History

Figure 2.1: Genocide never again

Source:http://www.richardsrwanda.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/07/284884_2248833668160_1467762132_32478548_5366937_n.jpg

Introduction

This unit two covers the content about the genocide prevention. Mainly, it covers

the following points: the concepts, factors and practices of genocide prevention,

measures of preventing genocide, challenges faced during genocide prevention

and some solutions proposed to those challenges.

Generally, the prevention of genocide is done by taking into consideration all the

factors likely to lead to genocide at the three levels namely primary, secondary, and

tertiary. These levels refer to the period before the beginning of conflict that may

lead to genocide, during the conflict, and during and after genocide.

The genocide prevention is continuous and needs measures at every level because

if it is done when the risk of occurrence of genocide is high, the risk of failure to avert

its occurrence is also high. Nevertheless, genocide prevention encountered with

many challenges, among them, certainty that the presence of factors at different

phases may lead to genocide, and sovereignty of the state.

Despite these challenges, many solutions can be taken at different levels. On

international level, solutions like prevention of armed conflicts, protection of civilians

in armed conflict, end impunity through judicial action in national and international

courts have been adopted by the United Nations Organisation as measures of

preventing the occurrence of genocide.

Key unit competence: Explain measures of preventing genocide from happening

again, in Rwanda and elsewhere.

Learning outcomes

At the end of this unit, I should be able to:

•             Explain concepts, factors and practices related to genocide prevention.

 

Introductory activity

Figure 2.1: Copy of UN Convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide.

Source:https://www.humanrights.ch/en/standards/un-treaties/furtherconventions/genocide-convention/

Since 1948 with the UN Convention on the prevention and punishment of the

crime of genocide, different measures for its prevention have been adopted. In

your opinion, is it possible that genocide can be prevented? Substantiate your

answer.

2.1 Concepts, factors and practices of genocide prevention

2.1 Activity

using internet or textbooks from your school library define the concept of

genocide prevention and discuss the measures you can use to prevent it from

happening.

2.1.1 Concept of genocide prevention

Prevention is a continuous process that aims at avoiding the occurrence of

something harmful by tackling the causes of the harm prior to it and at each phase

of the process to its occurrence and after. Genocide Prevention is any action that

works toward averting a future genocide.

Since the adoption of the Genocide Convention in 1948 until now, the response

of the governments at the international community level to prevent genocides

and mass killings have been very poor. These poor performances are testified by a

number of tragic situations of genocide since the Holocaust.

The tragedies in Cambodia, Rwanda, Bosnia and Darfur in Sudan have shocked the

conscience of mankind, and there is a fear that the list may grow even longer in

future, if prevention of genocide is not clarified and taken seriously.

What is absurd is that, while for other tragedies it is generally not easy to foresee

them before they happen and therefore difficult or even impossible to prevent

them, genocide is preceded by factors and clear signs that it may or is about to

happen. That would logically provide enough opportunities to take measures to

prevent those factors from leading to genocide.

Several years before the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda occurred, there

existed factors and signs that showed that a genocide could potentially break out

but it was not prevented.

2.1.2 Factors that may lead to genocide

Genocide is not something that happens overnight because for genocide to

happen there are a number of factors that precede and make it possible. They

create conditions or opportunities for genocide to occur. Hence, one needs to first

understand the process to genocide in order to know what to do, by whom, at which

moment and by which means of preventing it.

The prevention of genocide will not be successful, if the concerned people do not

understand the process to genocide. Many factors have been discussed, but there is

no consensus on a definitive list of signs or elements that are present in all genocides.

The following are some of the factors that may lead to genocide:

•             Differences in identity: Genocide is not possible where there is no difference

among the population in a given state but this difference itself cannot lead to

genocide if not combined with other factors ;

•             Difficult life due to economic problems (poverty): Being poor itself does not

make genocide possible but it certainly creates a favourable environment to

other associated problems that may contribute to the process to genocide;

•             Deprivation or inequalities in the allocation of resources: When this inequality

is based on the differences in racial, ethnicity grounds, meaning, when some

groups are given more privileges than others or when a group is totally

excluded from accessing the resources, it may create tensions that may lead to

other problems that may soon or later lead to genocide;

•             Political problems: in many cases the origin of the genocide is the political

dominance of one group over other groups. The dominant group may intend

to eliminate other groups in order to have the guarantee of continuation of

dominance. In reaction, the underprivileged group may feel discriminated and

plan to get to power by any means. In both cases, they tend to use a war which

might be itself another factor leading to genocide;

 

•             Armed conflicts: the existence of armed actors has served as a motivation and

excuse for human rights violations, including killings, arbitrary arrest and

discrimination, committed against the civilian population that the armed

actors claim to represent. Refugees from the persecuted side may also become

warriors determined to overthrow the government in place in order to recover

their rights (like having a home land);

•             Human rights violations and impunity: genocide is always preceded by

successive human rights violations and by impunity. In Rwanda, the culture

of impunity of perpetrators of human rights violations based on ethnicity

that characterized the colonial and post-colonial periods played a leading

role in the genocide against the Tutsi that occurred in 1994. The episodes of

unpunished massacres committed against the Tutsi “ethnic” group in 1959,

1963-1964, 1973, 1990-1993, did not only pave the way to genocide against

them, but also contributed to its magnitude in that it made the public

participation high because of the then assurance that no prosecution would

follow. The role of the elites and leaders in denying the enjoyment of human

rights to some groups and in the impunity before and during armed conflicts

is also an important factor.

2.1.3 Practices leading to genocide

During the process to genocide some special practices reinforce the divisions. Based

on different studies, the practices are as follows:

Social categorisation

People are classified into “us and them” by ethnicity, race, religion, or nationality:

Germans and Jews, Hutu and Tutsi. In Rwanda, during the colonisation, researchers

measured for instance the people’s height and the length of their noses. And then

everyone was classified as Tutsi, Hutu or Twa.

Identities cards were issued to each individual mentioning the ethnicity. It may not

be deduced that this policy was meant to incite Hutu to commit genocide against

the Tutsi, but this permanent line put between the groups and the implications

related to that, contributed to the antagonism between the two groups that later,

combined with other things, led to genocide.

Figure 2.2: The stages of genocide

Source: Inspired by the eight stages of genocide of G.H.Stanton.

Discrimination

The social categorisation which gives the basis for defining groups may be followed

by the exclusion of some groups, intensified by the injustice in the allocation

of resources as well as the injustice on how the participation in decision making

process is distributed. Since these practices of discrimination against some targeted

groups are either done by state leaders or supported by them, they grow and lead

to other phases that may lead to genocide

Dehumanisation

Dehumanisation is a denial of the humanity of others and a step that permits killing

with impunity. This genocidal ideology “dehumanises” members of a group and

justifies violence against it. Victims are not considered as belonging to the same

human race as the oppressors. The targeted group is often likened to a disease,

microbes, cockroaches, infections or a cancer in the body. That is what explains why

during the genocide, bodies of victims are often mutilated to express this denial

of humanity. Dehumanisation is an important phase in the process that leads to

genocide because ideologically, the perpetrators claim to purify the society as a

justification. So, the ideology grows deeper to convincing one group that another

deserves nothing but death and this is a legitimization to kill. The availability of the

dehumanising ideology is important in the process to genocide but may not be

enough to cause genocide if it is not followed by other actions.

Propaganda for the elimination of targeted group

For the dehumanisation to have its effect, it needs propaganda to spread out the

hate ideology done either by leaders themselves, the authorised who are supported

by them.

This is an important phase in the whole process because it helps the elite members of

the eliminating group to disseminate the dehumanising ideology and to bring other

members of that group to believe in that hatred. This is an important motivating

factor to take part actively in killings. A prominent example of the hate media in

Rwanda during the 1990s is the famous Kangura newspaper as well as the Radio

Television Libre des Mille Collines (RTLM).

Preparation

This phase is when some possible acts liable of making genocide are performed.

They include writing lists of victims, creation and training of militia, purchase and

distribution of arms to be used.

Massacre of the target group members

In many cases, genocide is always preceded by killings targeting a given group or

individuals belonging to that group in different places.

Genocide may also be preceded by killings of moderate people because, of not

supporting the extermination of the targeted group.

Extermination (genocide)

This is the phase when the genocide is executed. It is when the intent to destroy the

targeted group can be seen from what is happening on the ground. When killings

are sponsored by the state, the armed forces often work with militias to kill like the

Interahamwe in Rwanda during the Genocide.

Figure 2.3: Victims abandoned during the Genocide

In the case of the genocide against the Tutsi, the main actors were: the interim

government local administration, security forces, militia, the media, civil society

organizations (churches included), the population and the international community.

Denial and impunity of genocide

During and after every genocide, the perpetrators always find a way of denying their

crime. They try to justify the killings, and to blame the victims, claiming that their

own behaviours brought about the killings. In Rwanda, killers alleged that Tutsi were

helping rebels of RPF, and they used this to justify the mass killing of innocent Tutsi.

The denial of genocide is not only the destruction of the truth about the genocide

by negating or minimising it, it is also a potential cause of its repetition.

 

2.1 Application activities

1. Define the concepts of genocide and genocide prevention.

2. Account for any three factors that may lead to genocide.

3. Explain any two practices that can lead to genocide.

 

2.2 Levels of intervention in the process of genocide prevention

2.2 Activity

“When the Genocide Convention was passed by the United Nations in 1948, the world

said, ‘Never again’. But the history of the twentieth century instead proved that ‘never

again’ became ‘again and again’. The promise the United Nations made was broken,

as again and again, genocides and other forms of mass murder killed 170 million

people, more than all the international wars of the twentieth century combined”

Dr Gregory H. Stanton.

By analysing this quotation, explain the different measures that can be taken in

preventing genocide from happening again.

 

2.2. 1. Prevention of genocide at primary level

Genocide is not something that happens overnight or without warning. Genocide

requires organization and constitutes in fact a deliberate strategy and one that has

been mostly carried out by governments or groups controlling the state apparatus.

Understanding the way genocide occurs and learning to recognise signs that could

lead to genocide are important in making sure that such horrors do not happen

again.

Since genocide is a process, prevention of genocide would mean to tackle it at a

very early stage. The prevention at the primary level consists of measures aiming

at creating an environment that reduces the risk of its escalation. At this phase the

aim is to put in place measures that may pre-empt the start of the harm. This means

preventive measures that may avoid the occurrence of the harm by tackling its root

causes. Prevention will therefore include the adoption of measures that not only

prohibit the harm but also put in place mechanisms that ensure the prevention of

that harm.

 

On international level, the focus in upstream prevention is determining which

countries are at the risk. This is mainly done using risk assessments which are quite

accurate predictors. Numerous models have been developed, each looking at

different factors such as differences in identity, difficult conditions due to economic

problems, sharing of available resources, democracy and respect of human rights.

Among other things to consider when assessing and addressing the risk of

genocide is looking at structural and institutional frameworks in the country

including domestic legislation, an independent judiciary and an effective police

force to protect people.

By using risk assessments (Early Warning System), policy makers, civil society

organisations and  the UN must take appropriate measures to stop the situation

from evolving into genocide.

When the primary preventive measures are unsuccessful, then the need to take

other measures may arise.

 

2.2. 2.Prevention of genocide at secondary level

Prevention of genocide at this secondary level is necessary in two situations. Firstly,

in case a state has not adopted measures at the primary level and secondly, in case

the measures adopted before did not prevent the risks of genocide from developing.

The secondary prevention takes place when a genocide is already taking place. At

this level, many genocidal actions are observed, such as hatred, intolerance, racism,

ethnic cleansing, torture, sexual violence, disappearances, dehumanising and public

discourse.

The main focus is to end the genocide before it progresses further and claims more

lives. Measures tailored to the situation are taken in order to prevent the risk from

materialising or the situation from becoming worse.

This level of prevention may involve military intervention of some sort, especially

when it is in an armed conflict context. But there is a debate about the effectiveness

of this military intervention whereby some claim that military intervention promotes

rebel groups or that it is too expensive for the lives it saves. They prefer peaceful

prevention because it saves lives and does not require costly intervention.

 

2.2.3. Prevention of genocide at tertiary level

When the measures at the secondary level fail or have never been taken and the

mass killings start, measures at the tertiary level are needed in order to respond to

this final phase of the genocide. Tertiary prevention focuses on avoiding Genocide in

future by rebuilding, restoring the community and dealing with all the consequences

to repair the damage caused.

 

Figure 2.3: Cover page of Linda Melvern’s book

Source: Mervern, L. (2004), A people betrayed. The role of the west in Rwanda’s

Genocide. (cover page)

Individuals and states have the responsibility in the prevention of genocide

Important measures are needed to put an end to the harm. According to the

international humanitarian law, the international community has the obligation to

intervene once all signs are clear enough to prove that genocide is happening.

Rwanda is an example of the failure of international community to intervene. In

1994, with the presence of UN peace keepers, it was possible to stop the genocide

against the Tutsi, but because of various politico-diplomatic reasons, these peace

keepers were obliged to go back to their countries and let Tutsi die in the hands of

the perpetrators.

Tertiary prevention takes place during and after the genocide has ended. Its focus is

on preventing genocide in the future, thus re-building and restoring the community.

In other words, the tertiary prevention level also deals with all consequences in order

not only to repair the damage but also to avoid the reoccurrence of the harm.

In concluding, it is important to say that prevention is a continuous process which

involves several actions at different levels which involve the individuals ,government,

and international community.

 

Application activities

1. Explain the measures of preventing genocide at primary level.

2. Analyse the measures of preventing genocide at secondary level.

3. Using internet, research on the situation that prevails in Africa. Describe

a case that you think may lead to genocide. Afterwards, point out

strategies that you think can be used to prevent any possible acts of

genocide.

2.3 Challenges faced in the prevention of genocide

2.3.1 Activity

By making research on internet and using textbooks, discuss the challenges

encountered in prevention of genocide.

The first challenge is related to lack of certainty that the presence of factors at

different phases may lead to genocide and the second is the uncertainty on whether

the preventive measures to be taken can prevent it.

Regarding the first challenge, it must be said that the certainty from the existing

factors and risks at early phases that they will amount to genocide may be difficult to

get, given the fact that the genocide is planned by those in power. Even at advanced

phases, the degree of certainty of occurrence may still not be there. The process to

genocide cannot be understood as an exact science. That is why it may be argued

that the answer to the lack of certainty may be negative. Before taking preventive

measures, one cannot wait until there is certainty that genocide will happen.

In fact, by the time this is clear, it might be too late to prevent genocide from

happening and too difficult to do it without causing other problems. The analogy

with the prevention of environmental damage which does not require full scientific

certainty can help to understand the uncertainty of the occurrence of genocide.

The fact that there may not be a linear process to genocide that is identical

everywhere is a big challenge.

 

Another important challenge is that there is no institution that assesses the factors

and phases in order to determine who takes which measures, when to take them,

how and where to implement them.

On the question whether certainty that preventive measures to be taken would

totally prevent the occurrence of genocide is needed, the answer is negative as

well. Given the nature of prevention and the process to genocide, it is very difficult

for the preventer to be sure beforehand that the preventive measures to be taken

will definitely prevent the occurrence of genocide. But, as said by the former UN

Secretary - General Kofi Annan, “there can be no more important issue and no more

binding obligation than the prevention of genocide.”

 

2.3 Application activity

Explain how identifying factors that may lead to genocide constitutes a challenge

to genocide prevention.

2.4 Solutions to the challenges faced in prevention of genocide

Activity

 Having discussed challenges faced in prevention of genocide, propose your own

solutions to those challenges.

 

2.4.1 The role of the international community

The poor record in preventing genocides forced the United Nations to conceptualize

ways of deterring the crime while “recognizing and fully respecting the sovereignty

of States.” The then UN Secretary - General Kofi Annan took important measures

which inspired many programs in the field of genocide prevention. He identified a

Five Point Action Plan to end genocide:

•             Prevent armed conflict, which usually provides the context for genocide;

•             Protect civilians in armed conflict, including the mandate for UN

 peacekeepers;

•             End impunity through judicial action in both national and international courts;

•             Gather military information and set up an early warning system;

•             Take quick and decisive action along a continuum of steps, including military

action.

Figure 2.4: Rwandan soldiers in UN peace keeping mission in Darfur

Source:https://www.trtworld.com/mea/south-sudan-agrees-to-more-un-troopsunder-pressure 179810

Annan created the Office of the Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide, later

changed to the Special Advisor on the Prevention of Genocide and Mass Atrocities

(SAPG). The mandate of the SAPG is to:

a. collect existing information, in particular from within the United

Nations system, on massive and serious violations of human rights and

international humanitarian law of ethnic and racial origin that, if not

prevented or halted, might lead to genocide;

b. act as a mechanism of early warning to the Secretary - General, and

through him to the Security Council, by bringing to their attention

potential situations that could result in genocide;

c. make recommendations to the Security Council, through the Secretary

General, on actions to prevent or halt genocide;

d. liaise with the United Nations system on activities for the prevention of

genocide and work to enhance the United Nations capacity to analyse

and manage information relating to genocide or related crimes.

 

With the introduction of Responsibility to protect people in 2001, the international

community has taken significant steps towards greater awareness of escalating

situations and employing a tempered preventive mechanism which views

intervention as a last resort.

According to this international norm signed by all member states of the UN, any

nation has the right to intervene if a state fails to protect its citizens from genocide

or other crimes. This means that state sovereignty can be violated for the protection

of a population if the state is unable or unwilling to do it. This norm has enabled

the international community to step in more easily for the prevention of genocide.

However, there has been some question of the abuses of this norm as an excuse to

intervene or create regime changes. Also there are still difficulties when intervention

is discussed but it fails to give an answer to who should intervene and what are the

constraints to such intervention.

 

2.4.2 Regional level

Various regional mechanisms have developed distinct methods for engaging with

concerns that fall within the borders of their member states. The African Union (AU)

is significantly more engaged in the region than its predecessor, the OAU.

Through the Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security

Council of the African Union (PSC), the African Standby Force (ASF) was established

as part of the African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA). The Peace and Security

Council Protocol (PSCP) covers a comprehensive agenda for peace and security.

These include conflict prevention, early warning and preventive diplomacy, peacebuilding, intervention and humanitarian action, and disaster management. The

other components of APSA set up by the PSC Protocol include the Continental Early

Warning System; the Panel of the Wise; and the Peace Fund.

The Eastern Africa Standby Force (EASF) created by the decision of the Summit of

the African Union held in July 2004 in Addis Ababa, is a constituent organization of

the ASF. Yet, a number of the regional organizations still lack the resources, logistical

and communication capacities to effectively enforce the peace.

2.4.3 National level

Figure 2.5: CNLG logo

Source: http://www.cnlg.gov.rw/home/

All countries have not put in place measures related to genocide prevention. Only

those who have experienced that tragedy seem to be aware more than others and

Rwanda is in that case. In the aftermath of genocide, measures have been taken to

face the immediate consequences and to prevent genocide from happening again.

In the Constitution, the state of Rwanda (Constitution, chapter III, art.10) commits

to upholding the following fundamental principles and ensuring their respect:

1. Prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide, fighting against

denial and revisionism of genocide as well as eradication of genocide

ideology and all its manifestations;

2. Eradication of discrimination and divisionism based on ethnicity,

region or on any other ground as well as promotion of national unity;

3. Building a State governed by the rule of law, a pluralistic democratic

Government, equality of all Rwandans and between men and women

Laws punishing the crime of genocide and the genocide ideology have been

elaborated. Special organ to monitor and implement these principles has been

created, the National Commission for the Fight against Genocide established by Law

Nº09/2007 of 16/02/2007. Its mission is “to prevent and fight against Genocide, its

ideology and overcoming its consequences”.

 

In addition, aftermath of Genocide, there is a need to put in place measures in order

to prevent reoccurrence of genocide where it has already happened.

One of them is keeping alive the memory of past acts of genocide. Genocide against

Tutsi Memorials are extremely important in prevention of Genocide in Rwanda.

 

Figure 2.6: Bisesero memorial sites and genocide commemoration are one of the ways to prevent genocide

Therefore, it is imperative that the genocide against the Tutsi and all other acts of

genocide elsewhere in the world be remembered. The second one is to educate

people for sustainable peace and prevention of genocide using memorials.

Then the prevention of genocide should be done in educational setting. The country

of Rwanda has included the prevention of genocide and peace education as a cross

cutting issue in the programmes that have to be taught at all levels of education

from the primary to the tertiary

 

Figure 2.7: Educating the youth through testimonies about the past is a good way to prevent

genocide

Other measures of prevention of genocide encompass effective arrest, trial and

punishment of those who have committed genocide. The implementation of

these measures requires the existence of the early and effective functioning of the

International Criminal Court, the use of national courts with universal jurisdiction,

and the creation of special international tribunals to prosecute perpetrators of

genocide. That is why the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was

set up in Arusha, Tanzania, began operating in 1995, after a UN Security Council

resolution 955 of November 8, 1994.

 

At national level, the country of Rwanda had put in place Gacaca court which is a

traditional justice system based on telling truth, in the eradication of impunity that

lead to genocide against Tutsi in 1994.

 

Application activities

Write a short essay (not more than 500 words) explaining two solutions to the

challenges faced in prevention of genocide at each of the following levels:

international, regional and national.

 

End Unit Assessment

”We have learned important lessons. We know more keenly than ever that

genocide is not a single event but a process that evolves over time, and requires

planning and resources to carry out. As chilling as that sound, it also means that

with adequate information, mobilisation, courage and political will, genocide can

be prevented”

Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon

at the New York launch of Kwibuka 20,

the 20th commemoration of the genocide against the Tutsi

Figure 2.8: UN Secretary - General Ban Ki-moon (2007-2016)

Source: https: https://www.chinadialog.net/article/show/single/en/9523_

champion_of _the _paris -Agreement-ban-ki- moon-steps-down-Do you agree or disagree with the above quotation of the UN General – Secretary Ban Ki-moon. Comment on your position.

2. Evaluate three initiatives made by the Government of Rwanda to

prevent the reoccurrence of genocide both at national and international

levels.

3. To what extent does lack of an institution in charge of assessing the

factors that can lead to genocide be a challenge to the prevention of

genocide?

4. Read carefully the following extracts:

 

Text 1:

“The first thing I can tell them [other Rwandan children] I can explain that ethnic

or skin color is not very important in this world. We must live together without

discriminating against any person because we don’t choose what we are. That is

why I preferred to forgive rather than revenging”!

 

A genocide survivor

Text 2:

“We were walking with many other refugees near Ruyenzi, across the river from

Kigali. The road was so crowded with people. I was with my grandmother. As I was

walking, I heard a voice of a woman crying, and screaming from a child. I looked

to the side and saw a lady with a baby. I asked my grandmother to stop, to go

and see what is happening with the lady. But my grandmother didn’t want to go,

saying, “If we go there, they will kill us.”

And then I went down off the road alone, but other people continued on. The

mother was lying on her side with the child lying on top of her. She was around

one year, because she couldn’t walk. I was thinking, “Of course this mother will

die, but at least I can rescue this child. I never had a sister. If I rescue her, she will

be my sister.”

My grandmother said, “Make sure that you don’t ask me for anything to help you.”

I said, “I will take her; if I die, she will die. If she doesn’t die she will be my sister.” But

my grandmother said, “You should not walk close to us, because we may be killed.

Walk behind us, with a little distance between us and you.”

I was very, very committed. We kept going; I was carrying the baby on my back up

until we got to Zaire”.

Source: Aegis Trust Archives

Questions

a. After reading text 2, if it was you, what would you have done when the

grandmother prevented the young girl to go down off the road to see the

child? Justify your position.

b. By comparing text 1 and 2 explain how the measures taken by the

main characters can help to prevent genocide from happening again in

Rwanda. You can use direct quotes from the text.

5. Do you agree that visit of genocide memorial has a role in genocide

prevention? Justify your answer.

6. Write an essay in no more than 300 words on the importance of genocide

commemoration.

7. Imagine a genocide memorial you can create in your home community.

Describe what you can put in the memorial and explain how it can help to

prevent further genocide.

 

GLOSSARY

Tackle: To make a determined effort to deal with a difficult problem or situation.

Absurd: Completely ridiculous, not logical and sensible.

Overnight: During or for the night, happening suddenly or quickly.

Consensus: An opinion that all members of a given group agree with.

Antagonism: A feeling of hatred and opposition. A strong natural dislike; antipathy.