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UNIT 1:Fieldwork techniques
Topic area: Practical Geography
Sub-topic area: Fieldwork and statistics
Key unit competence By the end of this unit, you should be able to use appropriate fieldwork techniques to collect, record and analyse geographical data.
Unit objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
• Define the concept of fieldwork.
• Identify the various methods used in data collection during fieldwork.
• State the advantages and disadvantages of each method of fieldwork.
• State the fieldwork procedures from the first day to the last day of fieldwork
Definition of fieldwork
Activity 1.1
Work in groups of three. A group of students from Maranyundo Girls High School visited a tea farm in Rubavu District to study agriculture in the area.
1. What is the name given to the activity the learners are involved in?
2. Give reasons why you think it is important for learners to carry out the activity.
3. Have you ever participated in such activities before? If yes, tell a short story to the class about that experience.
Geography is a practical subject which requires practical methods of learning. Proper understanding of the subject sometimes requires that a learner participates in real life situations. These situations can be found in school in the classroom and out of the classroom. The practical work allows students to observe, record and interpret what they see in the field.
The term fieldwork is made up of two words, ‘field’ and ‘work’. Any place outside the classroom is referred to as a field. Fieldwork therefore refers to all learning undertakings or activities that are done outside the classroom. Fieldwork is the practical work that is done outside the classroom to gather new information. It involves observing, collecting, recording, presenting and interpreting geographical data.
In fieldwork, the environment is the major source of data or information gathered. Environmental problems can be solved using fieldwork. Geographers and students can use fieldwork to solve the problems affecting the society by finding out the causes and solutions.
Case study
Work in pairs.
During her first lesson, the Geography teacher at Dihiro Secondary School in Eastern Province asked Senior Four students to go outside the classroom. She asked each one of them to write short notes on any two geographical aspects. After twenty minutes, they went back to class. She randomly selected some of them and asked them what they had written about. Miss Mukashema Ellen noted down transport and agriculture. Edwin Manzi wrote cutting down trees, cattle rearing and soil erosion.
(a) Name the activity that took place in the first twenty minutes of the lesson.
(b) Why do you think the teacher asked her students to go and study the geographical aspects outside the classroom?
(c) Share your findings in a class discussion.
Fieldwork methods
Activity 1.2
Work in groups of three.
1. Use the Internet and other geographical documents such as textbooks, journals and magazines to find out methods used to collect information in fieldwork.
2. Mention the method used by the students in the case study above to identify the geographical aspects in their school environment.
3. Name some of its advantages and disadvantages.
4. Write down your findings and compile them for a class discussion.
There are various methods that are used in data collection during fieldwork.
Researchers use these methods when searching for facts and ideas in relation to a given field of study. Fieldwork data collection methods are classified into the following.
• Primary data collection methods.
• Secondary data collection methods. Primary data collection methods include the following.
• Observation
• Use of questionnaires
• Interviews
• Recording
• Sampling
• Measurement
• Physical testing e.g testing samples of soils and soil texture.
• Photographs
Secondary data collection methods involve reading from available documents in the library and public offices. This is also known as literature review. Some of the primary fieldwork data collection methods are discussed below.
(a) Observation method
Activity 1.3
Do this in pairs.
1. Go outside your classroom and study the environment.
2. Describe the nature of the vegetation around your school.
3. Record and discuss your findings.
4. Name the data collection method used to describe the vegetation around your school.
5. State the advantages and disadvantages of the methods mentioned in (4) above
The observation method involves seeing and interpreting geographical phenomena in relation to the topic of study. Through observation, the researcher identifies and notes down the relationship existing between various geographical aspects. This method is best for collecting information on topics such as vegetation, climate, external landforms and relief features, rocks, wildlife and man-made features. The method gives reliable and accurate data.
Advantages of observation
(a) Direct information
This method provides first-hand information that is not altered in any way. The learners or researchers get information about what is in the field as visibly experienced.
(b) Less expensive
This method is cheap. It does not involve any costs. The data is only collected through sight-seeing. Therefore, it can be used by anyone with a good eye sight.
(c) Updated information
It is possible to collect up-to-date information since it is real-time observation.
(d) It is not affected by language barrier
This method can be used by researchers who do not understand the language of the locals in an area of study. Learners with special needs, such as those who cannot speak well, can observe and note down the relevant information.
(e) Sound judgement
This method allows for application of logical judgement of geographical facts. The researcher makes critical analysis of what is being observed and makes distinctive judgments.
(f) Limited misinformation
The researcher or learners obtain accurate first hand information. There is no room for misinformation, hidden or exaggerated information.
(g) Freedom
This method gives the researcher freedom during the fieldwork study. There is little or no direct interaction with other people as it is the case with interviewing. Therefore, shy learners find it friendlier.
Easy memory
Observation facilitates permanent memory in an individual. This is due to visual collection of data. Usually, what is seen can hardly be forgotten by the researcher or learners.
(i) Acquisition of skills
Observation provides the unintended skill acquisition. This is because apart from observation, it involves other expertise such as recording and interpretation. The skills acquired may be used in other circumstances or in the researcher’s daily activities.
(j) Information is obtained immediately
The researcher or learners are able to get the needed information on the spot. This avoids delays like those experienced when using questionnaires.
(k) Used with other methods
Observation can be used together with other methods of data collection. This saves time and ensures the right and reliable data is collected.
Disadvantages of observation method
(a) Unfit for visually impaired or blind learners
The observation method does not favour learners or researchers with visual impairment. People with visual impairments include the blind, short sighted or colour blind people.
(b) It is tiresome
The method can be tiring to learners and researchers. This is because it involves movement from place to place trying to find out what is relevant for study.
(c) It is expensive
The method is costly to use especially due to the movements involved. Some of the equipment required for use might also be expensive to purchase. For example binoculars and cameras.
(d) The data is based on the researcher’s preferences
The data collected through observation tend to reflect the researcher’s interests . It is therefore subjective. (e) Failure to get personal information
The observation method does not enable the researcher to get personal information from people. This is so with data that concerns historical backgrounds, level of income and dates of occurrence of some events.
(f) Data is dependent on the researcher’s analytical abilities
Observation is subjected to the researcher’s analytical abilities and the state of his or her sight. Often times, this leads to misinterpretation of some aspects of geographical importance. For example, the size of a tea plantation can be described as small, medium or very large by various researchers or learners during observation.
(g) It is difficult to use in remote areas
The observation method only applies in areas which can be accessed by the researcher. Therefore, important information may be left out due to barriers that make some places remote. The barriers include floods, dense vegetation, poor drainage (water logged areas)and absence of transport facilities such as roads.
This method depends on the weather conditions prevailing during the time of study. In case the day is fogy, misty, or raining heavily, poor visibility makes it difficult to collect data.
(i) It depends on observation skills
This method requires observation skills that the researcher may lack. The researcher may fail to find the relevant information through observation. This occurs due to failure to observe critically and to differentiate between varying geographical aspects. Sometimes, a researcher may fail to determine the interrelationship between what is being observed and the objectives of the study. This happens due to lack of experience and observation skills.
Activity 1.4
Fill in the form below with the required information.
Instructions:
1. Please put a tick √ in the box next to your answer of choice.
2. You can also write in the spaces provided where necessary.
The form you have filled in Activity 1.4 is called a questionnaire. A questionnaire is a set of logically set questions used by the researcher in the field to gather information. The researcher then collects them back for analysis from the respondents. A respondent is a person who fills the questionnaire and returns it to the researcher.
A researcher can send the questionnaires to the people who will fill in the questions known as respondents by:
• directly handing the questionnaires to the respondents
• using the post office • using email
• courier ser vices such as Excel Transportation Company in Rwanda.
Questionnaires are mostly used under the following circumstances:
(a) When the intended respondents are far. For example, if a researcher resides in Rubavu district in Western Province and wants to collect data from respondents in Gatsibo district in Eastern Province, he or she may need to use questionnaires.
(b) When the respondent is too busy for a face to face interaction.
(c) When information is to be obtained from high profile respondents who are not easily available for face to face interviews.
(d) When the researcher is dealing with a large population. It may not be possible for him or her to interview everyone. Using questionnaires becomes appropriate.
(e) When one of the parties involved in the study is dumb but able to read and write.
There are two different types of questionnaires. These are:
(a) open-ended questionnaires
(b) closed-ended questionnaires.
Open-ended questionnaires
These questionnaires have questions which do not limit the respondents’ answers. The respondent is free to give as much information as possible. This is dependent on the nature of the questions and the answers required. The questions allow the respondents to provide answers that they think are relevant to the questions. For example:
(a) What are the challenges faced as a result of land use in this area?
…………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………
Note: The respondent is free to list as many challenges as possible. He or she suggests solutions to the challenges. The researcher can use additional papers to give more information.
Closed-ended questionnaires
These are questionnaires that give possible answers that a respondent can choose from. Options such as ‘Yes’, ‘No’ and ‘I don’t know’
among other options are used. In some instances, the respondent is requested to tick the appropriate answer. In this case, the respondent is limited to the researcher’s proposed answers. For example:
Characteristics of a good questionnaire
The researchers should put the following into consideration while designing a questionnaire.
(a) The questions should be short and precise. A respondent should quickly be able to know what the question wants.
(b) The questions should be nonprovocative. They should respect the values of a respondent.
(c) The questions used in a questionnaire should not be subjective or show any bias.
(d) All the questions used in the questionnaire should be strictly related to the topic of study.
(e) The questions should be designed using the appropriate language for easy understanding and interpretation by the respondent. Hard words, difficult terminologies, jargon and unusual vocabularies should also be avoided.
(f) The questionnaires should be prepared in the language understood by the respondent. This should be so even if it means using the local language of the respondent. It does not matter if the language used is not known to the researcher provided that the expected outcomes are clear.
Advantages of questionnaires
(a) The questionnaire method holds a comparative advantage. All the respondents are asked similar questions. This makes it possible for the researcher to compare answers. This provides a chance for the researcher to have quality information or feedback.
(b) This method is convenient to the researcher. He or she is not bothered with physical presence in the field. A respondent can fill in a questionnaire and send it to the researcher for analysis.
(c) The questionnaire when well designed enables the researcher to gather a lot of information since it can be administered to a wide range of the respondents.
(d) The questionnaire method provides the researcher with first-hand information. This is because the data is given by the original source of data, the respondent.
(e) The method enables the researcher to save time. This is because a large number or respondents is dealt with at the same time.
(f) The questionnaire method allows the application of general analysis of data.
This is because the information got is from a large population.
(g) The method enables the respondents to have ample time to think critically before answering.
Disadvantages of questionnaires
(a) Some of the respondents have poor hand writings that the researcher cannot read. Other respondents give answers in an unclear manner that the researcher may fail to extract important information from it.
(b) The method is associated with rigidity and lacks flexibility. The information given can hardly be altered by the researcher without the consent of the respondent.
(c) The researcher may not be able to obtain the needed information in time. The respondent takes his or her time answering the questions without considering the urgency and significance of the data.
(d) The questionnaire method can only be applied to literate people who know how to write and read. This means that, important information possessed by uneducated people is rendered useless.
(e) The method involves high costs of purchasing the materials used. They include papers, pens, typing and postal fees. All these put together makes it expensive especially when dealing with a large population of respondents. (f) The questionnaire method is exposed to failure due to the reluctance by some respondents. Some of the questionnaires might never be returned to the researcher. (g) The respondents are likely to make mistakes, omissions or sometimes exaggerate the information provided.
Task 1.1
1. Define a questionnaire.
2. Explain circumstances that may influence the learners to use questionnaires while conducting a fieldwork study.
3. E xa m i n e t h e a d va n ta g e s a n d disadvantages of using questionnaires as a method of data collection.
4. Identify and describe the main types of questionnaires that researchers may use.
5. Outline the characteristics of a good questionnaire.
(c) Interviews
Case study
Mr. Habimana is a Geography teacher in a high school in the Eastern Province. One day, he introduced a lesson on soil erosion to his students. He sent them out for a field study. He asked them to go and find out the history of how their grandparents controlled erosion. He divided his students into groups. Rukundo, Kasine and Mukashema were put in one group. They went to their village to begin their research. They found an old man who introduced himself to them as Mr. Karemera.
(a) Explain how the three students would go about their study.
(b) Which information collection method is suitable for them to use?
(c) Record your findings for a class presentation and discussion.
Interviewing is the art of getting information through holding a dialogue with a respondent. It refers to a face-to-face discussion between a researcher and a respondent. In this case, the researcher who asks questions is called an interviewer and the respondent who answers the questions is known as an interviewee. A set of questions are designed in relation to the topic and the objectives of the fieldwork study. The answers given by the interviewee are recorded for further examination after the field visit.
Conditions that favour interviews
This method is delicate and requires a set of ethical guidelines. These guidelines enable a platform for a beneficial interaction between the interviewer and interviewee. The following are some of the conditions that must be adhered to as one prepares for an interview with a respondent.
(a) The researcher should behave in a respectable manner as he or she approaches a probable interviewee. The first encounter matters a lot and determines the whole process.
(b) The interviewer should avoid leading a respondent on by asking leading questions. These questions give a clue to the respondent as to the answers that are expected. A researcher should allow all answers to come from the interviewee without interference. Proposing answers to the respondent corrupts his or her mind.
(c) It is very important to pay attention to the language used. The interviewer should use the language the respondent understands and finds comfortable to use. For example, mixing English with the local languages confuses the respondent. Using French when the interviewee’s language is Kinyarwanda will lead to a communication failure and lack of adequate information.
(d) The researcher should create a friendly atmosphere so that the interviewee feels free and relaxed. This boosts the confidence of the interviewee.
(e) The researcher should ensure that all the data given is held with great confidentiality. That is, the interviewees are always conscious over the data given because they fear legal implications of what they say. Therefore, it is important to make sure that the interviewee understands that the information given is strictly for academic purposes. Building trust in the interviewee is of great significance in fieldwork studies. (f) The interviewer should avoid making unnecessary interruptions during the interview session. He should show interest in what is being said by the interviewee. Habits such as receiving calls, greeting passersby or unnecessary walkouts should be avoided. The researcher should have good communication skills.
(g) It is a good gesture to give a word of appreciation before asking another question. For example, after the interviewee has answered a question, politely thank him or her for the information.
Advantages of using interviews
(a) This method enables the researcher to obtain much more information than can be found from questionnaires. The interviewee can volunteer helpful information such as the history of events and phenomena that could not be easily understood from written information.
(b) It facilitates easy flow of information from the respondent to the researcher making the whole exercise comfortable.
(c) The method offers first-hand information since the respondent directly gets the data from the original source.
(d) The interviewing method allows the data collected to be assessed in time. In case of misinterpretations, the interviewee is asked to make clarifications on the spot. This makes this method more flexible than other methods such as the use of questionnaires.
(e) The method is less costly since most of the respondents willingly provide information for free. Where payment is required, it is always a small token. This is always lesser than the cost of preparation of questionnaires.
(f) The method can be used on both literate, semi-illiterate and illiterate people. The questions can be answered verbally.
(g) The method is fast and time saving. This is because a lot of information can be obtained from a single experienced person such as an agricultural officer, manager of a company e.t.c.
(i) The method is not limiting to both the interviewer and respondent. This enables the researcher to get more answers from the respondent. In the process, new questions may be asked in response to the answers given by the interviewee.
(j) The method favours people who may have visual impairments. The answers given and the questions asked are verbal. They can be recorded using voice recorders for future reference.
Disadvantages of using interviews
(a) This method of data collection is time consuming and expensive. This is so especially when a researcher needs to interview a number of respondents who do not stay in the same locality.
(b) The interviewees may hide some important information due to lack of confidence in the interviewer. They may also feel embarrassed to tell some information. Some interviewees can still exaggerate some information.
(c) The success of the interview method depends on the strength of the respondent’s ability to remember. In most cases, the interviewees fail to remember past events accurately. This is so especially when the content requires details on historical backgrounds or dates when certain geographical events happened. (d) This method can only be effective when a common language known to the interviewee and the interviewer is used.
(e) Some respondents become hostile and react aggressively towards the researcher. This happens when the interviewees to be fail to understand the purpose of a study.
Activity 1.5
Below is a sample of a successful interview session.
1. Practice the session.
2. Keenly note the main points on handling an interview session.
3. Find out from your classmates how you conducted the interview session.
Topic of study: The role of Mirayi Lake Hotel in the development of tourism at Gashora in Bugesera district.
(d) Extracting data from records
In this method, data is collected from information recorded in materials such as books, statistical abstracts, census reports, journals and magazines. This allows collection of data or information that cannot otherwise be directly collected. For example, the population of a certain area or the number of schools in a certain year requires one to make reference to past records.
Advantages
(a) In most cases, content analysis provides the researcher with correct information.
(b) The type of information required by the researcher is easily collected. This is because records are readily available unlike in other methods.
(c) It saves time and reduces expenses since data is within reach.
(d) It is the only method used to collect information on vents that took place a long time ago.
Disadvantages
(a) The method does not provide the researcher with other useful information that is not recorded. This means that the researcher is only limited to documented information.
(b) The author of the documented information might have been biased.
(c) Sometimes, the information might not be up-to-date.
(e) Sampling method
Activity 1.6
In groups, study the photographs shown below and answer the questions that follow.
This is a data collection method used when the area of study is wide and involves large population. A representation function is chosen, and the findings are generalized to the entire population. For example, a researcher may want to study the influence of Secondary schools to the socio-economic development of Bugesera district. The researcher will then choose two schools to study and generalise his or her findings to cover all secondary schools in the district. Sampling is a technique where a small part of an aspect of geographical importance is chosen to represent the whole population.
Types of sampling
The following are the most commonly used sampling methods in fieldwork.
(a) Random sampling
This is used when the area to be studied is selected without any set conditions to be followed. The participants of the study are chosen randomly to represent the entire area of concern. This means that everybody has an equal chance of being selected. For example, in a field study on crop husbandry in Musanze district, all farmers have an equal chance of being selected.
(b) Systematic sampling
This type of sampling involves the selection of samples based on well thought set of conditions. This means that there are qualities put in place that will be based on during the process of selection of the respondents or area of study.
(c) Stratified sampling
This is a type of sampling that includes portioning or dividing the area or population to be studied. Random sampling is then used on each portion to select representatives.
Advantages of sampling
(i) This method saves time since the research does not use the entire population or area. It only uses a small manageable representative function.
(ii) Conclusions are easy to come up with since they are generalisation of the entire areas or populations. (iii) The method is cheap to carry out since a small population or area is dealt with.
(iv) The method provides the researcher with a chance to have detailed and well thought out research findings. This is due to the size of the population.
Disadvantages of sampling
(i) The method is based on generalising facts, which may not give a true picture of what was not studied.
(ii) The method is bound to provide wrong information especially when the sample selected is not wellinformed.
(iii) The researcher may be biased while choosing the samples thus yielding poor results.
(f) Measurement method
Activity 1.7
Work in groups of three.
1. Using a tape measure, determine the length and width of your classroom.
2. Share your findings with other members of your class.
This is a method of data collection in fieldwork that involves determining the size, value, weight and length of various aspects of geographical phenomena.
This method involves use of the following instruments.
• Tape measures
• Metre rulers
• Weighing scales
• Jerrycans
• Tins
• Sacks
• Jars
• Sacks
In fieldwork, the method of measurement is applied when the study involves the following.
• Measurement of elements of weather such as rainfall, temperature, humidity, e.t.c.
• Quantity in relation to value.
• Size or area of given aspects of geographical phenomena such as land.
• Weight while determining the relationship between quantity and value.
• Length such as of roads, rivers e.t.c.
• Heights such as determining altitude and varying patterns of land use.
Advantages of measurement method
(i) The method is suitable while determining the relationship existing between varying objects.
(ii) The measurement method provides accurate information to the researcher.
(iii) The researcher is able to acquire various skills which are later used in daily experiences such as weighing skills.
(iv) It is more reliable hence the researcher is able to get sufficient information.
Disadvantages of measurement method
(i) Since it involves use of instruments such as rulers, tape measures and compasses, it is expensive.
(ii) The method requires a lot of time, since it has to be applied accurately.
(iii) In case the instrument used is faulty, wrong readings are more likely to be recorded.
(iv) The method is subjected to physical barriers such as dense vegetation, and floods. This renders the exercise non-rewarding.
(v) The method requires physical involvement of the researcher and this makes it to be tiresome and laborious.
Activity 1.8
Work in groups.
Your Geography teacher has lined up topics that will need field study and collection of data. The topics are as follows:
• The weather of the day
• Impact of soil erosion on agriculture
• History of volcanic eruptions in Rwanda
• Soils
• The impact of the genocide on the economy of Rwanda
• The size and location of Rwanda in Africa
1. Describe the suitable data collection methods for each of the topics listed.
2. Using the internet and Geography text books, find out other data collection methods.
3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages for each of the data collection methods listed.
4. Write down your findings in a notebook.
5. Compile your findings and present them in class
Activity 1.9
Work in groups.
1. Examine the environment around your school area.
2. Find out one geographical aspect that is a problem to the environment.
3. Carry out a field study to find out the causes of the problems.
4. Suggest solutions and ways in which the environment can be protected from further deterioration.
5. Find out more problems affecting the community around you that you can help to provide solutions for.
6. Compile a detailed report of the findings of your field study and use them for a class presentation.
Task 1.2
1. ( a) Define the term fieldwork.
(b) Apart from the questionnaire method explain at least two other methods of data collection in fieldwork. 2. (a) Examine the promptness of the questionnaire method as a tool of data collection in fieldwork.
(b) Miss Niyonshuti Jeanne a student at Nyamata Catholic Groupe Scolaire in Bugesera plans to conduct a research fieldwork on trade. She has difficulties in designing a questionnaire.
(i) Explain what Jeanne should consider while preparing it.
(ii) Why do you think she is choosing the questionnaire over other methods of data collection?
The fieldwork procedures
Activity 1.10
Do this in pairs.
You have been asked by your teacher to organise for a fieldwork study.
1. Describe in writing what you would do before, during and after the study.
2. Explain your procedure with the other members of your class.
The procedure of conducting a fieldwork is composed of three major steps. These steps must be well followed for a successful fieldwork study. They include the following:
Pre-field preparation stage
This stage is concerned with all the activities done before the learners are set for the actual data collection. It is the preparatory stage. At this stage, all the requirements for the facilitation of the field study are gathered and put in place before going into the field. The things to be looked out for at this stage include:
• Choosing the area of study.
• Designing or selecting the topic of the study.
• Formulation of the objectives of study.
• Selecting the appropriate research methods of data collection to be used in the field.
• Carrying out a reconnaissance or presurvey.
• Seeking for permission from relevant authorities.
• Forming the work groups.
• Designing a time management plan.
• Assembling of fieldwork equipment and research instruments.
• Briefing the learners and departure.
(a) Selecting or choosing the area of study
It is very important to select an area of studyin order to plan ahead. This will enable the learners or researchers to appropriately choose the locality of the fieldwork. The selection depends on the topics studied according to the syllabus.
Activity 1. 11
In pairs, study the table below and make appropriate choices of the areas of study. Do this by filling in the missing information.
(b) Choosing topic of fieldwork study
Activity 1. 12
Work in pairs. Come up with appropriate topics of fieldwork study from the classroom topics outlined below. 1. Fishing
2. Urbanisation
3. Population
4. Industrialisation
5. Mining industry
6. Agriculture
7. Power and energy
8. Soil erosion
9. Climatology
10 Forestry
11 River erosion and deposition
The topic of the fieldwork study is the main theme of the research. It is the centre of all the activities that will be conducted throughout the study. The qualities of a good fieldwork study topic include the following. (a) The topic of study should be related to what is studied in the classroom.
(b) The topic of study should be investigative e.g. The impact of fish farming on the socio-economic development of Rwasave village in Huye district.
(c) It should provide a reflection of geographical relationships existing within the environment.
(d) The topic of study should be geographically valid. There should be a geographical problem that needs to be investigated.
(e) It should be limited to a small area of coverage. This enables the learners or researchers to collect data in a detailed manner. It also enables researchers to utilise the limited time allocated to fieldwork study appropriately.
(f) The topic of study should be achievable and measurable. An example of such a topic could be a study on the role of agricultural modernisation in the economic development of Karambi village in Ruhango district.
(g) It should aim at one geographical aspect. This means that it must be specific. For example, a topic on agriculture should be narrowed down to a specific aspect. Such aspects could be zero-grazing, agro-forestry, plantation farming or agricultural modernisation among others.
Activity 1.13
Do this in pairs. Below are samples of good research topics. Fill in the names of districts and villages and sectors of the different places that the activities named below take place.
1. A study of factors which have favoured the development of fish farming in ………………… village in ……………. sector in ………………….district
2. A study of land use around…………………… secondary school in ……………………. sector in …………….. District.
3. A study on the impact of transport on land use patterns in …………………… sector in District………….. (c) Formulation of objectives of study
Activity 1.14
Using the topics designed in activity 1.13.
1. Formulate and write down the objectives of the study for at least one of the three topics.
2. Discuss your findings in a class presentation.
Objectives of a study are statements that show what has to be studied in the field. They provide guidelines to be followed as the learners or researchers collect data or information.
Characteristics of good objectives of a fieldwork study include the following.
• They are specific to the actual purpose of the fieldwork study.
• They are measurable, achievable and attainable.
• The objectives of the study are phrased in a precise manner. They briefly state what is needed.
• They contain action verbs such as, to find out, to identify, to examine, to assess, to describe, to investigate, e.t.c.
• The objectives of a fieldwork study are numbered using numerical or roman numbers. Always avoid using bullets when listing down the objectives of the study.
• The objectives of a study should be related to a given topic as studied in the classroom.
• The objectives of a study should be logically stated for example; to identify the physical location , to describe the historical background of , to examine the factors which favoured in village, and to identify the future prospects .
• The objectives should be limited in number. This is important since the number of objectives determines how time will be managed. For example, it is safe to have objectives that do not exceed five.
• They are formulated after the topic of fieldwork study has been chosen. The following could be a study topic for a fieldwork study.
Topic:
Factors that favour the growth and development of tea growing at Pfunda tea estate in Rubavu district. Possible objectives of this study topic could be;
(a) To find out the physical location of Pfunda tea estate.
(b) To find out the historical background of Pfunda tea estate.
(c) To identify the factors that favour tea growing in the region.
(d) To find out the challenges that face tea growing in the region and their solutions.
(e) To examine the role played by the tea sector in the economic development of the areas of study.
(f) To identify the future prospects of tea growing in Pfunda area. Another example of a study topic could be as formulated below
Activity 1.15
Do this in pairs. The following mentioned areas are identified for fieldwork studies to be conducted by your class. Study them and answer the questions that follow.
• A mining centre
• Fish farming in Muhanga
• A school garden
• Land use around the school
• An urban market
• Nyabugogo Taxi Park
1. Formulate the topic of fieldwork study for each of the mentioned areas of study above.
2. State three objectives for each of the topics stated in (1) above.
(d) Selecting the appropriate research methods of data collection
data collection methods used in a field study depends on the topic and the objectives of study. Methods of data collection in fieldwork studies include;
• Observation
• Interviews
• Sampling
• Questionnaires
• Measurement
• Recording
• Use of written documents among others.
Activity 1. 16
In one of the topics that you have formulated in Activity 1.15 on page 19.
1. Suggest suitable data collection methods that can be used in one of the studies.
2. Give reasons why the methods that you have suggested in (1) above are suitable for the study topic that you have selected.
3. Make a class presentation on your findings in class.
(e) Reconnaissance or pre-survey
Case study
Miss Teta Jane is a teacher of Geography in one of the secondary schools in Muhanga District. She prepared her class to go for a fieldwork study in Musanze District. She travelled to Musanze at an earlier date to visit the area where the students were to go for their field study. She then went back to school. From her visit, she advised her learners to adjust the objectives of their study. She also briefed the learners on what to expect in their area of study.
(a) Why do you think Miss Teta found it necessary to visit the area before the actual date of the field study? (b) Do you think her results from the visit were helpful to the learners?
(c) Explain why the students had to review the objectives of their study after Miss Teta’s return
A reconnaissance is a pre-visit of the area of study prior to the actual date of fieldwork. It is commonly referred to as pilot study. The main reasons for a reconnaissance are:
(a) To familiarise oneself purposes.
(b) The researcher is able to gather general information about the study area.
(c) It helps the researcher to determine the cost of the fieldwork in order to avoid unnecessary expenses. (d) The researcher is able to identify the problems likely to be faced during the actual fieldwork. (e) The researcher is able to arrange for interviews with relevant persons.
(f) The researcher is able to fix the actual date of the fieldwork.
g) It enables the researcher to design a working schedule for the field study.
(i) It helps the researcher to identify a p p r o p r i a t e e q u i p m e n t a n d instruments to be used during the fieldwork study.
(j) The researcher is able to make arrangements for guides and interpreters if necessary
(f) Seeking permission
It is very important for the parties involved in organising the fieldwork study to ask for permission from appropriate authorities. Permission for conducting the fieldwork study is provided by the following:
• The school authorities.
• The police or local leaders to allow the school to take out students to the field especially when it involves long distances.
• Where need be, parents of each learner should be notified and a proof of acceptance be obtained.
• Relevant authorities of the area of study have to provide a go-ahead for the study to be conducted in their area. Table 1.2 below shows examples of authorities that should be consulted for field studies.
Note: Official letters bearing the stamp and signature of the responsible people should be written and sent to the relevant authorities seeking for permission. It is very important to receive a written feedback for purposes of reference.
(g) Forming work groups
This involves dividing learners into groups for easy management and effectiveness of the study. This is done when a class is made up of many learners. The purpose of forming work groups is:
• To enable learners at the back to see properly when demonstrations are being carried out. This is so because each group is given its own time.
• To facilitate easy acquisition of information.
• To facilitate division of labour. Each group is assigned a specific objective to research on. Work groups then enable effective time management and detailed data.
This is the work schedule design stage. The activities to be conducted are written and time is allocated for each activity. It is important to identify the time keeper who will guide the whole operation of the fieldwork study.
Importance of a time management plan
• It provides enough time for every activity. Therefore, each activity is conducted as planned.
• It enables the teacher and learners to have a workable action plan while conducting the field study.
• It assists the parties involved in the field study to operate within a stipulated time frame.
• The work schedule plan provides the structured time needed for every aspect of fieldwork study. Hence, it facilitates the completion of the study planned.
(i) Assembling of fieldwork equipment and research instruments
Case study
Miss Umutesi Annie is a teacher of Geography in one of the secondary schools in Bugesera district. She prepared her class to go for a fieldwork study at Musanze district. At the time of departure, she wanted to confirm that her students had all that they needed for the study. Each group presented their list of items. Group A presented the following items: pens, books, camera, tape measure, calculators, compass and voice recorder. Group B had only pens and books. She advised group B to go back to the store keeper and collect the things that they missed. Thereafter, they left for the study.
(a) What would have happened to group B if they had left without all the required instruments and equipment?
(b) Identify the equipment mentioned in the passage.
(c) Apart from the equipment mentioned in (b) above, list other equipment that may be needed by a geographer in carrying out a fieldwork study.
This is an important task in fieldwork study preparation. It involves selection of equipment and instruments to be used in the study. The choice of equipment and instruments to be used depends on their applicability to the topic and the objectives of study. Some of the equipment and instruments used in fieldwork studies are shown in the table on page 23.
(j) Briefing and departure
In the Case study on page 22, if the teacher did not have a final brief with her students, the students in Group B would encounter challenges. This stage ensures that the learners are fully aware of what is required of them. They are supposed to check that they have carried everything they need for the study. The things they need include equipment, instruments, data collection tools as well as official letters of permission. At this stage, students are cautioned on the challenges likely to be faced and how they would attend to them just in case they occur. Learners with special needs are identified and probable solutions or precautions are established. The teacher makes sure that all is in order.
Pilot study stage
Case study Miss
Mucyo Lydivine is a teacher in one of the schools in the Western Province of Rwanda. She plans to take her Geography class for a field study to the volcanic mountains in the Northern Province. After all the preparations, she took a few questionnaires and made a visit to the Volcanoes Mountains site which was their area of study. She met five respondents whom she gave her questionnaires. The five respondents filled the questionnaires and returned them to her. On observing them, she realised the questionnaires were not well filled. The answers given did not bring out the aim of the study. She then went back and advised her students to prepare interview guides instead of questionnaires. The learners went back and prepared interview guides.
(a) Why was it necessary for Miss Mucyo to visit the volcanic mountains?
(b) State what the change of data collection tools meant.
(c) Analyse the importance of Miss Mucyo’s visit to the site with the data collection instruments.
Apilot study is a small scale preliminarystudy. It is conducted in order to evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events and effect size. It is done to predict an appropriate sample size and improve upon the study design. It is usually done prior to the performance of a full-scale research project. It saves on money that would otherwise be wasted on an inadequately designed project. A pilot study is usually carried out on members of the relevant population, but who will not constitute the final sample. This is because it may influence the later behaviour or response of research respondents if they have already been involved in the research. A pilot study is often used to test the design of the full-scale research which then can be adjusted. Should anything be found missing in the pilot study, it can be added to final research for a clear outcome.
Data collection stage
Once adequate preparations have been done and the pilot study carried out, the researcher is ready for data collection. The various methods of data collection have been discussed in details under the sub topic on fieldwork methods. The methods include the following.
(a) Observation
(b) Questionnaire
(c) Interviews
(d) Using records
(e) Sampling
(f) Measuring
The researcher should use the method that he or she has considered suitable for the study. The data collection instruments should be administered and data collected appropriately in time. The data collected is also recorded.
Data can be recorded in the following ways:
(a) Sketching maps.
(b) Tallying.
(c) Taking photographs.
(d) Note taking.
(e) Tape recording, videotaping, film making.
(f) Labeling of samples.
(g) Tabulation.
Some of the activities that a researcher is involved in are as follows.
(a) Drawing and sketching maps and diagrams.
(b) Taking photographs.
(c) Making short notes.
(d) Observing and holding discussions.
(e) Interviewing and filling in questionnaires.
(f) Measuring distances, heights and angles.
(g) Collecting and labeling samples.
(i) Sampling
The follow-up stage
Activity 1.17
1. Explain what you think Miss Mucyo’s students will do after their field study at the volcanic mountains.
2. Write down your findings and discuss them in a class discussion.
The follow up stage is the last stage in fieldwork study. It involves putting together the data collected, re-arranging them and analysing the findings to reach logical conclusions.
The following are the steps involved in the follow-up stage.
• Organising the data collected during the field study.
• Comparative analysis of the data collected.
• Discussing and interpreting the data collected
• Using diagrams and sketch map to present the data collected.
• Making logical conclusions and suggesting recommendations based on the data collected.
The following follow up activities should be carried out after a field study.
(a) Discussing the findings with other students.
(b) Developing photographs, video tapes, films and slides. Photos should be pasted on the exercise books. (c) Redrawing sketches and diagrams.
(d) Drawing statistical diagrams such as graphs, maps and charts.
(e) Relabelling of samples using clean labels. The place where a sample was collected and the date should be included.
(f) Evaluating, interpreting and analysing the information collected in the field.
(g) Displaying photographs, sketches and diagrams.
The methods of data presentation When the fieldwork findings have been polished, analysed, interpreted and concluded, the next step is to present the data.
There are many ways of presenting fieldwork findings. They include the following.
• They can be written in an essay form.
• They can be put in tables or graphs that are followed by descriptions of the content in prose.
• They can be presented in form of maps especially when the findings involve distribution of various geographical aspects.
• In case photographing was majorly used, an album containing various photos accompanied by notes can be used.
• Samples collected as part of the findings can be presented by displaying. This may include soils, crops, vegetation and fish species among others.
• Pie charts and flowcharts can be used to describe the data.
• The information can then be presented to the rest of the class or to an audience in a verbal presentation
Activity 1.18
Do this in groups of five.
1. Observe the environment around your school.
2. Come up with a study topic on a geographical phenomenon of your choice.
3. Follow all the steps of fieldwork preparation
4. Carry out a pilot study.
5. Go for the actual field visits.
6. Analyse your data and give recommendations and conclusions on the study.
7. Present your data to the rest of your class members.
8. Allow them time to ask questions as you answer
Fieldwork techniques or types
There are three types of fieldwork which researchers employ in the process of searching for facts for various studies.
(a) Field study
This type entails field teaching. The teacher and the learners get involved in closely examining, describing and or analysing a selected environment. The environment shows one or more aspects of geographical phenomena. Specific objectives are set to guide in seeking information. It mostly occurs outside the classroom. Most activities are directed by the teacher who explains what is observed and also directs questions to the learners.
An example of a field study could be;
Topic of study:
The influence of various types of soils on crop growth around Gashora Academy.
Objective of the study:
• To find out the types of soils around Gashora Academy.
• To identify the methods of farming used by the farmers.
• To identify the types of crops grown.
• To analyse the relationship between types of soils and the crops grown.
• To evaluate the importance of crops grown in the socio-economic development of the Gashora sector.
(b) Field excursions
This is a short trip usually made within or not far from the school locality or from their usual environment. It involves students seeing geographical features around them and sometimes receiving lectures from officers in charge of the areas they visit. There is no limit to what should be studied in a field excursion. Therefore the objectives of the study are usually general or non specific.
(c) Field research
This is a type of fieldwork that involves the search for knowledge through experimenting or testing geographical hypotheses. It is therefore a problem solving oriented study. This study is sometimes referred to as corrective research.
The problem could be identified in a classroom lesson and investigated outside the classroom. For example during the study of weather, the students learn about general factors that influence the weather. They may then want to specifically identify those that influence the weather within the school environment.
When there is an epidemic out-break in a specific area, the medical officers can visit the area to conduct a research. This is purposely meant to gather data that would enable them to find out the type of disease, its causes and prevention. It can then be eradicated hence providing a remedy to the problem.
Fieldwork case studies
A case study is an up-close, in-depth, and detailed examination of a subject. The subject in this case is referred to as the case. In doing case study research, the case being studied may be an individual, organisation, event, or action, existing in a specific time and place. For example, for the topic; “The impact of fish farming to the socioeconomic development of Muhanga area”. Muhanga area is our case here. Topics of study that can be used as case tudies could involve the following:
• School areas
• Section of river valleys
• Landforms in an area
• Settlements
• Market area
• Fishing industry
• Plantations
Activity 1.19
Your teacher will divide you into groups of five. In your groups;
1. Choose one topic that is suitable to the area you are in from the ones listed above.
2. Conduct a case study.
3. Follow the stages of conducting a field research that you have learnt in this unit.
4. Draw relevant conclusions and write up a report from your study.
5. Present your findings to your class members.
6. Present your research report to your teacher for assessment.
Problems affecting planning and implementation of fieldwork
Activity 1.20
Some Senior Four students were asked to carry out a research in the area shown in Fig. 1.5.
There are a wide range of challenges the researchers or learners involved in fieldwork study are likely to face. These challenges include:
(a) Illiterate respondents
Fieldwork studies involve dealing with all kinds of people. There are situations when the researchers involved in a study encounter respondents who do not know how to read and write. This makes some methods of data collection like the use of questionnaires less effective or not applicable at all.
(b) Uncooperative respondents
Some respondents are not helpful. They either refuse to respond to the researcher’s questions or completely refuse to pay attention. This happens especially when they doubt or lack confidence in the researcher.
(c) Dishonest respondents
Some of the respondents that researchers meet are deceitful. They either do not keep their word or provide false information.
(d) Harsh weather conditions
Fieldwork studies are often subjected to varying weather conditions. Sometimes, there is too much rainfall, sunshine or strong winds. These conditions make the whole exercise difficult and problematic. In the end the research may not yield clear outcomes.
(e) Inaccessibility of some areas
Some areas of study may be inaccessible. This is mostly due to lack of roads, dense vegetation, poor drainage, bad weather, very steep slopes or rocky areas. This makes fieldwork studies almost impossible in the areas. Where the research is done, the results could be inaccurate since the researcher might fail to tap important data. Such areas make some methods like the use of questionnaires inapplicable.
(f) Wild animals In some areas, the researchers involved in fieldwork are at risk of being attacked by wild animals. In some instances some researchers have suffered snake bites, insect stings and stings from poisonous caterpillars. These risks put the researchers’ lives in danger hence making fieldwork less attractive.
(g) Inadequate data
Researchers or learners involved in fieldwork sometimes fail to obtain the required data. This is because some of them give inadequate information. This challenge is encountered especially when administering questionnaires. Sometimes they are returned unanswered, halfway filled or not returned at all.
(i) Hostile and violent respondents
Fieldwork studies expose learners to individuals with varying personalities and attitudes. Sometimes, researchers meet hostile and violent people. This poses a risk to the safety of the learners or researchers. This is why it is important to avoid going out to the field in places where one is not assured of their safety. (j) Contradicting information
Sometimes, respondents give contradicting information which confuses the data analysis process. For example, when one interviews several respondents of the same sample group, the respondents may give conflicting information. In such cases, reaching a common level of analysis is challenging.
(k) Hostile relief
Fieldwork studies may be affected by hostile relief characterised by steep and rocky slopes. Some lowland areas may be waterlogged or have poor drainage. This makes the process of collecting data difficult.
(l) Linguistic diversity
Sometimes, a researcher may be required to conduct interviews with respondents whose language differs from his or hers. This barrier may make it difficult to collect the required data.
(m) High costs of operation
studies that need to be conducted far from the researcher’s areas of residence or operation have huge cost implications. Purchasing field equipment and instruments needs money that may not be readily available to researchers. In some cases, research guides have to be used. They need to be paid making the process costly.
Poor responses from the authorities
Uncooperative authorities both at school and local administration may sometimes cause unnecessary delays. Sometimes field projects fail because of the authorities.
(o) Unpredictable situations
There are some uncertainties that occur unexpectedly. Such uncertainties are not considered during the preparation period. They therefore end up affecting fieldwork studies. Such uncertainties include; insecurity, flooding, landslides among others. For example, in 2014, areas in Rubavu district became relatively unsecure because of the situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo. This state of events made several schools that had planned to visit Lake Kivu to postpone their visits.
(p) Poor choice of methods of data collection
Improper choices of the methods of data collection pose a challenge when doing the actual data collection. This yields wrong information. For example, use of interviews instead of observation when carrying out research on physical features could give wrong outcomes.
(q)Time consuming
Field studies need a lot of time to travel and to conduct the studies. For example learners from Kigali going for a field study to Lake Kivu need a lot of time which is always not available.
(r) Inadequate expertise
The learners and some other parties involved have limited expertise that needed to carry out fieldwork studies as required. This is reflected in the back of skills in relation to designing questionnaires.
(s)Tedious
Fieldwork studies are tedious due to the long processes involved.
Did you know?
• Fieldwork is the process of observing and collecting data about people, cultures and natural environments.
• Fieldwork is conducted in a semi controlled environment outside your classroom.
• Fieldwork enables researchers and students to examine the way scientific and geographical theories interact with life
• Fieldwork can be conducted by groups of people as well as one individual.
• Fieldwork is also used to understand how natural environments function.
End of unit revision task
1. (a) Define the term fieldwork?
(b) Explain the various types of fieldwork used by learners and other researchers.
2. Describe the meaning of the following terms as used in geographical field study: (a) Geographical phenomena
(b) Fieldwork research
(c) Environment (d) Field study
3. Identify and describe the composition of geographical aspects studied in fieldwork. 4. Distinguish between the following terms:
(a) Fieldwork and field study
(b) Fieldwork research and excursions
(c) Observation and recording
5. As a geography learner, you are requested by your teacher to conduct a field study on urbanisation in reference to a nearby town or trading centre of your choice.
(a) State the study topic.
(b) Name the objectives of the study.
(c) Explain two methods you would use to gather or collect the data (information) from the field.
6. With reference to any fieldwork study that you have conducted around your school, outline the various activities
you carried out in the preparation for the study.
7. The Senior Four learners were requested to conduct a fieldwork study on the landforms associated with river action along River Akagera.
(a) State three objectives of the study.
(b) Describe any two methods you would use to record data collected.
(c) Explain any seven problems you are likely to face during the field study.
(d) Mention any instrument or equipment they might have used in the study.
8. Some students carried out a fieldwork study on tea plantations in Gicumbi District.
(b) Mention at least three objectives of their study.
(c) Describe the appropriate methods the students could have used while collecting data.
9. (a) Describe how the following methods of data collection in fieldwork can be used:
(i) Questionnaire
(ii) Measurement
(iii) Sampling
(iv) Observation (v) Interviewing (b) Give the advantages and disadvantages of each method.
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