S4: Fundementals of Nursing

Key unit competence:
Analyse the concepts and theories of growth and development in interpersonal
relationships.

8.1. Definitions

Learning activity 8.1.

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/154874
Read the link above and answer to the following questions:
1) What is psychology?
2) What is developmental psychology?

8.1.1. Psychology

Psychology is the study of mind and behavior, it encompasses the biological
influences, social pressures, and environmental factors that affect how people think,
act, and feel. Psychology is defined as a science which studies mental processes,
experiences and behavior in different contexts.

The four main goals of psychology are to describe, explain, predict and change
the behavior and mental processes of others.

a) To describe
Describing a behavior or cognition is the first goal of psychology. This can enable
researchers to develop general laws of human behavior.

b) To explain:
Once researchers have described general laws behavior, the next step is to explain
how or why this trend occurs. Psychologists will propose theories which can explain
a behavior.

c) To predict
Psychology aims to be able to predict future behavior from the findings of empirical
research. If a prediction is not confirmed, then the explanation it is based on might
need to be revised.

d) To change
Once psychology has described, explained and made predictions about behavior,
changing or controlling a behavior can be attempted.

8.1.2. Developmental psychology

Developmental psychology is the development of human being’ cognitive, emotional,
intellectual, and social capabilities and functioning over the course of a normal life
span, from infancy through old age.

Developmental psychology is a scientific approach which aims to explain growth,
change and consistency though the lifespan. Developmental psychology looks at
how thinking, feeling, and behavior change throughout a person’s life.

A significant proportion of theories within this discipline focus upon development
during childhood, as this is the period during an individual’s lifespan when the most
change occurs.

The three goals of developmental psychology are to describe, explain, and to
optimize development.

a) To describe development
It is necessary to focus both on typical patterns of change (normative development)
and individual variations in patterns of change.

b) To explain development
Developmental psychologists must also seek to explain the changes they have
observed in relation to normative processes and individual differences.

c) To optimize development
Developmental psychologists hope to optimize development, and apply their
theories to help people in practical situations (e.g. help parents develop secure
attachments with their children).

Self-assessment 8.1

1) Define psychology
2) List and explain at least two goals of psychology
3) Define developmental psychology
4) List and explain at least two goals of developmental psychology

8.2. Growth and development

Learning activity 8.2.

Most people use the terms “growth” and “development” interchangeably and accept
them as synonymous. But in reality, the meanings of these two terms are different.

8.2.1. Growth concept and definition
Growth is physical change and increase in size which can be measured quantitatively.
The pattern of physiological growth is similar for all people where the growth rate
varies throughout the lifespan. Growth is more rapid during the antenatal, neonatal,
infancy and adolescent stages and slower during childhood and minimal during
adulthood.

Growth refers to physical increase in some quantity over time. It includes changes
in terms of height, weight and different organs of the child’s body. It means that
growth involves all those structural and physiological changes that take place within
individual during the process of maturation.

Hurlock has defined Growth as “change in size, in proportion, disappearance of old
features and acquisition of new ones”.

Measuring Growth
There are various measurements that are used to measure growth. These are:
Weight, Height, Head circumference, Mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), and
the eruption of teeth.

8.2.2. Development: concept and definition
Development is an increase in the complexity of function and skill progression. It
is the capacity and skill of a person to adapt to the environment. Development is
the behavioral aspect of growth (e.g. a person develops the ability to walk, to talk
and to run).

Development is the progressive acquisition of various skills such as head support,
speaking, learning, expressing the feelings and relating with other people. Each
child follows a unique path in growth and development that is laid down from the
beginning of life by what he has inherited from both parents genetically. However thus
may be changed by different factors such as infections, lack of care, psychological
trauma, bad education, and malnutrition.

The normal well-fed infant who is protected from infections develops quickly,
particularly during the first 3 months. It is very important to know the age ranges
when most children acquire certain skills. The various skills the baby and a young
child learn are called milestones. In monitoring development, notice at what age
the child achieves various milestones, such as smiling at the mother, sitting without
support, grasping objects with his/her hands, standing, walking and talking.

Growth and development are independent and interrelated processes. For example,
an infant’s muscles, bones and nervous system must grow to a certain point before
the infant is able to sit up or walk. Growth generally takes place during the first 20
years of life; development takes place during that time and also continues after that
point.

Stages of growth and development
The rate of a person’s growth and development is highly individual; however, the
sequence of growth and development is predictable. Stages of growth usually
correspond to certain developmental changes

Self-assessment 8.2.

1) Make a brief difference between the concept of growth and development
2) What is milestone

8.3. Principles of human development

Learning activity 8.3.

Open and read the following link and answer to the questions below
https://ddceutkal.ac.in/Syllabus/MSW/PAPER-3.pdf.
1) list the different principles of human development

There are several basic principles that characterize the pattern and process of
growth and development. These principles describe typical development as a
predictable and orderly process. Even though there are individual differences
in children’s personalities, attitudes, behaviour and timing of development, the
principles and characteristics of development are universal patterns

 Development involves change
The human being is undergoing changes from the moment of conception to the
time of death. There are different types of change that occur such as changes in
size, proportions, disappearance of old features and acquisition of new features
etc.

 Development is a continuous process
Development continues throughout the life of an individual. The process of human
development starts with simple acts and progresses to complex or integrated acts.
This process takes place in interaction with the environment in which a person lives.
One stage of development is the basic framework for the next stage of development.
A child has limited knowledge and experiences about his environment. But as he
develops, he acquires more information through explorations and adds to the skills
already acquired and the new skills become the basis for further achievement and
mastery of skills. For example, the child is able to write and draw, he must have
developed a hand control to hold a pencil and crayon.

 Development follows a direction and uniform pattern in an orderly
     manner
(i) Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. This is the principle
of proximodorsal development that describes the direction of development (from
nearer to far apart). It means that the spinal cord develops before outer parts of the
body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and the hands and feet develop
before the fingers and toes.

(ii) Development proceeds from the head downwards. This is called the
cephalocaudal principle. According to this principle, development occurs from head
to tail. The child gains control of the head first, then the arms and then the legs

 Individual Differences in the Development Process
Even though the pattern of development is similar for all children but the rate of
development varies among children. Each child develops as per his abilities and
perception of his environment. Children differ from each other both genetically
and environmentally. So, both biological factor and environmental situations have
their impact on individual’s development which leads to individual differences in
development.

 Development depends on maturation and learning
Maturation refers to the sequential characteristic of biological growth and
development. The biological changes occur in sequential order and give children
new abilities.

Changes in the brain and nervous system account largely for maturation. The child’s
environment and the learning that occurs as a result of the child’s experiences
largely determine whether the child will reach optimal development. An enriched
environment and varied experiences help the child to develop his/her potential.

Learning can either help or hinder the maturational process depending on what is
learned.

 Development is predictable
Human development is predictable during the life span. Although this development
is influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, however, it takes place in
a pre-defined manner. Specific areas of development, (such as: different aspects
of motor development, emotional behavior, speech, social behavior, concept
development, goals, intellectual development, etc) follow predictable patterns. For
example, the growth of the child in height and weight continues up to a certain age.

 Early development is more critical than later development
Certain stages of growth and development are more critical than others. It is known,
for example, that the first 10 to 12 weeks after conception are critical. The incidence
of congenital anomalies as a result of exposure to certain viruses, chemicals or
drugs is greater during this stage than others.

Milton said that the childhood shows the man, as morning shows the day and also
Erikson states that childhood period is the scene of man’s beginning as man. He
explains that if parents gratify the needs of the child for food, attention and love,
his perception towards people and situation remains positive throughout his life.
He develops positive attitudes, feels secure, emotionally stable and adjust well
with the environment. If negative experiences occur during early life of the child,
maladjustments may take place.

 Development involves social expectations
In every society there are certain rules, standards and traditions which everyone is
expected to follow. Development is determined by social norms and expectations of
behaviors form the individuals. Children learn customs, traditions and values of the
society and also what behaviors are expected from them. As societies are evolving,
changing traditions and cultural patterns of a society are learned automatically by
children during their development process.

 Development has potential hazards
Development may be hindered by various hazards such as physical, environmental
or psychological type. These hazards may be originated from the environment in
which the child grows or due to hereditary factors which may have negative impact
on physical as well as socio-psychological development of the child.

 Happiness varies at different periods of development
Childhood is the happiest period of life and puberty is the unhappiest. The patterns
of happiness vary from child to child and it is influenced by the background process
of the child.

Self-assessment 8.3.

1) Development is a never-ending process. This statement is related which
principle of development?
a) Principle of continuity
b) Principle of integration
c) Principle of interaction
d) Principle of inter relationship

2) This is not a principle of development
a) Development is continuous
b) Development is consistent
c) Development is lifelong
d) None of the above

3) The law of development direction includes
a) Cephalocaudal law
b) Proximodistal law
c) Both a and b
d) Neither a nor b

4) Which of the following statement is incorrect about the principles of child
development?
a) Development follows a definite and predictable pattern
b) All individuals are similar in their development
c) Development is product of hereditary and environment
d) Development works on the principle of integration

5) Out of the following, which is not correct principle in the context to growth
and development?
a) Foot to head
b) From near to distant
c) Head to foot
d) Interaction of heredity and environment

6) A child first learns moving his hand, then fingers and then hand and fingers
together. Which principle of growth and development is represented by
this example?
a) Principle of continuity
b) Principle of directional development
c) Principle of general to specific
d) Principle of individual differences

8.4.1. Comparison of growth and development

 Growth mainly focuses on quantitative improvement while development

    is associated with both qualitative and quantitative improvement

For instance, growth is associated with measurable changes in weight and height.
When your child’s weight increases from 35 kilograms to 40 kilograms, then the
5kilogram increment is attributed to growth. On the other hand, development is

identified when substantial changes in Intelligence Quotient (IQ) are recorded in
your child’s brain power. For instance, your child’s IQ level is relatively low during
childhood but can improve significantly into adulthood. Your child’s IQ level can
improve from 50 to 90 after improving their creative and critical thinking skills.

 Growth ends at maturation while development continues until an
     individual’s demise (death).
As a teacher or parent, it is important to note that growth ends at maturation. Your
child will experience various changes associated with growth between childhood and
maturation at adolescence. This means that your teaching approach will be different
at age 6 and age 15. At 6 years, your child needs simplified information that they can
understand because their brain can only process basic information. At 15 years, your
child’s brain has improved significantly, and they are in a unique position to grasp and
retain complex information based on their improved information processing skills.

 Growth is dependent on cellular changes while development is
     dependent on organizational transformation
Growth begins at conception and progresses into adulthood. From conception, your
child’s body experiences massive changes based on changes in cellular growth.
An increase in cellular size and number indicates that your child is undergoing
growth. Development is often witnessed at a home or school environment when
your child experiences skillset changes. This simply means that any skills learnt
such as reading or arithmetic are indicative of your child’s development changes.
The older they get, the more likely they are to understand complex skills associated
with computation and reasoning.

 Growth is external while development is internal in nature
Regardless of your location or occupation, you can observe your child’s growth
based on visible external features. These features include increased body parts
sizes such as hands, legs, ears, and much more. These changes usually manifest
over time based on improved nutrition and general wellbeing. It is important to note
that family instability can also affect your child’s proper growth. Too much stress
from domestic strife subjects your child to stunted growth.

Unlike growth, development is an internal process and isn’t visible by the naked eye.
Instead, it requires a comprehensive evaluation of your child’s reasoning, creativity
and innovation to ascertain their development status. This can be achieved by
setting various tests designed to evaluate your child’s IQ in relation with creativity
and reasoning. Based on their performance, you should be in a unique position

to accurately determine their development level and the changes that ought to be
made to rectify the situation.

 Growth dictates changes in physical appearance while development
      dictates change in the character of an individual
Growth is easily discernible based on changes in physical appearance. These
changes manifest over time and include increased body size and voice intonation.
Whether such changes are visible based on hair transformation or skin tone, you
can rest assured knowing that your child is experiencing growth changes.

On the other hand, development pays much emphasis in the character changes
of an individual. Your child might have been disobedient during their early age but
over time, they are likely to transform into a mature young adult. With each passing
day, they outgrow certain habits that can only be traced back to character changes.

 Growth takes place within a limited scope of time while development
      takes place within a vast scope of time
This means that growth spans from conception to adolescence depending on your child’s
growth rate. During this period, your child undergoes progressive body changes designed
to transform them into adults. By 25 years of age, your child’s growth rate will have peaked.

Development isn’t confined by time or age. Your child can acquire excess of skills
to handle various tasks and challenges regardless of their location or background.
The best part about skill acquisition is that it can still happen beyond 35-year-old if
the determination and commitment exist.

 Growth focuses on one aspect of your child’s life On the other hand,
     development focuses on several aspects of your child’s life such as
     emotional state, intelligence and interpersonal skills.
Naturally, growth is a size-oriented process from conception to adulthood. With
every increase in body size, you can monitor your child’s growth rate.

On the other hand, development is an all-inclusive process designed to analyze
various aspects of your child’s life. This usually stems from the need to evaluate
their capacity to interact with their peers and adults in an effective way. While their
interpersonal skills might be unpolished at a young age, your child is expected to
make improvements based on their advanced critical thinking and reasoning skills
as they get older.

The comparison between growth and development is summarized in the table below:

Self-assessment 8.4.

1) It refers to an increase in size evident through physical change
a) Growth
b) Development
c) All of the above
d) None of the above

2) It refers to a process of gradual transformation. It is an improvement in
the level of functioning based on the acquisition of skills. It isn’t easily
identified from a glance but only through a comprehensive evaluation of
your child’s performance on various skills and memory retention.
a) Growth
b) Development
c) All of them
d) None of them

3) When your child increases in height and weight, is he/she experiencing
a growth process?

a) Yes
b) No

4) Which of the following best describes Development?
a) It mainly focuses on quantitative improvement
b) It ends at maturation
c) It continues throughout life

5) Why is it important to understand the differences in human growth and
development?
a) This knowledge is crucial in helping you formulate ideal learning
styles to disseminate various learning concepts.
b) This knowledge will hinder parents to monitor their children closely
c) This knowledge will confuse learning process

8.5. Characteristics of normal and abnormal growth
        and development

Learning activity 8.5.

8.5.1. Overview of growth and development
Growth has been described as the work of childhood. Under normal circumstances,
growth proceeds in a predictable fashion from conception to adulthood. Abnormal
growth can be an indicator of a pathologic condition of any organ system as well as
a psychological problem.

a) Characteristic of normal growth and development
The growth is considered as physical and developmental milestone that most
children will attain at a specific age. Children undergo various changes in terms
of physical, speech, intellectual and cognitive development gradually until
adolescence. Specific changes occur at specific ages of life when we consider
developmental milestone. Children development stages are organized as follow:
newborn, infancy, toddle, pre-school, school age and adolescent.

A newborn is defined as a baby from birth to 2 months. During neonatal period, a
normal newborn reacts automatically to external stimuli, turn their head from side
to side, turn towards sounds and cry to indicate a need.

A child from birth to one year is known as an infant. At three to six months of age,
infants can recognize familiar faces, begin to babble, control their head movements
and bring their hands together. By six to nine months of age, infants start sitting
without support, may bounce when held in a standing position and respond to
people calling their name. Infants start communicating with gestures. Between nine
and 12 months old, children can point at things, pick up objects, crawl and even
stand with support, can imitate sound and gestures.

A Child between one and three years of age is a toddler. They can stand alone,
learn to walk without help, begin to run and climb stairs with short steps. These
kids can make bye-bye gesture, hold a pencil or crayon, draw a circle, learn to say
several words and even short sentences and even follow simple instructions.

A preschool child is from three to five year of age. At this stage, the child’s motor
skills become advanced. Children can throw and catch a ball, skip and hop, learn to
dress themselves and draw proper structures such as a flower. They can speak a
complete, long sentence and even two to three sentences in a stretch easily. With
toilet training, they begin to go to the toilet in the bathroom and use the facility all by
themselves by the age of four years old.

School-age child is between 6 to 12 years. School-age children most often have
smooth and strong motor skills. However, their coordination, endurance, balance,

and physical abilities vary. This variability affects a child’s ability to write precisely,
dress appropriately, and perform certain tasks, such as making beds or doing
dishes.

The adolescence is a period from 10 to 19 years, it is considered as a transitional
phase from childhood to adulthood. In this period, specific characteristics are evident
such as biological changes on secondary sexual characteristics, appearance
consciousness, attraction towards opposite sex, logical and constant thinking,
easily react without considering the pros and cons, select the best career to follow
and determine hobbies.

b) Characteristic of abnormal growth and development
If a child shows a very slow or a very rapid growth in relation to height or weight per
age, motor and intellectual capacity need to be examined by a competent health
care provider. The main factors that influence child’s growth are genetic, biological,
nutrition and physical activities.

Poor nutrition can make the child more likely to get sick and miss school. A good
breakfast is very important to prevent tiredness and feel motivated.

Malnutrition is defined as deficiencies, excesses, or imbalances in a person’s
nutrient intake. Malnutrition includes undernutrition (wasting, stunting, underweight),
inadequate vitamins or minerals and over nutrition which is represented by
overweight and obesity.

8.5.2. Biological influences on human growth and behaviors
Early child development is influenced by a wide variety of both biological and
environment factors. Biological factors can play a particularly important role in early
development. These factors influence a child in both positive and negative ways.
They can affect children throughout their development, particularly during critical
times such as the prenatal period and early childhood.

Biological factors include

a) Genes
Heredity is a biological process through which the transmission of physical
characteristics takes place from parents to their children. It greatly influences the
different aspects of growth and development i.e. height, weight and structure of
the body, color of hair and eye, intelligence, aptitudes and instincts. Diseases and
conditions such as heart disease, diabetes, obesity and so on can also be passed
through genes, thereby affecting growth and development of the child.

b) Hormonal factors
There are multiple glands in the human body. Each of them secrets its own fluid. This
is known as hormone. It is a type of biological component that helps to increase and
decrease the activity of various organs of the human body. Hormone is an important
factor that affects human growth and development in many ways from birth and
its normal functioning and emission is essential for the normal and harmonious
growth and development of human beings. Their timely functioning is critical for
normal physical growth and development in children. Imbalances in the functioning
of hormone-secreting glands can result in growth defects, obesity, behavioral
problems and other diseases. For example, during puberty, the gonads produce
sex hormones which control development of the sex organs and the appearance of
secondary sexual characteristics in boys and girls.

c) Nervous system
The nervous system controls a person’s entire physical activity and affects its
growth and development. When a person’s nervous system is defective, his normal
growth and development is disrupted.
d) Physical weakness
Physical weak children are always lagging behind in terms of growth and
development. They often suffer from illness, which affects their physical, mental,
social and emotional growth and development.

e) Defective constitutional make-up
Some of the defective body structures are ugly face, abnormally low height,
abnormally high weight etc. These give rise to feelings of inferiority among
individuals. As a result, individuals face social adaptation problems, which affect
their normal growth and development.

f) Sex
Sex acts as an important factor of growth and development. There is difference in
growth and development of boys and girls. The boys in general are taller, courageous
than girls but girls show rapid physical growth in adolescence and excel boys. In
general, the body constitution and structural growth of girls are different from boys.
The functions of boys and girls are also different in nature.

8.5.3. Factors affecting human development
Growth and development are dependent on a number of factors. Knowledge of these
factors helps the nurse to intervene to promote positive growth and development
of the individual.

a) Genetic
The genetic inheritance of each individual is established at conception. It remains
unchanged throughout life and determines human characteristics such as gender,
physical characteristics (eye color, height, hair color) and to some personality.

b) Temperament (personality)
Temperament (the way individuals emotionally respond to their external and
internal environment) sets the stage for the interactive dynamics of growth and
development. Temperament persists throughout the lifespan, though attention
must be taken to infants and children to irreversibly categorize them as being of a
particular temperament.

c) Family
Families have the most profound impact in nurturing a child and determining the
ways in which they develop psychologically and socially. Whether they are raised by
their parents, grandparents or foster care, they need basic love, care and courtesy
to develop as healthy functional individuals. The most positive growth is seen
when families invest time, energy and love in the development of the child through
activities, such as reading to them, playing with them and having deep meaningful
conversations. Families that abuse or neglect children would affect their positive
development. These children may end up as individuals who have poor social skills
and difficulty bonding with other people as adults.

d) Nutrition
Growth and development are dependent on adequate nutrition from conception
and throughout the lifespan. For example, poorly nourished children are more likely
to have infections and other preventable challenges to health and wellbeing than
are well-nourished children. Nutrition is a critical factor in growth as everything the
body needs to build and repair itself comes from the food we eat. Malnutrition can
cause deficiency diseases that adversely affect the growth and development of
children. On the other hand, overeating can lead to obesity and health problems
in the long run, such as diabetes and heart disease. A balanced diet that is rich in
vitamins, minerals, proteins, carbohydrates and fats is essential for the growth and
development of the brain and body.

e) Environment
Where you live also has a great influence on how your children turn out to be.
The schools they attend, the neighborhood they live in, the opportunities offered
by the community and their peer circles are some of the social factors affecting a
child’s development. Living in an enriching community that has parks, libraries and
community centres for group activities and sports all play a role in developing the
child’s skills, talents, and behaviour. Uninteresting communities can push some
children to not go outside often but play video games at home instead. Even the
weather of a place influences children in the form of bodily rhythms, allergies and
other health conditions.

f) Health and exercise
Illness or injury can alter the rate and patterns of growth and development.
Prolonged or chronic illness may further alter developmental processes, often
most notably physical development. Being hospitalized is stressful for a child
and their family and can alter the child’s coping mechanisms, which may in turn
alter their cognitive, psychosocial and emotional development.
The word exercise here does not mean physical exercise as a discipline or children
deliberately engaging in physical activities knowing it would help them grow.
Exercise here refers to the normal playtime and sport activities which help the body
gain an increase in muscular strength and put on bone mass. Proper exercise
helps children grow well and reach milestones on time or sooner. Exercise also
keeps them healthy and fights off diseases by strengthening the immune system,
especially if they play outside. This is because outdoor play exposes them to
microbes that help them build resistance and prevent allergies.

g) Socio-economic status
The socio-economic status of a family determines the quality of the opportunity a
child gets. Studying in better schools that are more expensive definitely has benefits
in the long run. Well-off families can also offer better learning resources for their
children and they afford special aid if the kids need it. Children from poorer families
may not have access to educational resources and good nutrition to reach their
full potential. They may also have working parents who work too many hours and
cannot invest enough quality time in their development.

Self-assessment 8.5.

1) Outline 5 factors that affecting human development
2) Discuss how family and socio-economic status influence human
     development.
3) Explain how health condition may affect human development
4) The genetic of each individual is established at adulthood and it remains
     unchanged throughout life and determines human characteristics such
      as gender and physical characteristics.
a) True
b) False

8.6. Theories of lifespan and development

Learning activity 8.6.

Observe the image above and respond to the following questions:
1) How many people do you see in this image?
2) Estimate the age of each individual in the image
3) According to everyone activity in the image, do you think is corresponding
    to his age?

Lifespan development explores how we change and grow from conception to
death. This field of psychology is studied by developmental psychologists and they
have developed different developmental theories including cognitive development,
psychosocial and sociocultural theories of development.

8.6.1. Cognitive theories of child development

Cognitive development refers to the manner in which people learn to think, reason
and use language. It involves a person’s intelligence, perceptual ability and ability
to process information. Cognitive development represents a progression of mental
abilities from illogical to logical thinking, from simple to complex problem solving
and from understanding concrete ideas to understanding abstract concepts.
The most widely known cognitive theorist is Jean Piaget. According to him, cognitive
development is an orderly, sequential process in which a variety of new experiences
(stimuli) must exist before intellectual abilities can develop.
Piaget’s cognitive developmental process is divided into five major phases:
the sensorimotor, the pre-conceptual, the intuitive thought, the concrete
operations and the formal operations phase.

A person develops through each of these phases; each phase has its own unique
characteristics

8.6.2. Psycho-social theories of development
Psychosocial development refers to the development of personality. Personality
is complex concept that is difficult to define, can be considered as the outwards
(interpersonal) expression of the inner (intrapersonal) self. It encompasses a
person’s temperament, feelings, character traits, independence, self-esteem, self-
concept, behavior, ability to interact with others and ability to adapt to life changes.

Psychosocial theories focus on the nature of self-understanding, social
relationships, and the mental processes that support connections between
the person and his/her social world.

Erik H. Erikson believed that people continue to develop throughout life.

Erikson believed that the more success an individual has at each developmental
stage, the healthier the personality of the individual and he proposed that personality
development takes place all through the life span. Erikson suggested that how we
interact with others is what affects our sense of self.

Erikson proposed that we are motivated by a need to achieve competence in certain
areas of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of
development over our lifespan from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage
there is a conflict, or task, that we need to resolve. Successful completion of each
developmental task results in a sense of competence and a healthy personality
however failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy. According to
Erikson, the environment is highly influential in development.

Erikson emphasized that people must change and adapt their behavior to maintain
control over their lives. In his view, no stage in personality development can be
bypassed, but people can become fixated at one stage or regress to a previous
stage under anxious or stressful conditions.

1.1.1. Socio-cultural theory of development (Vygotsky 1896-1934)

Sociocultural theory is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important
contributions that society makes to individual development. This theory stresses
the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.
Sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process.
Sociocultural theory focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual
learning but also on how cultural and beliefs affect how learning takes place.

This theory has been developed by Vygotsky, who believed that each culture
presents unique differences. Because cultures can vary so dramatically, Vygotsky’s
sociocultural theory suggests that both the course and content of intellectual
development are not as universal as Piaget believed. He states that children
are born with basic biological constraints on their minds. Each culture, however,
provides tools of intellectual adaptation. These tools allow children to use their
abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live

Self-assessment 8.6.

1) Match theory to the theorist

End unit assessment 8.

1) Multiple choice questions
A) Your teacher, Alex compared your recent IQ test with last year. He then
found out that you improve from 60 to 90. Which process did he use in
identifying your IQ?
a) Growth
b) Development
a) None of the above

B) At 12 months your baby boy started to talk. Under what process does
      talking belongs?
a) Growth
b) Development
c) None of the above

C) Your grandmother noticed that you have grown 1 meter for the span of 6
      years. Which process did she use in describing your progress?
a) Growth
b) Development
c) None of them

D) After 1 month of holiday your weight increases from 35 kilograms to 40
     kilograms, then the 5 kilogram increment is attributed to growth?

a) Yes
b) No

E) Even at 50 years, you can still solve the Rubik’s cube in 10 seconds.
      Under what process is this?
a) Growth
b) Development
c) None of the above

2) Give the difference between psychology and developmental psychology

3) Define growth

4) Outline the measurement of growth

5) Define development

6) Differentiate proximodistal development from cephalocaudal principle

7) Outline at least five principles of development

8) Discuss how nutrition and environment influence human development

9) Outline five major phases of Piaget’s cognitive development

10) Who is the founder of socio-cultural theory?