S4: Fundementals of Nursing

Key unit competence:
Explain the concepts of personality and behavior development

Introductory activity 9

Observe the pictures below and answer the asked questions

1) What do you see on pictures above?
2) What are differences between pictures A, B and picture C?
3) On your point of view, how do you interpret the picture B

9.1. Personality and behavior

Learning activity 9.1.

1) Define personality
2) Define behavior

9.1.1. Personality: concept and definition
The term personality is often understood in terms of social attractiveness. A good
personality is considered to be one who impresses other people and who has the
ability to get on well with others. Those who do not possess such ability are said to
have relatively poor personality.

Psychologists have attempted to explain the concept of personality in terms of
individuality and consistency. We often observe that people differ a great deal in the
ways they think, feel and act and that too to different or even same situations. This
distinctive pattern of behavior helps one to define one’s identity. Another important
notion in defining the concept of personality is consistency.

In other words it can be stated that the concept of personality also rests on the
observation that a person seems to behave somewhat consistently in different
situations over different time.

The personality is the special combination of qualities in a person that makes that
person different from others, as shown by the way the person behaves, feels, and
thinks.

One person can behave differently based on the situation she/he is facing.

Behavior is the way in which one acts or conducts oneself, especially towards
others. It is the way in which an animal or person behaves in response to a particular
situation or stimulus.

Types of behaviours
A study on human behaviour has revealed that 90% of the population can be
classified into four basic personality types: Optimistic, Pessimistic, Trusting and
Envious.
 Optimists: See the positive side of things. They expect things to turn out
well. They believe they have the skill and ability to make good things happen.

 Pessimistic: Is defined as “the attitude that things will go wrong and
that people’s wishes or aims are unlikely to be fulfilled. A person with a
pessimistic personality tends toward a more negative or some might say
realistic view of life.

 Trusting: Trust is a set of behaviors, such as acting in ways that depend

on another. Trust is a belief in a probability that a person will behave in
certain ways. Trust is an abstract mental attitude toward a proposition that
someone is dependable. Trust is a feeling of confidence and security that a
partner cares.

 Envious: Envious behavior means feeling or showing unhappiness over
someone else’s good fortune and a desire to have the same.
Envious people tend to feel hostile, resentful, angry and irritable. Such
individuals are also less likely to feel grateful about their positive traits
and their circumstances. Envy is also related to depression, anxiety, the
development of prejudice, and personal unhappiness.

Self-assessment 9.1.

1) Define personality
2) Explain what good personality meant?

9.2. Theories of personality

Learning activity 9.2.

A talkative man G who is your neighbor, complains to you for not being
compatible with his wife. He tells that his wife is irresponsible and he wants to
leave her. As an associate nurse, you plan to make further assessment in that
family to know the root cause of planning to leave the family. While you meet
both the man and the woman, the woman does not speak anything. In return,
the man reacted stipulating that the woman does not trust him and does not
want to perform her responsibilities.

The man added that the woman told him angrier to have resemblance figure as
her father who used to maltreat her mother.

According to the case described above:
1) Do you have a clue on personality theory? List different personality
     theories you know
2) From your understanding what personality problem has the woman, and
     the man?

9.2.1. Psychodynamic theories of personality

a) Sigmund Freud theory

Sigmund Freud believed that personality is made up of three components.
The id is our impulse energy. It is responsible for all our needs (nourishment,
appreciation) and urges (sexual instinct, hate, love and envy). According to Freud,
the id seeks immediate satisfaction of our needs without referring to logic or morals.
It is demanding, impulsive, blind, irrational, antisocial, and selfish and lust oriented.

The superego, or conscience, represents morality as well as the norms of society.
It contains all the ideals for which an individual strives and makes us feel guilty if we
fall short of these standards. The superego essentially is our standard of perfection
the person we want to be. While the id strives for pleasure and the superego for
perfection. The ego acts to moderate the two. It works on the reality principle,
mediating the competing demands of the id and the superego and choosing the
most realistic solution for the long term.

Suppose, for instance, that you had a desire to splurge your paycheck on drinks
and partying. That’s your id talking. The superego would be yelling that your idea
is foolish and immoral, and you’re a bad person for even thinking it. The ego will
balance your desire for instant gratification and your desire for responsibility by
figuring out a sensible, rainy-day savings plan with enough left over for some fun
on the weekend.

Freud also emphasized the importance of early childhood experiences on the
development of personality. He believed that analyzing the harms of the past could
unlock a person’s development in the future. The harms, Freud believed, were
mostly caused by parents during the person’s childhood.

Freud’s views do not meet with absolute approval, and many critics have questioned
the scientific foundation of his work. However, it remains a foundation of modern
psychoanalysis, where people regress or go deeper into their unconscious
personality to resolve the conflicts they’re facing.

b) Alfred Adler’s theory of personality
Adlerian therapy, also known as individual therapy, emphasizes the individual’s
ability to bring about positive change in his or her own life. Adlerian therapy consists
of four stages: engagement, assessment, insight, and reorientation. In Adler’s
theory, individuals work to overcome feelings of inferiority and to act in ways that

benefit the social interest.

In Adler’s approach to therapy, termed individual psychology or Adlerian psychology,
therapy progresses through a series of four stages:

1. Engagement where the client and therapist begin to establish the therapeutic
relationship. The relationship should consist of collaboration towards addressing
the client’s problems. The therapist should offer support and encouragement.

2. Assessment: The therapist works to learn more about the client’s
background, including early memories and family dynamics. In this part of therapy,
the therapist attempts to understand how the client may have developed certain
styles of thinking that are no longer helpful or adaptive for them.

3. Insight: The therapist offers an interpretation of the client’s situation. The
therapist suggests theories about how past experiences may have contributed to
issues the client is currently experiencing; importantly, the therapist leaves it up to
the client to decide whether these theories are accurate and useful.

4. Reorientation: The therapist helps the client to develop new strategies that
the client can use in daily life.

One of Adler’s most well-known views is that everyone feels inferior at some point
in their lives (i.e. worries that one is not achieving enough). These sentiments of
inadequacy support the pursuit of goals in mentally healthy people, motivating them
to work toward self-improvement. Individuals can achieve great things and make
a significant contribution to society as a whole by learning positive ways of coping
with feelings of inadequacy.

Some people, on the other hand, have a hard time coping with feelings of inferiority,
which makes them depressed. Others may act selfishly in order to feel superior
to others in order to cope with feelings of inadequacy in ineffective ways. The
therapist in Adlerian treatment works with the client to provide the support and
encouragement they need to cope more successfully with feelings of inadequacy
and build healthy techniques to overcome these sentiments.

According to him, someone with a high level of social interest may go out of their
way to help others, whereas someone with a low level of social interest may bully
or act antisocially. Importantly, social interest levels might fluctuate over time. A
therapist can assist a client in increasing his or her social interest.

9.2.2. Trait Theory of Personality
Traits are psychological dimensions such as extroversion, tidiness, emotional
stability, and curiosity. Traits have proven extremely useful for describing personality
and predicting people’s characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving

 Openness: how open-minded you are and how much you like to try new
     things (creative, curious, cultured)

 Conscientiousness or how reliable, organized and diligent you are
     (Hardworking, organized, dependable)

 Extraversion (this is spelled with an “a” in personality psychology), or
     whether you draw energy from interaction with others. People who score low
     on extraversion (introverts) gain energy from inside themselves. Extraverts
     gain energy from people. They tend to be assertive and have the gift of the
     gab.
 Agreeableness or how friendly, tolerant and compassionate you are
     (cooperative, warm, agreeable).

 Neuroticism (emotional instability), which refers to emotional instability
     and the level of negative emotions a person has. People with high levels of
     neuroticism tend to be moody and tense.

9.2.3. Humanistic theory of Personality
The key agent of the humanist movement is Abraham Maslow. Maslow believed
that personality was not a matter of nature or nurture but of personal choice.
Specifically, he suggested that people possess free will and are motivated to pursue
the things that will help them reach their full potential as human beings.

The humanistic perspective emphasized the importance of using free will to become
the best human a person can possibly be. It is different from the other theories in
believing that people are fundamentally good. People are always looking for new
ways to improve, learn and grow, say the humanists, and it’s these choices that
determine our personality and behavior.

Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of five innate human needs that activate
and direct human behavior. Maslow described these needs as instinctoid, by which
he meant that they have a hereditary component. Although we come equipped
with these needs at birth, the behaviors we use to satisfy them are learned. In the
hierarchy of needs, each person’s physiological needs are arranged in order of
importance. Lower needs must be partially satisfied before higher needs become
influential. Hungry people feel no urge to satisfy the higher need for esteem when

they are preoccupied with satisfying their physiological need for food. Safety needs:
security order, and stability. Belongingness, esteem needs (from self and others).
Lastly needs for self-actualization.

9.2.4. Behavioural theories
Behavioural theory seeks to explain human behaviour by analysing the antecedents
and consequences present in the individual’s environment and the learned
associations he or she has acquired through previous experience.

Behaviourism is the theory that people’s behaviour is the result of the rewards
and punishments they have experienced in the past. Applied to personality,
behaviourism is the view that people are different from one another because they
have experienced different patterns of rewards and punishments, which have
reinforced different behaviours in different people; therefore, they have developed
different personalities. Example: A person whose parents laughed at her jokes all
the time might end up making more jokes later in her life than someone whose
parents did not react when she made jokes.

Behaviourism is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviours, as
they can be studied in a systematic and observable manner

9.2.5. Comparison of personality theories
The study of personality has a broad and varied history in psychology, with an
abundance of theoretical traditions. The major theories include six different
personality theories:
 Psychoanalytic theory,
 Behaviourist theory
 Humanistic theory,
 Trait theory,
 Social-cognitive theory,
 Biological theory.

9.2.6. Comparison of personality theories

9.2.7. Structuring personality

Is the ordering of the personality with regard to its basic elements and their union
with one another?

Personality structure: “The personality structure of one individual can be alike to
or vastly different from another person, regardless of their relation to one another.”

a) Topographical aspects of mind
The famed psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud believed that behavior and personality
were derived from the constant and unique interaction of conflicting psychological
forces that operate at three different levels of awareness: the preconscious,
conscious, and unconscious. He believed that each of these parts of the mind
plays an important role in influencing behavior.

The preconscious consists of anything that could potentially be brought into the
conscious mind. The conscious mind contains all of the thoughts, memories,
feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment. This is the aspect
of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally. This also

includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved
easily and brought into awareness. The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings,
thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The
unconscious contains contents that are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as
feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict.

9.2.8 Dynamic aspects of mind
The mind has an internal structure three parts with separate motivations: Id
(irrational and emotional part of the mind); the Ego (rational part); and the Superego
(the moral part). Freud came to see personality as having three aspects, which
work together to produce all of our complex behaviors: the Id, the Ego and the
Superego. All 3 components need to be well balanced in order to have good amount
of psychological energy available and to have reasonable mental health. However,
the Ego has a difficult time dealing with the competing demands of the Superego
and the Id. According to the psychoanalytic view, this psychological conflict is an
intrinsic and pervasive part of human experience. The conflict between the Id and
Superego, negotiated by the Ego, is one of the fundamental psychological battles
all people face. The way in which a person characteristically resolves the instant
gratification vs. longer-term reward dilemma in many ways comes to reflect on their
“character”. Id, Ego and Superego come under the dynamic aspects of personality.
The dynamic aspects of self-according to Freud refer to the agents through which
conflicts arising in the instincts are resolved. The adult develops ego and superego
out of id through conflicts in the earlier periods of life

Self-assessment 9.2.

1) Which component of our personality are we born with, according to Freud
that permits our basic wants to be met?
a) ID
b) Ego
c) Superego
d) No answer

2) Which aspect of our personality, according to Freud, recognizes that
other people have needs and that being selfish might harm us in the long
run?
a) Ego
b) Superego
c) Id
d) No answer

3) The id, ego and superego can be the best characterized as
a) Located in our brain
b) Part of cortex
c) System that make up personality
d) A and b are correct

4) According to Freud, which part of our personality is the moral part that
develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our
caregivers?
a) Id
b) Ego
c) Superego
d) No answer

5) Which of the following is not one of the big personality traits?
a) Open to new experiences
b) Agreeableness
c) Locus of control
d) Neuroticism

6) Which of the following are considered tenants of personality according to
trait theorists?
a) There are only 5 personality trait, people are born with and retain
the same traits throughout their life and they are entirely based on
nature
b) Traits are relatively stable over time, traits influence behavior
c) Traits change based on situation and exposure, trait are affected by
behavior and they do not affect each other (friendly and unfriendly at
once)
d) Traits can be used to predict a person’s behavior and all people
have the same definable traits

7) According to Freud, displacement, sublimation and projection are all types
of what?
a) Behavior need
b) Defense mechanism
c) Behavior change
d) Psychosocial stage

8) In Freud’s topographic model, the ‘çensor’ guards the border between …
a) The Conscious and the Preconscious
b) The Preconscious and the Unconscious
c) The Conscious and the Unconscious
d) The Ego and the Id

9) Which of the following statements is true of the Ego, according to Freud?
a) It exists prior to the Id
b) It follows the ‘pleasure principle’
c) It lends its libidinal energy to the Superego
d) None of the above

10) Explain the difference between social and behavior theory

9.3. Defense mechanism

Learning activity 9.3.

Y, a teacher, he has the conflict at with his wife and the beats her in the morning.
When he enters the classroom, he verbally abuses the pupils before giving
them an assignment. He awarded them 0 out of 10 without marking them and
told them that they didn’t know anything, and the pupils responded that those
grades were not for them. According to the case described above:
1) In your opinion, what do you think occurred to this teacher,?

Defense mechanism is an often unconscious mental process (such as repression)
that makes possible compromise solutions to personal problems.
Freud believed that part of the reason so much of personality resides in the
unconscious is because many motives, thoughts, and feelings are threatening for
us to admit to ourselves. Thus, we develop means to keep those aspects outside of
our consciousness by developing self-protective strategies.

Types of defense mechanisms
 Denial is the act of refusing to recognize the existence of something.
 Repression is the act of forcing something out of your mind so that you
     don’t have to worry about it. You don’t overtly refute it; instead, you choose
     to ignore it and eventually forget about it.

 Reaction formation is convincing yourself of the opposite of what is actually
     true.
 Projection is blaming someone else for a negative feature or thinking.
 Rationalization is the process of coming up with a logical, rational (but
     false) reason for a shameful idea or action.
 Intellectualization is the process of turning a potentially dangerous feature
     or thought into a cold, rational truth.
 Displacement is the act of guiding an undesired impulse toward a more
    acceptable outcome.
 Regression is reverting to an earlier stage of life development when you
    are faced with conflict
 Sublimation is the process of transforming shameful desires into
    something honorable; it is the process of redirecting energy to something
    more acceptable..
 Compartmentalization Separating your life into independent sectors may
     feel like a way to protect many elements of it. Like when you choose to not
      discuss personal life issues at work, you block off, or compartmentalize, that
       element of your life. This allows you to carry on without facing the anxieties
      or challenges while you’re in that setting or mindset.

Self-assessment 9.3.

1) Match the types of defense mechanism in A (Types of defense mechanism)
with their respective definitions in column B (their definitions)

9.4. The five-Factor Model of personality

Learning activity 9.4.

Observe pictures above and answer following questions:
1) What is a difference between pictures above?
2) From your understanding how can you interpret pictures A,B,C and D ?

9.4.1. Concept of The five-factor model of personality (FFM)
The five-factor model of personality (FFM) is a set of five broad trait dimensions
or domains, often referred to as the “Big Five”: Extraversion, Agreeableness,
Conscientiousness, Neuroticism (sometimes named by its polar opposite,
Emotional Stability), and Openness to Experience (sometimes named Intellect).

 Extraversion
The quantity and intensity of preferred interactions, degree of activity, need for
stimulation, and capacity for delight are all indicators of extraversion. Extraverts are
outgoing, lively, talkative, person-oriented, optimistic, fun-loving, and affectionate,
whereas introverts are reserved (but not unpleasant), somber, distant, independent,
and quiet. Introverts are neither sad nor negative, but they lack the enthusiastic
high spirits that are characteristic of extraverts.

 Agreeableness
Agreeableness, like Extraversion, is an interpersonal attribute that describes the
types of relationships that a person prefers on a scale of compassion to antagonism.
Softhearted, good-natured, trustworthy, helpful, forgiving, and altruistic people have

a high A score. They are receptive and sympathetic, and they feel that most others
want to and will behave in the same way they do. Those with a low Agreeableness
score (referred to as hostile) are cynical, rude or even abrasive, distrustful,
uncooperative, and impatient, as well as being manipulative, spiteful, and cruel.

Conscientiousness

It measures how well goal-directed behavior is organized, persistent, controlled,
and motivated. Those with a high level of conscientiousness are organized,
dependable, diligent, self-directed, scrupulous, ambitious, and persistent, whereas
those with a low level of Conscientiousness are aimless, unreliable, lazy, careless,
lax, neglectful, and hedonistic.

 Neuroticism
It describes a long-term state of emotional adjustment and instability. Individuals
with a high level of neuroticism are more likely to experience mental anguish.
Negative affectivity, such as angry anger, depression, anxiety, and volatility, are all
symptoms of high neuroticism, but neuroticism also includes stress sensitivity, self-
consciousness, excessive cravings, urges, and difficulties enduring the frustration
created by not acting on one’s urges.

 Openness to Experience
Openness to Experience is less widely studied than either Neuroticism or
Extraversion, and is frequently misconstrued, as the alternative name of intelligence
suggests. Openness to Experience, on the other hand, is distinct from ability and
intellect in that it entails the deliberate pursuit and appreciation of experiences for
their own sake. Individuals who are open are more curious, imaginative, and willing
to explore unusual ideas and values than those who are closed; they experience
the full range of emotions more intensely than those who are closed. Closed people
(those with a low level of Openness to Experience) are more traditional in their
views and attitudes, conservative in their tastes, and dogmatic and rigid in their
convictions; they are behaviorally stiff and emotionally unresponsive.

9.4.2. Developing personality
Personality development is the development of the organized pattern of behaviors
and attitudes that makes a person distinctive. Personality development occurs by
the ongoing interaction of temperament character, and environment. Personality
development helps an individual to gain confidence and high self-esteem.

Personality development also is said to have a positive impact on one’s
communication skills and the way he sees the world. Individuals tend to develop a
positive attitude as a result of personality development.

 Infancy
An infant goes through the first stage of development throughout the first two years
of life: learning basic trust or mistrust (hope). The newborn learns trust and security,
as well as a basic optimism, after being well-nurtured and loved. When a newborn
is mistreated, he or she grows uneasy and learns “fundamental mistrust.”

 Toddlerhood
The second stage occurs between the ages of 18 months and two years and
three to four years in early childhood. It’s about Learning Autonomy vs. Shame. If
the child has been well-parented, he or she will emerge from this stage with self-
assurance and a sense of control. Depending on the temperament of the child, the
early stages of this period can also include tempestuous tantrums, stubbornness,
and negativism.

 Preschool
The third stage occurs during the “play age,” or the later preschool years from
about three to entry into formal school. The developing child goes through Learning
Initiative or Guilt (Purpose). The child learns to use imagination; to broaden skills
through activeplayand fantasy; to cooperate with others; and to lead as well as
to follow. If unsuccessful, the child becomes fearful, is unable to join groups, and
harbors guilty feelings. The child depends excessively on adults and is restricted
both in the development of play skills and in imagination.

 School age
The fourth stage, Learning Industry or Inferiority (Competence) , occurs during
school age, up to and possibly including junior high school. The child learns to
master more formal skills like relating with peers according to rules ,progressing
from free play to play that is structured by rules and requires teamwork (team
sports) and learning basic intellectual skills (reading, arithmetic). At this stage,
the need for self-discipline increases every year. The child who, because of his or
her successful passage through earlier stages, is trusting, autonomous, and full
of initiative, will quickly learn to be industrious. However, the mistrusting child will
doubt the future and will feel inferior.

 Adolescence
Adolescents are starting to think abstractly and can comprehend their own self-
identity and personalities. The teenager begins to think about identity issues such
as: Who should I be? What should I place a premium on? And what kinds of hobbies
should I pursue? To establish a strong sense of self-identity, the teen must answer
these questions. This stage is characterized by the exploration of multiple roles and
personalities.

From the ages of 13 to 14, the fifth stage, Learning Identity or Identity Diffusion
(Fidelity), occurs during adolescence. During this period, the young person develops
self-assurance rather than self-doubt, and experiments with many constructive roles
rather than embracing a bad identity such as delinquency. In later adolescence, a
defined sexual identity is established, and the well-adjusted teenager looks forward
to achievement. The adolescent seeks leadership (someone to inspire him or her)
and develops a set of values to live by throughout time.
Parents are usually the first to recognize that their child has a problem with emotions
or behaviors that may point to a personality disorder.

 Young adult
The development of close emotional relationships with other people is a struggle
for a young adult. In this context, the term “intimate” refers to social and emotional
interactions with others rather than sexuality. Those who do not develop a sense of
intimacy, on the other hand, become separated from social contact.

 Middle-aged adult
Adults in their forties and fifties have a strong desire to leave their mark on the world,
to create something of lasting value and importance. Finding a sense of direction
in life is a major theme. When a person fails to generate something meaningful, he
or she becomes stuck and stops moving forward; as a result, the individual may
become selfish and self-absorbed.

 Old adult
It is natural in old age to reflect on one’s life and what has been done. Integrity is
developed by people who feel good about what they have done. For people who
have received negative evaluations, there is sadness, as well as a sense of regret
and guilt for the life they have lived

Self-assessment 9.4

1) The big five model of personality contains the following dimensions:
a) Psychotism, neurocism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness
b) openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness,
narcissism
c) openness, narcissism, psychotism, conscientiousness, extraversion
d) conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness,
extraversion

2) Which of the following is not one of the Big 5?
a) Agreeableness
b) Introversion
c) Neuroticism
d) Conscientiousness

3) M. is friendly, always willing to help others and compassionate. We would
expect Lana to score highly on:
a) Extraversion
b) Agreeableness
c) Neuroticism
d) Openness to experience

4) John is self-disciplined, focused on achievement and keen to do his duty.
He would be expected to score highly on:
a) Neuroticism
b) Agreeableness
c) Extraversion
d) conscientiousness

5) Talkative vs. silent; frank, open vs. secretive; adventurous vs. cautious;
sociable vs. reclusive; these traits describe which dimension of
personality?
a) Agreeableness
b) Conscientiousness
c) Extraversion
d) Culture

6) According to Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development, during
which age does the psychological stage of trust vs. mistrust develop?

a) early childhood
b) infancy
c) adolescence
d) adulthood

7) Which of the following is NOT one of the Erikson’s stages of psychosocial
development?
a) Industry vs. Inferiority
b) Trust vs. Mistrus
c) Life vs. Death
d) All of the above are stages

8) At what time of life does Erikson stage Industry vs. Inferiority occur?
a) old age
b) adolescence
c) School age
d) infancy

9.5. Determinants of behavior

Learning activity 9.5.

When Mr. K and her sister G were in a holidays of end year accompanied their
parents in a marriage party in Eastern province of the country; they remained
there for 2 days because they wanted to visit other student in the village. When
their parents were coming back to Kigali where they live, their car got a severe
accident and both died on site! After burial when K and G went to back to
the school Mr. K remained quiet and did not tell the situation to any one of
classmates while his sister G was constantly crying and telling her friends
about the death of their parents
Answer following questions:
1) In your opinion, what is the reason why Mr. K was so silent?
2) In your opinion, why did his sister tell her friends about her experience?
3) From your understanding, why females talk a lot compared to males?

Human behavior is any activity or human activity, both of which can be observed
directly (overt behavior), or which cannot be observed by others (covert behavior)

For years psychologists have debated whether human behavior is something
we are born with or something we acquire - the “nature/nurture” debate. There
are four determinants of behavior; prewiring (nature), formative years (nurture),
contemporary society, and creativity. Each have had an important role to play in
the evolution of human kind, namely in the first, second, and third watersheds of
that evolution.

 Prewiring
The first determinant of our behaviour is “instinct” or “prewiring”, a genetic inheritance
that predisposes us to behave in particular ways. This is the “nature” argument. “I
am the way I am because I was born this way and, given that is the way I am
wired, there is nothing that can be done to change my behaviour.” (If this argument
was totally true, I would not try to learn anything. I either have natural ability or I
do not). Perhaps it is partially true. Prewiring can be demonstrated by the nest-
building practices of birds and the web-spinning of spiders. This is not behaviour
that they have to learn. It is instinct. They have no choice. Prewiring can also be
demonstrated in the human species by psychological differences between men
and women. Women, on average, have greater oral ability. Men, on average, have
higher spatial ability and are more competitive. On these characteristics the human
species has no choice. This is the way we are prewired.

 Formative Years
The second of the determinants of our behaviour is learned in our formative years
from our experiences with siblings, with parents or with guardians. A child arrives
in the world wishing to survive. It quickly realizes that resources for that survival
come from parents and so the child quickly discovers through trial and error what
strategies will maximize those resources. Further, the child needs to establish for
itself an ecological niche, one in which it is differentiated from others also competing
for resources. The greatest competitors for resources in a child’s life are its parents
and its siblings.

 Contemporary Society
The third of the four determinants of our behaviour is the contemporary society in
which each of us finds ourselves. People seem to quickly pick up social mannerisms
such as accents and gestures when they relocate between countries or cultures.
It is a case of the unconscious application of the maxim “When in Rome, do as the
Romans do.” Accents are a very obvious example. We acquire them unconsciously
in order to fit in. The need for acceptance, for belonging, for not being too different

(in other words the need for “affiliation”) is prewired within us, probably strongly
influencing the second and third determinants of behaviour.
Similarly our oral communication is underpinned by our prewired need to
communicate between members of our species; our introversion or extraversion,
coupled with the language we speak is influenced by our formative years; yet our
ideographic language is contemporary, subtlety changing.
Behaviours based upon those of contemporary society are quite malleable. Our
adaptability as a human species attests to that.

 Creativity
The fourth determinant of our behaviour is imagination, creativity or innovation,
the ability to imagine and/or construct something hitherto unknown. Although the
bounds of our creativity, the range within which our creativity can occur, is limited
by prewiring, by formative years and by contemporary society (technology, for
example) we’ll never know what those bounds are until we push them.

Behaviours based on creativity are the easiest to change. Hence “good ideas”
are very fragile. The conservatism of the human species (anchored to prewiring,
formative years, and contemporary society) attests to the extent to which creativity
is not a strong behavioral determinant.

In Summary, It is suggested that our behaviour is influenced by our prewiring, by
our formative years, by the behaviour of those around us which we model, and by
our creativity

Self-assessment 9.5

1) Behavior refers to:
a) Action or reaction of the object or organism, usually in relation to
the environment.
b) Action of human beings only.
c) Reaction of human beings against any action from others.
d) None of the above.

2) Which of the following is not a covert behaviour?
a) Thinking
b) Feeling
c) Dreaming
d) Talking

3) Which of the following is not an overt behaviour?
a) Dreaming
b) Walking
c) Laughing
d) Fighting

4) Choose the letter corresponding to the right response
Behaviors based on …………..……are the easiest to change and is not
a strong behavioral determinant.
a) Prewiring
b) Formative Years
c) Creativity
d) Contemporary Society

5) State 4 determinants of human behavior

9.6. The six Stages of Behavior Change

Learning activity 9.6

Observe well images above and answer questions

1) Describe the meaning of images A, B, C, D, E and F
2) From your understanding what steps of behavior change?

Behaviour change, in context of public health, refers to efforts put in place to change
people’s personal habits and attitudes, to prevent disease. Behaviour change in
public health can take place at several levels and is known as social and behaviour
change. Change occurs gradually and relapses are an inevitable part of the process.
People are often unwilling or resistant to change during the early stages, but they
eventually develop a proactive and committed approach to changing a behaviour.

 Stage 1: Pre-contemplation
The earliest stage of change is known as precontemplation. During the pre-
contemplation stage, people are not considering a change. People in this stage
are often described as “in denial,” because they claim that their behavior is not a
problem. In some cases, people in this stage do not understand that their behavior
is damaging, or they are under-informed about the consequences of their actions.

 Stage 2: Contemplation

During this stage, people become more and more aware of the potential benefits of
making a change, but the costs tend to stand out even more. This conflict creates
a strong sense of ambivalence about changing. Because of this uncertainty, the
contemplation stage of change can last months or even years.

 Stage 3: Preparation
During the preparation stage, you might begin making small changes to prepare for
a larger life change. For example, if losing weight is your goal, you might switch to
lower-fat foods. If your goal is to quit smoking you might switch brands or smoke
less each day. You might also take some sort of direct action such as consulting a
therapist, joining a health club, or reading self-help books.

 Stage 4: Action
During the fourth stage of change, people begin taking direct action in order to
accomplish their goals. Oftentimes, resolutions fail because the previous steps
have not been given enough thought or time.

 Stage 5: Maintenance
The maintenance phase of the Stages of Change model involves successfully
avoiding former behaviours and keeping up new behaviours. If you are trying to
maintain a new behaviour, look for ways to avoid temptation. Try replacing old
habits with more positive actions. Reward yourself when you are able to successfully
avoid a relapse.

 Stage 6: Relapse
In any behaviour change, relapses are a common occurrence. When you go through
a relapse, you might experience feelings of failure, disappointment, and frustration.

The key to success is to not let these setbacks undermine your self-confidence. If
you lapse back to an old behaviour, take a hard look at why it happened

Self-assessment 9.6.

1) Considering six stages of behavior change. A person who does not
regularly exercise makes a plan to exercise in the upcoming month. He
schedules an appointment to speak with his healthcare provider. Which
stage of stages of behavior change does this best describe?
a) Pre contemplation
b) Contemplation
c) Preparation
d) Action

2) Doctor tells persons that they’re at risk of developing hypertension unless
they make healthier choices, like daily walks and a better diet. Person
may think there’s nothing wrong with them. Here’s what the stages may
look like for them:
a) Maintenance
b) Contemplation
c) Pre contemplation
d) Relapse

3) Your Dad is a drunker, where he takes 5 SKOL a day. As his child who
have information about health you are explaining to him the side effects
and complications of alcohol. He understand that and he starts reading
books to see if what you are saying is true. At which stage of behavior
change does this father is
a) Contemplation
b) Contemplation
c) Preparation
d) Action

9.7. Motivation and motivation theories

Learning activity 9.7.

When employer H. arrived at the management centre, he found that some
of the staff were constantly in training and others were not. After collecting
information, he sought out how to help employees to improve their skills. To do
that, he has made a list of employees who will be attending the training and
looking for training that will take place away from their workplace where they
will get money to help them to find accommodation and to attend quiet training
without interfering work and the training

1) In your opinion what was intension of the manager to the staffs?

9.7.1. Motivation
Motivation is something that pushes people to do action or feel a certain way.
Motivating someone entails encouraging and inspiring them. Turning on or igniting a
feeling or action is sometimes referred to as motivation. Motivation is quite powerful.
It has the ability to persuade, convince, and motivate you to take action. Motivation,
in other terms, can be defined as a driving force for action. It is a power capable
of completely altering your life. Our lives are propelled forward by motivation. It is
motivated by a desire to succeed. There is no pride in life without success; there is
no happiness or excitement at work or at home. Life can often feel like a skewed
wheel that takes you on a rocky trip. Complacency is the worst enemy of motivation.
Complacency breeds frustration, and frustrated people give up because they can’t
figure out what’s important.

You can proceed to attain your goal and motivate others after you comprehend the
principle that motivates the motivator. Your desire and attitude are your internal
motivator. It spreads quickly. The key to achieving the response you want from
others is to have a positive attitude. How can one keep focused and motivated?
There are two sorts of motivation: intrinsic (internal) and extrinsic (external).

a. External motivation
Extrinsic motivation is defined as conduct that is influenced by external incentives.
These incentives can be monetary or academic in nature, or intangible in nature, such
as acclaim or celebrity. Extrinsically motivated people will continue to do something
even if it isn’t enjoyable or rewarding in and of itself for example, doing something
at work that you don’t find enjoyable or gratifying in order to earn a living. Extrinsic

motivation is used in operant conditioning, which is when someone or something is
trained to behave in a certain way as a result of a reward or punishment. Although
extrinsic drive can be beneficial in some instances, it can also contribute to burnout
or a loss of effectiveness over time.

b. Internal motivation
Internal motivation is the satisfaction that comes from completing a task, not for the
sake of achievement or victory. It’s more than just attaining a goal; it’s a sense of
accomplishment. A rewarding sensation is not obtained by achieving an unworthy
goal. Because internal motivation comes from inside and manifests as self-
motivated, it is long-lasting. To achieve, motivation must be found and continually
strengthened. Keep your objectives in sight and read them every morning and
evening. Recognition and accountability are the two most powerful motivators.
Being valued, treated with respect and decency, and having a sense of belonging
are all aspects of recognition. A sense of belonging and ownership is produced by
taking on responsibilities. People do not believe they are being treated as things.
They believe they are a valuable member of a team. The satisfaction of doing the
right thing is motivating in and of itself.

Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation can sometimes complement each other to help
you complete a task. If you have a job and are working on a project, for example,
you may be extrinsically motivated to complete it in order to meet a teammate’s
deadline. You may be organically motivated to complete the assignment because
you enjoy working on it and want to do a good job.

9.7.2. Motivation theory

a. Content theories

The idea that motivation is based on the needs of the individual is emphasized in
content theories. Need can be defined as a state in a person’s life that motivates
them to act and engage in certain behaviours. Individual needs, and thus motivation
levels, vary, according to content theorists. These theories are often known as needs
theories since they are generally associated with a perspective that emphasizes
the need of figuring out “what” motivates us. They try to figure out what our “needs”
are and then link motivation to meeting those needs. The following are some of the
most important content theories:

i. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a motivation theory that argues that an individual’s
conduct is dictated by five categories of human needs. Physiological needs, safety
needs, love and belonging needs, esteem needs, and self-actualization needs are
some of these needs.

When a lower need is met, it no longer motivates behaviour; instead, the next higher
need takes over. The five needs are arranged in a logical order. When lesser wants
are met, higher needs become more significant. Higher-order motivation comes
from higher-order needs. Priorities fluctuate from person to person. The approach
aids managers in determining which specific demands are important to employees
and, as a result, appropriate motivators.

ii. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Alderfer developed a model of motivation aligning with Maslow’s motivation theory
by reducing the five needs suggested by Maslow to three needs. These needs are
Existence, Relatedness and Growth. According to Alderfer, there is no hierarchy
of needs and any desire to fulfil a need can be activated at any point in time. This
results in the lower level needs not requiring to be satisfied in order to satisfy a
higher level need.

Existence needs: include the necessity for material and energy exchange, as well
as basic physiological and safety requirements.

Relatedness needs: interactions with human surroundings, sharing or mutuality
process; desire for interpersonal relationships and attention; is similar to Maslow’s
social needs and part of the esteem needs.

Growth needs: People make creative or productive efforts for themselves; personal
growth and development are part of Maslow’s esteem and self-fulfillment wants.
Unlike Maslow, more than one degree of need might be applicable at the same time
here. There is no hierarchy; people may attempt to meet their own development
needs, but not all relatedness needs are met.

iii. McClelland’s needs
David McClelland proposed a motivational model that divided demands into three
categories: achievement, affiliation, and power. He claimed that numerous motives
govern an individual’s conduct at any given time. However, in most instances, one
or two motives predominate, and motivation varies according to the demands.

Need for Achievement: People who have a high need for achievement want to
succeed, thus they favor moderate risks. They select those tasks in which they
can take personal responsibility for solving issues. Achievers need feedback on a
frequent basis to keep track of their development. High performers should be given
demanding projects with reachable goals by management.

Need for Affiliation: Those with a strong need for affiliation seek out positive
interactions with others and want to be accepted by them. Companionship and
mutual aid are important to such persons. Individuals with a high level of affiliation
seek jobs that allow them to contact with others on a regular basis. They have a
tendency to follow the conventions of their workplace. Managers should establish
an environment that fosters supportive interpersonal relationships for persons
seeking affiliation, as this type of group formation leads to goal achievement.

Need for Power: The desire to influence people expresses the yearning for power.
People that are looking for power are often vocal and strong. They are prepared to
engage in a fight. There are two forms of power needs: personal and institutional.
Those who crave personal power want to command others, and this desire is
frequently viewed as bad. People who need institutional power desire to oversee
other people’s efforts to achieve the organization’s goals. It has been observed that
managers who have a strong desire for institutional power are more effective than
those who have a strong desire for personal power.

iv. Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Frederick Herzberg developed motivation-hygiene theory on the basis of studies to
understand the factors affecting satisfaction or dissatisfaction in a work environment.
These factors have been classified as motivators and hygiene factors respectively.

Hygiene Factors: These are the basic factors in a job and also known as extrinsic
factors. Although, they may not provide positive satisfaction but absence of these
factors lead to dissatisfaction. Examples of hygiene factors include status, job
security, salary and fringe benefits.

Motivators: These are internal elements that contribute to job happiness. Intrinsic
factors are what they’re termed. The absence of these elements may not lead to
discontent, but their presence in the workplace does. Job challenge, advancement,
autonomy, and responsibility are examples of motivators.

b. Process Theories
Process theories concentrate on “how” part of motivation. They describe and
analyze how behavior is energized, directed and sustained. The theories under
process theories are discussed as follows:

i. Expectancy Theory
Vroom’s theory of motivation suggests that individuals are motivated towards
objectives if they think that their performance will be rewarded for the efforts they
put in. Vroom suggested three variables in this study Expectancy, Instrumentality
and Valence.
 Expectancy: Effort lead to performance
 Instrumentality: Performance lead to outcome
 Valence is the importance associated by an individual with respect to the
expected outcome. It is an expected and not the actual satisfaction that an
employee expects to receive after achieving the goals. This is dependent
on individuals’ needs, values, goals, preferences and source of motivation.

ii. Equity Theory
The equity concept was suggested by J.S. Adams. According to this theory,
employees have high expectations of justice, balance, and fairness in their treatment
by their employers. In this viewpoint, people are motivated by a desire to be treated
equally at work.

Inputs: These are the quality and quantity of an employee’s contributions to the
workplace like: time, effort, loyalty, hard work, commitment, ability, adaptability,
flexibility, tolerance, determination, excitement, management trust, coworker
support, and skills are among them.

Outputs: The positive and negative outcomes that an individual obtains after putting
inputs into an activity are referred to as outputs. They can exist in both tangible and
immaterial forms. Job security, esteem, remuneration, employee benefits, acclaim,
and recognition are examples of outputs.

c. Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory is based upon “law of effect” Individuals tend to repeat
behavior which is rewarded while the behaviour which gives punishment is not
repeated. Today managers focus on positive rewards to elicit desirable behaviour.

d. Behavioral Theories
Behavioral is described as the way a person conducts themselves towards others.
When workers are treated as humans rather than machines, they take action to their
particular work situation in a constructive way by increasing individual productivity.
Thus, in lines of understanding and improving the human behavior, McGregor and
William Ouchi suggested Theory X and Y and Theory Z respectively.

i. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
McGregor has suggested two contrasting theories on motivation based on certain
assumptions

1. Theory X
Theory X revolves around the traditional approach to motivation and control.
It represents traditional stereotyped and authoritarian management style. It has
following assumptions:
 An average human being is lazy and doesn’t like to work. He will avoid work
if he can
 Most human beings lack ambition and thus don’t want responsibility. They
prefer to be directed rather than to lead.
 Most human beings are self-centred and indifferent to the organizational
goals.
 Most people are not creative to solve organizational problems.
 Most human beings are motivated with physiological and safety needs

These assumptions suggest that the human beings can be motivated by money
and the benefits required for satisfying the physical and safety needs. According
to the theory, the employees are managed by punishments and strict control. This
type of motivational process can only work in the environment whereby the work is
repetitive in nature and promotions are not frequent. McGregor advocated Theory
Y refuting the assumptions of Theory X as nowadays the employees don’t just get
motivated with money and related benefits

2. Theory Y
Theory Y assumes that people are not unreliable and lazy by nature. It has a positive
view on employee motivation and their behavior. The management undertakes the
responsibility of helping the employees to develop and express their creative skills.
The assumptions of McGregor’s Theory Y are as follows:
Fundamental of Nursing | Associate Nursing Program | Senior 4410
 An average person doesn’t dislike work rather work is natural as play.
 An average human being will exert self-control and direct himself for his
objectives.
 An average individual knows that he will be rewarded if he is committed for
the objectives. And generally these rewards are higher order needs namely
ego satisfaction and self-actualization.
 An average person tends to seek responsibility and is ambitious.
 Imagination, creativity, and ingenuity can be used to solve work problems
most of the people.
 Considering the present scenario of present industrial life, the intellectual
potential of an average man is only partly utilized. Theory Y is more real
and generally used in the organizations. In support of this theory, McGregor
suggested motivational practices like decentralization, delegation, job
enlargement, participation and consultative management

Self-assessment 9.7.

1) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes all of the following except:
a) Physiological
b) Safety
c) cognition
d) Esteem

2) In Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, food, water and sleep are considered
______________________motives.
a) Safety
b) Self-actualization
c) Physiological
d) Esteem

3) In Maslow’s theory of motivation, social needs are satisfied by ….
a) Job security
b) Food and water
c) Love and friendliness
d) Job responsibility

4) Explain the factors affecting satisfaction or dissatisfaction in a work
environment developed by Herzberg

5) List the motivation models proposed by David McClelland

6) Describe the needs developed by Alderfer’s ERG

End unit assessment 9.

Question one and two are True and false questions
1) An optimist believes that the best possible outcome will occur and hopes
for it even if it is unlikely.

2) The qualities of pessimistic people are self-motivated, they surround
themselves with other people with the same qualities.
Multiple choice questions

3) According to Freud, which part of our personality is the moral part that
develops due to the moral and ethical restraints placed on us by our
caregivers?
a) Id
b) Ego
c) Superego
d) No answer

4) Which of the following is not one of the big personality traits?
a) Open to new experiences
b) Agreeableness
c) Locus of control
d) Neuroticism

5) Which of the following are considered tenants of personality according
to trait theorists?
a) There are only 5 personality trait, people are born with and retain
the same traits throughout their life and they are entirely based on
nature
b) Traits are relatively stable over time, traits influence behavior
c) Traits change based on situation and exposure, trait are affected by
behavior and they do not affect each other (friendly and unfriendly
at once)
d) Traits can be used to predict a person’s behavior and all people
have the same definable traits

6) According to Freud, displacement, sublimation and projection are all
types of what?
a) Behavior need
b) Defense mechanism
c) Behavior change
d) Psychosocial stage

7) In Freud’s topographic model, the ‘çensor’ guards the border between
…
a) The Conscious and the Preconscious
b) The Preconscious and the Unconscious
c) The Conscious and the Unconscious
d) The Ego and the Id

8) Considering six stages of behavior change. A person who does not
regularly exercise makes a plan to exercise in the upcoming month. He
schedules an appointment to speak with his healthcare provider. Which
stage of stages of behavior change does this best describe?
a) Pre contemplation
b) Contemplation
c) Preparation
d) Action

9) Maslow’s hierarchy of needs includes all of the following except:
a) Physiological
b) Safety
c) cognition
d) Esteem

10) M. is friendly, always willing to help others and compassionate. We
would expect Lana to score highly on:
a) Extraversion
b) Agreeableness
c) Neuroticism
d) Openness to experience

11) John is self-disciplined, focused on achievement and keen to do his
duty. He would be expected to score highly on:
a) Neuroticism
b) Agreeableness
c) Extraversion
d) Conscientiousness

12) Which of the following is not an overt behaviour?
a) Dreaming
b) Walking
c) Laughing
d) Fighting

Open questions
13) State 4 determinants of human behavior
14) List the types of defence mechanism
15) Explain what good personality meant?