History

Key unit competence

Examine the achievements and failures of the First and the Second

Republics in Rwanda

Introduction

This unit is about the history of Rwanda during the First and the

Second Republics. This period deals with the history of Rwanda

from 1962, the year during which the country of Rwanda regained

its independence up to 1990, the year that was marked by the

beginning of the Liberation War. This war opened a new era which

would be marked by many political and socio-economic changes

and would be won by the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF) in 1994

after stopping the genocide that was perpetrated against the Tutsi.

This victory contributed to the collapse of the Second Republic and

Rwanda opened a new page of its history with the coming of RPF

to power.

This unit will examine various achievements of the First and the

Second Republics in Rwanda in political and socio-economic areas.

At the same time, it will focus on the failures of the two regimes

and factors that led to their collapse.

Links to other subjects

This unit can be linked to other subjects like General Studies and

Communication Skills and Economics.

Main points to be covered in this unit

Achievements and failures of the First Republic, 1962–1973

࿤ Political evolution: The new institutions of the Republic of Rwanda

࿤ From multipartism to monopartism

࿤ Management of the problem of Inyenzi incursions: the beginning

of genocide against the Tutsi.

࿤ Economic evolution: Perpetuation of the colonial economic model

࿤ Development of economic infrastructure

࿤ Socio-cultural evolution: Education and health systems

࿤ Failures and reasons for the fall of the First Republic

Achievements and failures of the Second Republic 1973–1990

࿤ Political evolution: New political institutions

࿤ Economic evolution

࿤ Priority investment in infrastructure

࿤ Socio-cultural evolution: Health and education

࿤ Failures and reasons for the fall of the Second Republic 

Achievements of the First Republic 1962–1973

Activity 1

1. What kind of regime was adopted at the time of the

independence of Rwanda?

2. Describe the political institutions that were established on

the eve of the acquisition of independence of Rwanda.

3. Explain the different means that the Mouvement

Démocratique Républicain–PARMEHUTU (MDR–

PARMEHUTU) used to eliminate opposition political parties.

4. Why was the Mouvement Démocratique Républicain–

PARMEHUTU (MDR-PARMEHUTU)–the only political party

which presented candidates for presidential and legislative

elections in 1965?

Activity 2

1. Account for the reactions of the First Republic towards the

problem of Rwandan refugees.

2. How were the Tutsi who lived in Rwanda treated during the

attacks of Inyenzi.

3. What happened to the leaders of the Rassemblement

Démocratique Rwandaise–RADER–and the Union

Nationale Rwandaise–UNAR–after the attack of the

Inyenzi on December 24th, 1963 in Bugesera?

Activity 3

Carry out research on the economic evolution of Rwanda during

the First Republic based on the perpetuation of the colonial

economic model and find answers to the following questions.

Present the results of your findings to the class.

1. Explain the major economic issues that Rwanda faced after

the acquisition of its independence.

2. Identify and evaluate the strategies and measures that the

government of President Grégoire Kayibanda adopted to

address these problems.

Activity 4

Carry out research on the development of economic infrastructure

planned and/or implemented by the First Republic of Rwanda

and answer the following questions. Present the results of your

study to the class.

1. What are the main achievements of the First Republic of

Rwanda in the area of banking?

2. In the framework of the Five-Year Development Plan (1966–

1971) some projects which aimed to macadamise the road

axes linking the country of Rwanda to the outside world had

been conceived. Priority was given to which roads?

3. Which infrastructures did the First Republic of Rwanda set

up and also inaugurate?

4. What were the achievements of the First Republic of

Rwanda in rural development?

Activity 5

Conduct research on the socio-cultural evolution during the First

Republic of Rwanda and answer the following questions. Present

the results of your findings to the class.

1. Assess the achievements of the First Republic of Rwanda

in education.

2. Evaluate the achievements of the First Republic of Rwanda

in health.

Activity 6

Conduct research on the failures and reasons for the fall of the

First Republic and answer the following questions. Present the

results of your findings to the class.

1. What were the major failures of the First Republic of

Rwanda?

2. Identify the factors that contributed to the fall of the First

Republic of Rwanda.

Political evolution

Rwanda just after independence

At the time of recovering Rwanda’s independence, Grégoire

Kayibanda bullied his way into political prominence and was more

than willing to use ethnic terror and divisions to maintain his rule.

By independence day on July 1st, 1962, Rwanda had no constitution.

PARMEHUTU leaders had prepared a document to be used as a

constitution during the coup d’état of Gitarama. But this text was

not published in the official Gazette of Ruanda-Urundi. Moreover,

the colonial authority continued thereafter to dictate laws for the

new authorities. 

The parliament had the power to supervise the actions of the

president of the republic and his government (Article 73). Under

the First Republic, three legislatures were elected: in 1961, 1965

and 1969, until the dissolution of the parliament following the July

5th, 1973 coup d’état.

From Multipartism to Monopartism

The 1962 constitution devoted its article 10 to a multiparty system.

However, the ruling party, MDR PARMEHUTU, turned itself into

a ‘state party’, behaving just like a single party from 1963 after

eliminating and assimilating other political parties.

MDR PARMEHUTU fused with the state and the two institutions

became one and the same at all administration levels. It means that

the president of the republic was at the same time the president

of MDR PARMEHUTU party. At the level of prefectures, the préfets

were leaders of PARMEHUTU. The same applied in communes

and the lower administrative levels.

MDR PARMEHUTU used different mechanisms to monopolise

political power. The party utilised intimidation tactics, arbitrary

arrests and violence against opponents. At times although not

often, it also tried to negotiate. In fact in such circumstances that

APROSOMA disappeared in 1961, after the defection of its leaders

to MDR PARMEHUTU. These included Aloys Munyangaju and

Germain Gasingwa.

RADER and UNAR on the other disappeared

due to the killing of their leaders. These

included Prosper Bwanakweli, Ndazaro

Lazare and Karinda Callixte from RADER;

and Michel Rwagasana, Afrika, Burabyo,

Joseph Rutsindintwarane, Gisimba,

Mpirikanyi and Ndahiro Denis from UNAR

who were murdered in 1963. They were

executed in the prison of Ruhengeri when

Inyenzi had just launched major attacks

and had penetrated Bugesera up to

Kanzenze.

After recruiting some opposition leaders

in its ranks and killing others, MDR

PARMEHUTU transformed itself into a single party. In 1965, MDR

PARMEHUTU was the only party which presented candidates for

presidential and legislative elections.

The Inyenzi incursions

The first challenge faced by the First Republic was the problem

of refugees. The attitude of the government of the First Republic

varied with time.

At the beginning of the 1960s, the provisional government had

shown concern and established a state secretariat for refugees. But

after every Inyenzi attack, the Tutsi inside the country would be

killed. Survivors would seek asylum outside the country.

The major attacks of Inyenzi were the following:

࿤ The December 21st, 1961 attack from Uganda via Kinigi

targeting individuals in Ruhengeri, Kigali and Gitarama.

࿤ The April 1962, attack from Uganda targeting the eastern parts

of the country.

࿤ The July 3rd to 4th, 1962, attack from Goma by approximately

80 to 100 Inyenzi. Four of the captured Inyenzi, were executed

in Ruhengeri prison.

࿤ The December 24th, 1963 attack in Bugesera. Attackers came

from Burundi, via Kirundo and Nemba. After some successes,

the Inyenzi were stopped and defeated by the National Guard

commanded by two Belgian officers Dubois and Florquin. After

the Bugesera attacks (1963–1964), President Kayibanda  warned the Inyenzi that: “If they try to conquer Kigali by

fighting, it would be the total and quick end of the Tutsi”.

࿤ The last main Inyenzi attacks took place in Cyangugu and

Gikongoro prefectures (Bugarama in 1964, Nshili in 1966 and

Bweyeye in 1966) and in Kibungo prefecture (Butama in 1966).

After the Bugesera attack, many Tutsi were killed at Gikongoro

prefecture and the deaths were estimated between 8,000 and

10,000. In the same period, Kayibanda ordered the execution of

27 leaders of UNAR and RADER who had been imprisoned in

Ruhengeri prison without any form of legal procedure whatsoever.

The attack on Rwanda launched in Bugesera was under the

command of François Rukeba, one of the main UNAR activists.

This ill-prepared attack failed, and many Tutsi fell victim to the

massacres which were organised in retaliation. The word Inyenzi,

which literally translates to cockroach, was first used in the 60s. It

was initially used to designate UNAR movements as they organised

incursions into Rwanda. Its meaning later extended to the entire

Rwandan Tutsi population. Occasional incursions into Rwandan

territory continued to occur in Rwanda until 1967. Between 1959

and 1967, nearly 20,000 Tutsis were killed during the repression

against UNAR, and 200,000 others fled the country.

Economic evolution

Economic problems

At independence, many government offices were in Bujumbura

which had been the colonial capital of Ruanda-Urundi. Rwanda

was under-equipped. There were a few infrastructures. The country

did not have a radio, an airport, permanent roads, a telephone

system, hotels, a university or any other institution of higher

learning. Everything had to come through Bujumbura or through

Belgian Congo.

In addition, Rwanda lacked the financial means. It had only one

donor: Belgium. As a result Rwanda was dependent on foreign

donors for most of her needs.

Another economic problem faced by Rwanda was the poor

functioning of the monetary and customs union between Rwanda

and Burundi. Moreover, the two countries did not have very good

relations because they had two different political regimes: Rwanda

was a republic while Burundi was a constitutional monarchy.

The country was going through an extremely difficult crisis including

the deficits in the balance of payments because in 1962 prices

rose by 50 per cent and by 1964, prices had risen by 300 per

cent. The Rwandan currency depreciated while agricultural and

mineral production declined. This resulted in a big fall in exports

and a big gap in foreign exchange.

To address this situation, Rwanda asked for assistance from

western countries and from international organisations like the

International Monetary Fund (IMF). Rwanda’s western donors were

mainly Belgium and United States of America (USA). Belgium and

IMF had just granted Rwanda a little more in terms of loans while

the USA had donated food and some money to buy equipment.

Besides external assistance, the government of Rwanda took other

measures to get the country out of the economic crisis. It reduced

expenses of all ministries including funds allocated to education.

Another proposed solution was the First five year economic

development plan of 1966–1971. The plan was based on an

analysis of the economic and social conditions, and challeges that

Rwanda had to face in order to define its economic development.

Plans were made to construct tarmac roads linking the country to

all her neighbours in the frame-work of the five-year development

plan (1966-1971). The following roads were to be built:

࿤ Kigali–Gatuna

࿤ Kigali–Rusumo

࿤ Kigali–Butare

࿤ Ruhengeri–Cyanika

It is essential to note that before the coup d’état that brought the

First Republic in 1973 to an end, construction had only started

on the Kigali- Gatuna road in 1971. The construction of this road

was completed in 1977. In addition, the Rusumo bridge at the

Akagera River linking Rwanda and Tanzania and the bridge over

Nyabarongo River were constructed.

In rural development, the emphasis was placed on the reclamation

of marshlands in order to improve agricultural production and the

distribution of improved seeds and plants in some parts of the

country. New crops like rice were introduced. Some cattle dips

were put in place to fight ticks.

Socio-cultural evolution

Education system

The First Republic made very few achievements in education and

health. The First Republic tried to give free education and health

services.

At independence, Rwanda had a few secondary schools such as

Groupe Scolaire d’Astrida in Butare, Ecole Technique Officielle de

Kicukiro, College Sainte André in Kigali and College du Christ Roi

in Nyanza.

By 1962 there were 23 secondary schools and this number

increased to 63 schools in 1972. The number of pupils in primary

schools increased from 261,306 in 1962 to 425,000 pupils

in 1972 due to the double shift system. The budget allocated

to education also increased from 168,264,000 Frw in 1962 to

563,194,000 Frw in 1972.

The first national university was opened on November 3rd 1963

in Rwanda. It was started by a Canadian priest called Levesque

with 50 students distributed in three faculties: medicine, arts and

sciences. It was launched at Ruhande in Butare (Huye District

today) with the assistance of Switzerland and Canada. By 1971–

1972, the enrolment had reached 470. The Institut Pédagogique

National (IPN) was started in 1966. Despite these efforts in

education, no tangible fruits were evident as indicated by the small

numbers produced during this period.

Health

In the health sector, the First Republic also tried to make some efforts.

The focus was put on the construction of new dispensaries whose

number increased from 67 to 142 in 1972. Steps were also taken

to address malnutrition and poor conditions of hygiene. As a remedy,

some medical centres were constructed to provide health education

in order to sensitise people on how to prevent certain diseases.

Breastfeeding mothers were provided with child care skills. The

government also set up nutrition centres for malnourished children.

To take care of disabled children, a centre for physically handicapped

children was built at Gatagara. A psychiatry centre for the mentally

handicapped was built at Ndera. This centre known as Caraes

Ndera was run by the Brothers of Charity. In preventive medicine,

vaccination campaigns were initiated between 

                  1965 and 1970.

Reasons for the Fall of the First Republic

Institutionalisation of discrimination against Tutsi

From 1959 onwards, the Tutsi population was targeted, causing

hundreds of thousands of deaths. A population of almost two

million Rwandans were refugees for almost four decades. The First

Republic, under President Grégoire Kayibanda, institutionalised

discrimination against the Tutsi and periodically used massacres

against the Tutsi as a means of maintaining the status quo.

In 1965, Rwanda was declared a one-party state under MDR/

PARMEHUTU, which was the architect of the racist ideology. The

regime of Kayibanda did not manifest a good will to repatriate the

refugees. Instead, the state killed the Tutsi whenever the Inyenzi

attacked the country.

Transfer of ethnicism to regionalism

In 1965, PARMEHUTU won every seat in the National Assembly.

In spite of this achievement, this party experience had started

to internal tensions since 1963. These tensions fell into two

categories:

There were inter-personal rivalries and disagreements in the

distribution of jobs as the party organs and state structures came

closer and closer. There was increasing discontent among emerging

cadres, students and individuals with primary and secondary education. Very fierce local political competition was combined

with rivalries at national level. Bourgomasters and prefects

competed intensely. Whereas the former drew upon their clientele

networks and the legitimacy as elected officials, the latter used

state structures and party influence. Divisions emerged due to the

struggle for jobs. The state decided to expose ethnic divisions so as

to unify the regime.

The purges which began in February 26th 1973 were initially

provoked by students, but also encouraged and led by political

authorities. Along with PARMEHUTU, the authorities aimed at

uniting the regime by defining a common enemy. Northern soldiers

(particularly Lieutenant Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe, the Chief of

Police, who was from Ruhengeri) who, planned to cause a political

crisis, also targeted the Tutsi population (“Mututsi mvira aha”).

The purges, initially involved the posting of lists of Tutsi students

and staff, asking them to leave universities and companies. This

problem later run out of control.

Consequently, Grégoire Kayibanda punished several northern

dignitaries by dismissing them from jobs and removing them

from locations associated with power: Lieutenant Colonel Alexis

Kanyarengwe was appointed director of the Nyundo Seminary while

Major Nsekalije was assigned to a tea cooperative in Byumba. All

the general secretaries of the government ministries were replaced,

as well as nine of the ten prefects. The divide between the south

and the north was firmly established.

From February–March 1973, purges were organised in schools

and in public administration against the Tutsi population. Tutsi

students appeared on lists posted in all secondary schools and at

the university of Rwanda and signed ‘Mouvement des Étudiants’

(‘Students’ Movement’) or ‘Comité de Salut Public’ (‘Committee

of Public Safety’). They felt threatened and had to flee from these

institutions.

In mid-February, the movement reached the National University of

Rwanda in Butare and the secondary school of Kabgayi managed

by the Josephite brothers. This movement, which had started in

schools, spread to public administration and private companies.

In ministries, hospitals, banks and shops, the Committee of Public

Safety posted lists identifying the Tutsi. Private individuals were

requested to fire their Tutsi servants. From the towns, this spread

to the countryside. In the prefectures of Gitarama and Kibuye, the

houses of the Tutsi were burned down and they were told to leave.

Different explanations are given for the source of this turmoil.

Though orders were given through the administration, they may

have originated from people close to Grégoire Kayibanda. They

may also have come from Alexis Kanyarengwe, the Chief of Police,

who was from Ruhengeri.

Afterwards, the names of some ministers appeared on the lists

drawn up in Kigali. In Gitarama, several rich Hutu traders’ stores

were attacked and looted, as well as the residences of certain

politicians, including that of Rwasibo Jean Baptiste. On March 22,

Grégoire Kayibanda made a pacification speech and announced

the creation of a ministerial commission in charge of inspecting

schools.

Another cause of the rivalry between the north and the south was

that PARMEHUTU members of the south especially in Gitarama,

the home area of President Kayibanda tended to dominate

PARMEHUTU and government power at the expense of the northern

region. For example, in the last government formed by President

Grégoire Kayibanda in 1972, there were six ministers out of

eighteen. One third came from Gitarama, the region of Kayibanda.

Kayibanda was accused of behaving like a monarch who played

around, and causing misunderstanding in the government.

There was a failed coup attempt by Nyatanyi Pierre the chief of

cabinet under President Kayibanda and Muramutsa Joachim,

commandant of the Kanombe unit. Because these two officers were

from the north the coup was seen as a coup of the north against

the south. The two officers were imprisoned only to be pardoned

later by President Habyarimana when he took over power in the

coup d’état of 1973.

Towards the fall of the First Republic

The first signs of the decline of the First Republic appeared in October

1968, when a parliamentary commission of inquiry report on the

administration of the country was rejected by the majority of the

members of the parliament. This was because of interpersonal and

regional differences in the ranks of PARMEHUTU. The report had

serious accusations against President Kayibanda. The accusations

in the report included favouritism and nepotism, intimidation,

misuse of political power and impunity which characterised the

political and public life of the regime. 

As a result of this report, members of parliament were divided into

two camps. Some supported the report while others opposed it. The

supporters of the report were suspended from the decision making

organs of the party. They were also prevented from contesting the

legislative elections of 1969.

Another factor that contributed to the reinforcement of regional

divisions was the constitutional amendment of May 18th, 1973 by

the National Assembly. This amendment increased the duration of

presidential terms of office from five to seven years, and allowed

Grégoire Kayibanda to stand for a third term. Although, the

National Assembly supported the amendment of the constitution,

the country was already divided according to the two main regions:

north and south. The north wanted to take power while the south

wanted to keep it.

In order to solve the problem of discontent in political and military

ranks that was linked to regionalism, President Kayibanda resorted

to violence and ethnic cleansing of the Tutsi. Kayibanda wanted

to hide the regional divisions in the country by turning public and

international attention to what had been considered as a lesser evil

or no evil at all.

In carrying out this plan, Tutsi children were chased out of schools

and the few Tutsi in minor administrative positions were dismissed,

and others murdered. These crimes were planned and carried out

by top ranking officials in the government.

This impunity degenerated into regional confrontation. The Hutu

of the north started to resent and fight the Hutu of the central

part of the country favoured by President Kayibanda. It was under

these circumstances that Habyarimana Juvenal, the minister of

defence decided to intervene militarily. He overthrew Kayibanda in

the coup d’état of 5th July 1973. Kayibanda and many officials in

his regime were thrown into prison. They faced court martial. They

were sentenced to death or given long prison sentences.

Achievements of the Second Republic(1973–1990)

Activity 7

Research on the political evolution of Rwanda during the Second

Republic and find answers to the following questions. Present the

results of your findings to the class.

1. Identify and explain the political and institutional changes

made after the coup d’état of July 5th, 1973.

2. What were the new political institutions set up by the

Second Republic?

Activity 8

Research on the economic evolution of Rwanda during the Second

Republic and find answers to the following questions. Present the

results of your findings to the class.

1. Identify the benefits which Rwanda expected to gain from

regional integration during the Second Republic.

2. What were the causes of the economic crisis that hit

Rwanda from 1986?

3. What measures were adopted to address the above crisis?

4. Evaluate the achievements of the government of Rwanda in

economic infrastructure during the Second Republic.

Activity 9

Discuss the strategies adopted by the government of Rwanda

to reduce infant mortality, to promote and achieve curative care

and preventive education.

Activity 10

Conduct a study on the socio-cultural evolution of Rwanda

during the Second Republic and write an essay on one of the

following topics. Afterwards, read your essay to the class.

1. What were the reasons that led to the failure of the

1978/1979 education reform?

2. Comment on how the ethnic and regional balance was

applied by the Second Republic.

Activity 11

Write an essay on reasons for the fall of the Second Republic.

Political evolution

On July 5th, 1973, President Kayibanda was overthrown in a

coup d’état led by Major General Habyarimana Juvenal. The latter

was assisted by the following senior military officers: Lieutenant

Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe, Majors Aloys Nsekarije, Benda Sabin,

Ruhashya Epimaque, Gahimano Fabien, Jean Népomuscéne

Munyandekwe, Bonaventure Ntibitura, Serubuga Laurent, Buregeya

Bonaventure and Simba Aloys.

The coup leaders dissolved the National

Assembly, suspended the 1962 constitution and

banned all political activity. They at the same

time put in place what they called a National

Peace and Unity Committee composed of 11

senior officers to replace the ousted government.

Given the state of insecurity the country was

going through before the coup d’état of 5th July

1973, this committee was greeted with a lot

of hope, even among the Rwandan refugees.

In President Habyarimana’s declaration on July

5th, 1974, much was said about national peace

and unity. He castigated regionalism, public

immorality, and corruption.

On July 5th 1975, Major General Juvénal Habyarimana etablished

Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement

(MRND). The Party’s main objective was to unify, encourage and

intensify efforts of all Rwandans to enhance economic, social and

cultural development in an atmosphere of national peace and unity.

In 1977, the Commission for Administration and Institutional Affairs

of Mouvement Révolutionnaire National pour le Développement

(MRND) prepared a new constitution. In October 1978, the

constitution was adopted by government and the MRND Central

Committee.

On the December 20th 1978, the new constitution was adopted by

the population in a referendum with a reported 89 per cent of the

votes. At the same time Habyarimana was elected through universal

suffrage as president of Rwanda with a 99 per cent majority.

Article 7 of the constitution declared Rwanda a single party

state under the MRND where every citizen was a member right

from birth. In reality, this was the establishment of a one party

political system. The president of the MRND party had to be the

sole presidential candidate. The new constitution abolished the

National Assembly and replaced it with The National Development

Council (NDC). The first National Development Council or Conseil

National pour le Développement( CND) was elected in 1983.

At the diplomatic level, the Second Republic made international

openness and cooperation one of its main priorities. Rwanda

therefore increased the number of its diplomatic representatives

abroad.

On December 19th, 1983 Juvénal Habyarimana was re-elected

president of Rwanda with 99.98 per cent of the votes. After five

years, on December 19th, 1988 Juvénal Habyarimana was reelected again for five years winning 99.8 per cent of the votes.

In June 1990, French President François Mitterrand gave a speech

at La Baule in France in which he announced that French aid

would be conditional upon democratisation in Africa. Following

this speech, Rwanda experienced a slight opening up towards a

multi-party system.

Thus, on July 5, 1990, during his

traditional July 5 speech, the day of

the Second Republic’s 17th anniversary,

Juvénal Habyarimana was in position

to announce these political changes:

the separation of the party bodies

from state structures, and the possible

implementation of a multi-party system,

though he remained very vague about the

details of how this would be implemented.

On September 1st 1990, thirty-three

Rwandan intellectuals published a

manifesto ‘for a multi-party system and

democracy’.

On September 25th, 1990 Juvénal Habyarimana named the

Commission Nationale de Synthèse CNS or (National Synthesis

Committee), in charge of developing the first draft for a constitution

allowing many political parties.

Economic evolution

Under the Second Republic, the Second Five-year period of the

economic, social and cultural development plan which covered

the period from 1977 up to 1981 was implemented. This plan had

four missions:

࿤ Ensuring food security of the population and address the

population growth rate.

࿤ Promotion of human resource management.

࿤ Improvement of the social conditions of individuals and the

community.

et Artisanal Integré (CERAI). These professional schools admitted

students who had missed secondary school enrollment for 3 years.

In such schools, students could learn professional skills such as

woodwork, electricity, masonry and plumbing.

From 1982 to 1986, the Third Five-year period of the economic,

social and cultural development plan was also adopted with the

following aims:

࿤ To improve food security for the population in terms of both

quality and quantity.

࿤ To promote jobs at sustainable wage levels that cover the basic

needs while emphasising training programmes in order to

increase labour productivity.

࿤ To improve the population’s health conditions, promote access

to shelter and produce goods for mass consumption.

࿤ To develop external relations and encourage the fairness of

international trade conditions.

The Rwandan diplomatic representation in foreign countries

increased. In 1979, Rwanda had hosted the Sixth Franco – African

Conference. In 1976, Rwanda had just been a co-founder of the

Communauté Economique des Pays des Grand Lacs (CEPGL).

It was also host to the headquarters of the Kagera River Basin

Organisation (KBO).

The Second Republic made a great effort in agriculture. Cash crops

especially tea, coffee and pyrethrum were promoted by the increase

in acrage cultivated and the creation of factories. These include

the tea factories of Shagasha, Mata, Gisovu, and Nyabihu, and the

pyrethrum factory processing in Ruhengeri.

The government of the Second Republic focused a particular

attention on food crops like maize, rice, soya beans, sugarcane,

etc. Some factories were also set up to process these crops like the

Maïserie de Mukamira, Sucrerie de Kabuye, and others.

Emphasis was also put on the creation of agricultural projects.

In almost all former prefectures, there were such projects like

Développement Global de Butare (DGB), Projet Agricole de

Gitarama(PAG), Développement Rural de Byumba (DRB) and Crête

Congo Nil.

Regarding animal husbandry, the accent was placed on rearing one

cow in a cowshed and planting reeds and other kinds of grasses to

feed the cows. To improve the existing breeds of cows, strategies

such as the importation of bulls, artificial insemination, research,

fighting cattle diseases, etc were adopted.

Concerning infrastructural development, the following infrastructure

were put in place by the Second Republic:

࿤ Asphalting of the following routes:

Kigali–Gatuna

Kigali–Butare–Akanyaru

Kigali–Ruhengeri–Gisenyi

Kigali–Kibungo–Rusumo

Butare–Gikongoro–Cyangugu

࿤ Construction of several buildings to serve as offices, for different

ministries and hospitals; for example King Faisal Hospital,

࿤ Extension of electricity network

࿤ Construction of Kanombe Airport

࿤ Construction of Amahoro National Stadium

From 1980 to 1986, the country enjoyed economic growth due

to a combination of positive external and internal factors. This

included good climate high prices of coffee, tea and minerals, and

a considerable flow of external capital into the country.

However, from the end of 1986, the situation deteriorated and the

economy of Rwanda gradually declined. The causes of the economic

crisis in Rwanda during this period included the following:

࿤ The drastic fall of the world coffee and tin prices

࿤ The over devaluation of the Rwandan franc

࿤ The poor management of public funds

࿤ The demographic explosion prevailing in Rwanda since 1940,

hence the reduced yields from land.

To address this economic crisis, the government of Rwanda applied

the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) dictated by the Bretton

Woods Institutions (International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World

Bank) with a view to stabilising the economy and benefiting from

financial support of those institutions. 

Socio-cultural evolution

Health

Under the Second Republic, many attempts were made to expand

the health sector. The dispensaries were transformed into health

centres and more medical personnel were trained.

The government also put in place a policy which aimed at creating

nutrition centres in order to educate parents on nutrition and

hygiene.

Government improved hygiene conditions by putting emphasis on

the most vulnerable groups such as women and children. In order

to find a solution to hygiene related-problems, the government

established nutritional centres at health centres. Thus it achieved

curative care and preventive education, including vaccination,

nutrition, maternal and child protection.

In 1979 the government established the Broad-Based Vaccination

Programme (PEV/BVP) whose objective was to reduce infant

mortality through vaccination against certain targeted diseases

which included tuberculosis, whooping cough, tetanus, polio,

measles and diphtheria.

In 1987, the government established the Programme National de Lutte

contre le SIDA (PNLS) or National Programme for the Fight against

AIDS whose objective was to control, prevent, reduce and conduct

research on AIDS. In the same year, the government launched the

Programme National de Lutte contre le Paludisme (PNLP)or National

Programme for Fight against Malaria. In 1989 the Programme for

Acceleration of Primary Health Care (PASSP) was also put in place. 

This programme aimed at encouraging community participation in

self-reliance and management of health services at their health

centres.

Education

In this sector, the following were the achievements of the Second

Republic:

Many reforms were made at all levels of education in Rwanda.

Among these was the construction of new primary and secondary

schools.

During the school year of 1978–1979, primary education was

revised. The primary cycle changed from 6 years to 8 years. Training

in professional skills was introduced in Primary 7 and Primary 8,

and Kinyarwanda became a language of instruction from P 1 up

to P 8.

At the secondary education level, the Ordinary Level was reduced

and specialisations sections introduced in the second year of

secondary education. But this reform failed due to lack of:

࿤ teaching materials

࿤ qualified teachers in the newly introduced subjects

࿤ appropriate evaluation methods for the reform.

So, in 1991, these reforms were revised, the primary education

cycle was brought back to 6 years.

At university level, the Institut Pédagogique National (IPN) was

fused with some departments of the National University of Rwanda.

The new campus of Nyakinama was created in 1980–1981 as

the result of this fusion. Besides, the duration of studies in most

faculties was reduced from 5 to 4 years.

Reasons for the Fall of the Second Republic

The imprisonment and killing of the politicians of                                the First Republic

During the two years that followed the coup, the former ‘leaders’

of the First Republic were assassinated or imprisoned. From

1974 – 1977, 58 people — individuals who were either close to

Grégoire Kayibanda and public figures of the First Republic — were

assassinated upon orders from Théoneste Lizinde, chief of security

at the interior ministry. According to some sources, the repression

affected up to 700 people.

Lack of freedom of speech and press

The Second Republic was against multipartism. Whoever attempted

to criticise the regime was intimidated or imprisoned. For instance,

on September 18th, 1990 the trial of the priest André Sibomana,

who was the director of the bi-monthly publication Kinyamateka,

and three of his journalists opened in Kigali after the publication of

articles denouncing corruption in the government. On July 3th and

6th, 1990 the Cour de Sûreté de l’État (State Security Court) had

Vincent Rwabukwisi, the editor-in-chief of Kanguka arrested. He

was accused of having interviewed King Kigeri V Ndahindurwa in

exile in Nairobi and of plotting with refugees.

Beside these cases, other examples of violation of human rights are

the murder of the former chief editor of Kinyamateka newspaper,

Father Sylvio Sindambiwe and Nyiramutarambirwa Felicula, a

former member of parliament.

Economic crisis

By the end of the 1980s, the regime was becoming ineffective.

The falling price of coffee caused a severe crisis in the country and

fueled discontent.

From 1986, there was a fall in the prices of coffee and tin. Coffee

represented 75 per cent of the national economy.

In January 1988, one-sixth of the Rwandan population was

affected by a famine which killed 250 people.

In 1989, coffee prices decreased by 50 per cent. There was an

increase in credits from 189 million US dollars up to 941 million

and reduction of foreign currency reserves from 144 million US

dollars up to 30 million.

The Rwandan Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of 330 US dollars

fell to 200 US dollars in 1990. In 1989, the national social budget

was reduced to 40 per cent.

In 1991, Rwanda signed an agreement with the World Bank to

implement a Structural Adjustment Plan (SAP) which led to the

devaluation of the Rwandan franc on two occasions: its value fell

by 40 per cent in November 1990, then again by 15 per cent

in June 1992. Though the SAP was only partially implemented,

the main effect of the devaluation was inflation, which reached

19.2 per cent in 1991 and an increase in demand because of the

liberation war.

Institutionalisation of ethnic and regional balance or quota system

The regime of Habyrimana was not a model of democracy as its

leaders claimed. The regime forced people into a single party system

and partisan politics based on ethnic and regional segregation.

The regime led to growth of the Rukiga-Nduga conflict which was

characterised by the exclusion of Tutsi and Hutu of Nduga from

schools and key posts in national leadership positions like during

Kayibanda regime.

This discrimination which was institutionalised by the Second

Republic from 1981 was known as “ethnic and regional balance

or quota system”. The system saw Tutsi children excluded from

secondary and tertiary education. This policy also tended to

discriminate against the Hutu from all other parts of the country,

especially the south. These areas were allocated fewer places

in secondary schools and in university, in the national army,

administration and diplomatic service on the basis of ethnic and

regional belonging. The best and numerous positions in all fields

were reserved for the Hutu from the north.

This policy applied in all government institutions was a serious

violation of, especially, the right to education. This culminated into

the 1994 genocide against the Tutsi. The policy excluded bright

and gifted children just because they were Tutsi.

Enrollment in Public Secondary schools in September 1989 by
Prefecture

In the table above, only three prefectures had their places increased.

These were Gisenyi with + 396 places, Kigali with + 35 places

and Ruhengeri with + 10 places. Other prefectures lost their

available places like Butare which lost 140 places. That shows the

unfairness in the distribution of places in secondary schools and

university due to regionalism and ethnieism. The places reserved

for Tutsi were effectively reduced in each prefecture.

Centralisation of power in the hands of a small group of people
“Akazu”

Between 1985 and 1990 most of the leadership positions were

reserved for Hutus. Power was held by elites from the north-west

of the country, in contrast with the pro-southern orientation of the

First Republic. One-third of the 85 most important governmental

positions were given to persons born in the prefecture of Gisenyi.

After ten years of economic growth, the economic crisis and

regional favouritism destabilised the government. Rivalry for posts

increased, power struggles became more fierce, and mafia-type

behaviour and structures thrived. One of the main power centres

was known as the Akazu. It was organised around Agathe Kanziga

— Juvénal Habyarimana’s wife—and her brothers. In April 1988,

the assassination of Colonel Stanislas Mayuya, who was considered

the likely successor of the president, was carried out by this power

centre.

Division among Rwandans from the north-west began in the

1980s. It started when two highly regarded senior military officers,

Colonel Alexis Kanyarengwe and Major Théoneste Lizinde were

accused of plotting a coup d’état. Lizinde was accused of killing

some politicians who had served in the First Republic from the

south. This misunderstanding divided the politicians and people

from the north. As a result, political power was monopolised by a

small part of the north-west from Bushiru in the ex-commune of

Karago. Finally, power was concentrated in the hands of President

Habyarimana, his immediate family, and his in-laws. This was

termed Akazu meaning “from one single household”.

Glorification of Habyarimana and dictatorship

As years went by, President Habyarimana started developing a

personality cult. This was done through political mobilisation and

glorification of the President by his political party using animation 

and his portrait which appeared everywhere in public and private

surroundings.

In addition to this personality cult, President Habyarimana set up a

dictatorship. There was a single party, the Revolutionary National

Democratic Movement (MRND), and power was concentrated in

the hands of a small group of President Habyarimana’s family. No

single decision could be made whatsoever without the dictator’s

consent.

Opposing the return of refugees

In June–July 1986, the Central Committee of MRND, the highest

decision-making body in the Habyarimana regime, examined

the problem of Rwandan refugees scattered around the world,

especially in the neighbouring countries. As a solution, the Central

Committee resolved that the refugees were not to return into the

country. The Central Committee strongly advocated that refugees

should find a way of integrating into their countries of asylum.

According to the Central Committee, Rwanda was overpopulated

and incapable of receiving and accommodating her own people

back. Only those who had the capacity to cater for themselves, it

was decided, should apply individually for consideration to return

to Rwanda.

It was in that context that they declared that any refugee who

wished to return should show proof of his or her financial capacity

to support himself/herself once allowed to repatriate to Rwanda.

Habyarimana himself advocated that a child of a refugee should

not be called a refugee and so he started negotiations with Uganda

to reintegrate Rwandan refugees. In February 1989, President

Habyarimana established a special commission for refugees’

problems and met Uganda government officials.

This position of President Habyarimana and his government

prompted the refugees to call for an international conference in

Washington in August 1988 in which they rejected this position

and reaffirmed their inalienable right to return to their homeland.

This was one of the causes of the National Liberation War which

sarted on October 1st, 1990.

The year 1962 was marked by the recovery of Rwanda’s

independence. This was preceded by ethnic turmoil from 1959 that

led thousands of Rwandans to become refugees in neighbouring

countries. The First Republic that replaced Belgian colonial rule

failed to reunite Rwandans who had been divided by the colonisers.

Instead, the regimes of Kayibanda and Habyarimana perpetuated

the colonial policy which relied on divisionism.

After the establishment of the First Republic, Rwanda was faced

with many problems. The country was insecure due to the incursions

launched by Inyenzi from neighbouring countries. The response of

Rwandan leaders was the killing of thousands of Tutsi who had

remained in the country. Another major issue was the economic

crisis. At independence, Rwanda had no adequate resources to

insure its financial self-reliance.

Despite these financial limitations, some economic and social

infrastructures such as banks, roads, bridges, schools, and

hospitals were set up by the First Republic. However, due to a

number of factors including the divisions between the Rwandans

from the north and those from south, the domination of the

main administrative posts by the people from Gitarama in the

government of Kayibanda, and insecurity caused by the killing of

the Tutsi who had become the scapegoat in the rivalries between

the Bakiga and Banyenduga, the First Republic was deposed by

Juvénal Habyarimana who set up the Second Republic in 1973.

This regime was not different from that of Kayibanda in the approach

to social relations. Although, it supported unity of the Banyarwanda

in the beginning, later it introduced the policy of ethnic and regional

balance or quota system. This aimed at excluding Tutsi and Hutu

of Nduga from schools and main administrative posts.

The Second Republic registered some achievements. Infrastructure

like roads, football stadiums, bridges, administrative offices, and

Kanombe airport, were built and rehabilitated. Schools, health

centres, and hospitals were also built.

However, the Habyarimana regime was characterised by bad

governance. There was corruption, dictatorship, nepotism,

mismanagement and embezzlement of the public funds, violence

against the opposition and journalists, arbitrary imprisonments, and political assassinations. There was an economic crisis from

1987 onwards, and unwillingness to address the problem of

Rwandan refugees.

For all the above problems, the Habyarimana regime was fought

by Rwandan people from both outside and inside the country. The

Rwanda Patriotic Front launched the October 1990 Liberation War

which ended in the removal of the Habyarimana regime in July

1994.

Glossary

Diaspora: the dispersion or spreading of something

that was originally localised (as a people or

language or culture)

Embezzlement: the fraudulent appropriation of funds or

property entrusted to your care but actually

owned by someone else

Intrigues: a crafty and involved plot to achieve your

(usually sinister) ends

Manipulate: influence or control shrewdly or deviously

Nepotism: favouritism shown to relatives or close friends

by those in power (as by giving them jobs)

Quota: a proportional share assigned to each participant

Rift: a personal or social separation (as between

opposing factions, e.g. “they hoped to avoid a

rift in relations”

Scapegoat: someone who is punished for the errors of others

Scattered: occurring or distributed over widely spaced

and irregular intervals in time or space

Status quo: the existing state of affairs

Turmoil: disturbance usually in protest or violent

agitation

Revision questions

A. Multiple Choice Questions

1. Before her independence Rwanda was colonised by

a) France

b) Belgium

c) Germany and Belgium

d) None of these

2. Two senior officers planned a coup d’état against President

Kayibanda but it aborted

a) Biseruka and Kanyarengwe

b) Nsekarije and Simba

c) Nyatanyi and Muramutsa

d) None of these

3. The National University of Rwanda was established in

a) 1961

b) 1957

c) 1963

d) 1964

4. MRND was founded in

a) 1971

b) 1975

c) 1976

d) 1978

5. The quota system was introduced in Rwanda by

a) Lizinde Theoneste

b) President Habyarimana

c) President Kayibanda

d) None of these

B. Fill in the Blanks

1. The post of the president of republic of Rwanda was first given

to .....................................................................

2. On July 5th 1973, ......................... was overthrown from power in

a coup d’état led by Major General Habyarimana Juvenal.

3. In 1965, the PARMEHUTU won every seat in the National ....

...............................................................

4. Alexis Kanyarengwe was appointed director of the Nyundo .....

...............................................................................

5. In 1991, Rwanda signed an agreement with the World Bank to

implement a .................. which led to the devaluation of the

Rwandan franc.

C. Answer True or False

1. President Kayibanda was elected by the parliament for all the

mandates during which he ruled Rwanda.

2. Inyenzi was a name given to an army that attacked Buganda

from Rwanda in 1960s.

3. Rwanda recovered its independence on July 24th, 1961.

4. President Kayibanda was elected for the second mandate in

1966.

5. The following roads; Kigali-Gatuna, Kigali-Rusumo, KigaliButare, Ruhengeri-Cyanika were constructed by the First

Republic.

Revision questions

1. Describe the new political institutions put in place in Rwanda

on the eve of her independence.

2. Evaluate the socio-economic achievements of the First Republic.

3. Account for the methods used by Kayibanda to fight against the

Inyenzi rebels.

4. Explain why Grégoire Kayibanda failed to unify the Rwandan

citizens.

5. Assess the economic and social infrastructures built by the

Second Republic.

6. Identify the advantages that Rwanda expected from the regional

integration.

7. Identify and explain the causes of the economic crisis that hit

the Second Republic of Rwanda from 1987.

8. Explain reasons for the failure of the 1978/1979 education

reforms.

9. Outline the features of the ethnic and regional balance policy

during the Second Republic?

10.Evaluate the failures of the first and second republics.

11.Examine the factors that led to the downfall of the Kayibanda

and Habyarimana regimes.