and provide them with jobs

The need to settle the unemployed, criminals and people who

were suffering from chronic diseases and undesirable in Europe

forced European countries to get lands to settle them in Africa.

E.g. Occupation of Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco and South Africa

respectively by the French and the British.

To control strategic areas

European countries got involved in occupying strategic areas for

their defense; e.g the occupation of the Suez Canal and the straight

of Gibraltar by Britain.

British occupation of Egypt in 1882

Britain got interested in controlling the Suez Canal in 1882 after

pushing France out. The French decided to avenge against the

British by occupying the Upper Nile and the land from Senegal to

Djibouti in the east. To pre-empt this plan, the British took over

Kenya, Uganda and Sudan before the French could come in.

French occupation of Tunisia and Morocco

The French occupation of Tunisia and Morocco due to their

proximity to Europe, astride the Mediterranean Sea and the straight

of Gibraltar encouraged other powers to join the race for colonies.

Growth of nationalism and jingoism

Colonisation was a sign of prestige and glory for the Europeans and

in order to show their power, Europeans had to occupy large areas

as colonies. This was why the great European powers got large

lands in Africa.

Compensation for major losses

Britain had lost America after the American war of independence in

1776. Their pride, prestige and major source of their raw materials

and wealth was lost. France lost Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia in

1871 after the 1870 – 1871 Franco-Prussian war. After achieving

some degree of stability, the French Prime Minister Jules Ferry

began to look for colonies in Africa as compensation.

Activities of King Leopold II of Belgium in Congo

He took over Congo for himself and not for Belgium his country.

As means of counteracting Leopold’s activities, the French took

over Gabon and Congo (Brazzaville) while British also declared the

lower Niger regions as their protectorate.

The activities of Pierre Savrogna de Brazza in Congo and Ivory Coast

He was a French explorer who signed colonial treaties with African

local leaders. This forced other European powers to also look for

colonies in Africa.

The influence of the 1884–1885 Berlin Conference

It had given a green light to colonisation by outlining procedures for

the partition of Africa.

Humanitarian factors

Humanitarians in Europe urged their countries to occupy territory in

Africa to stop slave trade and improve the way of living for Africans.

Colonial Methods of African Exploitation

Taxation

It was the main method of generating revenue for supporting

colonial administration. The commonest were the hut and gun

taxes. The method of collection was brutal and harsh, and often

caused resistance wars. For instance, the Hut Tax War of 1898 in

Sierra Leone.

Taxation was also important to force or condition Africans either to

grow cash crops or to work on European farms. This was because

in order to get money for paying taxes these were the only possible

alternatives. In some areas like the Congo Free State and Angola,

taxes were paid in form of natural products and animals. Failure to

pay taxes in these areas would lead to confiscation of property and

sometimes mutilation.

Forced cash crop growing

To meet the primary demand for colonisation of Africa, cash crop

growing had to be boosted. Some crops like rubber were grown

traditionally, some were grown such as pyrethrum by Europeans

while others like coffee and cotton were grown by Africans under

the supervision of Europeans. These cash crops were needed to

supply raw material to industries in Europe.

Europeans did not encourage the production of food. Forced labour

undermined the production of food crops. This led to famine in

African societies which had been traditionally self sufficient in

food. The African economies were developed as producers of raw

materials in form of cash crops and minerals, and as consumers of

European manufactured goods.

Forced labour

Africans were forced to work on European farms, mines and

construction sites of colonial offices and roads. Their labour was

either paid cheaply or not paid at all. In the Portuguese colonies of

Angola and Mozambique there was a unique form of forced labour

called contract labour. Africans were rounded up and taken to

Principle and Sao Tome to work in sugar cane plantations.

Due to this forced labour, African societies experienced famine. A

lot of time was spent on work for Europeans.

Land alienation

This was the most evil form of exploitation of natural resources.

Africans in settler colonies were hit hardest by this practice, for

example in Kenya, South Africa, Rhodesia, Algeria, Angola and

Mozambique. In some areas of Africa, Africans were forced to settle

in reserve camps leaving fertile and mineralised plots of lands to

Europeans. This policy caused resistance in many areas of Africa. 

In Rwanda, the church alienated huge chunks of land to build

churches, schools and people were forced out of their land.

Development of legitimate trade

After realising the benefits of slave trade and its abolition, they

introduced legitimate trade. This form of trade is said to have

brought peace and stability as it eliminated the raids and suffering

caused by slave trade.

Legitimate trade was monopolised by Europeans who transferred

all the profits to their countries. They paid low prices for African

products and highly priced their exports to Africa. Worse still,

the legitimate trade involved the exchange of high valued African

products like gold, copper, diamonds, cotton, coffee, rubber, and

palm oil among others. Exports to Africa included beads, used

clothes, bangles, spices and glassware.

In Rwanda, the European trader named Borgrave d’Altena purchased

cows at very low prices so as to supply beef to the colonialists.

Discouraged industrialisation

To control the monopoly for trade in raw materials and market

for their manufactured goods in Africa, Europeans extremely

discouraged manufacturing industries. In Egypt, Lord Cromer

established processing plants for cotton lint while cotton cloth

production was done in Britain.

Cromer also set up tariffs on locally manufactured foods and on

imported coal. He also set up heavy fines on smokers to kill the

tobacco industry.

In Senegal, the French never set up any industries to the extent

that even groundnuts were exported in the shells. Only primary

processing industries were set up to reduce the volume of raw

materials. The prices for raw materials were very low while the

manufactured goods from Europe were sold at high prices. This

was a clear indication of colonial exploitation.

Development of road and railway transport

To support legitimate trade, road and railway transport networks

were established. These networks connected the interior of African

colonies to the coast. 

Roads were mainly established in areas rich in resources where

colonialists had direct gains. The main purpose was to facilitate

the effective exploitation of raw materials.

In Togo, Germany constructed railway lines and named them

according to the produce they were meant to carry such as Cotton

line, Palm oil line and Iron line.

In Rwanda, the railway project planned by the Germans from Dares-Salaam via Tabora to Rusumo stopped because of World War I.

Education system

The colonial education system was controlled by Christian

missionaries. In the colonial schools, Africans were trained to

serve as lower cadres, known as “colonial auxiliaries”. The main

products of these schools best suited the posts of houseboys, house

girls and clerks. They could not make engineers, doctors and other

professional careers.

The colonial education system produced people who liked European

ways of life. As a result they exploited fellow Africans. In Rwanda,

education was exclusively given to the sons of chiefs. In French,

Portuguese and Italian colonies education was used for assimilation

purposes.

Liberal subjects such as, political science, literature and history

were neglected in order to keep Africans away from forming

revolutionary movements against colonialists. To colonialists, the

best subjects fit for Africans were bible study, reading and writing

of languages.

Consequences of European domination and exploitation of African countries

Activity 8

Organise a debate on the consequences of migration as a result

of the colonial economy. Present the results of your debate to

the class.

Activity 9

Organise a debate on the following consequences of the

colonial economy: exploitation of Africans and dependence of

the African economy on Europeans. Present the results of your

debate to the class.

Activity 10

Discuss the consequences of colonial infrastructures. Thereafter,

present the results of your debate to the class.

Activity 11

Carry out research on the disruption of the traditional African

cultures and introduction of Christianity as a consequence of

colonial domination. Present the results of your debate to the class.

Activity 12

Debate on the creation of new political and administrative

entities. Present the results of your debate to the class.

Activity 13

Debate on the introduction of authoritarian rule. Present the

results of your debate to the class.

Consequences of colonial economy

Migration

The colonial powers used forced labour in the exploitation of Africa.

This economic policy was introduced in order to exploit Africa.

All adults were subjected to forced labour. Those who failed to

accomplish it were punished. Africans were also beaten or had

their properties confiscated. 

As result of this forced labour, some Africans resisted European

colonialists. Others preferred to migrate to the neighbouring

countries where the situation was quite different. E.g. Some

Rwandans migrated to Uganda which was under British control.

Others were forced to migrate to Democratic Republic of Congo as

workers in mines.

Resettlement of Africans

Another consequence of colonial economic policies was the

resettlement of Africans due to land alienation. They were displaced

from their fertile soils to provide space for colonial economic

projects such as infrastructure.

Exploitation of Africans

All colonial economic policies resulted in the exploitation of

Africans. Examples include taxation and labour policies.

Dependence of African economy on Europeans

The over dependence of the African economy was due to poor

colonial economic policy. This policy discouraged industralisation

and also destroyed local African industry. The African economy

was reduced to a market for European goods. The Europeans got

the raw materials at low prices while their manufactured goods

were sold at high prices in Africa.

Development of infrastructure

Europeans colonialists succeeded in the development of

communication lines. Railways were constructed in many parts of

Africa to connect the interior of Africa to the coast. The aim was to

facilitate the economic exploitation of Africa. Communication lines

only extended to areas rich in resources; for example, minerals.

Consequences of European domination in Africa

Disruption of traditional African cultures and introduction of Christianity

Colonialism affected African societies in various ways. It disrupted

the traditional tribal cultures and religions and introduced

Christianity and subjugated Africans to European rule.

The introduction of Christianity led to suppression of many ancient

practices, although some survived. Some had already been

introduced to the Caribbean islands by African slaves. Tribes often

competed for colonial industrial products. In some cases, tribes

still warred among each other as before colonialism. An aristocratic

class of European managers and directors sprang up to operate

the colonies. Like the American Indians, many African tribes lost

their lands, were mistreated, or became second-class citizens in a

segregated society.

Creation of new political and administrative entities

European colonisation of Africa led to the demise of old African

kingdoms and empires and the emergence of new political entities.

Some of the old societies were reconstructed and new African

societies were founded on different ideological and social premises.

Consequently, African societies were in a state of flux, and many

were organisationally weak and politically unstable. They were

therefore too weak to resist the European invaders.

As a result of poor technology, Africans were defeated by colonalists.

African forces in general fought with bows, arrows, spears, swords,

old rifles, and cavalries while the European forces, fought with

more deadly firearms, machines guns, new rifles, and artillery

guns. Thus in direct encounters European forces often won the day.

However Africans put up the best resistance with the resources

they had.

By 1900 most of Africa had been colonised by European powers.

After the conquest of African states, the European powers set about

establishing colonial state systems.

The introduction of authoritarian rule

The colonial state was established to facilitate effective control and

exploitation of the colonised societies. As a result of their origins

in military conquest and because of the racist ideology of the

colonialists, the colonial states were authoritarian. Because they

were imposed and maintained by force, without the consent of

the governed, the colonial states never had the effective legitimacy

of normal governments. Second, they were authoritarian because

they were administered by military officers and civil servants

appointed by the colonial power. While they were all authoritarian,

bureaucratic state systems, their forms of administration varied, 

partly due to the different national administrative traditions and

specific imperialist ideologies of the colonisers and partly because

of the political conditions in the various territories that they

conquered.

During the 19th century, some European countries were interested

in the colonisation of Africa. The main reason for their scramble for

African continent was the search for raw material and market for

their manufactured products. In order to exploit African countries,

Europeans used different methods including taxation, forced cash

crop growing, forced labour, land alienation, development of

legitimate trade, discouraging of industrialisation, development of

road and railway transport, and the education system.

The activities of Europeans in Africa had a great impact on African

societies. The dimensions of that impact are both socio-political

and economic. This includes migration of labour force, resettlement

of Africans, development of communication infrastructures, the

introduction of authoritarian rule, disruption of the traditional

African cultures and introduction of Christianity.

Glossary

Bangle: jewelry worn around the wrist for decoration

Disparity: inequality or difference in some respect

Frenzied: 1. affected with or marked by frenzy or mania

uncontrolled by reason.

2. excessively agitated; distraught with fear or

other violent emotion

Interplay: reciprocal action and reaction or interaction

Intrusion: 1. entry to another’s property without right or

permission

2. entrance by force or without permission or

welcome

Mutilation: an injury that causes disfigurement or that

deprives you of a limb or other important body

part

Rubber: an elastic material obtained from the latex sap

of trees (especially trees of the genera hevea

and ficus) that can be vulcanised and finished

into a variety of products

Scramble: to move hurriedly

Stake: put at risk or place a bet on

Revision questions

1. What are the main reasons for European colonisation of Africa?

2. Explain the term “scramble”.

3. Describe the features of the colonial economy.

4. The colonial African economy was said to be unfair. Explain

how true this assertion is.

5. The colonial activities in Africa were only profitable to Africans

to a small extent. Discuss.