General Studies and Communication Skills

TOPIC 1 Living in Society: Peace and Conflicts

Key unit competence: To be able to analyse the causes and consequences of genocide with a special emphasis on the Genocide against the Tutsi and devise ways of reconstructing the Rwandan society as well as preventing genocide from happening again

Activity

1. Write a brief history on what happened during the Genocide against the Tutsi.

2. What were the consequences of the genocide in question (1) above?

3. What do you think can be done to prevent any future occurrence of genocide in Rwanda?

1.1 Concept of genocide

Answer the following questions.

1. Explain the meaning of the term genocide.

2. Research and find out the difference between genocide and other mass atrocities/crimes.

3. Discuss acts perpetrated on victims of genocide and other mass atrocities/crimes.

Th e 1948 United Nations (UN) convention on the prevention and punishment of the crime of genocide defines genocide as any act(s) committed with intent to destroy, in whole or part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious group. Th is involves the following acts:

• killing members of a certain group

• causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group

• deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part

• imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group

• forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.

Activity 2

Discuss and answer the following questions.

1. From the above listed acts, identify countries where acts of genocide have taken place.

2. Identify the violent acts of genocide infl icted on the Tutsi in 1994.

3. In your own opinion;

          a) What do you think should happen to people who incite others to commit genocide?

          b) What do you think should happen to people who conspire to commit genocide?

The five acts highlighted on page 1 were perpetrated against the Tutsi in Rwanda in 1994. Th is is why it is called the Genocide against the Tutsi. They were also perpetrated against the Jews by the Nazi (Holocaust/Shoah) in Germany. Mass atrocities have been witnessed in China, Cambodia, Tibet, Argentina, El Salvador, Chile, Guatemala, Colombia, Sudan (Darfur) and Bosnia. However, they are not forms of genocide.

Activity 3

Research and answer the following questions.

1. What led to collective or group violence in the following countries:

     a) Chile                  b) Sudan (Darfur)

     c) Bosnia                d) Tibet

2. Discuss the forms of violence meted out to the victims in the countries listed in question (1) above.

3. Do you think a solution would have been arrived at to prevent the collective violence that happened in the countries listed in question (1)?

Genocide is an international crime. States and their citizens should guard themselves against genocide. Race, religion, political ideology, ethnicity, nationality or cultural diff erences are the key elements on which propaganda to commit genocide builds.

Activity 4

Discuss and answer the following questions.

1. Find out the information or propaganda used to incite others to commit genocide in the following countries.

               a) Rwanda

                b) Germany

2. Justify the claim below in reference to question (1) above.

a) Comment on the view that leaders prepare the ground for genocide by using propaganda against those who are not on their side.

b) Prior preparations and financing are done deliberately to commit acts of genocide.

1.2 Development of genocide

Genocide never takes place suddenly. It is a culmination of a long process that usually takes place in distinct steps or stages. Various scholars have explained how genocide develops. Some of them include Gregory H. Stanton and Ervin Staub who have conceptualised the development of genocide as a progression. They have each provided a continuum of steps through which genocide develops.

Activity 1

1. Examine the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda and identify factors that led to its development.

2. In distinct steps, describe how the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda developed.

The 10 stages of genocide according to Gregory H. Stanton

1. Classification: Distinguishing people into ‘us’ and ‘them’ by ethnicity, race, religion or nationality.

2. Symbolisation: Th is involves giving names or symbols to classify the victim group to distinguish them.

3. Discrimination: Usually takes a legal, cultural, custom, or political form used by the perpetrator group. They use power and authority to deny the rights of the victim group.

4. Dehumanisation: Th e perpetrator group treats the victim group as second class citizens. Dehumanisation makes the victim group easily vulnerable to the dominant group.

5. Organisation: Special army units or militias are usually trained and supplied with arms in readiness to carry out the nefarious activities.

6. Polarisation: Efforts are made by the dominant group to draw a sharp wedge between them and the victim group. Hate groups spread propaganda to reinforce prejudice and hatred between the two groups.

7. Preparation: Th is is done to ensure that everything takes place. Adequate preparations that entail identifi cation of victims and tools for use are made.

8. Persecution: Th is stage begins with identification and separation of victims due to differences between them and the perpetrators. Death lists are drawn up.

9. Extermination: Killing of all the members of the victim group begins at this stage. With time, the killings take on genocidal proportions.

10. Denial: Denial is the surest indicator of further genocidal massacres. Perpetrators go to great lengths to conceal their acts and deny having committed any crime.

Violence usually evolves from one stage to another. In most situations, limited discrimination transforms into progressive discrimination, persecution and violence against victimised groups. Occurrence of intense violence and discrimination leads to a higher chance of it progressing to mass killings or genocide.

Activity 2

Answer the following questions.

1. Discuss each of the ten steps in the continuum of violence as developed by Gregory H. Stanton.

2. Identify the similarities and differences between the steps identified in Activity 1 on page 3 and those presented in the continuum of violence on page 3.

3. Examine the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda and explain how it developed using the continuum of violence developed by Gregory H. Stanton.

Lesser acts of discrimination and violence against the victim group, change and transform the perpetratorgroup negatively. Actions against the victim group are based on devaluing them. They are seen as less human hence the need to be removed from the perpetrators’ ‘world’. All efforts by the perpetrator group are geared towards committing violence against them.

Consequently, there is a bad change in the behaviour of the perpetrator group due to these efforts. Institutions are also changed or where possible, new ones are created to help further the goals of the perpetrator group. Th e attitude of by-standers and the rest of the population undergoes change too, for the worse. Th e victim group is then subjected to high level of intense violence which culminates in genocide.

Activity 3

Research and examine the continuum of violence in ten steps as devised by Ervin Staub, RLB and adapted by Aegis Trust.

1.3 Genocide in the world

Genocide has been observed in different parts of the world at various times. The main examples have been the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda and the Jews (Holocaust) in Germany.

1.3.1 The Genocide against the Tutsi

1.3.2 The Holocaustor Shoah

With the help of your teacher, identify a movie that is based on the Holocaust and watch it. After watching the movie, answer the following questions in groups.

1. Explain the events that lead to the occurrence of the Holocaust.

2. Identify Human Rights that were violated during the Holocaust.

3. Examine methods used by the Nazi to identify Jews during the Holocaust.

4. Describe how survivors were able to escape the Nazi during the Holocaust.

Th e term Holocaust is derived from two Greek words holos (whole) and Kaustos(burnt). It thus literally means ‘burning of the whole’. This term is used today to describe the Nazi extermination of the Jews and other anti-Jewish activities. This was done between 1939 and 1945 during the Nazi regime period in Germany under Adolf Hitler.

This period also witnessed the killing of other targeted groups such as the Soviet citizens and Soviet prisoners of war, ethnic Poles, physically and mentally challenged Germans, members of Jehovah Witness, Roma and other ethnic, sexual and political minorities. The number of people killed was 11 million, of which, 6 million were Jews.

Th e Holocaust took place in four distinct stages. They include:

a) Enactment of legislation against the Jews which was undertaken prior to the outbreak of the Second World War.

b) Establishment of concentration camps where people were used as slave labourers until they died.

c) Mass killings of Jews and political opponents by specialised units called Einsatzgruppe C.

d) Transportation of victims in boxcars by freight train to extermination camps where they were killed in gas chambers.

The Nazis did this on the pretext that they wanted to keep the Aryan race pure. Th is is what the government referred to as the ‘final solution’ (Endlosung) to the ‘Jewish problem’. The Wannsee Conference was convened to discuss measures needed to implement decisions that included killing all Jews. Large sections of the German population were either directly or indirectly involved in the mass killings. Jews and other targeted groups were killed in extermination camps or worked to death in concentration camps established in different parts of Europe. The table below shows the number of Jews killed in the extermination camps.

Hitler’s followers supported an anti-Semitic policy, that is, ‘the final solution to the Jewish problem’. Th e Germans had been made to attribute all their sufferings to the Jews. Th e anti-Semitic policy was pursued cautiously. However, the Nazi, under Adolf Hitler, took it to greater heights.

Not all Germans participated in the genocide against the Jews. Some Germans protected them by arranging for their safe exit. Unfortunately, those caught by the Nazi suffered the same fate that befell the Jews. Th e genocide was stopped when the allied troops managed to remove the German forces from the occupied territories and later from Germany itself. It was during the Nuremberg trials that the scale of the genocide perpetrated against the Jews and other targeted groups came to the limelight.

Activity 4

Research more on the Holocaust and answer the following questions.

1. Why do you think the Nazi blamed the Jews for all their problems?

2. Describe what used to happen to the Jews and other targeted groups in extermination camps.

3. Discuss the development of the Holocaust using the ten steps according to the continuum of violence developed by Gregory H. Stanton.

4. Was the international community in a position to stop the Holocaust from taking place?

5. Discuss why the international community and other nations took a long time to stop the Nazi from killing the Jews.

6. Explain measures taken by the international community to ensure genocide never takes place again in the world.

7. Identify actions taken by the Jews to keep the memory of the Holocaust and promote healing and reconciliation.

8. Comment on the Holocaust and identify lessons learnt from it.

9. Assess the similarities and differences in the occurrence of the two genocides we have discussed (Holocaust and Genocide against the Tutsi).

10. Was the international community’s response similar in the two genocides above? Give reasons for your opinions.

1.4 Consequences of genocide in general 

Assess the effects of genocide on an individual, community and country.

The world has witnessed genocide and mass killings in different places. Genocide has the following consequences:

1. Loss of lives

Many lives are lost in the event of a genocide occurring, for instance, 6 million Jews and more than 1,074,017 Tutsi were killed in the genocides.

2. Sustainment of injuries

Many people sustain injuries during genocide perpetration. Such injuries change the lives of survivors forever.

Activity 2

Activity 3

Identify a genocide survivor near your school. Pay him or her a visit and ask the following questions.

1. How did he or she survive the genocide?

2. Does he or she experience PTSD?

3. What has been done to help him or her to overcome PTSD?

4. How can survivors who experience PTSD be helped to enable them lead productive lives?

5. During the genocide, was he or she displaced?

6. Where did he or she flee to for safety?

7. What was his or her experience as an internally or externally displaced person?

5. High number of orphans and other vulnerable dependants

The high number of deaths associated with genocide usually results in a high number of orphans and other vulnerable dependants. As a result, the society is tasked to take care of the orphans. In worse cases, such children are left to fend for themselves and most end up as child-headed families.

Activity 4

Examine what was done in support of orphans whose parents or guardians died during the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda.

6. Spread of sexually transmitted diseases and infections

Women and girls are raped and in some cases, contract sexually transmitted infections and diseases such as HIV and AIDS, gonorrhoea, herpes or syphilis.

7. Damaged or destroyed relationships

The victim group and the perpetrator group usually develop mistrust towards one another. Th is may prevent them from working together in future. Genocide damages or destroys the good relationships that existed between the victims and perpetrators.

8. Destruction of property

During the occurence of a genocide, the victims’ properties are usually targeted too. Some are destroyed while others are illegally or forcefully acquired by the perpetrators.

All the genocides witnessed in the world have led to negative impacts. Th is is why the occurrence of genocide should be avoided by any society. Human beings should not plan or implement a plan to murder others. Rationality should guide us into solving any perceived or real problems in a peaceful and an amicable manner.

Activity 5

All efforts should be made to keep the occurrence of genocide at bay. Th is should be done at the individual, societal and national as well as international levels. Some of the ways that promote peace, social cohesion and peaceful coexistence in order to prevent genocide include the following:

1.5.1 Development of critical thinking

Critical thinking lies at the heart of social cohesion. When people think critically, they are able to make conscious, responsible and positive decisions.Therefore, when incited to kill others they fail to honour such calls.

Activity 2

1. Evaluate the effects of spreading propaganda, stereotyping, and racial and ethnic profiling in the development of genocide.

2. Discuss what can be done to prevent the effects evaluated in question (1) above.

3. In your own opinion, what brings about hatred among groups of people living together in a country?

1.5.2 Promotion of empathy

Empathy is critical in achieving social cohesion, which keeps genocide at bay. Empathy is the ability to sense and understand the feelings of other people as if they were our own. Developing the feeling of empathy begins from the mind. We need to process feelings through successive mental activities by thinking, understanding, learning and remembering to feel the pain of others.Being empathetic/empathic does not lower ones value in any way. Instead, it makes us humane and goes a long way in trying to help the victims. Empathy enables us to understand the perspective and to feel the pain of fellow human beings.

Activity 3

1. Identify vulnerable members in your society.

2. Discuss how you can show concern for the pain of vulnerable people in your society.

1.5.3 Active by standership

A bystander is a person who is in a position to know about or see events happening in his or her environment. However, they are not directly involved in them. Th ere are two types of bystanders, internal bystanders (members of the population where violence is occurring) and external bystanders (outside groups, organisations and nations).

Active bystandership means that individuals, organisations and nations should intervene whenever situations that may lead to violence in a country occur. People should promote morality with responsibility and render both material and non-material support when called upon or on their own initiative when violence occurs. Active bystandership should be promoted in all segments of the population. All leaders should speak against any form of verbal and physical attacks in any section of the population. To increase acts of active bystandership, it is vital to foster values such as empathy, love, respect and care for other people’s welfare.

Activity 4

        

1.6 Consequences of Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda

Activity 1

Write a report about the consequences of the Genocide against the Tutsi.

The Genocide against the Tutsi had various consequences. Some of them include the following:

1. Massive loss of lives

1,074,017 Tutsi were killed during the genocide. The Genocide against the Tutsi was carried out by the genocidaires, the majority executed it while those in authority mostly supervised it.

2. Destruction of property

Destruction of property occurred during the Genocide against the Tutsi, where anarchy and lawlessness reigned supreme. Private and public property was destroyed and looted. Homes were torched and destroyed and animals killed during the mayhem.

3. Increased insecurity

In 1994, Rwanda was the third highest importer of weapons in Africa. Most of these weapons had been bought deliberately to perpetrate the genocide. Wrong use of arms caused violence and unrest in the country leading to insecurity.

4. Post-traumatic stress disorder

The genocide had psychological consequences for people who witnessed horrible scenes. They experienced depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Th e trauma experienced by the survivors was deep and those who healed from it were left with psychological scars.

5. High incidence of orphans

Many children lost their parents during the Genocide against the Tutsi. Some of these children were left to fend for themselves. Th is led to the increase in the phenomenon of child-headed households (CHHs).

6. Human Rights violation

Violation of Human Rights began prior to the genocide but it reached its peak during the genocide.

Activity 2

1. Discuss the types of Human Rights that were violated during the Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda.

2. Explain the consequences of violation of Human Rights during the genocide.

3. Identify steps taken by the government and society to support vulnerable survivors of the genocide.

7. Destruction of the social systems

The traditional protective structures, which held society together for many years, were totally destroyed. Family networks and the judicial and education systems were severely affected. Efforts at rebuilding the structures were challenging. All these challenges made the post-genocide government experience problems in rebuilding the country. Th e country was also affected by the spread of HIV and AIDS and poverty. These issues were serious challenges to the efforts of the new government at rebuilding the society.

Activity 3

Examine efforts by the post-genocide government at rebuilding the damaged social structures in Rwanda.

8. Mistrust among neighbours

Participation in the genocide by people known to the victims spoiled relations among neighbours. Th e victims mistrusted their neighbours who had participated in the genocide or had been passive bystanders. Relations between the two groups were affected.

1.7 Ways of addressing the consequences of genocide with special application to Rwanda

Activity 1

1. Explain ways in which the post-genocide government, civil society groups, non-governmental organisations, individuals and the community have used to address the consequences of Genocide against the Tutsi.

2. Examine ways in which community members can help reduce mistrust between the survivors and perpetrators of the Genocide against the Tutsi.

3. Talk about the Gacaca Courts that have promoted communal healing and rebuilding national cohesion.

The government alongside other partners and citizens, has actively led in efforts aimed at addressing the consequences of genocide. Various measures have been adopted to deal with the consequences of genocide. Some of these measures include the following:

1.7.1 Gacaca courts

The Gacaca Courts were used to find out what happened during the Genocide against the Tutsi. Rwandans came together to talk about what happened in 1994. Th is laid the foundation for peace and reconciliation. A total of 1,958,634 genocide-related cases were tried through Gacaca Courts. They helped speed up genocide trials and strengthened unity and reconciliation by finding out the truth about genocide and putting an end to the culture of impunity.

1.7.2 Social reconstruction and reconciliation

The Rwandan society was gravely affected by the genocide. Its social structures were completely destroyed. Social reconstruction means rebuilding the social structures that were once destroyed. Reconciliation refers to the process of making parties in a conflict mend and then go on improving relations with each other. Th e two parties, after reconciling, re-establish friendly relations having put aside their differences.

A third party usually facilitates reconciliation by bringing the two parties in conflict to an agreement. Through the third party, the aggrieved parties open up for dialogue to arrive at a peaceful reconciliation. Reconciliation is an interactive process that requires a cooperative effort between the parties involved. Individuals or groups are encouraged to talk about the painful experiences they went through during the genocide. Th is enables healing to take root among the survivors and perpetrators alike. The government can do this by making efforts to improve active by standership, and promoting positive moral values and peaceful coexistence through policies and practices.

Activity 2

Identify ways through which individuals, the society and government ensured social reconstruction and reconciliation were achieved in the post-genocide Rwandan society.

Reconciliation is usually an interactive process which demands that parties involved move together for its attainment. It takes place over time, requires trust and risk taking. Trudy Govier provides the following 11-step process as being vital in the reconciliation process. Th e steps include:

For social reconstruction and reconciliation to be achieved, all parties involved in conflict should go through the reconciliation process. Redress should take place for social reconstrucion of the Rwandan society to be achieved. Th is will bring about restoration of the broken social structures.

Activity 3

Discuss and answer the following questions.

1. Examine the steps used to achieve social reconstruction and reconciliation in post-genocide Rwanda.

2. Compare the steps in (1) above with the 11-step process of reconciliation as published by Trudy Govier.

3. Assess how the social reconstruction and reconciliation process was handled in Rwanda after the genocide.

4. Explain challenges faced by individuals, the community and the post-genocide government in Rwanda during the social reconstruction and reconciliation process.

5. Discuss how individuals, the community and the post-genocide government resolved the challenges mentioned in (4) above.

6. Examine the importance of apologising towards the improvement of relationships destroyed in a conflict.

1.7.3 Forgiveness

Forgiveness is the process of letting go feelings of anger and resentment towards an individual who has done something bad or caused harm. Forgiveness benefits both parties to a conflict and is crucial in helping to preserve and enhance relationships. Forgiveness usually takes time and demands patience from the parties involved.

Counsellors have a role to play in achieving this process. Forgiveness is usually voluntary and people should not be forced to forgive. After forgiveness is achieved, reconciliation can now set in. Forgiveness enables victims and perpetrators of genocide to achieve reconciliation and sustainable peace. According to Trudy Govier, forgiveness demands that the wrongdoer acknowledges his or her misdeeds to pave way for forgiveness.

Victims should not take revenge on the perpetrators. This is because forgiveness is better and healthier in a post-genocide environment. We should remember that in forgiving the offender, the victim acknowledges him or her as a human being worthy of dignity and with the moral freedom to change his or her ways.

Activity 4

1. Look at the pictures below and write a summary of what is happening.

  

  

2. Justify why forgiveness is good as opposed to revenge.

3. Examine the impact of revenge on an individual and the society at social and political levels.

1.7.4 Benevolence

Benevolence refers to the willingness to help, being generous or performing acts of kindness. Human beings are usually capable of expressing benevolence regardless of whether they are victims or perpetrators of violence. It involves development of empathic/empathetic feelings, which leads an individual to take responsibility for assisting victims.

People who have suffered usually care about other peoples’ suffering especially if they have experienced protective and healing processes. Th is involves having been helped by others or acting on other peoples’ behalf at the time of suffering. Therefore, the victim group reaches out to assist other groups undergoing similar situations to them. Th omas Vincent Flores developed a continuum of benevolence which together with relevant ideas from Ervin Staub, served as a basis for an adaptation that was made by Aegis Trust in the framework of the Rwanda Peace Education Programme in 2013. Th is adapted continuum of benevolence by Aegis Trust comprises ten steps as shown on page 22.

  

There is a need to have peace to address the consequences of genocide. We should all feel part of the Rwandan community and appreciate one another. This can be achieved by living together in harmony without conflict and tension.

The process of benevolence goes through the ten steps above. The 8th step, community, a feeling of fellowship with others resonates well with ‘Ndi Umunyarwanda’ which means ‘I am Rwandan’. It enables us to see one another, regardless of the differences that may exist between us, as one people belonging to one community. Th is has the potential of healing the wounds that were inflicted by the genocide against the Tutsi. We are all brothers and sisters; we belong to one family, Rwanda.

Ndi Umunyarwanda means a call for individual and collective responsibility in rebuilding the broken social structures. It also rekindles the true Rwandan spirit of oneness, offers a reflection on the painful past and provides the determination to build a brighter future. It invokes the promotion of patriotism, integrity, self-worth, solidarity, tolerance, self-reliance, nationalism, social cohesion and shared language, values, norms and cultural practices.

All citizens of Rwanda need to keep the spirit of Ndi Umunyarwanda alive as they owe it to themselves and to future generations. Th is will ensure that the social reconstruction and reconciliation process is not compromised and brings about national cohesion.

Activity 5

Discuss and answer the following questions.

1. Using the continuum of benevolence adapted by Aegis Trust, bring out its relevance to various benevolent acts carried out in Rwanda.

2. Align the 8th step of the continuum of benevolence with ‘Ndi Umunyarwanda’ and show how it can help in healing the wounds infl icted by the Genocide against the Tutsi.

3. Look at the pictures below and discuss what is happening. Explain what individuals and members of the community can do to alleviate poverty in the country.

4. Hold a talk in class based on Ndi Umunyarwanda; Turi Abanyarwanda.

1.8 Prevention of any future occurrence of genocide in Rwanda

Activity 1

Examine measures taken by the post-genocide society in Rwanda to prevent any or the future recurrence of genocide.

Prevention of genocide demands a concerted effort from all individuals, the government and its partners alike. It should take a political, economic, social and psychological approach. Economic development, increased security during post-conflict reconstruction, prevention of new cycles of violence, an effective judicial system and development of other structural elements are important steps towards preventing any future occurrence of genocide. Essential to the prevention of genocide in Rwanda is the promotion of humanistic and national values such as the following:

1.8.1 Peace building

Genocide begins in the minds of the people; therefore, it is also in the people’s minds that defences of peace must be constructed. Peace building involves various efforts that usually begin with the creation of a culture of peace which is accompanied by harmony, cooperation and co-existence among the people.

A peaceful environment gives rise to behaviour that respects life and human dignity. It promotes observance of Human Rights and fundamental freedoms, rejection of violence and commitment to principles of freedom, justice, solidarity, understanding between people, observance of open communication, cooperation, harmony and observance of the rule of law.

Every effort should thus be channelled to the fulfilment of these needs to enable peace building to be achieved. Th is requires that we all put our forces together as individuals and members of the community to help the government and other partners, both local and international, to promote peace. Some of the peace building activities may include rebuilding ruined houses, cleaning up neighbourhoods, participating in business projects and sports. Such measures reduce mistrust, antagonism and hostility between conflicting groups.

Peace building equally requires the administration of justice in post-genocide society. Punishment of key perpetrators usually helps in reconciliation. In addition, victims are relieved when public discussions are held and other forms of justice are set on course, for example, the Gacaca courts and Ndi Umunyarwanda talks or retreats.

Activity 2

1. Discuss efforts you can make to promote peace building in a post-conflict community.

2. Identify hurdles you are bound to face in your efforts? 3. How can you overcome the hurdles identified in question (2) above?

4. With the help of your teacher, invite a peace ambassador to give a talk in class. Ask him or her about the achievements he or she has witnessed after initiating peace-building projects in the community.

1.8.2 Resilience

Resilience refers to a person’s ability to recover easily and quickly from a problem or illness. The Genocide against the Tutsi was a great misfortune to individuals, community and the state. People went through horrendous moments during the 100 days of genocide. Survivors recovered at different rates. This is because the rate of resilience varies from individual to individual. Survivors need to gain renewed trust with those they interact with in life. This is cultivated by taking care of other people. This experience leads to strong feelings of empathy, caring, sympathy and responsibility to help those in need. Generally, survivors should be exposed to experiences that express love, hope and care. One also needs moral courage to help those in need. This may only be possible where the basic and psychological needs of the survivors are adequately catered for.

1.8.3 Benevolence

Benevolence means the desire or inclination to do good to others. We should be good and generous to those around us regardless of the differences we have. Th is enables us to prevent any harm being done to other people. Benevolence should be expressed in our words and actions to fellow human beings. Th is demands that we develop trust, care and love for other people.

Activity 3

Conduct research on individuals who went to great lengths to protect the victims of the Genocide against the Tutsi in our country. Select one individual and write a testimony based on what he or she did for the victim(s).

1.8.4 Awareness and memory

Awareness and memory about the genocide against the Tutsi should be made through a variety of ways such as:

• Inclusion of genocide studies in the curriculum.

• Establishing genocide memorials and museums.

• Establishing days for genocide commemorations.

• Coverage of the horrors of the genocide in mass media.

• Recording genocide events in books and other sources.

Through the above measures, awareness and memory of the genocide will remain in the minds of all people.

Activity 4

1. Visit a genocide memorial site near your school. Ask the resource person at the site to tell you the history of the place. Alternatively, you can visit a key site online for a virtual tour of a genocide memorial that you know.

2. Write a report of how the genocide ideology was spread, the preparation and executions of mass killings at the site of the memorial.

3. Give an account of how survivors survived the ordeal.

4. Explain what could have been done to prevent the mass killings.

5. Explain how the inclusion of genocide studies in the curriculum is beneficial in preventing the reccurence of genocide in the country.

1.8.5 Telling the truth

To prevent any future occurrence of genocide, we should be truthful about what occurred. Telling the truth is one of the ways that enables a society to give room for reconciliation.

1.8.6 Repentance and forgiveness

Activity 5

1. Examine the impact of revenge in a post-genocide society.

2. Analyse the effect of repentance and forgiveness in post-genocide Rwanda.

All religions stress the importance of repentance and forgiveness in addressing human conflict. Those culpable of genocide should repent and the survivors should forgive. As we have already observed, the perpetrators must acknowledge their culpability of acts of genocide and apologise. Th is gives room for reconciliation and peace building efforts in a post-genocide society.

1.8.7 Reconciliation

Any attempts at reconciliation should begin with justice, individual and collective responsibility, acknowledgement and forgiveness. These factors are vital in the journey towards reconciliation. In a post-genocide society, the need for reconciliation can arise at the following levels:

• Individual

• Family

• Small group or community

• Intergroup or intercommunity

• National

• International

For reconciliation to occur, the elements of truth, mercy, peace and justice must be present. It is vital to repent, forgive and focus our attention on how we can rebuild our country. Reconciliation demands looking at the past and asking what was done. In the future, we need to ask how one can move beyond the wrongs of the past, having understood and acknowledged those wrongs. Reconciliation leads to positive and constructive relationships. This makes former enemies see each other as fellow human beings who live and work together. It brings forth relationships characterised by respect, acceptance and trust. To enable healing, the survivors and perpetrators should both feel associated with the experience of commemorating the genocide against the Tutsi.

Activity 6

1. Research and find out challenges experienced by the post-genocide society in Rwanda in their efforts to promote reconciliation.

2. Explain how the challenges were resolved in regard to their impact on the survivors, perpetrators, regional stability and peace.

1.8.8 Dialogue and consensus building

Genocide reccurence finds a fertile ground where people do not talk to each other or disagree on issues. Everyone should be enabled to freely communicate their ideas. An open environment and mutual respect gives rise to dialogue and consensus building. It also demands accommodation of diverse opinions. Any emergence of controversial views should be handled in an honest manner.

1.8.9 Active listening

Active listening involves effective communication. Freedom of expression should be allowed for all individuals in a post-genocide society. However, such freedom comes with restrictions which call for responsibility to refrain from its abuse. Active listening demands that we shun ignorance and irresponsibility in our day-to-day lives. It also demands that we avoid being passive listeners. We should know what other people think and feel and avoid being selfish and equally take responsibility where we see Human Rights are being violated.

                           

Activity 7

1. Identify instances where dialogue, consensus building and active listening enabled members of the society to resolve conflicts.

2. Role-play such a scenario in question (1) above.

3. Explain the importance of dialogue, consensus building and active listening in post-genocide Rwanda.

1.8.10 Inclusiveness

All human beings are equal and no one should be discriminated against in any way. All members of the society, regardless of the differences that may exist, should be treated equally and fairly. All people should be given all the services they require and equal opportunities and be subjected to similar laws by the state and its agents. Exclusivity has been known to engender genocide. Every effort should thus be made to bring every citizen on board.

Activity 8

Debate the motion ‘The international community has made every effort to prevent the recurrence of genocide in the world’.

Assessment Exercise 1.0

1. Explain the concept of genocide.

2. Identify how genocide develops using the continuum of violence devised by Gregory H. Stanton.

3. Compare and contrast the following genocides that have been experienced in the world.

   a) Holocaust/Shoah

   b) Th e Genocide against the Tutsi

4. Discuss the consequences of genocide.

5. Examine ways in which genocide can be prevented in any society.

6. Analyse the causes and consequences of the Genocide against the Tutsi.

7. Explain ways of addressing the consequences of genocide with special application to Rwanda.

8. Discuss ways through which future occurence of Genocide in Rwanda can be prevented.

9. Describe Rwandan values and explain how they contribute to preventing genocide ideology.

10. Examine the way members of your community live with each other. Does the behaviour that individuals display fit into a cohesive society?

11. Describe how you can dissociate from and speak out against evil and violent actions in society.

12. What are your feelings on the Genocide against the Tutsi and the Holocaust?

Project

Refer to the Student’s Book on page 3 on the Genocide against the Tutsi and analyse how it developed in ten steps as developed by Gregory H. Stanton. Devise ways that would prevent each step of the genocide from happening again and help reconstruct the Rwandan society.