History

Introduction

The end of the 19th century was characterized by a period of intense tensions

and these led to the outbreak of First and Second World Wars. The First World

War was caused by a banal incident at Sarajevo by the double murder of

Archduke Franz Ferdinand with his wife Sofia in 1914 while the Second World

War started in 1939 by the invasion of Poland by German Soldiers. The two World

Wars were centered in at the beginning; after a small period all the countries of

all continents were involved. It happened in the water, air and on the earth. The

First World War ended in 1918 while the Second World War ended in 1945

These World Wars led to heavy effects negative and positive ones such as

massive killing of Human life ,destruction of infrastructures roads , railways

,etc.), the great economic depression of 1929, the rise of dictators in Europe

and the creation of the League of Nations and UNO. Moreover, it led also to Cold

War, the ideological war which opposed the two super powers of that epoch:

USSR communist against USA capitalist.

Key unit competence

Examine the causes, course and the effects of the First and the Second World

Wars.

Learning objectives

At the end of this unit, I should be able to:

Examine the causes, course and the effects of the First and Second World

Wars.

Analyse the achievements and weaknesses of the League of Nations and those

of the United Nations Organisation.

Assess and analyse the main interwar period events (Economic depression of

1929-1933; totalitarian regimes).

Examine the causes, course and the effects of the Cold War

7.1 The First World War (1914 –1918)

Introductory activity

Do the following activities

Explain the following concepts: Conflict, war, world war.

Examine the causes of the First and Second World Wars.

Describe the course of the First World War and the Second World War.

What made the First World War much more deadly than previous wars?

Discuss the effects of the Second World War.

Write down your answers on one page and half.

7.1.1 The causes of the First World War

Activity 7.1.1

Explain why the Sarajevo incident cannot be considered as the real cause for

the outbreak of the First World War.

The First World War sometimes called the Great War was the first most explosive

and bloodiest war to be fought on the international scale. It started in 1914 and

ended in 1918. It was fought between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Romania,

Turkey, Bulgaria and their allies on one side against Britain, France, Russia, Japan,

Italy (May 1915) and the USA on the other.

The First World War, which broke out in Europe, took roots in 19th century. It has

long-term (distant), short-term and immediate cause, the Sarajevo incident of

June 28, 1914.

Long term causes

Among the long term causes of the First World War include the following:

Lack of international peace keeping body because the Congress System which

would have solved a local affair between Austria and Serbia had died in 1914. 

Lack of peaceful statesmen in the world like the German chancellor Otto von

Bismarck in Germany who had abandoned his militarism after the German

reunification. He was replaced by Kaiser William II who was an aggressive leader

of Germany. In his foreign policy, he tried to intervene in each and every activity

of the world politics to make Germany a big power. He declared; ‘’Nothing must

go on anywhere in the world in which Germany does not play apart”. He is

therefore blamed for starting arms race and militarism as well as signing a blank

cheque to Austria that increased Austria’s recklessness towards Serbia. He also

openly promised Austria that “(…) be rest assured that his majesty will faithfully

stand by Austria- Hungary as required by the obligations of his alliance and by

his ancient friendship”.

Aggressive nationalism also caused tensions. Nationalism was strong in both

Germany and France. Germans were proud of their new empire’s military

power and industrial leadership. The French were bitter about their 1871 defeat

in the Franco-Prussian War and yearned to recover the most lucrative border

provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In Eastern Europe, Russia sponsored a powerful

form of nationalism called Pan-Slavism. It emphasized that all Slavic peoples

shared a common lead which should defend all Slavs. By 1914, it stood ready

to support Serbia, a proud young nation that dreamed of creating South Slave

state. Germany supported a form of nationalism called Pan-Germanism. Two old

multinational empires particularly feared rising nationalism. Germany decided

to defend them.

Alliance System initiated by Bismarck such as Triple Alliance and Triple Entente

which were formed for defensive purposes but thereafter became hostile to

each other leading to the First World War.

Economic imperialism among European countries mostly between Germany,

France and Britain like the Moroccan Crises of 1906 and 1911 when Germany

lost Morocco to France. In 1912, naval competition between Germany and Great

Britain was very important. The British and the French saw Germany turn up as

colonial rivals in Africa, Middle East and Far East. In addition, Germany had an

ambitious project of constructing a railway joining the Berlin and Bagdad that

Great Britain could not support because it was a threat to its important colony,

India.

Arms race had been characterized by the growth of militarism between France

and Germany. The latter had elaborated military plans to avoid being encircled

during the War Schlieffen Plan aimed at defeating France first and thereafter

counter-attacks at the East. Von Moltke had envisaged fighting first at the

eastern front. In addition, manufacturing of the most dangerous weapons was

also in preparation for war. 

The European public opinion; after the arms race and the alliance system,

most of the Europeans wanted a war in order to know which camp had

manufactured strong arms. Even the European powers wanted a war in order to

test their newly manufactured weapons. Therefore, the European public opinion

caused World War I.

Immediate cause: The Sarajevo assassination (June 28, 1914) and the start

of the war

Figure 7:1: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_Ferdinand_of_Austria(Assassination illustrated in the Italian newspaper Domenica del Corriere, 12July 1914 by Achille Beltrame)

The First World War started after the Sarajevo double-murder of Austrian Arch

Duke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophie on June 28, 1914 by Principe Gabriel,

a Serbian student of the Black Hand Movement in Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia.

This incident was followed by an ultimatum document from Austria-Hungary

to Belgrade, Serbia. The response to the ultimatum was to be issued in a period

of 48 hours (July 23, 1934).The role of press/mass media cannot be underrated

as a cause of the 1914 - 1918 disastrous war. Radio presenters and journalists

because of the need to amass wealth over exaggerated the suspicion, fear and

international tension between the big powers. For instance, the London Times

poisoned the British public opinion against the Germans and radio presenters

caused more fear and panic after the Sarajevo double murder which created

public outcry for war.

This forced European powers to strengthen alliances and mobilize for war as

Russia did.The document had three harsh conditions that were supposed to be met or

satisfied by Serbia. Serbia was to destroy all anti Austrian activities and declare

that, she was ready to be a good neighbour; to dismiss all anti Austrian officials

from the Serbian administrative posts; and to allow the Austrians enter Serbia

to investigate the Serbian guilt in the double -murder at Sarajevo.

However, Serbia accepted the first two and referred the third condition to the

International Criminal Court at The Hague Tribunal. Austria was forced to declare

war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. This opened the gates for the outbreak of the

First World War.

Figure 1:2: The Balkans 1914

Source:

When Austrian-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, 1914 all world powers

rushed to support their respective allies. Russia ordered general mobilisation of

troops and declared war on Austrian on July 29, 1914; Germany declared war on Russia on August 1, 1914; France on August 3 and Belgium on August 4; Great

Britain entered the war on August 4, against Germany; Austria-Hungary declared

war on Russia on August 6, 1914; Japan entered the war on August 23, 1914, on

the side of the Triple Entente.

The Japan used the war as an opportunity to take control of the German

colonies in China. When the Japanese entered the war, they soon overran

the German concessions in China and the German islands in the Pacific; the

Marshall’s and Carolinas; in the Triple Entente while Bulgaria and Turkey sided

on Central powers. The USA entered the war against the Central Powers as later

detailed.

7.1.2 The course of the First World War

The First World War was characterised by two main fronts; namely the war in

western front (1914-1917) and the war on the eastern front.

War on Western front

Figure.7:3: Schlieffen Plan and troop movements

Source: Frank Robert, History the fronts of 1914 to 1917, 1982, pge 21.

By using Schlieffen plan, Germany planned to outflank the main French

defences by moving through Belgium and then through Northern France

to encircle France within six weeks. However, supply lines proved to be

inadequate, and communication between the two main armies was not better.

In addition, the plan ignored British intervention, relying on the likelihood of

French immobilization as the offensive progressed.

French success on the battle of Marne (September 5 to 12, 1914) ended

Germany’s hopes of a quick victory, and paved the way for the Trench Warfare 

that lasted until spring 1918.

War on Eastern front

There was far more movement on the Eastern front than in the West, partly

because of the much greater distances involved. The Russian army was

invariably defeated by the forces of Germany and by the end of 1915, Russian

had lost most of Poland, with more than two million soldiers out of the First

World War.

The Italian front

Italy entered the war in 1915 in an opportunistic manner engineered by its

leaders with the Allies to secure territory at the expense of Austria-Hungary

Front. Much of the fighting occurred in a series of battles close to the river. The

great battle of Caporetto in 1917 almost led to Italian defeat. Italy was more

successful in subsequent fighting but was disappointed by lack of territorial

gains she had expected.

War in the Balkans

Serbia survived three invasion attempts in 1914, but succumbed in 1915 to an

Austro-German offensive supported by Bulgaria, which checked an Anglo-French

force attempting to support the Serbian army from Salonica. In 1916, Bulgaria

having successfully contained Allied forces at Salonica, she invaded Romania;

Bulgarian armies were joined by Austro-German forces that captured Bucarest in

December 1916. The Bulgarians were now able to defeat several Allied offensives

in Front of Salonica until September 1918.

The withdrawal of Russia from the war (1917)

The first victim of the First World War was the Russian Empire. Indeed, continuous

defeat by the Germans, lack of arms and supplies, problems of transport and

communication, and utterly incompetent leadership, caused two revolutions, in

1917, and the Bolsheviks who took over power in November 1917 were willing

to make peace.

The Bolsheviks stood for peace with Germany, partly to win popular favour in

Russia and partly because they regarded the war as a struggle among capitalist,

imperialist powers which should be left to exhaust and destroy each other for

the benefit of socialism. They thus signed with Germany the Treaty of BrestLitovsk on March 1918.

By this Treaty the Bolsheviks gave to Germany Poland, the Ukraine, and the Baltic

Provinces (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania). As for the Germans, the Treaty of BrestLitovsk represented their maximum territorial expansion during the First World

War. Not only had they neutralized Russia, they also now dominated Eastern

Europe.

The entry in the war of the USA (April 1917) 

Figure 7:4: The Lusitania

Source: Ellis, EG. & Esler, A. (2008, p.830).

The USA entered the war on April 2, 1917 against the Central Powers. Germany

had waged submarine warfare against the United Kingdom due to her naval

blockade of Germany. As retaliation German submarines were sinking British

ships. In this perspective the Lusitania, a British ship was torpedoed by

Germans and 1,198 people including Americans died but 761 people survived.

International public opinion became hostile to Germany and this incident

pushed Americans to enter the war. In addition, the USA had discovered that

Germany was trying to persuade Mexico to declare war on the US, promising her

Texas, New Mexico and Arizona in return.

On April 2, 1917 American Congress declared war on Germany. Immediately the

American government set about mobilizing its military resources, its industry,

labour and agriculture. The USA thus made an important contribution to the

Allied victory, by supplying food, merchant ships, credit and military help, and

by mid-1918 over half a million American men were involved in the war.

7.1.3 The end of the First World War

This sequence of the First World War was characterised bythecollapse of the

Austro-Hungarian Empire and the defeat of Germany.

Regarding the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, in October 1918,

some people of different nationalities declared their independence from

Austro-Hungarian Empire. The last Habsburg Emperor, Charles I, abdicated

on November 12, 1918 and the next day Austria was proclaimed a Republic,

as was Hungary in the following week. Before any peace conference could

convene, the new states of Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, an enlarged Romania,

a Republican Hungary and a miniature Republican Austria were in existence in

their own action.

Concerning the defeat of Germany, when the Russia withdrew, Germany

needed to defeat Great Britain and France before US forces could be gathered in

sufficient strength on the Western front. In 1918 the German General Ludendorff

launched the spring offensive, throwing in the entire extra-troops released from

the East. The Germans broke through on the Somme (March), and by the end of

May were only on 64 kilometres from Paris; the Allied seemed to be falling apart.

However, the Allied Powers took advantage of their superiority in terms of

number of soldiers and resources to counter-attack successfully. With Germany’s

allies to seek the armistice on November 11, 1918, the First World War ended.

7.1.4 The role of women in the First World War

Women played a critical role in total war as millions of men left to fight:

• Women took over their jobs and kept national economies going.

• Many women worked in war industries manufacturing weapons and supplies.

• Other joined women’s branches of the armed forces.

• When food shortages threatened Britain volunteers in the women’s lands

army went to the fields to grow their nations’ foods.

• Nurses sympathised with men wounded on the battlefield.

• At the aid stations close to the front lines, nurses often worked around the

clock, especially after a big “push” brought a flood of casualties.

• War work gave women a new sense of pride and confidence. 

• Still they had challenged the ideas that women could not handle the

demanding and dangerous jobs.

7.1.5 The consequences of the First World War

The First World War provoked a range of consequences including:

The massive loss of lives: People who perished were estimated at about 13 million

on the front and about 10 were left disabled. It was outrageous, regrettable and

condemnable as far as human beings’ lives were concerned. The First World War

also had a lasting impact on the European population structure. Many men died

on war fronts which made women to become more than men in the population

pyramid. It led to the rise of new class of people in Europe, that is, the refugees

who ran away from their homes and became a problem to European countries.

Besides, destruction of property and infrastructure was experienced in Europe

as a result of World War I, of 1914-1918. These among others included hospitals,

shops, industries, roads, bridges, residential areas, hotels, administrative offices

and railways. World War I left the European economies in shambles. For instance,

during the war period, a lot of resources were channelled in war industries,

many important infrastructures were destroyed. This partly contributed to the

outbreak of the 1929-1935 World Economic Depression. In many countries,

including Britain, Germany and the USA women’s support for the war efforts

helped them finally win the rights to vote after decades of struggle.

There was improvement in education because it was realized that Europe

needed educated labour force for progress.In Britain, the 1918 education act

tried to provide a full and adequate education for the country’s children. Science

and technology were also improved. The War also led to women emancipation

first in Europe and finally worldwide. This was as a result of death of a big number

of men during the war period. Woman and children were allowed to work in the

factories, public offices, schools, shops and hospitals.

The First World War led to the rise of world dictators such as Benito Mussolini

in Italy and Adolf Hitler in Germany. This is because they used the negative

consequences of the war to the campaign against the governments of the time.

The War led to the rise of Japan and USA as world big powers. This is because

other states like Britain, Russia, France and Germany were affected by the war

which gave Japan and USA a chance to become Super powers since they were

not greatly affected by the war.

The First World War led to the formation of the League of Nations as an

international peace keeping body which would mediate different countries in

case of any conflict in trying to maintain World peace.

The First World War changed the political map of Europe. This is because after

the war, France regained her provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and Italy regained

Trieste and Trientino as well as giving independence to some states which were

under foreign rule. It led to the rise of new independent states in Europe for

example Poland, Romania, Czechoslovakia and others. This was because they

had realised that the spirit of nationalism contributed to incidents like Sarajevo

incident which had caused the First World War.

The War led to Russian revolution of 1917 where Tsar Nicholas I was opposed

by the Russians due to the negative consequences of the war. This resulted into

the rise of communism in Russia.

The war led to the signing of Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 which concluded

the First World War. The Triple Entente called the conference in which Germany

and her allies were forced to end the war by signing the treaty which created

peace in Europe.

7.1.6 The peace settlements after the First World War

The basic principles

The basic principles on which were based the peace settlements after the First

World War were Wilson’s 14 points. In his infamous speech of January 1, 1918,

President Woodrow Wilson had outlined the principles on which he thought

a peace with Germany should be made. The 14 points were the result of his

own analysis of the causes of international discontent and war, and he made

strenuous efforts to secure their acceptance by the peace conference.

Figure 7:5: Woodrow Wilson 28th President of the United States

Source:http://www.psdeluxe.com/articles/inspiration/us-presidents-portraits-from-painting-todigital-photo/

The Wilson’s 14 points included

• The use of diplomacy in the public view.

• Removal of economic barriers between states.

• All round reduction of armaments.

• Impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the populations concerned.

• Evacuation of Russian territory.

• Restoration of Belgium.

• Liberation of France and Montenegro to be evacuated and Serbia given access

to sea.

• Self-government for the non-Turkish peoples of the Turkish Empire and

permanent opening of the Dardanelles, an independent Poland with secure

access to the sea.

• A general association of nations to preserve peace.

It was the fourteenth point that resulted into the formation of the League of

Nations on January 10, 1920 with its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland.

The problems of making a peace settlement

There were different Allies’ views about how to treat defeated powers when

the peace conference met in January 1919. France wanted a harsh peace to ruin

Germany economically and militarily so that she could never again threaten

French frontiers; Great Britain was in favour of less severe settlement, enabling

Germany to recover quickly so that she could resume her role as a major

customer for British goods; and the USA wanted a fair peace treaty. Wilson was

in favour of self–determination: nations should be freed from foreign rule and

given democratic governments of their own choice.

Despite of divergent views, by June 1919 the conference had come up with

the Treaty of Versailles -the most important –followed by other allies’ treaties.

The Versailles Treaty (28th June 1919) with Germany

Figure 7:6: The 1919 Versailles Peace Treaty signing.

Source: Herbert Peacock, A history of modern Europe 1789-1981, Heinemann

Educational, Seventh Edition,1982, pge 295.

The following were the aims and objectives of the Versailles peace settlement of

1919:

1. To re-organize Europe for the purpose of maintaining world peace,

security and stability.

2. To redraw the map of Europe and restore balance of power. This was

because Germany aggression had destroyed the balance of power to

her advantage.

3. To map out strategies that would preserve the territorial integrity

and independence of countries in Europe. This was because violation

of territorial integrity and independence of states partly led to the

outbreak of the First World War.

4. To reconcile the warring powers of the world most especially Germany

although her aggression was checked for some time.

5. To free the different races dominated by the central powers (Germany

and her allies).

6. To disarm both victor and defeated powers since arms race had partly

caused the 1914 to 1918 disastrous war.

7. To recognize the principle of nationality and self-determination

by giving independence to the oppressed nations. This was partly

responsible for the outbreak of First World War.

8. Victorious powers especially France wanted to permanently weaken

Germany plus her allies in order to safeguard themselves from

Germany aggression that caused the Franco-Prussian war and the First

World War.

9. To establish a peace keeping body in Europe.

The final conditions were determined by the leaders of the “Big Three” nations:

British Prime Minister David Lloyd Georges, French Prime Minister Georges

Clemenceau, and American President Woodrow Wilson. Even with this smaller

group, it was difficult to decide on a common position because their aims

contradicted. The result has been called the “unhappy compromise”.

Figure 7.8: The Big Three

Source:http://history1900s.about.com/od/worldwari/p/Versailles-Treaty.htm

Achievements of the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919

The treaty concluded the First World War and created some peace in Europe. At

Versailles Germany and her allies were forced to denounce the war and accept

defeat. Collective decisions were made on international issues as opposed to the

pre-1914 idea of every nation for itself and God for us all.

The neutrality of important water bodies was granted. For instance Dardanelles

the mouth of the Baltic Sea which was the centre of economic conflicts was

open to all ships of all nations. The treaty restored balance of power that had

favoured Germany and Turkey before. The size of Germany and Turkey were

reduced by giving independence to some states that were under them. The

Versailles settlement made some territorial re-adjustment. France regained

Alsace and Lorraine that had been annexed by Germany. Independence was

given to some states that were mainly under the Turkish and Austrian empire.

These included Poland, Kuwait, Iraq, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia. The treaty

was fair to some land locked countries of Serbia and Poland. Serbia was given

free access to the sea which made her to profitably engage in trade. Poland was

also given the Polish Corridor through Germany to port Danzig.

The Versailles peace makers adopted Professor Wilson’s 14th point of establishing

an international body to maintain world peace. This gave rise to the League of

Nations in 1920.

The settlement made arrangements for exchange of prisoners of war and

resettlement of displaced persons. Consequently Germany released the allied

war prisoners and likewise the super powers.

The Versailles settlement came up with the disarmament policy which although

applied only to the defeated powers. This helped in maintain world peace.

The Versailles peace treaty that had started as realistic in trying to promote peace

in Europe ended up being unrealistic most especially on Germany and her allies.

In fact, the Versailles treaty was imposed on Germany and her allies since there

was no room for open and frank discussion. Germany was for instance weakened

militarily by the settlement. She was disarmed and allowed to maintain an army

of 100,000 soldiers just to maintain law and order. The treaty led to territorial

re-adjustment on the map of Germany since she was forced to give back Alsace

and Lorraine to France. This greatly affected Germany’s economic recovery since

these territories were the richest in minerals. The settlement scattered Germans

in the newly created states. For example 2.5 million Germans were given to

Poland, 3 million to Czechoslovakia and 2 million to Yugoslavia.

Apart from Germany, the Versailles treaty also left Italy and Japan dissatisfied.

Japan and Italy were poorly compensated for their role in the First World War

that’s why they joined Germany to form the Axis powers that led to the Second

World War.

Although the Versailles imposed a heavy war indemnity, it failed to ensure

its effective payments of the reparations. The settlement also neglected the

defeated and neutral powers. Russia was excluded simply because she had

adopted communism during the 1917 Russian revolution.

The timing of the treaty with Germany in 1919 coincided with the 5th

anniversary of the Sarajevo double murder. It was on June 28, 1919 exactly five

years from the murder of Prince Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophia. This made

Germany bitter because it gave impression that she was being held responsible

for the Sarajevo double assassination.

Although the Versailles gave rise to the League of Nations but nevertheless

gave a weak foundation for the League of Nations that’s why it collapsed for

example the League of Nations had no joint army.

The venue of the settlement meant that justice could not be extended to the

defeated states most especially Germany. She was forced to sign the treaty in the

hall of mirrors where the German empire was proclaimed in 1871.

By subjecting that the Germany colonies would be controlled by the victor

powers, the Versailles treaty was too severe and unrealistic. Germany lost Togo,

and Cameron to France, Rwanda and Burundi to Belgium and Namibia and

Tanganyika to Britain.

This created a spirit of revenge among the defeated powers in order to overturn

the unrealistic terms of the Versailles treaty hence causing the Second World

War.

Reasons why the Germans rejected the Versailles Treaty

The treaty was dictated on Germany and she was forced to sign. There was no

discussion which could have given the Germans a chance to air out their views.

Germany totally opposed the war guilty clause which put the whole blame of

the First World War on Germany (article 231). This was an injustice of the highest

order since most of the European powers participated in the war.

The reparation of 6.6 billion pounds was impossible for a single nation like

Germany to pay for the destruction caused by the First World War.

Disarmament was restricted to only Germany yet disarmament was to be general.

Worst of all other powers like Britain and France were busy arming themselves.

The loss of Alsace and Lorraine in Europe and also loss of African colonies like

Rwanda, Burundi and Tanganyika angered Germany yet they were given to her

enemies like France. Germany therefore lost market, sources of raw materials

and areas of investment.

The settlement scattered Germans in the newly created states. For example 2.5

million Germans were given to Poland, 3 million to Czechoslovakia and 2 million

to Yugoslavia.

The venue of the settlement meant that justice could not be extended to the

defeated states most especially Germany. She was forced to sign the treaty in the

hall of mirrors where the German empire was proclaimed in 1871. Therefore Germany

was humiliated. The treaty was monopolized by only three leading statesmen. That

is President Woodrow Wilson of USA, George Clemenceau of France and Lloyd

George of Britain.

It was chaired by Clemenceau who was totally biased and bitter enemy of Germany.

The Germans complained that they were tricked to surrender based on President

Wilson’s 14th points. They claimed that the 14thpoint was a swindle since many of its

terms were violated.

Application activity 7.1.2

1. What were the two blocs or alliances formed at the beginning of the

First World War?

2. Explain four main causes which triggered the First World War. Why do

you think they are more important to you?

3. Do you think that the First World War would not have happened

without the assassination of Prince Ferdinand and his wife? Explain

your answer.

4. Examine the socio-economic consequences of the First World War in

Europe.

5. Find out statistics related to the First World War (productions; fatalities)

and draw a related graph. Comment the graph.

6. Draw a cartoon representing living conditions or attitudes of the time

(soldiers, at home, etc). Use the internet or school library to understand

better those living conditions.

7.2 Inter-wars period

Activity 7.2

Use the school library and in not more than 20 lines write down what you know

about the inter-war period specifically about the League of Nations, the rise of

fascism and the 1929 Economic Depression.

7.2.1 The League of Nations

The League of Nations was an international peace keeping body formed after the

First World War. It formally came into existence on January 10, 1920. It began

with 42 member states but the number increased to 55 by 1926 when Germany

was admitted. Headquarters were located in Geneva, Switzerland a neutral State.

When the League of Nations was set up, point 14 of the Wilson statement was

carried out, and for the first time in human history an international organisation

was deliberately created to maintain peace and security in the world.

The origins of the League of Nations

The League of Nations was an integral part of the Treaty of Versailles. It is often

spoken of as being the brainchild of the US President W. Wilson. However,

although Wilson was certainly a great supporter of the idea of an international

organization for peace, the League was the result of a coming together of

similar suggestions made during the First World War by a number of world

statesmen.

Lord Robert Cecil of Britain, Jan Smuts of South Africa and Leon Bourgeois of

France put forward detailed schemes as to how such an organisation might be

set up. Wilson’s contribution was to insist that the League covenant (the list

of rules by which the League was to operate) should be included in each of

the separate peace treaties. This ensured that the League actually came into

existence instead of merely remaining a topic of discussion.

Aims of the League of Nations

• Maintain peace through collective security.

• Encourage international co-operation.

• Solve economic and social problems.

• Defend and promote territorial integrity and sovereignty of member nations

against aggression of any kind.

• Limit production of the disastrous military weapons.

• Implement the terms and conditions of the 1919 Versailles Peace settlement.

• Preserve its achievements.

• Promote diplomacy in settling disputes since the First World War was partly

caused by lack of international organization and collapse of international

diplomacy (the congress system).

• Suppress Sea pirates who were a threat to international trade on big waters

like the Mediterranean Sea, black sea and the Pacific Ocean.

• Control drug trafficking and consumption of dangerous drugs like marijuana,

cocaine and opium.

• Improve the conditions of workers and stop exploitation of workers by

employers.

• Work out a plan for repatriating and resettling refugees or people displaced

by the First World War.

The organisation of the League of Nations

The main organs of the League of Nations were the General Assembly; its main

function was to decide general policy; the Council, its main task was to deal with

specific political disputes as they arose; the Permanent Court of International

Justice’s main task was to deal with legal disputes between states; the

Secretariat, had to look after all the paperwork, preparing agendas, and writing

resolutions and reports related to the decisions of the League; Commissions

and Committees were in charge of dealing with specific problems. The main

commissions were those which handled the mandates, military affairs and

disarmament. 

Achievements of the League of Nations

After some initial troubles, the League of Nations seemed to be functioning

successfully during the 1920s. It solved a number of minor international disputes.

It managed to solve border conflicts between Greece and Bulgaria by demanding

that the Greeks withdraw and pay compensation. The League of Nations also

achieved valuable economic and social work. It set up a slavery commission

that declared slave trade and slavery illegal and anti-social internationally.

Moreover, the health organisation of the League of Nations organised medical

assistance and the distribution of vaccines to combat epidemics like syphilis,

cholera, dysentery and malaria which had swept Europe. In 1930 supporters

of the League felt optimistic about its future. However, during the 1930s, the

authority of the League was challenged several times, first by the Japanese

invasion of Manchuria (1931) and later by the Italian attack on Abyssinia (1935).

Both aggressors refused to withdraw, and then the League’s weaknesses

became more apparent. During German invasion of Poland which led to the

Second World War, the League was not even consulted, and it was unable to

exert the slightest influence to prevent the outbreak of the war. After December

1939, it did not meet again and it was dissolved in 1946.

Some countries such as Germany, Italy, Japan and Brazil left the League of

Nations. Moreover, although the American President Woodrow Wilson was the

principal initiator of the creation of t he League of Nations, his country was not

a member of the Organisation. He met an opposition on the Congress formed

its majority by Republicans while he was a democrat. This was a great loss for the

League of Nations and this situation weakened heavily the Organisation.

7.2.2 The World Economic Depression of 1929-1935

The World Economic Depression was an economic stagnation which was

experienced globally from 1929 to 1935. It was characterised by total

breakdown in the production process, unemployment, low incomes, and

general lack of effective demand, low prices, low investment and low economic

activities in general.

The Depression began from the Canadian agricultural sector but the most

disastrous one occurred in the USA after the Wall Street crush or stock market

crash, on Thursday 24, 1929 and spread to Europe and the whole world.

The causes of the Great World Economic Depression

• The Great World economic Depression had different causes developed here

below:Negative consequences of the First World War like destruction of

industries, communication lines, airports and cities and loss of lives. All these

consequences had a negative effect on production and the ability to purchase

goods, hence leading to the depression;

• Over production mainly in agricultural sector which was practiced by various

capitalists during the inter-war period like in North America, in Britain and in

Australia. However the international trade was paralyzed and this led to “no

buying and no selling” in economy leading to the economic depression;

• System of high taxation in order to escape from “after war situation” adopted

by many countries to recover their economy from after effects of the First

World War. However, these harsh taxation policies were too harsh and

distracted investment which also led to the increase of unemployment, low

circulation of money and inflation and then leading to economic depression;

• Poor trading policy adopted after the First World War where defeated

powers were not allowed to export to victorious powers and still the

victorious powers started selective trade as punishment to defeated the ones

that led to the economic depression;

• Unfair income distribution especially in the USA whereby between 1923 and

1926 big companies were owned by few capitalists and these companies

provided employment to few people who were also gaining low salary. This

unfair income distribution led to low purchasing ability and lack of effective

demand which contributed to the World Economic Depression;

• Crush of the World Stock Exchange in the Wall Street in Manhattan Island

in the USA on Thursday October 24, 1929 which led to the closure of 4 200

banks and people who had kept their money in these banks suffered from

great losses, the industries could no longer secure loans, yet their products

were not being brought and they also closed down. This led to the total

unemployment, surplus products, low purchasing power and consequently to

World economic depression from 1929 up to 1935.

• The reduction in efficiency of labour. After World War I, women and children

replaced men in industries which led to low production hence causing the

great depression. This is because men used to hard-work which had increased

production.

• The general decline in agricultural activities throughout the world. After

World War I, there was a great rural-urban migration especially in Britain and

USA. This resulted into decline in agriculture since it was left to be practiced by

old people which also caused the great depression.

• The gold standard system which was operating in world economies by 1929

also caused the depression. This is because each country was supposed to

have a total amount of money in circulation equivalent to total value of gold

in her reserves. This limited money supply for some countries which had

little gold which reduced demand leading to a depression.

• The weaknesses of the League of Nations also led to economic depression.

This is because the League failed to promote economic cooperation in

Europe where many countries used protectionism policy which discouraged

international trade. It also failed to set a clear policy of debt repayment and

that’s why USA debts were paid in form of gold.

Figure no 7:9: The beginning of the Great Depression. The stock market crash of 1929

Source: https:i.pinmg.com/563x/06/2f9ca21d063265aad81cd8do3.jpg.

Measures to overcome the World Economic Depression

The USA and other European countries set the following strategies to resolve the

crisis:

• Germany on her part attempted to solve the economic depression by violating the 1919 Versailles Peace treaty terms when she stopped paying the war

indemnity of around 6.6 billion of pounds and also started serious industrialization thus solving the economic depression in Germany

• The USA fought the economic depression by using the New DealProgram

introduced by the new US President Franklin Delano Roosevelt in 1932. By

this program, there were new laws regulating the stock market and protecting

bank depositors’ savings, jobs creation programmes for the unemployed like

Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), construction of schools, hospitals etc. The

USA also set up a social security system and depreciated the value of her

dollar so as to increase the purchasing power of the Americans. The New

Deal was largely inspired by some economists such as John Maynard Keynes

who introduced an economic theory popularly known as Keynesian theory of

unemployment after analysing the causes of the Economic depression.

• The gold standard system was stopped since played a role in the outbreak of

the World Economic Depression from 1929 up to 1935.

• A World Economic Conference was held at Geneva in 1933 in Switzerland and

was attended by 66 countries that worked out different solutions to end the

Economic Depression such as to remove obstacles to free trade and implement

a uniform tax on imports and exports.

• World powers attempted to solve the economic depression by using aggressive

policy where they invaded weak states so as to solve the problem of lack of

raw materials and markets for their goods. For instance, in 1935 Italy invaded

Ethiopia, in 1936 Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and in 1939 invaded

Poland.

• Unemployment relief schemes were adopted by various countries which

among others included United States of America, Britain and France to benefit

the unemployed citizens above 18 years.

European powers formed regional economic integration for example, the European

Economic Community (EEC) which promoted interstate trade in the region, hence

solving the depression.

Socio-economic reforms were also used to solve the depression. This was through

modernization of agriculture and industrialization and formation of trade unions

which fought for the rights of workers.

Effects of the World Economic Depression

The effects of the World Economic Depression are as follows:

The World Economic Depression led to human suffering due to unemployment and

low incomes which led to lack of basic facilities too.

The economic depression led to the rise of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler in

Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy and General Franco in Spain.

The Economic depression led to the international aggression from powerful

countries to the weak ones as a way to resolve their economic problems; e.g. Japan

on China, Italy on Ethiopia and Germany on Austria.

Figure no 7:10: Herbert Hoover

Source: https://www.u-s-history.com

The Economic depression led to the formation of regional economic integration as

a way of promoting trade among the different countries.

Figure no 7:11 :Breadline during the Great Depression

Source: https://i.pinimg.com/564x/aa/df/7e/aadf7ea4bae6646ed78890efc3e4e1d5.jpg

The Economic depression led the World War II because of the rise of dictators,

weaknesses of the League of Nations that made some countries aggressive.

It led to the decline of international trade as many countries started protectionism

policy in trying to promote their infant home industries.

It led to the breakdown of international relationship where European countries

hated USA because of the isolationist policy.

The gold standard system was abandoned up to the present. This is because this

system limited countries with little gold to have enough money in circulation which

had contributed to the economic depression.

It led to the collapse of financial institutions like banks. This is because by 1929, over

4200 banks had closed due to economic depression.

It led to change of leadership in some countries, for example in USA, the depression

led to the rise of Franklin Roosevelt who came to power in presidential elections of

1932.

7.2.3 The totalitarian regimes in Europe

Definition of totalitarianism

Most Western countries were governed by elected representatives. From the

1900s the people began to feel that a government made up of such a large body

of people spent too much time debating and wonder if it might not be better

to have one strong leader who could make decisions for them. A single leader

could act quickly to solve a country’s economic problems as World Economic

Depression. This regime become known as totalitarian regime and has been

developed in Italy under Benito Mussolini known as Fascism and in Germany

under Adolf Hitler known as Nazism.

Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a political system where the state recognizes

no limits to its authority and strives to regulate every aspect of public and private

life wherever feasible. Totalitarian regimes stay in political power through an allencompassing propaganda campaign, which is disseminated through the statecontrolled mass media, a single party that is often marked by political repression,

personality cultism, control over the economy, regulation and restriction of speech,

mass surveillance, and widespread use of terror.

The symbolism of the fasces suggested strength through unity: a single rod is easily

broken, while the bundle is difficult to break.

Benito Mussolini and Fascism in Italy

Figure no 7:12..._ Benito Mussolini.

Source: https://i.pinimg.com/564x/7f/4e/c8/7f4ec8b4349a70cf802e75dffc1a6995.jpg

Mussolini was born in Dovia di Predappio, a small town in the province of Forlì in

Emilia-Romagna on 29 July 1883. His father Alessandro Mussolini was a blacksmith

and a socialist, while his mother Rosa Mussolini, Maltoni, a devoutly Catholic school

teacher. Owing to his father’s political leanings, Mussolini was named Benito after

Mexican reformist President Benito Juárez, while his middle names Andrea and

Amilcare were from Italian socialists Andrea Costa and Amilcare Cipriani. Benito was

the eldest of his parents’ three children. His siblings Arnaldo and Edvige followed.

 At the age of 9, Mussolini began his education and graduated as a teacher with a

diploma in education in 1907. He later abandoned his education career and joined

journalism as a newspaper editor. Mussolini had fought for Italy in the First World War

and was wounded during the war, but by its end he formed a political movement

called the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian Combat Leagues or Squard), in

March 1919 at Milan City in Italy whose members came to be known as the Fascists.

It was composed of frustrated jobless youth, industrial capitalists and the middle

class.

In 1922, Italy witnessed a successful fascist revolution that led to the rise

of Mussolini, supported by the Black shirts, army and the guards. On October

28th, 1922 he organised a March to Rome and when King Victor Emmanuel II

was convinced by the Parliament to suppress the marchers, he refused and then,

the Cabinet under Prime Minister Luigi Facta resigned without firing a shot. The

King Victor then handed over power to Mussolini by inviting him to form a new

government on October 28, 1922 and the Fascist Party got power in Italy. Mussolini

was supported by the military, the business class, and the liberal right wing.

CHARACTERISTICS OF FASCISM IN ITALY

• It was a dictatorial system of government with no provision for democracy

on opposition.

• Economic self-efficiency. The government was to control all means of

production to benefit Italians.

• Single party government. No room for democracy. It was feared since it could

deny or limit chances of extreme nationalism.

• The government aimed at establishing an independent and self-sustaining

national economy.

• It emphasized violence and its military power. Its supporters believed in the

cult of violence and war as the highest court of appeal.

• Fascist supported an imperialist and aggressive foreign policy to increase the

influence and prestige of the state in the whole world.

• Fascism also emphasized that law and order should be maintained and people

to be allowed to own property.

• Believed in extreme nationalism. It was based on superiority complex that

one’s nation is superior to another.

Mussolini rose to power on 28th October 1922 after taking over Victor Emmanuel III

the legitimate king. He was favored by the following factors.

The impact of the First World War aided fascism and Benito Mussolini to power. The

war had negative consequences like loss of lives over 600,000 Italians both civilians

and soldiers. Mussolini associated the democratic government of Victor Emmanuel

III with such losses hence rising up.

Weakness of Victor Emmanuel III’s democratic government. He ignored violence in

Italy that gave Mussolini a chance to campaign against him.

The unfair Versailles treaty on Italy cultivated a favorable ground for the rise of

Mussolini to power. Italy was promised territorial rewards which were not fully

implemented and Italy was poorly compensated.

Role of the fascist terrorist squad. Mussolini used a group of hooligans to create

chaos in Italy so as to get a reason for blaming the government of Victor Emmanuel

III. He was therefore supported by most Italians.

His personal talent. Mussolini was a gifted speaker whose speeches weer enjoyed

by the Italians. During his public speeches, he spread the fascist manifesto to the

Italians convinced them to support him against the government of Victor Emmanuel

III.

Influence of press. Newspapers like Papolo d’Italia campaigned for Fascist and made

Mussolini popular for Italians. It was also used to spread the Fascist propaganda as

well as de-campaigning against the then government.

Political and democratic reforms in Italy. From 1900, Italy allowed different political

parties and people to participate in politics. This opened the gates for Mussolini and

Fascism to join political struggles.

The May 1921 parliamentary elections. In 1921 elections, the fascist members of

parliament increased from 2 to 35. It became possible for them to increase their

propaganda against the government of the time.

Disunity among political parties in Italy also provided opportunity for fascism to

rise to power with Benito Mussolini. Such political parties had different ideologies

that facilitated room for a united fascist party to become popular.

The July 31st 1922 strikes. The fascist were instrumental in suppressing the general

strikes organized by the socialists. This increased the popularity of the fascism hence

rising to power.

HOW DID MUSSOLINI CONSOLIDATE HIMSELF TO POWER

• He abolished other political parties and established a single party government

in Italy. This removed opposition parties from the parliament.

• He carried out public works. Roads, bridges and health centers were

established or innovated. Most Italians therefore supported his rule because

of the hardworking spirit.

• He made the Catholicism a state religion and declared Vatican an

independent state under the Pope. He was therefore supported by most

Catholics. Mussolini achieved this through the Lateran treaty which he signed

with Pope Pius XI in 1929.

• Strict censorship of press. His government monitored all newspapers before

their circulation and opposition journalists were usually forced into exile to

Lipari Island in the Mediterranean Sea.

• He strengthened dictatorship by removing constitutional check on his rule.

• He used the fascist propaganda of extreme nationalism to change people’s

minds and thinking or opinion against his rule.

• He used economic reforms such as industrialization, modernization of

agriculture, supply of hydro-electric power and modernization of towns to win

support of the majority Italians.

• He abolished democratic constitutional of Italy. He dismissed all officials who

had been elected democratically in Rome like mayors, town clerks and town

councils.

• He organized and strengthened the Italian army and police which ensured

peace and fought all those who opposed his rule.

• Mussolini used violence against internal opponents. For example Giocomo

Matteoti and Giovanni Amenobole who attacked the fascist government were

killed under the orders of Mussolini.

Different factors that led to Mussolini’s downfall:

• Mussolini established the Fascist state in Italy based on dictatorship and

leadership by decree. This inflicted a lot of suffering of the Italian masses. He

denied Italians their democratic rights. Leadership through elections came to

an end with his coming to power and referendum was introduced in policy

making and representative;

• He made Fascism the supreme and only political system i.e. political pluralism

was suffocated and in 1925, party system was abolished. This was brought

by repressive measures on communist supporters many of whom were

imprisoned.

• Mussolini denied the Italian people all sorts of freedom; these included, the

censorship of the press, no freedom of speech, association and worship

among others. Injustice was widespread and because of this the majority of

the Italians were living like prisoners in their country;

• Mussolini failed to control the malpractices within the government; there

was corruption and embezzlement of government funds. By 1930, the Italian

economy had deteriorated by all standards;

• During his period of administration, leadership discrimination was rampant

in all sectors of the society. Even the social services were not extended to the

poor Italians in the rural areas;

• He promoted the feeling of anti–Semitism i.e. the negative attitude, hatred

and segregation against the Jews. The union between Mussolini and Hitler

and their ideology were hated throughout Europe and this forced European

communities to unite and fight against them and eradicate their ideologies of

Nazism and Fascism;

• Mussolini followed aggressive policies when he involved Italians in hostilities

and military confrontation with other Europeans leading to the outbreak of

the Second World War. He was therefore responsible for the disastrous war

between 1939 and 1945.

Adolf Hitler and Nazism in Germany

Concerning his biography, Adolf Hitler (April 20, 1889-April 30, 1945) was an Austrian

born German politician and the leader of the National Socialist German Workers

Party (Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei – (NSDAP), commonly referred

to as the Nazi Party). He was the chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 and a

dictator of Nazi Germany (as Führer und Reichskanzler) from 1934 to 1945. Hitler

was at the centre of the founding of Nazism, the instigator of the Second World

War, and the Holocaust.

Adolf Hitler was born on April 20, 1889 at the Gasthof zum Pommer, an inn in

Ranshofen, a village annexed in 1938 to the municipality of Braunau am Inn, AustriaHungary. He was the fourth of six the children to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl (1860-

1907). Adolf’s older siblings-Gustav, Ida, and Otto- died in infancy. It is said that

Hitler should have been of Jewish ascendance because his grand-father, Leopold

Frankenberger was a Jew When Hitler was three, the family moved to Passau,

Germany.

After his father’s sudden death on 3 January 1903, Hitler’s performance at school

deteriorated. He was allowed by his mother to suspend his studies in autumn

1905. He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904; his behaviour

and performance showed some slight and gradual improvement. In the autumn

of 1905, after passing a repeat and the final exam, Hitler left the school without

showing any ambitions for further schooling or clear plans for a career.

From 1905, Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna, financed by orphan’s benefits and

support from his mother. He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter,

selling water colours. The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him twice, in 1907

and 1908, because of his “unfitness for painting”. The director recommended that

Hitler studies architecture, but he lacked the academic credentials.

On December 21, 1907, his mother died aged 47. After the Academy’s second rejection, Hitler ran out of money. In 1909 he lived in a homeless shelter, and by 1910, he

had settled into a house for poor working men on Meldemannstrase. At the time

Hitler lived there, Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and 19th century racism.

In May 1913, Hitler moved to Munich in Germany and at the outbreak of the First

World War , Hitler was a resident of Munich and volunteered to serve in the Bavarian

Army as an Austrian citizen. Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 (1st

Company of the List Regiment), he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front

in France and Belgium, spending nearly half his time well behind the front lines.

He was present at the First Battle of Ypres, the Battle of the Somme, the Battle of

Arras, and the Battle of Passchendaele, and was wounded at the Somme.

After the First World War Hitler returned to Munich. Having no formal education

and career plans or prospects, he tried to remain in the army for as long as

possible. In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann (Intelligence agent)

of an Aufklärungskommando (Reconnaissance commando) of the Reichswehr,

to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers’ Party Deutsche

Arbeiterpartei (DAP). While monitoring the activities of the DAP, Hitler became

attracted to the founder Anton Drexler’s anti-Semitic, nationalist, anti-capitalist,

and anti-Marxist ideas. Drexler favoured a strong active government, a “non-Jewish”

version of socialism, and solidarity among all members of society. Impressed

with Hitler’s oratory skills, Drexler invited him to join the DAP. Hitler accepted on

September 12, 1919, becoming the party’s 55th member.

At the DAP meeting, Hitler met Dietrich Eckart, one of its early founders and a

member of the occult Thule Society. Eckart became Hitler’s mentor, exchanging

ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of people in Munich society.

To increase its appeal, the DAP changed its name to the National Sozialistische

Deutsche Arbeiterpartei (National Socialist German Workers Party– NSDAP). Hitler

designed the party’s banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background.

Figure7.13: Adolf Hitler with a member of the Hitler Youth, Berlint

Source: https://i.pinimg.com/564x/cc/11/87/cc11879587905a2fdbbf597622b07932.jpg

Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl, and by some accounts contemplated

suicide. He was depressed but calm when arrested on November 11, 1923 for high

treason. His trial began in February 1924 before the special People’s Court in Munich,

and Alfred Rosenberg became a temporary leader of the NSDAP. On April 1, Hitler

was sentenced to five years’ imprisonment at Landsberg Prison.

While at Landsberg Prison, Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf,

My Struggle (originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies,

Stupidity, and Cowardice) to his deputy, Rudolf Hess. The book, dedicated to Thule 

Society member Dietrich Eckart, was an autobiography and an exposition of his

ideology. Mein Kampf was influenced by The Passing of the Great Race by Madison

Grant, which Hitler called “my Bible”. The book laid out Hitler’s plans for transforming

German society into one based, on race. 

Figure 7: 14 Most common cover of Mein Kampf.

Source: : Pommerolle F, & Ruhlman J, A history of modern Europe(seventh

edition,pge 324).

The Bavarian Supreme Court issued a pardon and he was released from jail on

December 20, 1924, against the state prosecutor’s objections. Including the time

on remand, Hitler had served just over one year in prison. Thereafter, he became

the Führerprinzip (Principle Leader) of the Nazi Party. By 1933, the strength and the

threat of Hitler’s Nazi party forced President Paul von Hindenburg to appoint him as

a Chancellor, which favoured him to rise to power when President Hindenburg died

on August 2, 1934.

Hitler became Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor) and Supreme

Commander of the armed forces.

The following were the factors for the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism to power

• The First World War led to the rise of Nazism. It left Germany in the state of economic decline and dictatorship was looked at as the only solution to Germany’s problems. Hence the rise of Hitler to power.

• Unpopularity of the Weimer republic of Von Paul Hindenburg. He accepted the

unrealistic Versailles settlement which was against the will of the Germans.

This made the people of Germany to admire a leader like Hitler who was courageous to strongly oppose the unfair terms of the Versailles treaty.

• His personal character and talent. He was a courageous and ambitious leader

and a above all an eloquent speaker. His speeches touched on the hearts of

the Germans who felt that Hitler was the answer to all their problems. This

made him to work for his rise to power.

• His publication. For example my struggle (1923-1924) while in prison. It

contained a 25 year program promising to improve the general conditions of

Germany masses.

• The death of Von Paul Hindenburg (the president of the Weimer republic) on 15th

august 1934 also created a power vacuum for Hitler to rise to power moreover

he was the chancellor from 1933.

• The great economic depression. It created a desperate situation of poverty,

unemployment and inflation and Hitler was looked at as the only liberator.

• Role of the Nazi storm troopers. These were gangs organized by Hitler’s great

follower captain Ernest Roehm. They caused terror and influenced people to

vote for Hitler.

• Role of the Nazi party. Most Germans believed that the Nazi party would solve

the problems of the middle class such as unemployment and poor working

conditions. They therefore supported the Nazi party and Hitler.

• The Germany traditional history of loving dictators. Germany was characterized

by dictatorial rule since her unification struggle such as Bismarck, Von Moltek,

Von Roon and Kaiser William influenced people to believe that dictators can

rule the state.

• The unrealistic Versailles treaty. Hitler condemned the Versailles as unpopular

and influenced the Germanys to stop paying the war penalty of 6.6 billion

pound. He was therefore judged as a true Germany nationalist.

Consolidation of Adolf Hitler on power in Germany from 1933 up to 1945

Adolf Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany on January 30, 1933 and assumed

full political powers after the death of Hindenburg on August 2, 1934. He committed

suicide on April 30, 1945 and ended his political career. To retain or consolidate his

position to power, he did the following:

He imposed strict ban on all other political parties like Socialist Democratic Party

dissolved on May 22, 1933, Communist Party on May 26 and June 1933, the

Catholic Democratic and Nationalist Party went. The last political party to go was

the People’s Party dissolved on July 4th, 1933. Hitler declared those political parties

unconstitutional and the only candidates to be voted for were those from the Nazi

Party;

On March 23, 1933, the Nazi Grand Council passed an “enabling Act” in the Germany

Parliament, Reichstag transferring law-making powers from the Reichstag to Hitler’s

cabinet and therefore suspending the Parliamentary government;

He centralized all powers and changed the administrative structures in Germany

and passed the special laws of April, June and July 1934, by which the Jews and

Socialists were removed from the civil services. New ministries for propaganda,

culture, agricultural front and labour front rewarded the Nazis and took over white

collar employment. The Trade Union Movement was dissolved by June 1933;

He used suppressive policies like Gestapo (Geheime StaatsPolizei = Secret State

Police) and special spies to eliminate his political enemies like during The Night

of the Long Knives (Nacht der langen Messer), he sometimes called Operation

Hummingbird or, in Germany, the Röhm-Putsch, by which his regime executed at

least 85 people for political reasons from June 30 to July 2, 1934;

He suppressed public press, broadcasting, literature, drama, music, painting, public

films and only publications reflecting Hitler’s tastes were allowed in Germany in

order to keep the masses ignorant about his failures. All books which had anti-Nazi

ideas were collected and burnt in huge fire in Berlin in 1935.

Hitler and Nazism fell down because of the following factors:

• Death of his best friend Benito Mussolini on April 28, 1945 and the downfall

of Fascist Party damaged Hitler’s morale and forced him to commit suicide on

April 30, 1945.

The great decline in the economy of Germany due to bombardment of her factories

and industries by allied forces of Britain, France and USA among others harmed

Hitler’s popularity.

Dictatorship which was coupled with excessive oppression like banning other

political parties, harassing and killing of his German opponents who among others

included Hans Ramshorn, member of the Reichstag, SA-general in Oberschlesien

and chief of police of Gleiwitz ,Ernst Röhm, SA-chief of staff Paul Röhrbein, SAcaptain, leader of the first SA of Berlin and Kurt von Schleicher, former Chancellor

of Germany.;

The size and heterogeneous nature of the German Empire by 1939, whereby it

included the Germans, the Austrians, the Poles, the Dutch and the Czechoslovakians

and by the time Adolf Hitler failed to manage to control this wide size; It was

necessary for Hitler to commit suicide before the various German senior officers

did since they attempted to do so several times.

Withdraw of Germany from the League of Nations which put Germany under

isolation from world affairs. This made Germany to be considered as an enemy of

other European countries which later formed an alliance against Germany.

Betray of strong supporters of Nazism. For example Hammira the commander of the

Schultz Staffel crossed and surrendered to the allies on 28th April 1945. This weakened

Hitler since all his war plans were exposed to the allies. Hence his downfall.

The formation of the allied powers of Britain, France and Russian against the Axis

powers of Rome Tokyo-Berlin Axis meant decline of t he Nazi party as it was the

case with World War I, the alliance system played a significant role in the defeat and

downfall of Adolf Hitler by 1945.

Application activity

1. Was the League of Nations successful or not? Substantiate your answer.

2. Explain why the United States of America was not a member of the

League of Nations.

3. Evaluate the New Deal policy initiated by President Franklin Roosevelt to

cope with effects of the Economic Depression.

4. Observe the following cartoon. How do you link it with this subsection

7.2.3?

Figure no.7:15 Second World War in Europe and North Africa

Source:http://mrshealy usii.wikispaces.com/file/view/Operation_Torch.PNG/336519806/

Operation_Torch.PNG

7.3. The Second World War (1939 –1945)

Activity: 7.3.1

Do research on internet about the causes and the consequences of the Second

World War, then examine if the unsolved problems led by the First World War are

The Second World War was the war fought between the axis powers, that is, Italy,

Germany and Japan (Rome-Berlin- Tokyo axis) against the allied powers, that is

Britain, France, Russia and USA. It was the most destructive war that mankind had

ever experienced and it started with Germany invasion of Poland on 1st.09.1939 and

ended with the surrender of Japan in August 1945.

7.3.1. The Causes of the Second World War (1939-1945)

The outbreak of the Second World War was due to a number of factors which were,

social and economic in nature:

The harsh terms of the 1919 Versailles Peace Settlement was one of the causes of

the war. The treaty was unfair to Germany which was solely held responsible for the

outbreak of the First World War and was bitterly punished. This contributed to the

rise of Adolf Hitler to power in 1933, who had strongly promised to revive German’s

greatness. Thus, in a bid to achieve this, he drifted the whole world into yet another

war in 1939.

The revival of the arms race and failure of the disarmament policy also contributed

the outbreak of the war. The victorious powers disarmed Germany almost to the

end and themselves never did at all. This forced Adolf Hitler to rearm Germany to

the teeth. As a result, arms race resumed among European states especially Britain,

Germany, France and Italy. This bred tension, mistrust, and fear which eventually

resulted into the outbreak of the Second World War.

The rise of different dictators in different countries; Benito Mussolini in Italy 1922,

General Franco in Spain, Tojo Hirohito in Japan and Adolf Hitler in Germany in

1933. These dictators resorted to the policy of aggression against the weaker

statesleading to the outbreak of World War II.

The inherent weakness of the League of Nations inspired major powers to invade

weaker states. For instance, Japan invaded Manchuria in 1931, Johel in 1933. Japan

even evacuated the League of Nations but no step was taken against her. Italy

under Benito Mussolini was also encouraged to invade Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935.

Germany under Adolf Hitler was inspired to attack Poland on September 1, 1939, all

this resulted into a world War between 1939 and 1945.

The negative effects of the World Economic Depression (1929 –1935) forced many

powers like USA, Britain and France to resort to the policy of protectionism in a bid to

protect their domestic markets. This increased suspicion, mistrust, fear and tension

between the world powers, some powers like Germany, Japan and Italy resorted to

the use of force against weaker

The presence of the ideological differences (Communist phobia). After the success

of the 1917 Bolshevik revolution under Lenin and Joseph Stalin. Russia spread

communism in Western Europe. This fear of communism contributed to the rise

of dictators like Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, who promised to eradicate

communism in their respective countries and were war mongers that eventually

made World War II inevitable.

The 1931–1939, Spanish Civil wars were also antecedents to the Second World

War. In 1939, with the support of Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini, General Franco

overthrew the republican regime which was supported by Britain, Russia and

France. General Franco decided to establish a fascist regime of Italian type. As a

result, Germany and Italy gained full confidence that winning any war was obvious

and no wonder they were instrumental in causing the Second World War

The formation of the Rome-Tokyo- Berlin Axis (Military alliance) by 1939: The

aggressive alliance started with Italy and Germany in 1938, inspired Japan under

Tojo Hirohito to join and the alliance became Rome - Tokyo - Berlin Axis. This

conditioned the formation of the counter alliances. These alliances made the weaker

states. For instance, Rome-Tokyo-Berlin axis inspired by Hitler to invade Poland on

September 1, 1939 sparking off the Second World War.

The Appeasement Policy initiated by the British prime minister, Neville Chamberlain.

From 1937 to1939, Chamberlain made a miscalculation by allowing Hitler to take

over some territories. He thought that this would serve as a reconciliatory approach

between Germany and the signatories of the Versailles Settlement. However, Hitler

considered it as an element of cowardice of the western democrats. In 1936 Hitler

invaded the region of the Rhine lands, Austria in 1938, Sudetenland which was put

under Czechoslovakia in 1919which eventually resulted into a World War in 1939.

Britain and France took no step against Germany. They instead signed the Munich

agreement with Germany in recognition of her occupation of the Sudetenland.

These inspired Hitler who decided to occupy the whole of Czechoslovakia. On

September 1, 1939 Germany decided to invade Poland culminating into war.

The anti-Semitism also caused the war. This was where the world powers wanted

to revenge on Hitler for having killed the Jews in Germany. The opportunity came

when he invaded Poland which caused the war.

The rise and growth of nationalism also caused the Second World War. Germany

wanted to regain her lost pride denied by the victor powers under the Versailles

treaty using unfair terms. This was done through arms race, foreign invasion and

alliance system. All these caused the war.

The role of the press also contributed to the outbreak of World War II. The press

exaggerated the military capacities of different powers especially Germany against

the allied powers. This created a war atmosphere leading to World War II.

Lastly,the Germany invasion of Poland on 1st.sept.1939 also caused the war. This

was the immediate cause of World War II where Hitler attacked Poland hoping

that France and Britain would not intervene because of their appeasement policy.

Unfortunately, Germany was given an ultimatum of 48 hours to withdraw its troops

from Poland an order which Hitler ignored, hence causing the Second World War.

7.3.2 The main phases of the Second World War (1939-1945)

The main phases of the Second World War were characterised by the years of Axis

triumph including for instance the fall of France, the conquest of Poland, the battle

of Britain, the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. On the other hand, the Axis

accumulated defeats in Africa, Pacific and Europe. 

The conquest of Poland ( September 1939)

Source:, in A history of modern Europe(1789-1981). pge 348

The Second World War opened with an assault on Poland. German forces totalling

over one million men rapidly overran Western Poland and subdued the ill –equipped

Polis armies. The outcome of the campaign was clear within the first few days,

organised resistance ended within a month. The Germans set about to integrate

their Polish conquest into the Reich.

Simultaneously, the Soviet Union, acting under the secret clauses of the NAZI

–Soviet Pact, moved into the Eastern half of Poland two weeks after the German

invasion. The Soviets proceeded also to establish the fortified bases in the Baltic

States (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania).

In November 1939, the Soviets attacked Finland and by March 1940 the fighting was

over. Finland had to yield some territory to USSR but retained its independence.

The fall of France (June 1940)

On April 9, 1940, the Germans suddenly attacked and overran Norway. Denmark,

too, was overrun, and an allied expeditionary force had to withdraw. Then on

May 10, Germans delivered their main blow, striking at the Netherlands, Belgium,

Luxemburg and France itself.

In June 1940, despite attempts of fragmented resistance by the French forces, Paris

itself was occupied on June 13, and Verdun was occupied two days later. By June

22, France sued for peace and an armistice was signed. Under the terms of the

Armistice, France itself was occupied in its northern two –thirds by the Germans. The

Third Republic had now its capital at Vichy.

The battle of Britain (1940 –1941)

After the fall of France the Germans stood poised for an invasion of Great Britain.

There was always the hope, in Hitler’s mind, that the German air attack on Britain

began that summer and reached its climax in the autumn 1940 until had any

bombing been so severe. But the Germans were unable to win control over the air

the battle of Britain, Gradually, the British Royal Air Force fought off the bombers

with more success; new radar devices helped detect the approach of the enemy

plans. In the winter of 1940 –1941 the Germans began to shift their weight to the

East.

The Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union (1941- 1942)

The Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939, was never a warm or harmonious understanding. Both

parts probably entered it mainly to gain time. After the defeat of the battle of Britain,

the German army threw three million men into Russia. By the autumn of 1941, the

Germans had overrun Bielorussia and most of the Ukraine, where the brutal military

occupation led immediately to Nazi mass murders of Jews, Bolshevik government

officials and other civilians. In the North, Leningrad was in a state of siege; toward

the centre of the vast front the Germans stood within 25 miles of Moscow.

However, the Germans failed to capture Leningrad and Moscow. They were severely

hampered by the heavy rains of October which turned the Russian roads into mud by

the severe frosts of November and December while in some places the temperature

fell to minus 38 degrees centigrade. Moreover, the Germans had inadequate winter

clothing because Hitler expected the campaigns to be over before winter.

The Japanese and the Pacific fronts

In 1941, the Japanese had conducted a war against China for ten years. With the war

raging in Europe, Japanese expansionists saw a propitious moment to assert them

throughout East Asia.

In 1940, they cemented their alliance with Germans and Italy in a new three power

pact. From the Vichy French Government the Japanese obtained a number of military

bases and other concessions in Indochina. On December 7, 1941, without warning,

the Japanese launched a heavy air on the American naval base at Pearl Harbour in

Hawaii and began to invade the Philippine Islands. Simultaneously, they launched

attacks on Guam, Midway, Hong Kong, and Malaya. The Americans were thus caught

off guard at Pearl Harbour.

Figure 7:16Attack on Pearl Harbour

Source: Pommerolle F, & Ruhlman J,History from 1914 to date (April 29th,1982),pge

125

In 1942, the Axis Powers had taken the control of Europe and Asia. However, their

success ended the same year. The USA and the Great Britain declared war on Japan

on December 8, 1941. Three days later Germans and Italy declared war on the USA,

as did the Axis puppet status, the war became now a global struggle.

The Soviet Union’s victory (1942-1945)

By January 1942, twenty–six nations, including the three Great Powers (USA, Great

Britain and USSR) were aligned against the Axis powers. Each pledged to use all its

resources to defeat the Axis powers and never to make a separate peace.

The turning of the tide (1942-1943): North Africa and Stalingrad

At the end of 1942, the tide of the Second World War had begun to turn. In November,

an Anglo- American force under the command of General Dwight Eisenhower gained

control of the French-held territories in Algeria and Morocco after an amphibious

operation of unprecedented proportions. At the same time, British forces under the

command of Montgomery pushed the Germans Westwards from Egypt until a large

German force was crushed between the two allied armies in Tunisia. Meanwhile

it became clear in the winter of 1942- 1943, that the Germans had suffered a

catastrophic reversal in the Soviet Union in the titanic battle of Stalingrad. The

Soviet Union followed up the victory with a new counter offensive.

The fall of Italy (April 1945)

The fall of Italy was the first stage in the Axis power’s collapse. The American and

British troops landed in Sicily from the Mediterranean Sea and air (July 10, 1943)

and quickly captured the whole island. This caused the downfall of Mussolini. Allied

troops crossed to Salerno, Reggio and Taranto on the mainland and captured Naples

(October 1943). Marshall Badoglio, Mussolini’s successor, signed to the Allied side an

armistice.

However, the Germans determined to hold on to Italy, rushed troops through the

Brenner, passed to occupy Rome and the North. The allies landed a force at Anzio but

bitter fighting followed before Mont Casino (May) and Rome (June) were captured.

Milan in the North was not taken until April 1945.

The elimination of Italy did contribute towards the final allied victory: Italy provided

for bombing the Germans in the central Europe and the Balkans, and German troops

were kept occupied when they were needed to resist the Russians.

The operation Overlord, June 6, 1944

Operation Overlord, the invasion of France (also known as Second Front) began on

June 6, 1944. It was felt that time was ripe now that Italy had been eliminated. The

landings took place from sea and air on a 60 mile (i.e. 96kms) stretch on Normandy

beaches between Cherbourg and Le Havre.

There was strong German resistance, but at the end of the first week 326,000men

with tanks and heavy lorries had landed safely. Within a few weeks most of the

Northern France was liberated; Paris was liberated on August 25. In Belgium,

Antwerp was liberated in September 1944.

The assault on Germany

The assault on Germany itself followed the liberation of France and Belgium, but the

end was delayed by desperate German resistance. However, early in 1945. Germany

was being invaded on both fronts, from East to West. In Berlin Hitler committed

suicide and Germany surrendered.

The defeat of Japan

On August 6, 1945, the Americans dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, killing

perhaps as many 84,000 people and leaving thousands more slowly dying of

radiation poisoning. Three days later they dropped another atomic bomb on

Nagasaki which killed perhaps 40,000; after this Japanese government surrendered.

Figure no 7:17 :Hiroshima August 6, 1945

Source:

7.4.3. Effects of the Second World War

Figure no 7:18 Big Three, F.D Roosevelt, Churchill and J. Stalin

Source:

The Second World War was a turning point in the history of Europe and the world

at large in social, economic and political spheres.

The Second World War led to enormous destruction:

Massive loss of lives and destruction of property, homes, industries and

communication lines in Europe and in Asia were out of function: Almost 4o millions

people were killed and another 21 million people were displaced from their homes

but the most notorious was the Holocaust, the deliberate murder in extermination

camps of over 5 million Jews and hundreds of thousands of non-Jews mainly in

Poland and Russia.

• Besides, the Second World War contributed to the rise of new superpowers

during the Second World War. Moscow (USSR) and Washington (USA) became

the centres of world politics.

• The Second World War contributed to the decolonisation of Asian and

African states. For instance, it weakened the colonial powers like Britain and

France. Their economic roles were shuttered and rushed to USA for economic

aid. However, USA gave them a condition to first grant independence to

their colonies in order to get aid for economic recovery. Important still, the

economic decline of Britain and France forced them to relax their policies in

their colonies.

• The Second World War contributed to rapid scientific innovations and

technological development. This resulted into production of sophisticated

weapons of mass destruction.

• The Second World War contributed to the outbreak of the Cold War between

the Western capitalist countries led by USA and Eastern Communist bloc led by

the Soviet Union. These new super powers at the end of the Second World War

started spreading their divergent ideologies of Capitalism and Communism.

• The United Nations Organisation (UNO) was formed to replace the defunct

League of Nations in 1945 at the end of the Second World War. The League of

Nations had become weak and failed to maintain world peace.

• The Second World War led to economic decline in Europe. This was due to

the destruction of infrastructures, trade, agriculture, communication and

industries. The British and French economies were shattered and left in

shambles. This compelled most of them to rush to USA for economic aid.

• The Second World War led to the defeat and eventual demise of great and

worst military dictators of Europe; Benito Mussolini of Italy and Adolf Hitler

of Germany who committed suicide on April 28 and 30, 1945 respectively.

General Franco in Spain and Tojo Hirohito of Japan were also overthrown.

The rise of Zionism (Jewish nationalism) was also influenced by the Second World

War. Millions of Jews got their own country (Israel) in 1948 with the division of

Palestine.

Application activity 7:3.2

1. Explain the causes of the Second World War (not more than one page).

2. Identify and explain four effects of the Second World War.

3. Describe the major phases of the Second World War.

4. Draw a cartoon representing the effects of the Second World War. Write

fifteen lines text to explain your depiction.

7.4 The United Nations Organisation

Figure 7:19Comparison of United Nations and the League of Nations

Source: Evening Standard

Activity 7.3.3

Use internet or your school library and answer the following questions:

1. Describe the cartoon in figure 7:19 above. Why is the person wearing

glasses running speedily? Identify him.

2. “The UN was presented as an improved League of Nations”.

a. What do you think about the above assertion? Support your argument.

b. Assess the major challenges that the UN faced in trying to achieve mission

perfectly its mission.

c. What do you think is the most serious of its failures?

4. Suggest ways to improve the activities of United Nations.

While the USA and the Soviet Union were engaged in the Cold War (1947-1991), the

UNO tried to settle peace all over the world.

7.4.1 The origins, aims and structure of the United Nations Organisation

During the later stages of the Second World War, various ideas were put forward for

an international organ sation to replace the discredited League of Nations. Churchill

proposed three groups which would be represented on a supreme world council

with the victorious great powers standing over all. However, there were objections

to such an idea. After a good deal of discussion, the general idea of the UN was

formulated at the Dumbarton Oaks conference in October 1944. The first draft of the

charter of the UN was signed by 51 nations on April 25, 1945, in San Francisco. The

UN officially came into existence in October 1945.

Figure no7:20: Representatives of 26 Allied nations fighting against the Axis Powers met in WashingtonD.C. to pledge their support for the Atlantic Charter by signing the ‘Declaration by itedNations’

Source:

The main aims of the UNO

• Preserving peace and eliminate war;

• Removing the cases of conflict by encouraging economic, social, educational,

scientific and cultural progress throughout the world, especially in

underdeveloped countries;

• Safeguarding the rights of all individual human beings, and nations.

• Stopping the aggression was an issue behind the formation of UNO. This was

because Kaiser William II and Hitler’s aggression were responsible for the

outbreak of the First and Second World War

• Bringing justice to those who committed crimes of war against humanity.For

example the Nazi and Fascists who conducted killing of the Jews.

• Enforcing disarmament and stop arms race that was responsible for the two

world wars.

• Promoting political, economic and social co-operation in the world.

• Facilitating decolonization and democratization of those nationalities who

were dominated and oppressed.

• Embark on/check on threats to environment which was potentially dangerous to mankind. Weapons of mass destruction like atomic bombs were used in

the Second World War which destroyed flora and fauna.

• Eliminating the problem of human and drug trafficking. By 1945 the

consumption of intoxicated drugs had damaged the youth.

• Rehabilitating and resettle prisoners of war and displaced persons who were

made homeless by the Second World War.

• Checking out the violation of children’s rights. There was gross abuse of

children’s rights like child labour, corporal punishments, child neglect and

defilement.

• Checking out the exploitation of workers by employers especially capitalists.

The capitalists were oppressing workers by poor payments, over working

under poor conditions.

• Improving on world health services and standards. World War II had destroyed

most health centers and made medical services inadequate during and after

the war.

The structure of the United Nations Organisations

There were six main organs of the UN

Figure 7:21 The United Nations Organs

Source:http://www.english-online.at/government/united-nations/united-nationsorgans.gif

The General Assembly

The General Assembly is composed of the representatives from all the member

nations; each member can send up to 5 representatives, though there is only one

vote per nation. The General Assembly meets once a year, starting in September

and remaining in session for about three months, but special sessions can be

called in times of crisis by the members themselves all by the Security Council. The

main functions of the General Assembly are to discuss and make decision about

international problems; to consider the UN budget and what amount each member

should pay; to elect Security Council members; and to supervise the work of the

main other UN bodies.

The Security Council

The primary responsibility of the Security Council is to preserve peace. This organ

is composed of 5 powers, who are to be permanent members, and 10 rotating

members chosen for 2-years term. The permanent seats are assigned to the USA,

Russia, Great Britain, France and China. Each permanent member has a veto power.

The Security Council sits in permanent session and its function is to deal with crises

as they arise, by whatever action seems appropriate, and if necessary, by calling on

members to take economic or military action against an aggressor.

The Secretariat

This is the Office-Staff of the UN. It is headed by the Secretary-General, who is

appointed for a 5- years term by the General Assembly on the recommendation of

the Security Council. The Secretary- General acts as the main spokesperson for the

UNO.

The International Court of Justice

This organ is at The Hague (Holland). It has 15 judges elected for 9- year term by the

Assembly and the Security Council Jointly.

The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

This has 27 members elected by the General Assembly. It organises projects

concerned with health, education and other social and economic matters. It also

co-ordinates the work of an astonishing array of other commissions and specialized

agencies such as Human Rights Commission, International Labour Organization

(ILO), World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO),

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO),United

Nation Financial and Economic Agencies, International Monetary Fund (IMF), World

Bank (WB) and General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade -GATT).

The Trusteeship Council

This Trusteeship Council replaced the LON Mandates Commission which had

originally come into existence in 1919, to keep an eye on the territories taken away

from Germany and Turkey at the end of the First World War. The Trusteeship Council

did its job well and by 1970, most of the mandates had gained their independence.

7.4.2 Achievements of the United Nations Organisation

It is probably fair to say that the UN has been more successful than the League of

Nations in its peacekeeping efforts, especially in crises which did not involve the

interests of the Great Powers. On the other hand, it has been just as the League

of Nations in situations where the interests of the Great Powers seemed to be

threatened and where the Great Powers decided to ignore or defy the UN.

The UN provides a world assembly where representatives of over 180 nations can

come together and talk to each other. Even the smallest nation has a chance to make

its voice heard in world forum.

 Although it has not prevented wars, it has been successful in bringing some wars to

an end more quickly. For example the war between Iran and Iraq (1980-1988), and

the Gulf War in 1991.

The UNO has done valuable work in investigating and publicizing human rights

violations under repressive regimes like military government in Chile. In this way, it

has slowly been able to influence governments by bringing international pressure

to bear on them.

In addition, UN stimulates international cooperation on economic, social, and

technical matters. The UN agencies continue to involve in current problems in

different countries.

Economically, the UN has promoted economic co-operation and development

especially in the less developing countries. Trade and industry were developed and

boosted through the UN programs like the I.M.F (International Monetary Fund) and

the World Bank by giving short loans.

Discrimination and abuse of women was also addressed by the UNO. The charter

of 1948, emphasized equality between women and men which provided a basis

for women emancipation.

Similarly children’s right and welfare were promoted and protected by the UNO. This

was through funding children’s education especially the girl-child education and

welfare in many countries of t he world.

The welfare and standards of living of workers was improved by the International

Labour Organization (I.L.O) through its headquarters at Geneva, Switzerland. This

protected workers from exploitation.

The UNO scored great success in settling social and economic problems of refugees

and victims of natural disasters. By 1945, disasters like earth quakes, famine and

floods had led to untold suffering and death of thousands of people around the

world.

Decolonization and democratization was achieved by the UNO through its

trusteeship council. This facilitated the independence of Libya, Somalia, Namibia,

Israel, Palestine, etc.

Disarmament was one of the remarkable achievement of UNO towards world

peace. In 1946, the Security Council set up the atomic energy commission to control

production of atomic energy.

The establishment of the Jewish State of Israel in 1948, was an achievement for the

UNO. The congress system had granted the Jews citizenship that had fled due to

persecution. But still the Jews were persecuted and massacred by the Nazi, Fascist

and Arabs.

Increased membership since its formation in 1945, is a clear testimony of its success.

It was formed in 1945, with 51 member states but by 1970 the number had increased

to 100

 WEAKNESSES AND FAILURES OF THE UNO

The loans granted by I.M.F(International Monetary Fund) and World Bank had some

negative consequences on the development of the third world countries. It had

strings attached that promoted political ideologies of Western capitalists powers.

Although drug trafficking was reduced but it was never eliminated completely. This

was because the UNO did not have an effective and competent force to control drug

trafficking.

The UNO failed to stop cold war politics and its associated tension in Europe. Cold

War was led by USA and USSR yet the countries were permanent members.

The UNO failed to wipe out culture intolerance and racism. Though the UNO

embarked on global sensitization campaign against racism and cultural intolerance

but it was not fully successful by 1970.

The UNO’s policies on disarmament, weapons of mass destruction and space

exploration were great failures. By 1945, it was only America with the atomic bomb

but nearly all nations by 1970, had such weapons.

It failed to unite the once united states for example after the cold war politics,

Germany was left divided between West and East German as well as North Korea

and South Korea.

In the field of politics, the UNO failed more than it succeeded. This was seen when

veto powers began fighting against the resolution of the UNO.

The universal declaration of Human rights (UDHR) of 1948, failed totally to achieve

its objectives by 1970. It was not fully accepted in many states especially Arab

states.

The rise of neo-colonialism and its associated evils in the third world countries

exposed the failures of the UNO. After decolonization, European powers resorted

to neo-colonialism as an indirect means to control, exploit and oppress the third

world.

The UNO failed to eradicate terrorism in the world. By 1970, the world experienced

rampart assassinations, hijack of planes, planting of time bomb and suicide

bombing especially in Asia and Middle East.

Application activity 7:3.4

1. Compare and contrast the United Nations and the League of Nations.

2. Examine any four achievements of the United Nations Organisation. 

7.5 The Cold War (1947-199

Activity: 7:5:1

Do the following activities:

1. Explain the term ColdWar. Read also the following texts. Describe the

atmosphere which prevailed during that period and explain if the

term Cold War is appropriate or not.

Source A:

“The question arose as to whether the United States would be willing to use

atomic weapons in the developing crisis, for there was still no clear policy within

the administration. Truman argued with his Pentagon chiefs that because they

were “so terribly destructive”, atomic weapons could not be treated as conventional

weaponry. He urged the leaders “to understand that this isn’t a military weapon. It

is used to wipe out women and children and unarmed people”. In September the

National Security Council produced a secret report designed as NSC-30: “United

States Policy on Atomic Warfare.”

This required the military to be “ready to utilize promptly and effectively all

appropriate means available, including atomic weapons...”. However, any decision

about the use of nuclear weapons would be made by the president...” In a briefing

with his [Truman] chief air force commanders, he “prayed he would never have to

make such a decision, but...if it became necessary, no one need have misgiving but

he would do so” (Isaacs & Downing (1998, p. 75).

Source B:

“In early 1971 a US Ping-Pong team had been in Japan for the world championships,

as was a Chinese team. One day an American player by miracle got on the Chinese

team bus. Since talking to a foreigner was a crime, most of the Chinese players

ignored the young American in their midst. However, the team captain, Zhuang

Zedong, felt that this was alien to the spirit of Chinese hospitality and offered the

American player a gift, which broke the ice...In 1971, the American table tennis

players attended the tournament and were among the first Westerners to visit China

in the wake of Cultural Revolution” (Isaacs & Downing (1998, p.275).

Name four conflicts in the World symbolising the Cold War

Shortly after the defeat of their common enemies-Germany and Japan- the two

super-powers went into economic, political and i deological ideal rivalries known as

the Cold War (1947-1991). It was so called because there has been no open (direct)

attack between the USA and the Soviet Union.

7.5.1 Causes of the Cold War

Differences of the principles

The basic cause of conflict lay in the differences of the principle between the

Communist states and the Capitalists or Liberal Democratic states. The USA was

capitalist while USSR was c ommunist.

The Communist system of organizing the state and the society was based on the

ideas of Karl Marx, who believed that the wealth of a country should be collectively

owned and shared by everybody. He believed that the wealth of a country should

be centrally planned and the interests and well-being of the working classes should

be safeguarded by social policies.

The driving forces behind capitalism are private enterprise in the pursuit of making

profits, and the preservation of the power of private wealth. In fact, ever since the

world’s first communist governments, most the capitalist states viewed it with

mistrust and were afraid of communism spreading to their countries. However, the

need for self-preservation against Germany and Japan caused the Soviet Union, the

USA and Great Britain to forget their differences and work together, but as soon as

their common enemies were defeated, the two comps were highly suspicious of

each other’s intentions.

Mutual mistrust between two camps

During the war American President Franklin Delano Roosevelt was inclined to trust

Stalin but his successor, Henry Truman, was more suspicious and toughened his

attitude towards the communists. On the other hand the Soviet Union suspected

that the USA and Great Britain were still keen to destroy communism. The Soviet

Union felt that the Allies’ delay in launching the invasion of France, for opening the

second front (Which did not take place until June 1944), was deliberately calculated

to keep most of the pressure on the Soviet Union and bring them to the point of

exhaustion. Above all, the USA had the atomic bomb and the USSR did not. Truman

did not inform Stalin about the exact nature of the atomic bomb.

At Yalta and Potsdam conferences, respectively took place on February and July

1945, agreements were achieved but on many points agreements were not reached.

For instance, at Yalta conference, Roosevelt and Churchill were not happy that

Stalin should be given all Germany territory east of the rivers Oder and Neisse. No

agreement was reached at his point. 

At Potsdam conference, no long term agreement was reached. The big question was

whether or when the four zones would be allowed to form again a united country.

Stalin’s foreign policies contributed to the tensions

Stalin had an aim of spreading communism to as many countries as possible. He thus

took advantage of the military situation to strengthen soviet influence in Europe.

As the Nazi armies collapsed, Stalin tried to occupy as much German territory as

he could and to acquire as much land as he could get away from countries such

as Finland, Poland and Romania. In the months following Potsdam conference,

the Soviet Union systematically interfered in the countries of Eastern Europe to

set up pro-communist governments. This extended influence happened in Poland,

Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania and Romania. In some cases their opponents were

imprisoned or murdered. By the end of 1947, every state in that area with the

exception of Czechoslovakia had a fully communist government.

The West was alarmed at what they took to be soviet aggression; they believed

that Stalin was committed to spreading communism ever as much of the globe as

possible. In March 1946, W. Churchill, in his own speech at Fulton, Missouri (USA),

said that the Soviet Union was pulling down an “Iron Curtain”. Churchill called for a

Western alliance which would stand firm against the communist threat. So the USA

decided to contain communism.

American containment policy

Containment was a cornerstone of Western policy against the spread of

communism. The USA and other western nations began to actively encourage

democratic governments in Latin America, West Europe, Africa and Asia.

The USA sent amount of food and military supplies to countries around the world

to stop the spread of communism. In March 1947, Truman announced that the USA

would support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or

by outside pressures. This was the Truman Doctrine. In June 1947, an economic

extension of the Truman Doctrine, the Marshall Plan was announced. As a result of

the Marshall Plan, by September 1947, 16 nations of Western Europe had drowned

up a joint for using American aid.

By 1951, therefore, American’s economic warfare policy was enshrined in various

pieces of legislation. The promise was that any assistance in building up the Soviet

economy by the sale of Western goods with direct or indirect military application

represented a danger to U.S. national security. 

The essence of U.S. policy was the desire to weaken the Soviet economy through

denial and to contain Soviet power by retarding the growth of the military industrial

infrastructure that would permit Soviet foreign expansion. Moreover, Washington

recognized that this policy would be ineffective if it did not secure allied cooperation.

The United States therefore used a mixture of positive (Marshall Plan aid) and

negative (Battle Act) incentives to achieve this cooperation.Deibel, T.L. & Gaddis, J.L.

(1987, p. 62).

In 1949, the USA joined the countries of Western Europe in a military Treaty and

formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The members promised to

help one another in case of an attack from the Soviet Union. They formed an armed

force made up of soldiers from each country. In 1952, Greece and Turkey joined

NATO and the Americans later established rocket base on the Turkish-Soviet border.

After the victory of communism in China (1949), with Australia, New Zealand, and

in 1954, these three states with Great Britain and France set up the South East Asian

Treaty Organization (SEATO). However, only three Asian states (Pakistan, Thailand

and the Philippines) joined SEATO.

The Soviet Union response to American containment policy

Stalin responded to American containment policy by tightening his grip on the

satellites. The Cominform was set up in September 1947. This was an organization

to draw together the various European communist parties. In 1949, the Molotov

Plan was introduced, offering soviet aid to the satellites. Another organization,

Council of Mutual Economic Assistance( COMECON) was set up to co –ordinate their

economic policies. In 1955, a similar group of NATO was set up in the communist

Camp, Warsaw Pact. This was made up of all the communist countries of Europe

except Albania and Yugoslavia.

7.5.2 The main phases of the Cold War

The Cold War was characterised by periods of hot crisis and those of détente.

The period of small hot crises (1947-1953)

There occurred mainly in Czechoslovakia (February 1948), in Germany (June 1948 -

May 1949) in China (1946-1949), in Korea (1950-1953), in Vietnam (1946-1954) and

in the Middle East (1948-1949). Although the antagonism and rivalry were intense,

there were no open or direct military hostilities between the two superpowers. In

some ways, East-West relations did begin to improve during 1953, but there were

still areas of disagreement.

The thaw after 1953

The death of Stalin (1953), was probably a starting of the thaw, because it brought

to the forefront new Soviet leaders namely Gueorgui Malenkov, Nikolaï Bulganin

and Nikita Khrushchev who wanted to improve relations with the USA. They

seemed more conciliatory and willing to acknowledge the need for arms control

and cooperation in the nuclear age. Indeed, by August 1953, the Soviet Union as

well as the USA had developed the hydrogen bomb. Thus, the two sides were

balanced that international tensions had to be relaxed if nuclear was to be avoided.

In this perspective, N. Khrushchev said that, “peaceful Coexistence with the West

was not only possible but essential”.

Anti Community feelings in the USA, which had been stirred up by Senator Joseph

McCarthy, began to moderate when this Senator was discredited in 1954. He had

gone too far, when he began to accuse leading generals of having community

sympathies. The Senate condemned McCarthy by a large majority and soon

afterward, the American President Eisenhower announced that the American

people wanted to be friendly with the Soviet people.

Among other signs of the thaw were the signing of the agreement at Panmunjom

ending the Korean war (July 1953); the Geneva Agreement (1954), ending the war

in Indo-China; the agreement, in 1955, on Treaty with Austria, ending the joint allied

occupation and leaving Austria independent and neutral; important concessions

made by the Soviet Union in 1955(Soviet military bases in Finland were given

up; Cominform was abandoned; the quarrel with Yugoslavia cooled down when

Khrushchev paid a visit to Josip Broz Tito.

However, the thaw was not a consistent development; on the one hand, under

criticism at home and from Mao in China for being too conciliatory toward the

West, Nikita Khrushchev was quick to respond to anything which seemed to be a

threat to the East. The Warsaw Pact (1955), was signed between USSR and satellite

states shortly after West Germany was admitted to NATO, in 1956. The Soviet Union

exerted pressure on Poland to curb its reform movement; then sent troops that year

to crush the Hungarian revolt. In August 1961, the Berlin Wall was erected blocking

the escape route of East Germans to West Berlin.

On the other hand, in the late 1950s, the Soviet Union rallied the Latin American

states by the international communist movement. Meanwhile, the race in nuclear

arms between two blocks continued in the late 1950s. However, the Cuban crisis

produced a marked relaxation of tensions between Superpowers, hence the détente

from 1970s up to 1990s. 

The Détente (1970s –1990s)

Reasons for the détente

The word détente is used to meaning a permanent relaxation of tensions betwee

n the East and the West blocs. As the nuclear arsenals were built up, both sides

became increasingly fearful of catastrophic nuclear war in which there could be no

real winner. Both sides were sickened by the horrors of Vietnam. In addition there

were conflicts within both blocs. In the 1960s, relations between China and USSR

became strained, and in the West De Gaulle declined to follow the American lead in

the Foreign policy in Europe, or elsewhere.

On the other hand, individual motives for the détente were significant. The USSR

was finding the expense of keeping up the American clipping. It was essential to

reduce defence expenditure so that they could devote more resources to raising

the standard of living up to Western levels. The USA began to realize that there

must be a better way to cope up with communists than the one which was having

so little success in Vietnam. Clearly there were limits to what their military power

could achieve. The Chinese were anxious about their isolation. As for the Nations of

Western Europe, they were worried because they would be in the front line if the

nuclear war broke out.

The signs of the détente

The main important signs of the détente were the improvement of relations between

USSR and USA, China, USSR and China.

Improvement of relations between China and USA

China and USA had been extremely hostile towards each other since the Korean

War seemed likely to remain. So while America backed Cgiang Kai - Shek and

the nationalists in Taiwan, with time relations improved. In 1971, the Chinese

unexpectedly invited an American table-tennis team to visit China. Following the

success of that visit, the USA responded by calling off their embargo of Chinese

entry into the UNO. Communist China was therefore allowed to become a member

of the UNO in October 1971.

President Nixon and Ford both paid successful visits to Pecking (1972 and 1975).

In 1979, Jimmy Carter gave feral recognition of the People exchanged. In 1985, an

agreement was signed on nuclear co-operation. It will be recalled that, however,

there is still the problem of Taiwan to sour the relations between China and the USA.

Improvement of relations between China and USSR

In the 1950s, China co-operation with USSR was good but in the 1960s, relations

between the two countries became strained. They hurled polemics at each other

in their rivalry for ideological leadership and for control of the lands of inner Asia

into which Russia had expanded in the age the Tsar. Mao accused Khrushchev

of pusillanimous behaviour in the Cuban missile crisis in 1962. In 1972, the two

countries clashed over border territory that divided Manchuria and Russia’s Maritime

Provinces; they continued other areas.

Not until the 1980s, was there a reconciliation between the two countries.

Progresses were made under M. Gorbachev who was determined to begin a new

era in Sino –Soviet relations. In July 1985, five –year agreements on the trade and

economic co-operation were signed and regular contacts took place between the

two governments.

Improvement of relations between USSR and USA

The two countries had already made progress with the hot –line telephone link

and the agreement to carry out only underground 9 nuclear tests both in 1963. An

agreement signed in 1967 banned the use of nuclear weapons in outer space and

in the two superpowers signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT I); which

decided how many ABMs, ICBMs and SALBM each side could have. The agreement

did not reduce the amount of armaments but it did not slow the arms race down.

In July 1975, the Helsinki Agreement was signed and by this agreement, the USA,

Canada, the USSR and most European states accepted the European frontiers

which had been drawn up after the Second World War. The Communists countries

promised to allow their peoples human rights including freedom of speech and

freedom to leave the country.

However, the détente did not precede some setbacks such as the war in Vietnam

(1961-1975), the six –Day War (1967) fought Israel and neighboring states

(Egypt,Jordan,Syria), the Yom Kippur war (1979). NATO became nervous at the

deployment of 150 new soviet SS-20 missiles. It decided to deploy over 500 perishing

and cruise missiles in Europe by 1983, as deterrent to a possible attack on Western

Europe. When the Soviet invaded Afghanistan (December 25, 1979) and replaced

the President with the one; more favourable to them; all the old Western suspicion

of Soviet motives revived. Both sides spent the first of the 1980s building up their

nuclear arsenals. It will be recalled that the détente between two superpowers

gathered momentum again thanks to the determination of the new Soviet leader,

M... Gorbachev (1985-1991). He had summit meetings with E. Reagan and proposed

a 15 –year time table for a step proces s for ridding t he earth of nuclear weapons.

On May 1, 1988, M. Gorbachev agreed that USSR would begin withdrawing her

troops from Afghanistan, provided the U.S.A stopped s ending military aid to the Afghanistan resistance movement. In 1990, Gorbachev George Bush, and

Ronald Reagan’ jointly agreed to end the cold war, confirmed by the collapse of

communism in Eastern. In 1991, the leaders of both superpowers signed a tragic

Arms Treaty pledging each nation to scale down by about a third of its arsenal of

long –range nuclear missiles.

The collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe and USSR (1989 –1991): the end

of the cold war

Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms, Eastern remarkable Europein the period of events

August 1988 to December 1991. Communism was swept away by a rising tide

popular opposition and mass demonstrations, far more quickly than could ever

imagine.

Figure 7:22 Mikhail Gorbachev

The process began in Poland in August 1988, when the Solidarity trade union

organized a huge anti–government strikes. These eventually forced the government

to allow free elections, in which the communists were heavily defeated (June 1989).

Evolutionally protects rapidly spread to all other soviet satellites states. Hungary was

the next to allow free elections in which communists again suffered defeat. In the

Eastern Germany, by the end of 1990, the Communist government had resigned.

Soon the Berlin War was breached and, in the summer of 1990, Germany was

reunited. Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Romania had thrown out their communist

governments by the end of 1989, and multi–party elections were held in the former

Yugoslavia in 1990, and Albania in the spring of 1991.

By the end of December1991, the USSR itself had split up into separate Republics

and Gorbachev resigned. The Cold War came to an end and the USA became the

sole superpower in the world affairs even if Russia remained a large persistent

power.

7.5.3 The major crisis of the Cold War

The cold war started with soviet expansionism which in turn led to the American

Containment Policy (1947). It spread in different parts of the world.

The communist takeover in CCzechoslovakia (February 1948)

In Czechoslovakia, democratic President Coalition had been viewed by Edward

Benes as a possible bridge between the East and the West. Fearing a possible

defeat in a forthcoming elections, the Czechoslovakia communist party seized

power in February 1948. This came as a great blow to the Western bloc because

Czechoslovakia was the only remaining democratic state in Eastern Europe. The

communist takeover of Czechoslovakia was complete.

The Berlin blockade and airlift (June 1948-1949)

This crisis arose out of disagreement over the treatment of Germany: Germany and

Berlin were each divided into four zones. While the Western powers did their best to

organize the economic and political recovery of their zones, Stalin treated his zones

as satellite, draining its resources away to the Soviet Union.

In June 1948, the West introduced a new currency and ended price controls in their

zone and in Western Berlin, the Soviet Union closed all roads, railways and canal

links between West Berlin and West Germany. Their aim was to force the West to

withdraw from West Berlin by reducing it to starvation point. The Western powers

decided to fly supplies in rightly judging that the Soviet Union would not risk

shooting down the transport planes. In May 1949, the Russians admitted failure by

lifting the blockade.

As results of this crisis, NATO was formed to co-ordinate Western defences and

Germany was divided into two parts; the German Federal Republic or West Germany

(August 1949) and the German Democratic Republic, East Germany (NovemberDecember 1989).

The war in Korea (1950-1953)

The war broke out when North Korean troops invaded South Korea in June 1950. The

USA and other 14 capitalist supported South Korea while North Korea was supported

by the Soviet Union and China. Eventually, peace talks opened in Panmunjom and

lasted for two years, ending in July 1953 with an agreement that the frontier should

be roughly along the 38th parallel. Till now North Korea and South Korea are still

divided. 

Angola

Angola was engulfed by civil war immediately after gaining independence from

Portugal in 1975. Part of the problem was that there were three different liberation

movements namely the People’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA),

the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) and the National

Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA),which started to fight each other almost as soon

as independence was declared.

MPLA, a Marxist lean party, had strong Marxist connections and received economic

and military aid from the communist bloc. It is this movement which claimed to be

the new government. The USA decided to back the FNLA which was encouraged

to attack the MPLA. UNITA also launched an offensive against the MPLA. Cuba sent

troops to help the MPLA, while South Africa troops, supporting other two groups,

invaded Angola.

The end of the Cold War and communist rule in Eastern Europe meant that all

communist support for the MPLA ceased, all Cuban troops had gone home by June

in 1991, and South Africa was ready to end involvement. The UNO, OAU, the USA and

Russia played a part in setting up peace talks between the MPLA government and

UNITA in Lisbon. It was agreed that there should be a ceasefire followed by elections,

to be monitored by the UNO.

The Cold War in America: the Cuban missile crisis (1961-1962)

Cuba became involved in the Cold War in 1959, when Fidel Castro seized power

from American-backed by dictator Batista. Shortly after, Castro broke with USA and

in 1961, he announced that he was a Marxist and that Cuba was a socialist country.

In 1962 Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, set up nuclear missile launchers in Cuba aimed

at the USA, whose nearest point was less than a hundred miles from Cuba. There

was a great consternation in the USA in October 1962, when photographs taken

from spy planes showed a missile base under construction in Cuba. The situation

was tense, and the world seemed to be on the verge of nuclear war.

The Secretary General of the UN, U Thant, appealed to both sides for restraint.

Khrushchev promised to remove the missiles and dismantle the sites. In return,

Kennedy promised that the US would not invade Cuba again and undertook to

disarm the Jupiter missiles in Turkey. As a result of the Cuban missile crisis, both

sides realized how easily a nuclear war could have started and how terrible the

results would have been; there was also a marked relaxation of tension between

both Superpowers. A telephone link (the hot line) was introduced between Moscow

and Washington to allow swift consultation and, in July 1963, the Soviet Union, the

USA and Britain signed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty agreeing to carry out nuclear test

only underground to avoid polluting the atmosphere.

Application activity

1. Explain why what happened in Czechoslovakia (February 1948), in

Germany (June 1948 - May 1949) in China (1946-1949), in Korea (1950-

1953), in Vietnam (1946-1954) and in the Middle East (1948-1949) can

be considered as a period of hot crisis in the Cold War. Use the internet

and your school library to get more details and write two pages text.

• Explain these two events of the Cold War

• Cuban Missiles crisis.

2. The Berlin Blockade and airlift.

3. Write a short essay (not more than 300 words) on arms race during the

Cold War. Use the internet or school library for more information.

4. What do you understand by containment?

5. Assess the détente.

6. “Mao Zedong never accepted Khrushchev as head of the communist

world; instead he began to see himself as a leader of the international

socialist revolution”. Comment this assertion.

7. “I am not ashamed to say that I am a communist and adhere to the

communist idea, and with this I will leave for the Other World”. Link

this Gorbatchev’s statement to his reforms. Use internet and other

documents to find evidences.

End Unit Assessment

1. “Was World War II the continuation of World War I” Analyze the statement.

2. How did the Allies win World War I?

3. Explain the reasons which pushed A. Hitler and Joseph Stalin to sign the

Nazi-Soviet Pact (non-aggression pact) in August 1939.S

4. Comment the strategies used by Allies to end the war with Japan.

5. Describe the role played by women during the First World War.

Glossary

Armistice: treaty signed between Germany and the victorious allied to stop the

World War I.

Atlantic Charter: The declaration for the creation of the United Nations Organization.

Bitter enemy: the worst, angry and extreme enemy.

Diplomacy: management of international relationship between Nations or states.

Spirit of revenge: The will to take revenge at any cost eg: France wanted to revenge

on Germany after the defeat of 1871.

Wall Street crush: economic depression of 1929 due to overproduction started in

USA