History

Introduction

Nationalism can be defined as the desire for Africans to end all forms of foreign

control and influence so as to be able to take charge of their political, social and

economic affairs. Before 1960 most of Africa was still under colonial control.

However, by 1970 most of Africa was independent of European colonialism. Several

factors contributed to the rise of African nationalism.

After the Second World War, nationalist movements in Africa quickly gained

momentum. This was largely due to the war itself, and its effects. Many thousands

of Africans had fought in the Allied armies, expanding their outlook and their

knowledge of international affairs; and the war had been to some extent an

antiracist war - against the racist governments of the Axis powers. And many more

Africans had by now received the beginnings of a modern education and begun

to take an interest in political matters.

Key unit competence

Examine the causes and the effects of neo-colonialism in Africa.

Learning objectives

At the end of this unit, I should be able to:

Explain the concept and rise of neo-colonialism;

Examine the causes of neo-colonialism in Africa;

State the indicator of neo-colonialism in Africa;

Identify the consequences of neo-colonialism in Africa.

5.1. Rise of neo-colonialism in Africa

Activity 5.1

By searching on internet or in your school library, write a short text of not more

than 150 words explaining the origin of neo-colonialism.

“The neo-colonialism of today represents imperialism in its final and perhaps

its most dangerous stage. In the past it was possible to convert a country upon

which a neo-colonial regime had been imposed (….) into a colonial territory.

Today this process is no longer feasible. Old-fashioned colonialism is by no

means entirely abolished.

(….). Once a territory has become nominally independent it is no longer

possible, as it was in the last century, to reverse the process. Existing colonies

may linger on, but no new colonies will be created. In place of colonialism as the

main instrument of imperialism we have today neo-colonialism. The essence of

neo-colonialism is that the State which is subject to it is, in theory, independent

and has all the outward trappings of international sovereignty. In reality its

economic system and thus its political policy is directed from outside”.

Source: Kwame Nkrumah, 1965.

5.1.1 Definition of neo-colonialism

Briefly presented, neo-colonialism is a process by which colonial countries continue

to exploit their newly independent countries through indirect domination. The

domination can be economic, political or social.

Neo-colonialism can be also described as a disguised form and efficient

propagation of socio-economic and political activity by former colonial rulers

aimed at reinforcing their presence in their former colonies. In a neo-colonial state,

the former colonial masters ensure that the newly independent colonies remain

dependent on them. The dependency and exploitation are usually carried out

through indirect control of the resources of the newly independent states instead

of direct control as it was the case in the colonial era. That is why many observers

define neo-colonialism as “the control of less developed countries by developed

countries through indirect means”.

5.1.2 Historical background

The term “neo-colonialism” was popularized by Kwame Nkrumah (1909-1972), the

first President of Ghana, in his book Neo-colonialism: The Last Stage of Imperialism

(1965). 

According to Nkrumah, the essence of neo-colonialism is that while the state appears

to be independent and has total control over its dealings, it is in fact controlled by

outsiders economically and politically. The loss of control of the machinery of the

state to the neo-colonialists is the basis of Nkrumah’s discourse.

Nkrumah was not alone to use the term neo-colonialism. At a meeting (1961) of

All African People’s Conferences (AAPC), a movement of anti colonialist groups

from African countries, voted a “Resolution on Neo-colonialism”. The term  neocolonialism was described as the deliberate and continued survival of the colonial

system in independent African states, by turning these states into victims of

political, economic, cultural and technical forms of domination carried out through

indirect and subtle means that did not include direct violence.

Jean Paul Sartre (1905-1980), a French activist against his country’s colonialism, in

his book entitled Colonialism and Neo-colonialism (1964) proposed an immediate

disengagement of France from its ex colonies and a total emancipation from the

continued influence of French policies on those colonies, particularly in Algeria.

The decolonisation of Africa had begun in the 1960s. During this decade many

African colonies achieved independence but they soon realized that the liberation

that they had fought for was meaningless because former colonial masters only

wanted to grant political independence to their former colonies, but did not want

them to be liberated from all forms of colonialism. Since then, neo-colonialism is an

important concept in the history of ideas and has entered the vocabulary of African

political philosophy.

The domination of the Western economic model that was prevalent during the

period of colonialism is still going on. The situation which informs the ideological

implementation of neo-colonialism in Africa began immediately after the political

independence of most African states.

The ongoing relations between France and Francophone African countries are a

good example of the neo-colonial influences. Following the creation of the French

Franc zone, which established the Franc CFA (Communauté Financière Africaine)

as the general currency for the majority of Western Francophone countries, former

colonies of France became tied up in a fixed parity to the French franc, automatically

granting the French government control over all financial and budgetary activities. 

Figure:5.2: Franc CFA bank notes used in 16 western African countries

Source:http://banknoteworld.com/find?start=0&Country=West%20African%20

States#banknotes.

France also continued its military presence in that region after independence

through military and defence assistance agreements. Furthermore, the French

institutionalized linguistic and cultural links with all its former colonies, thereby

creating the La Francophonie, reinforce the presence and the assimilation of the

French culture. On the other side, Great Britain continued to maintain an indirect

economic influence through multinational corporations on its former colonies; its

direct interventions have diminished significantly over the years.

Since the end of World War II, the West maintains an indirect form of domination

over all developing African countries through international institutions such as the

World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). This form of neo-colonialism

is done through foreign aids or foreign direct investments where strict or severe

financial conditions are imposed. Post-colonial studies have shown clearly that

despite achieving independence, the influences of colonialism and its agents are

still very much present in the lives of most former colonies. Practically, every aspect

of the ex colonized society has still colonial influences.

The concept of neo-colonialism has several theoretical influences. First, the idea of

neo-colonialism has been developed from the writings of Karl Marx (1818-1883)

related to his critique of capitalism as a stage in the socio-economic development

of human society. 

He believed that, ultimately and inevitably, the capitalist system in developed

countries would be overthrown by a revolution of the working class; this would

result in the establishment of socialist society.

Lenin Vladimir (1870-1924) modified this thesis, claiming that the rapid expansion of

European imperialism around the world in the last decade of the nineteenth century

had marked the highest stage of capitalism. Then, the end of imperialism, which

Lenin believed would be the result of World War I, would mark the beginning of

the end of capitalism. However, neither imperialism nor capitalism came to an end

after the war or in future years. European empires persisted during the 1960s.

After granting independence to colonies, the theory of modernization suggested

that independent countries would begin to develop very rapidly, politically and

economically, and would resemble to the “modern” Western countries. In other

words, the independent countries will follow the same way as developed countries.

However, it soon became clear that this was not happening. Some postcolonial

theorists now explain the continued underdevelopment of African countries by the

dependency theory.

According to the dependency theory, underdevelopment persisted because

developed countries dominated underdeveloped economies by paying low

prices for their raw products and flooding their markets with cheap manufactured

goods. This resulted in a perpetually negative balance of payments that prevented

underdeveloped countries from ever becoming competitive on the global

marketplace. These theorists, like Walter Rodney and Samir Amin, combined the

Marxist-Leninist concept of colonialism as a stage of capitalism with the concept

of underdevelopment to create the concept of neo-colonialism, which Kwame

Nkrumah called “the last stage of imperialism.”

Opponents to the dependence theory argue that the concept is an attempt to

continue to blame colonialism for Africa’s problems rather than confronting the

major issues hampering independent African governments, such as corruption,

inefficiency, and bad governance. They argue that these problems, more than any

systematic process of external exploitation, have been responsible for the poor

performance of African economies since independence. 

Application activity 5.1

1. Distinguish colonialism from neo-colonialism.

2. Explain the dependence theory in the neo-colonialism.

5.2 Causes of neo-colonialism

Activity 5.2

Explain in not more than ten lines different causes of neo-colonialism.

5.2.1 Unequal exchange

European countries had colonized most of the continent in the late 19th century,

instituting a system of economic exploitation in which African raw materials,

particularly cash crops and minerals, were expropriated and exported to the sole

benefit of the colonizing power.

Neo-colonial analysts say that economies based on the production of cash crops

such as cocoa could not develop, because the world system imposes a limit on the

revenue that can be got from their production. Likewise, the extraction and export

of minerals could not serve to develop African industries, because minerals taken

from African soil by Western corporations were shipped to Europe or America,

where they were turned into manufactured goods, which were then resold to

African consumers at value-added prices.

5.2.2 Foreign aid

Another aspect raised concerns foreign aid. Neo-colonialist theorists think that the

inability of African economies to develop after independence led many African

countries to look for foreign aid. Accepting loans from Europe or America proved

the link between independent African governments and former colonizers. They

noted as evidence that most foreign aid has been given in the form of loans, with

high interest rates. Repayment of these loans contributed to the underdevelopment

of African economies because the collection of interest impoverished African

peoples.

During the Cold War the increasing level of American and Russian aid and

intervention in the affairs of independent African states were designed to keep

African countries within the capitalist or socialist/communist camp.

5.2.3 Balkanization

According to Nkrumah, the most important factor allowing the perpetuation

of neo-colonialism in Africa was the “balkanization” of the continent. Colonizers

divided Africa into many administrative units in order to govern it more effectively,

and the colonial boundaries had become the lines within which African countries

had been given independence.

Since then, the interests of Africa have been damaged by the need of each new country to fight for itself.

Nkrumah believed that through African unity and cooperation, the continent

could best combat neo-colonialism. This required also a policy of nonalignment in

reference to the competition of the two blocks (West and East) during the Cold War

context.

5.2.4 The mediation of the ruling class

Figure 5.3: Frantz Fanon

Source: http://thomassankara.net/franz-fanon/.

Frantz Fanon said that the “African petty bourgeoisie” or the governing class, which

had received power from the colonial government, is the primary cause of neocolonialism in Africa. Africans who took power at the time of independence

had been favoured by European powers because they were willing to

operate a smooth transition from colonialism to neo-colonialism. Since they were

generally educated and westernized, they had benefited in many ways from

the colonial system, they had to gain from a continuation of colonial economic

policies. Fanon accused them of collaborating with the colonial power to ensure

that the interests of both would be met after the declaration of formal political

independence. This class of Africans betrayed the masses who had supported

various nationalistic movements.

5.2.5 Intellectual inability

In his book entitled On the Postcolony (2001),  Achille Mbembe, a Cameroonian

researcher and professor living in South Africa, examines the nature of neocolonialism in Africa today. In his view, after colonialism had ended in Africa, the

West did not consider that Africans were capable of organising themselves

socially, economically and politically. The reason is simply because Africans were

believed to be intellectually poor and reduced to the level of irrationality. Since

Africans are different in race, language, and culture from the West, they do not

possess the power, the rigour, the quality, and the intellectual analytical abilities

that characterise Western philosophical and political traditions.

This perception on the African primitiveness, used by colonizers to justify the

conquest and the colonization of Africa, is still predominant in the discourses of

some Westerners.

Application activity 5.2

1. Explain the role of Africans in neo-colonialism.

2. Discuss how international aid is a cause of neo-colonialism.

3.

”[t]the result of colonialism is that foreign capital is used for the exploitation rather

than for the development of the less developed parts of the world .Investment

under neocolonialism increases rather than decreases the gap between the rich

and the poor countries of the world”(Nkrumah 1965)

What do you think about Kwame Nkrumah’s points of view on neo-colonialism?

5.2.6 Weakened Position of European Powers

The two World Wars within a short duration inflicted very heavy losses upon the

imperial powers of Europe. Their weakened position made it difficult for them

to maintain their big colonial empires. The rise of strong national liberation

movements in the colonies further made it difficult for them to maintain their

traditional empires.

The emergence of decolonialization and anti imperialism as the strongest

movement of post war international relations led to the drive towards liquidation

of the colonial empires and consequently to the rise of several new sovereign

states in international relations.

In this situation, the old colonial powers, realizing fully the necessity of exploiting

the resources of the new states for their own needs, were quick to devise new

instruments of control over the new states. This led to the transformation of

colonialism into neo-colonialism.

5.2.7 Rise of Consciousness against Imperialism

The imperial powers found it difficult to justify the continuance of their rule over

colonies because of the spread of political consciousness, and the acceptance of

the right of self- determination by the Charter of the United Nations.

Further, the intensification of national liberation movements in several key

countries also compelled the imperial powers to grant independence to their

colonies.After having suffered the loss of their empires, the rich and powerful

states were quick to adopt new means for maintaining a system of economic

exploitation of their former colonies.

5.2.8 The Needs of the Developed States

The continued need for raw materials and markets for selling their goods compelled

the former imperial powers to somehow maintain their economic domination of

new sovereign states. This impelled them to maintain their interests by new, subtle

and indirect economic devices. Having been forced to abandon the old colonial

system, the old imperial states decided to go in for neo-colonialism—a systematized

but indirect and subtle economic and political domination of their former colonies.

The most common device which they adopted for this purpose was to break up

“the former large united colonial territories into a number of small non-viable states,

which were incapable of independent economic development. The new small states

had to rely upon their former colonial masters for their economic and security needs.”

5.3 Manifestations of neo-colonialism in Africa

Activity 5.3

In not more than 500 words discuss the indicators of neo-colonialism.

Within a neo-colonial situation, the imperialists usually maintain their influence

in as many sectors of the former colony as possible, making it less independent

state and more of a neo-colony. To this end, the state looks up to its imperialist

allies (in many sectors such as politics, economics, religion and education), rather

than improving its own indigenous culture and practices. Through neo-colonialism,

the more technologically advanced nations ensure their involvement with low

income nations; this relationship annihilates the potential for the development

of the smaller states and contributes to the capital gain of the technologically

advanced nations.

Figure 5.4: The conditions of Africans during colonisation and neo-colonialism

Source: http://fullpraxisnow.tumblr.com/post/69905905367/neo-colonialism-thelooting-of-africa.

Though neo-colonialism is a subtle propagation of social-economic and political

activities of former colonial countries in their former colonies, evidence has

shown that a country that was never colonized can also become a neo-colonialist

state. Countries such as Liberia and Ethiopia that never experienced colonialism in

its classical understanding, have become neo-colonial countries because of their

dependency on international finance capital and their fragile economic structure.

Based on this, neo-colonialism can be said to be a new form of colonial exploitation

and control of the new independent states of Africa, and other states with fragile

economies.

The most important manifestations of the neo-colonialism are described in the

following sections.

5.3.1 Dependence on foreign aid and external industrial investments

Developed countries did not completely leave Africa. They remained in this

continent by giving donations, grants and loans to their former colonies, with

high interest rates charged. Foreign firms have also continued to dominate the

business sectors of the economy. Local industries in Africa became extensions of

metropolitan firms and the needed raw materials for the industries depend on

very high import from the capitalist economies. Thus, the continued dependence

of industrial investments in Africa on the capitalist intensive technology is mostly

aimed at strengthening the metropolitan economies.

5.3.2 Collaboration with local elites

Western neo-colonialists have collaborated with local elites to perpetuate

the exploitation of the people in Africa. Most of the local collaborators are not

committed to national interest and development, and their aim is to ensure the

continued reproduction of foreign domination of the African economic space.

The objective of foreign capital, therefore, is to continue to co-opt the weak and

nascent local bourgeoisie into its operations.

5.3.3 Unfair trade terms

African countries are producers of cash crops, like coffee, tea, sisal and cotton

which serve as raw materials in developed countries. However, the prices for

African crops are determined by developed countries and are often very low or

unpredictable. Contrarily, Africans are compelled to import the highly priced

finished products from advanced countries.

5.3.4 Influence of foreign currencies

Foreign currencies like dollar, pound, Euro, and Japanese Yen are used to

determine the strength and value of African currencies. A fall in value of these

foreign currencies means automatic fall in the value of African currencies, leading

to the devaluation of African currencies. France has maintained a special financial

regime (CFA) with some western francophone countries. CFA francs are used in

fourteen countries: twelve formerly French-ruled nations in West and Central

Africa, a former Portuguese colony (Guinea-Bissau) and a former Spanish colony

(Equatorial Guinea). The CFA’s value is linked to the Euro whose monetary policy

is set by the European Central Bank. As a result, the CFA has been criticized for

making proper economic planning for the developing countries of French West

and Central Africa.

5.3.5 Technological dependence

African countries rely on developed countries’ technology. They import tractors

to improve on agriculture. When those tractors break down, African countries

import the spare parts from developed countries. This dependence applies to the

importation of other machines as well as cars, television sets, laboratory equipment,

chemicals and even medicine.

5.3.6 Military presence and intervention

Most African countries have maintained close relations and cooperation with former

colonial powers in military issues. This is achieved through different forms of

cooperation, such as training of local armies, purchasing military equipment, direct

intervention (sending soldiers on field like France in Sahara-Sahel or supporting a

military coup d’état). 

Some powers have military bases in some countries (i.e. Mali, Djibouti, etc.). The

military presence and intervention are aimed at primarily serving and protecting

the interests of big powers but not African states.

Figure 5.5: Western powers’ armed forces in Africa

Source:https://www.pinterest.fr/search/pins/?q=neocolonialism&rs=typed&term.

5.3.7 Use of foreign political ideologies and practices

Because of their political weakness, African leaders have tried to apply in their

countries political ideologies and practices of developed countries, such as

western models of democracy, institutions, political parties and procedures. The

implementation failed because these references could not be transferred and

applied automatically in different contexts. This contributed to political instability

and crisis because of the internal conflicts created by these policies. Alternatives

proposed by Africans and other Third World leaders, for example African socialism

or non–alignment, have been opposed by big powers and disappeared. Therefore,

African countries became aligned, during the Cold War, either towards the

capitalist or communist ideology. Now they are obliged to adopt the neoliberal

ideology and do their best to have access to aid and investment.

5.3.8 Cultural degradation in Africa

Neo-colonialism and globalization have promoted Western values in Africa:

western music, language, films, literature, games, new religions, etc. Hence new

practices and behavior especially among young generation, such as violence,

pornography and prostitution have destroyed African values.

Application activity 5.3

1. Explain the economic indicators of neo-colonialism.

2. Discuss the impact of western military presence and intervention

in Africa. Use the internet or school library to find more evidence for

your argument.

5.4 Consequences of neo-colonialism

Activity 5.4

Write down what you know about the effects of neo-colonialism (not more

than ten lines).

Nkrumah said that neo-colonialism is the worst form of imperialism. For

those who practice it, it ensures power without responsibility and unchecked

exploitation for those who suffer from it. He explains that neo-colonialist

exploitation is implemented in the political, economic, and cultural spheres of

society. It is difficult to provide an objective evaluation of the specific effects of the

neo-colonialism in Africa because the debate among analysts is still going on.

5.4.1 Economic consequences

Neo-colonialism poses a serious danger to the evolution of the continent whereby

African leaders have been totally unable to change the colonial economic legacy in

the new independent states. They have made economic choices which undermine

the potential for economic growth and at worst destroy significant areas of

commercial activities.

The industrialization models followed by low developing countries which is

applied by the Europeans/American have failed; projects are not well elaborated,

some are created for prestige, they are expensive and inefficient, depending

on loans, external experts and imported technologies. This has resulted into an

enormous and heavy debt, extreme poverty of the population, recurrent famines,

uncontrolled urbanization and weak investment in social sector.

The World Bank, International Monetary Fund (IMF) and other multilateral

organisations have taken this opportunity éto control African economies. They

lend loans to African states with hard conditions and high interest rates. 

The World Bank is lending loans to more than 140 countries in the world, 41 are

African states and the most debt recipient countries in the world.

The World Bank also estimates that 70% of the net wealth in sub-Saharan Africa is

owned by non-indigenous Africans or foreigners. Debt recipient countries have to

pay back with high interests, but most of the countries have not been able to pay

back the loans received. This has created the debt crisis in the 1990s with dramatic

effects on the living conditions of Africans.

Figure 5.6: Thomas Sankara

Source: https://scontent-dft4-2.xx.fbcdn.net.

Another example of the critical reality faced by African countries is related to

unfair exchange. According to a recent research on African economy, the diamond

mined in Africa costs about $40 per carat, and a diamond cut and polished in

Europe increases to $400 per carat. That same stone’s price is around $900 per

carat when it reaches the consumer. Another example is Zimbabwe, which is

known for producing the best quality tobacco in the world. In 2014 it earned $650

million from the sale of raw tobacco. Industry experts illustrate how Zimbabwe

could have earned $6.5 billion instead of $650 million if they had processed the

crop into cigarettes, rather than exporting tobacco as a raw good. 

5.4.2 Political consequences

New independent countries have not only inherited European laws but also the

institutions of colonial bureaucracies. Because of the differences in administrative

styles, Francophone state bureaucracies are generally more dependent on the

former colonial power than the Anglophone state bureaucracies which have been

used to a relatively higher degree of autonomy.

African countries have remained dependents on their former colonial masters in

decision making for example during elections and the forms of government. In

some circumstances, these countries cannot make their own decisions without

the acknowledgment of their former colonial masters, they have always been

present during elections as international observers as well supporting multi-party

systems in the disguise of democracy.

5.4.3 Influence on African cultures

Neo-colonialism has led to the elimination of various cultures, worldviews, and

beliefs. African languages have been replaced by European ones. This has been

achieved through violence or by soft means such as modern schools and

Christian religions. The main idea presented as a slogan was to “civilize Africans”,

meaning to oblige them to abandon their traditions and make them as “white

people” in all aspects of their life.

Since then the trend of cultural westernization has become very prevalent in

Africa. Western civilization has taken precedence over African values and culture

and the latter is considered as inferior to the former especially by local elites and

young generation. Some manifestations include:

• the extended family giving way to nuclear family;

• the appearance of the phenomenon of children of single parent;

• the decline of native languages in Africa especially among elites;

• Christianity replaced traditional religions and new evangelist movements

exported in Africa political ideologies from the North.

• Western education and leisure became the characteristics of the modernity.

• In the area of science and technology, modern medicine has largely taken

advantage over traditional methods in matters of health.

One of the effects of Western civilization on Africans is that it occasioned a

discontinuity within their life and created a cultural dualism that often presents

itself as a real dilemma. African experience of modernity is caught within tensions

at every level of the communal and individual life. The post independent Africa

is confronted within the following dilemma: how to have a new cultural identity

that is African in nature?

It is important to remember that cultures always change. It is made of the

heritage of local traditions, the innovations made by members of a given society

and the borrowings from other cultures.

After independence, some Africans especially writers became disillusioned by the

African rulers whose behaviour was worse than their colonial masters. This led

to the present debates by which neo-colonial problems or presented as such are

analysed by questioning not only the Neo-colonialism but also by highlighting the

responsibility of African elites (example of Ngugi’s novel, Petals of Blood, 1986).

Africa continues to face the problem of the dominant presence of Western

civilization. In the quest for modernization, the focus is mostly on the Western

world and there is little or no focus on the urgent need for internal changes in this

quest.

Despite colonial legacy, African nations have the responsibility to develop

themselves by making changes in their internal structures using indigenous

knowledge, while at the same time learning all they can from the influence of

the Western world and putting these to use for their own benefit.

End unit assessment

1. Explain the economic consequences of neo-colonialism.

2. Discuss the effects of Western civilization on Africans.

3. Observe the cartoon below and write down how you can relate it to

neo-colonialism.

Source:https://i.pinimg.com/originals/4e/4a/

c3/4e4ac325acdd0b19ceb305f0a1691dac.jpg

4. Read the following text and respond to the following question: Can we consider

neo-colonialism as a threat to African continent? Justify your answer using quotes

from Bryant T. Guest’s text.

Source:

“Those African leaders that chose not to play ball with the West were abruptly

assassinated by  covert intelligence operations. From 1961-1973 alone, there

were six African opposition leaders taken out in Western-backed coups: Patrice

Lumumba (Congo), Kwame Nkrumah (Ghana), Felix Moumie (Cameroon), Sylvanus

Olympio (Togo), Mehdi Ben Barka (Morocco), Eduardo Mondlane (Mozambique),

Amilcar Cabral (Guinea & Camp Verde). It became quite clear to those wanting to

take power in Africa, that if you aren’t on board with the West’s agenda, then you

are a prime target to be taken out. There is no doubt that this has weighed heavily

on the psyche of Africans even up until the present day, much in the same way

that the MLK and JFK assassinations had large effects on the political psyche of

Americans.

It was the inevitable dark side of ruling through proxies, as anyone who looks

deeper can see that the West never really left Africa. Not only did they stick

around, but new players would emerge in an attempt to capitalize on Africa’s

resources. This was especially true of the US and Russia, as Africa was a prime

target of influence for both countries in the heat of the cold war, resulting in proxy

wars and multiple coups against each other. A new form of slavery was now

emerging from the ashes of colonialism that is still ever-present today. Even less

visible than the chains of overt slavery and colonialism, modern neocolonialism

has become the new form of control for not only Africa, but is the control

system of the entire world”. (By Bryant, T.Guest writer for Wake Up World at https://

wakeup-world.com/2016/05/08/the-hidden-truths-of-africa-neocolonialism-andthe-modern-age-of-slavery/).

GLOSSARY

Carat: The unit of measurement for the proportion of gold in an alloy; 18-carat

gold is 75% gold; 24-carat gold is pure gold or a unit of weight for precious stones

= 200 mg

Compel: Force somebody to do something

Corporation:A large company or group of businesses, recognized in law and acting

as single entity

Dilemma: State of uncertainty or perplexity especially as requiring a choice between

equally unfavourable options

Disillusion: Freeing from false belief or illusions

Dualism: The doctrine that reality consists of two basic opposing elements, often

taken to be mind and matter (or mind and body), or good and evil

Emancipation: Freeing someone from the control of another person or from legal

or political restrictions

Fragile: Easily broken, damaged or destroyed or lacking substance or significance

Impel: Urge or force (a person) to an action; constrain or motivate or cause to move

forward with force

Liquidation: The act of exterminating

Nonalignment: People (or countries) who are not aligned with other people (or

countries) in a pact or treaty

Nuclear family : A family consisting of parents and their children and grandparents

of a marital partner

Polish: Improve or perfect by pruning or polishing

Pornography: Creative activity (writing or pictures or films etc.) of no literary or

artistic value other than to stimulate sexual desire

Prostitution: Offering sexual intercourse for pay

Proxy: A power of attorney document given by shareholders of a corporation

authorizing a specific vote on their behalf at a corporate meeting or a person

authorized to act for another

Recurrent: Coming back or recurring again and again