Course: Social Studies ECLPE, Topic: UNIT 4 FIRST WORLD WAR AND INTER-WARS

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UNIT 4 FIRST WORLD WAR AND INTER-WARS
Key Unit competence:
The student-teacher should be able to analyze the political, economic and
social changes in the World between the two World Wars.
Introductory activity
The end of the 19th century was characterized by a period of intense tensions
and these led to the outbreak of the first World War at the beginning of 20th
century. The first World War ended in 1918. This World War led to negative
and positive effects such as Versailles treaty, League of Nations, World
economic depression and the rise of totalitarian regimes in what was called
inter-war period.
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to answer to the
following questions:
1. Explain the causes and effect of the first World War.
2. Examine the aims, achievements and failures of Versailles treaty.
3. Analyse the aims, achievements and failures of League of Nations.
4. Identify the causes and effects of World economic depression.
5. Explain the factors for the rise and downfall of Fascism in Italy and
Nazism in Germany.
4.1. Causes and consequences of the first World War
Learning activity 4.1
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on the
first world war and examine its causes and effects.
The first World War was one of the most catastrophic conflicts ever fought in the
history of mankind. World War 1 occurred between July 1914 and November
11, 1918. It broke out in the Balkan states and spread to other parts of Europe
and later to the whole world. It was fought by the members of Triple Alliance
including Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, Rumania, and Bulgaria against
the members of the Triple entente including Britain, France, Russia, Italy, USA,
Serbia, and Belgium.
The first World War did not only involve the countries above, but the whole
world where even African countries were involved fighting a long side their
colonial masters.
The war was fought on land, in the air, on the sea, under and above the sea by
both soldiers and civilians. The war was not due to one-day factor as Sarajevo
incident could suggest, but was a result of tension which had mounted over a
long period of time and made the World War I explosive by 1914. The first World
War was regarded as a world war because almost all countries of the world
participated, it either directly or indirectly. It was regarded as World war also
because the effects of the war were faced worldwide like economic depression
of 1929.
Causes of the first World War
i) Long term causes
Among the long term causes of the first World War include the following:
Lack of international peace keeping body: because the Congress System
which would have solved a local affair between Austria and Serbia had died in
1914.
Lack of peaceful statesmen in the world: like the Germany chancellor
Prince Otto von Bismarck who had abandoned his militarism after the German
reunification. He was replaced by Kaiser William II who was an aggressive
leader. In his foreign policy, he tried to intervene in each and every activity of
the world politics to make Germany a big power. He declared; ‘’Nothing must
go on anywhere in the world in which Germany does not play a part”. He is
therefore blamed for starting arms race and militarism as well as signing a blank
cheque to Austria- Hungary that increased Austria- Hungary’s recklessness
towards Serbia. He also openly promised Austria- Hungary that “(…) be rest
assured that his majesty will faithfully stand by Austria- Hungary as required by
the obligations of his alliance and by his ancient friendship”.
Aggressive nationalism also caused tensions:
Aggressive nationalism also caused tensions nationalism was strong in both
Germany and France. Germans were proud of their new empire’s military
power and industrial leadership. The French were bitter about their 1871
defeat in the Franco-Prussian War and yearned to recover the most lucrative
border provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. In Eastern Europe, Russia sponsored
a powerful form of nationalism called Pan-Slavism. It emphasized that all
Slavic peoples shared a common lead which should defend all Slavs. By
1914, it stood ready to support Serbia, a proud young nation that dreamed of
creating South Slave state. Germany supported a form of nationalism called
Pan-Germanism. Pan-Germanism was a Movement whose goal was the
political unification of all people speaking German or a Germanic language.
Some of its adherents favoured the unification of only the German-speaking
people of central and Eastern Europe and the Low Countries or Benelux
countries in a single nation-state. Benelux countries are coastal region of
northwestern Europe, consisting of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg.
Alliance System: Alliance System initiated by Bismarck in his foreign policy
in order to isolate France from European politics. This is because he had
defeated France in the famous Franco- Prussian war of 1870-1871. He started
the alliances such as Triple Alliance. This made other powers to also form
the Triple Entente which were formed for defensive purposes but thereafter
became hostile to each other leading to the first World War in 1914. There were
a number of smaller alliances between various countries such as the Treaty of
London (1839) between Britain and Belgium which dealt with Belgian neutrality
in war, the Dual Alliance (1879) between Germany and Austria which changed
into the Triple Alliance when Italy joined in 1982 and the Franco – Russian
Alliance in 1894 as well as the Entente Cordiale in 1904 between Britain and
France.
The alliance system
Economic imperialism among European countries: mostly between
Germany, France and Britain like the Moroccan Crises of 1906 and 1911
when Germany lost Morocco to France. In 1912, naval competition between
Germany and Great Britain was very important. The British and the French
saw Germany turn up as colonial rivals in Africa, Middle East and Far East. In
addition, Germany had an ambitious project of constructing a railway joining the
Berlin and Bagdad that Great Britain could not support because it was a threat
to its important colony, India.
Arms race: The arms race was a competition in the manufacture of deadly
weapons and ammunitions. Arms race was characterized by the growth of
militarism between Germany and Britain. Naval Challenge between Britain and
Germany paved way for the war. Britain, a European island, had a motive for
having a strong navy. Germany on the other hand was a continental nation with
little access to the sea and therefore has no need for a strong, extensive navy. In
1900, Germany began to crate her navy with the intention of making it as strong
as Britain who had the strongest in the world. This would obviously conjure up
thoughts on Britain’s part as to what Germany’s motive for this was. Was it for
status? Was it for rivalry? Or was it to claim Britain’s position and her monopoly
in trade? They (Britain) were not certain and in a bid to maintain their status
and protect themselves, they began strengthening their already powerful navy.
In 1906, Britain launched their HMS Dreadnought (a battleship). Germany
later launched her version in an effort to topple Britain’s. By 1914, Britain had
a total of twenty-nine (29) Dreadnoughts while Germany had seventeen (17).
This competition in the manufacture of weapons made countries to prepare
hence war in 1914.
British Warship, the HMS Dreadnought
(L) & the German Warship, the SMS
Kaiser
The European public opinion: after the arms race and the alliance system,
most of the Europeans wanted a war in order to know which camp had
manufactured strong arms. Even the European powers wanted a war in order to
test their newly manufactured weapons. Therefore, the European public opinion
caused World War I.
The role of press/mass media cannot be underrated as a cause of the
1914-1918 disastrous war. Radio presenters and journalists because of the
need to amass wealth over exaggerated the suspicion, fear and international
tension between the big powers. For instance, the London Times poisoned the
British public opinion against the Germans and radio presenters caused more
fear and panic after the Sarajevo double murder which created public outcry for
war. This forced European powers to strengthen alliances and mobilize for war
as Russia did.
Moroccan Crisis of 1911. In 1911, another crisis over Morocco emerged.
It occurred at Agadir in Morocco where Germany felt it was unfair that France
got Morocco and she did not get anything. As a result, she sent a gunboat
called the Panther to a bay in Agadir. This left the French in a position whereby
they felt threatened that Germany would annex Morocco just like she annexed
Alsace – Lorraine in 1871. This also made Britain feel threatened as she felt
that if in fact Germany annexed Morocco, it could harm her as Germany might
end up challenging her monopoly in trade. In the end, the Germans however
removed the gunboat in exchange for two (2) stripes of land in French Congo.
This however raised more conceptions that Germany would always be a threat
as she came back again into Morocco.
The German Gunboat, the Panther
The Balkan Crisis. This region was a rather unstable one which contained
a number of different nationalities. It was ruled by Turkey for quite some time
however in 1908, Turkish power began to decline. Conflict was always occurring
because the people wanted their independence. Russia as well as well as
Austria bordered the Balkan region and both nations desired to take control
of the region. After the 1908 Bosnian Crisis, Russia began to strengthen its
military. She was confident not to back down again in the future. Between
1912 and 1913, there were many little wars in the Balkans. Serbia, Greece,
Bulgaria and Montenegro joined forces and created the Balkan League and
in October 1912 they successfully attacked the Turks (first Balkan War) and
drove them out resulting in a Peace Settlement were Serbia gained most of the
territory. In the region, Serbia was a powerful army and they were allied with
Russia which alarmed Austria. Austria was jealous and always desired to wage
war on Serbia to crush them but needed a legitimate reason (which came after
the Murders in Sarajevo).

The Balkan League was short lived though and a Second Balkan War emerged
as Bulgaria quarreled with Serbia and Greece and later attacked them but was
defeated.
The Balkan Countries and their Allies
ii) Immediate cause: The Sarajevo assassination (Sarajevo double
murder) (June 28, 1914) and the start of the war
On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of a Serbian terrorist Group,
killed Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand and his wife Sophia. “The first bullet
struck the wife of Archduke, the Archduchess Sophia in the abdomen…she
died instantly. The Second bullet struck the Archduke close to the heart. He
uttered only one word, ‘Sophia’, a call to his stricken wife. Then his head fell
back and he collapsed. He died almost instantly.”
Assassination of Archduke Franz
Ferdinand
Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Assassination_of_Archduke_Franz_
Ferdinand_of_Austria
(Assassination illustrated in the Italian
newspaper Domenica del Corriere,
12 July 1914 by Achille Beltrame).
The first World War started after the Sarajevo double-murder of Austrian
Arch Duke, Franz Ferdinand and his wife, Sophia on June 28, 1914 by Princip
Gavrilo, a Serbian student of the Black Hand Movement in Sarajevo, the capital
of Bosnia. This incident was followed by an ultimatum document from Austria-
Hungary to Belgrade, Serbia. The response to the ultimatum was to be issued
in a period of 48 hours (July 23, 1914).

The document had three harsh conditions that were supposed to be met or
satisfied by Serbia. Serbia was to destroy all anti Austrian activities and declare
that, she was ready to be a good neighbour; to dismiss all anti Austrian officials
from the Serbian administrative posts; and to allow the Austrians enter Serbia
to investigate the Serbian guilt in the double -murder at Sarajevo.

However, Serbia accepted the first two and referred the third condition to
the International Criminal Court at The Hague Tribunal. Austria was forced to
declare war on Serbia on July 28, 1914. This opened the gates for the outbreak
of the first World War.

Russia mobilized support for Serbia and Germany demanded that Russia should
demobilize and when Russia refused, Germany declared war on her. Germany
again demanded France to declare her neutrality and when France refused,
Germany declared war on her. Germany troops invaded Belgium, thus violating
the 1839 London treaty that had granted independence and neutrality to
Belgium, which forced Britain to enter war against Germany. The same day the
1st world war was at gear.
As war progressed, USA was annoyed by Germany’s propaganda when Germany
destroyed the American ship that was carrying passengers and the Germans
thought that it was carrying weapons to the members of the Triple Entente and
again USA wanted to support the loans it had given to Triple Entente members
and in 1917, USA declared war on Germany.
At 11:00 am French time, on 11^th November 1918, a treaty was signed
between Germany commanders and victorious powers and at the end, the
central powers; that is the Triple alliance members were defeated.
The Balkans 1914
Source:
The course of the first World War
The first World War was characterised by two main fronts; namely the war in
western front (1914-1917) and the war on the Eastern front.
War on Western front

Schlieffen Plan and troop movements
Source: Frank Robert, History the fronts of 1914 to 1917, 1982, pge 21.
By using Schlieffen plan, Germany planned to outflank the main French defences
by moving through Belgium and then through Northern France to encircle
France within six weeks. However, supply lines proved to be inadequate, and
communication between the two main armies was not better. In addition, the plan
ignored British intervention, relying on the likelihood of French immobilization as
the offensive progressed.

French success on the battle of Marne (September 5 to 12, 1914) ended
Germany’s hopes of a quick victory, and paved the way for the Trench Warfare
that lasted until spring 1918.
War on Eastern front
There was far more movement on the Eastern front than in the West, partly
because of the much greater distances involved. The Russian army was invariably
defeated by the forces of Germany and by the end of 1915, Russian had lost
most of Poland, with more than two million soldiers out of the first World War.
The Italian front
Italy entered the war in 1915 in an opportunistic manner engineered by its
leaders with the Allies to secure territory at the expense of Austria-Hungary
Front. Much of the fighting occurred in a series of battles close to the river. The
great battle of Caporetto in 1917 almost led to Italian defeat. Italy was more
successful in subsequent fighting but was disappointed by lack of territorial
gains she had expected.
War in the Balkans
Serbia survived three invasion attempts in 1914, but succumbed in 1915 to
an Austro-German offensive supported by Bulgaria, which checked an Anglo-
French force attempting to support the Serbian army from Salonica. In 1916,
Bulgaria having successfully contained Allied forces at Salonica, she invaded
Romania; Bulgarian armies were joined by Austro-German forces that captured
Bucharest in December 1916. The Bulgarians were now able to defeat several
Allied offensives in Front of Salonica until September 1918. The withdrawal
of Russia from the war (1917)
The first victim of the first World War was the Russian Empire. Indeed, continuous
defeat by the Germans, lack of arms and supplies, problems of transport and
communication, and utterly incompetent leadership, caused two revolutions, in
1917, and the Bolsheviks who took over power in November 1917 were willing
to make peace.
The Bolsheviks stood for peace with Germany, partly to win popular favour in
Russia and partly because they regarded the war as a struggle among capitalist,
imperialist powers which should be left to exhaust and destroy each other for
the benefit of socialism. They thus signed with Germany the Treaty of Brest-
Litovsk on March 1918.
By this Treaty the Bolsheviks gave to Germany Poland, the Ukraine, and the
Baltic Provinces (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania). As for the Germans, the Treaty
of Brest-Litovsk represented their maximum territorial expansion during the first
World War. Not only had they neutralized Russia, they also now dominated
Eastern Europe.
The entry of USA into the war (April 1917)

The Lusitania
Source: Ellis, EG. & Esler, A. (2008, p.830).
The USA entered the war on April 2, 1917 against the Central Powers. Germany
had waged submarine warfare against the United Kingdom due to her naval
blockade of Germany. As retaliation German submarines were sinking British
ships. In this perspective the Lusitania, a British ship was sunk by Germans and
1,198 people including Americans died but 761 people survived. International
public opinion became hostile to Germany and this incident pushed Americans
to enter the war. In addition, the USA had discovered that Germany was trying
to persuade Mexico to declare war on the USA, promising her Texas, New
Mexico and Arizona in return.
On April 2, 1917 American Congress declared war on Germany. Immediately
the American government set about mobilizing its military resources, its industry,
labour and agriculture. The USA thus made an important contribution to the
Allied victory, by supplying food, merchant ships, credit and military help, and by
mid-1918 over half a million American men were involved in the war.
The end of the first World War and the defeat of Germany
After the entry of USA (led by president Woodrow Wilson) on the side of Triple
Entente, USA declared war on Germany and members of the Triple Alliance on
6th April, 1917.From June 1918, American troops started engaging Germans on
the western front.
In September, with the arrival of more American troops, the Allies launched
the final offensive which the Germans could not withstand. The German high
commander told their government that it was not possible for them to win the
war.
The German foreign office then asked President Woodrow Wilson to make
arrangements for an armistice and on 11th November 1918 fighting ended.
Reasons why the central powers lost the war
• The entry of the USA in April 1917 brought vast resources that led to
defeat of central powers
• The Allied political leaders of the time like George Clemenceau in
France and Lloyd George of Britain were capable leaders than those
of central powers.
• Germany was badly let down by her allies who constantly withdrew like
Italy and Bulgaria.
• The continuous losses on the side of Germany as the best troops had
been killed and by 1918, the new troops were young lacked experience
and were quickly defeated.
• The Germany submarine campaign was a mistake because it brought
USA in World War I, which led to the defeat of Germany.
• The Allied sea powers enforced deadly blocking which led to food
shortage to members of Triple alliance, while the triple entente was fully
supplied.
• The Schlieffen plan had failed and German was forced to face war on
two fronts.
• The weakness of Germany allies (Bulgaria, hungry, Turkey) military and
economically.
• The small number of Germany soldiers especially in the colonies
compared to those of the Triple entente.
• The internal conflict which out broke in Germany and the abdication of
Germany emperor Kaiser William II.
Consequences of the first World War
The year 1914 witnessed the beginning of the bloodiest war which mankind had
never experienced before. This war led to profound changes that will continue
to affect directly or indirectly the style of life.
1. The massive loss of lives: People who perished were estimated at
about 13 million on the front and about 10 were left disabled. It was
outrageous, regrettable and condemnable as far as human beings’ lives
were concerned. The first World War also had a lasting impact on the
European population structure. Many men died on war fronts which made
women to become more than men in the population pyramid. It led to the
rise of new class of people in Europe, that is, the refugees who ran away
from their homes and became a problem to European countries.
2. The war led to the destruction of property and infrastructure, like industries,
mines, hospitals, shops, etc.
3. The war led to the woman emancipation where women were employed
in factories, shops and public offices that were formerly for men. In
Britain, women were allowed to vote. They began putting on trousers
because they were now performing the duties of men most of whom had
died in World War I.
4. There was improvement in education because it was realized that Europe
needed educated labour force since technology improved after World
War I.
5. The war led to the defeat of Germany and her allies, which marked the
end of the war.
6. It led to the rise of new independent states like Poland, Romania,
Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia.
7. The war led to territorial readjustment for example France regained her
territories Alsace and Lorraine.
8. The war led to the formation of league of the Nations as a new international
peace keeping body.
9. World War I led to the rise of dictators like Benito Mussolini in Italy and
Adolph Hitler in Germany because they used the effects of the war to
come to power.
10. The war led to the rise of Japan and USA as super powers since they
were not much affected by the war.
11. The war led to the emergency of Weimar republic in Germany and this
was because Kaiser William II went into exile and a new constitution of
Germany was made in Weimar town because there was instability and
bloodshed in Berlin.
12. World War I led to the rise of a new class of people; that is refugees who
ran away from their home and became a problem to European countries.
13. World war led to Russian revolution of 1917 where Tsar Nicholas of
Russia had been defeated in World War I and the Russians decided to
fight against this government, hence the Russian revolution.
14. It led to the outbreak of World War II because of the rise of dictator who
became aggressive contribution to World War II.
15. The war led to the decline of European economy.
16. Germany was deprived of all her colonies in Africa, Middle East and Asia.
The other defeated powers like Turkey, Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria all
lost their colonies to victor powers. These colonies altogether formed the
mandate territories that were supervised by the victor powers on behalf
of League of Nations.
17. The war led to the signing of Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919 which
concluded the first World War. The Triple Entente called the conference
in which Germany and her allies were forced to end the war by signing
the treaty which created peace in Europe.
18. World War I led to the rise of African Nationalism: Africans supported
their colonial masters on the promise of independence after the war.
However, after the war they were not given independence, as result they
formed political parties. The white who were considered as powerful
people were killed during the war. Therefore, African fighters became
courageous to overthrow colonial rule.
Application activity 4.1
1. To what extent was the Alliance system responsible for the outbreak
of the 1st WW?
2. Examine the impacts of the 1st World war.
4.2. Inter-war period
4.2.1. Versailles peace treaty of 1919
Learning activity 4.2.1
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on
Versailles peace treaty of 1919 and explain its aims, achievements and
failures.
However long or violent a war is, eventually the opposing sides must make peace.
But because war is destructive and leaves a bitter legacy, the peacemaking
after a long conflict can be the hardest job of all.
The people who had that role in 1919 had a particularly hard task. The first
World War involved more countries, using more powerful weapons, causing
greater casualties and physical destruction, than any war before it. The war had
bankrupted some countries. It led to revolutions in others. There was bitterness
and resentment. In this post-war atmosphere almost everyone agreed that part
of the job of the peacemakers was to avoid another war like it – but no one
agreed how to do that.
Any treaty is a balancing act. The peacemakers have to keep the victors happy
but ensure that the defeated country accepts the terms of the peace.
World War I ended in November 1918. And in January 1919 the victorious
powers met at Versailles in Paris from January to June 1919 to find ways of
maintaining peace and preventing re-occurrence of war. It was signed on June
28, 1919.
The Versailles treaty refers to the document containing the particular clauses
which applied to Germany and which were accepted and signed by Germany at
Versailles in the Hall of mirrors in June 1919. The big three of the Versailles peace
settlement were Woodrow Wilson the president of USA, Georges Clemenceau
prime minister of France and Lloyd Georges prime minister of Britain. Others
who were invited include Emperor Orlando prime minister of Italy.
A cartoon published in 1919 in an Australian newspaper.
The Fourteen Points of President Woodrow Wilson of USA
At the conference, President Woodrow Wilson suggested 14 points to guide
the peace makers at Versailles. The Fourteen Points in a summary.
1. No secret treaties.
2. Free access to the seas in peacetime or wartime.
3. Free trade between countries.
4. All countries to work towards disarmament.
5. Colonies to have a say in their own future.
6. German troops to leave Russia.
7. Independence for Belgium.
8. France to regain Alsace–Lorraine.
9. Frontier between Austria and Italy to be adjusted.
10. Self-determination for the peoples of Eastern Europe (they should rule
themselves and not be ruled by empires).
11. Serbia to have access to the sea.
12. Self-determination for the people in the Turkish Empire.
13. Poland to become an independent state with access to the sea.
14. League of Nations to be set up.
What were the motives and aims of the Big Three at Versailles?
French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau was a realist, wanted punitive
peace and compensation, aimed to weaken Germany as much as possible
and blame them alone, wanted reparations (compensations for infrastructural
damage - France been invaded twice since 1870), wanted military restrictions,
Germany broken into smaller confederations, independent Rhineland and
permanent control of Saarland.
American President Woodrow Wilson was an idealist, wanted to punish
Germany but not too harshly, worried about spread of communism if too weak
and revenge from Germans, wanted to strengthen democracy based on ’14
points’; disarmament, League of Nations, self- determination. He also wanted
to build more peaceful world but there were problems with some of the main
ideas: For example Problems with self-determination: people of Eastern
Europe scattered across many countries e.g.: 25% of the people who lived
in Czechoslovakia were not Czechs or Slovaks. 30% of Poland not polish. 3
million Hungarians being ruled by foreigners. Some people were bound to end
up being ruled by another group with different customs and language because
borders were artificially imposed. Problems with LON: ‘toothless’ without military,
structurally insufficient & confusing, unanimous vote required, ’mandates’ seen
as colonialist, membership problems: US, Germany, USSR absent, org seemed
euro- centric and imperialist, supported TOV seen as unfair
British Prime Minister Lloyd George was a mediator, wanted a punitive
but just peace, wanted Germany to lose colonies and navy as they threatened
hegemony of British Empire but did not want Germany to seek revenge under
pressure to ‘make Germany pay’, wanted to recover as trade partners as it
created British jobs.
Terms of the 1919 Versailles Treaty
None of the Big Three was happy with the eventual terms of the Treaty. After
months of negotiation, each of them had to compromise on some of their aims,
otherwise there would never have been a treaty. The main terms can be divided
into five areas.
War guilt. This clause was simple but was seen by the Germans as extremely
harsh. Germany had to accept the blame for starting the war. Article 231
appointed blame, called ‘diktat’.
– Reparations. The major powers agreed, without consulting Germany,
that Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies for the damage
caused by the war. The exact figure was not agreed until 1921 when
was set at £6,600 million – an enormous figure. If the terms of the
payments had not later been changed under the Young Plan in 1929.
Germany would not have finished paying this bill until 1984.
German territories and colonies. Germany’s European borders were
very extensive, and the section dealing with German territory in Europe was
a complicated part of the Treaty. In addition to these changes, the Treaty
also forbade Germany to join together with its former ally Austria Germany’s
overseas empire was taken away. It had been one of the causes of bad relations
between Britain and Germany before the war. Former German colonies, such
as Cameroon, became mandates controlled by the League of Nations, which
effectively meant that France and Britain controlled them.
Germany’s armed forces. The size and power of the German army was a
major concern, especially for France. The Treaty therefore restricted German
armed forces to a level well below what they had been before the war. The
army was limited to 100,000 men, conscription was banned – soldiers had
to be volunteers, Germany was not allowed armoured vehicles, submarines
or aircraft. The navy could have only six battleships, The Rhineland became a
demilitarised zone. This meant that no German troops were allowed into that
area. The Rhineland was important because it was the border area between
Germany and France.
League of Nations. Previous methods of keeping peace had failed and so
the League of Nations was set up as an international ‘police force’. Germany
was not invited to join the League until it had shown that it was a peace-loving
country.
Aims of the Versailles treaty
1. To re-organize Europe for the purpose of maintaining world peace,
security and stability.
2. To redraw the map of Europe and restore balance of power. This was
because Germany aggression had destroyed the balance of power to
her advantage.
3. To map out strategies that would preserve the territorial integrity and
independence of countries in Europe. This was because violation of
territorial integrity and independence of states partly led to the outbreak
of the first World War.
4. To reconcile the warring powers of the world most especially Germany
although her aggression was checked for some time.
5. To free the different races dominated by the central powers (Germany
and her allies).
6. To disarm both victor and defeated powers since arms race had partly
caused the 1914 to 1918 disastrous war.
7. To recognize the principle of nationality and self-determination by giving
independence to the oppressed nations. This was partly responsible for
the outbreak of the first World War.
8. Victorious powers especially France wanted to permanently weaken
Germany plus her allies in order to safeguard themselves from Germany
aggression that caused the Franco-Prussian war and the first World War.
9. To establish a peace keeping body in Europe.
The signing of the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919.
Source: Herbert Peacock, A history of modern Europe 1789-1981, Heinemann
Educational, Seventh Edition, 1982, page 295.
The achievements of the Versailles treaty
The treaty concluded the first World War and created some peace in Europe. At
Versailles Germany and her allies were forced to denounce the war and accept
defeat. Collective decisions were made on international issues as opposed to
the pre-1914 idea of every nation for itself and God for us all.

The neutrality of important water bodies was granted. For instance, Dardanelles
the mouth of the Baltic Sea which was the centre of economic conflicts was
open to all ships of all nations.

The treaty restored balance of power that had favoured Germany and Turkey
before. The size of Germany and Turkey were reduced by giving independence
to some states that were under them.

The Versailles settlement made some territorial re-adjustment. France regained
Alsace and Lorraine that had been annexed by Germany. Independence was
given to some states that were mainly under the Turkish and Austrian empire.
These included Poland, Kuwait, Iraq, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia.

The treaty was fair to some landlocked countries of Serbia and Poland. Serbia
was given free access to the sea which made her to profitably engage in trade.
Poland was also given the Polish Corridor through Germany to port Danzig.

The Versailles peace makers adopted Professor Wilson’s 14th point of
establishing an international body to maintain world peace. This gave rise to the
League of Nations in 1920.

The settlement made arrangements for exchange of prisoners of war and
resettlement of displaced persons. Consequently, Germany released the allied
war prisoners and likewise the super powers.

The Versailles settlement came up with the disarmament policy which although
applied only to the defeated powers, helped in maintaining world peace.
Failure of Versailles peace treaty of 1919
1. The treaty was too dictatorial, too harsh on Germany in terms of
disarmament, where Germany was not allowed to discuss it. This treaty
was unfair and unrealistic.
2. The treaty blamed Germany alone for the outbreak of the war. The
responsibilities of other countries (Serbia, Russia, etc.) were ignored.
3. The treaty disarmed Germany alone and failed to disarm other powers.
4. The treaty forced Germany to pay an abnormal and an expensive war
indemnity for the damages she did not cause alone. 6.5 billion pounds to
be paid by Germany was Unfair.
5. The treaty initially excluded Germany and defeated powers from the
League of Nations. It also excluded Russia because she had become
communist state after 1917 Russian revolution.
6. The treaty was full of revenge policies against Germany. France wanted
to have Germany destroyed because of the 1871 Franco-Prussian war;
Britain wanted to revenge because of Kaiser William’s character.
7. The treaty led to rise of dictators in Europe: For example, Hitler of Germany
and Mussolini of Italy. Hitler came to power with the spirit of revenge
against Allied powers.
8. The treaty failed to respect the principle of Nationalism. It handed over 10
million Germans to other countries. This was partly responsible for the
outbreak of the Second World War
9. The treaty was unfair because the Triple alliance members were not
invited.
10. The confiscation of Germany territories in Africa was seen as a way of
making victorious powers rich which made Germany aggressive leading
to World War II.
11. The treaty led to the formation of League of Nations but it failed to protect
it because League of Nations had no army to implement its policies.
12. The chairmanship and place of the conference was unfair. France being
the host and George Clemenceau who hated Germany made the treaty
unfair.
Why did all the victors not get everything they wanted?
Why was (any of three leaders) dissatisfied with TOV?
They all made compromises.
1. Clemenceau wanted harsh peace: a broken-up Germany and an
independent Rhineland and disarmed German along with compensation.
He got limited compensation and military restrictions, a unified Germany
and demilitarized Rhineland. He felt this was not harsh enough, didn’t get
independent Rhineland or control of Saarland,
2. Wilson wanted a just peace based on 14 points: he did not want
Germany blamed (article 231 & reparations) in TOV but they were. He
successfully established self- determination in Eastern Europe and
League of the Nations. Demilitarization was not achieved except by force
in Germany and TOV/LON ultimately not ratified.
3. Britain wanted a compromise peace; was happy that German armed
and naval forces were restricted, Lloyd received hero’s welcome, although
the spread of communism still worrying him. There were disagreements
over self-determination & ‘access to sea’ clause, the harshness of the
treaty and LON (Wilson wanted world parliament, Lloyd wanted to get
together in emergencies only.) Clemenceau resented Wilson’s generosity,
wanted strong League with army.
4. Clemenceau felt that Britain was happy to treat Germany fairly in Europe
which threatened France yet were less happy to treat them fairly when it
came to concessions of colonies and military which threatened Britain.
The Other WW 1 Peace Treaties
While the Treaty of Versailles often receives the most focus in terms of the post-
WW1 peace treaties, there were another four treaties that dealt with Germany’s
allies. These changed the shape of Europe and the Middle East, and their effect
still resonates strongly today.

The Treaty of St Germain in 1919.
The first of these settlements to be signed was the Treaty of St Germain in 1919.
Dealing with Austria, the treaty formally broke up the Habsburg Empire and
dramatically changed the shape of central and Eastern Europe. Partly as a result
of separating Austria from Hungary, the Treaty of St Germain reduced Austria to
just 25% of its pre-war land surface and turned it into a land-locked state. The
wealthy industrial regions of Bohemia and Moravia were lost to the new state
of Czechoslovakia while Dalmatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina were joined to form
the new Yugoslavia. In the north, Poland gained the region of Galicia while the
western areas of South Tyrol, Trentino and Istria were ceded to Italy.

In terms of the military, the Austrian armed forces were limited to 30,000 soldiers.
Union with Germany – Anschluss – was expressly forbidden, and Austria was
also forced to pay reparations (although in reality no money was ever actually
paid).
Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, 1919. Because it was a minor player in the war,
gained territory from Turkey It was forced to hand its Aegean coastline to Greece,
while other territory was given to the newly-formed Yugoslavia. Approximately
300,000 Bulgarians therefore found themselves in new countries. Bulgaria was
also required to reduce its army to 20,000 men and pay reparations.
Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, 1920
The following year Austria’s neighbour Hungary also had to recognise the
independence of the new states of Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia and
Hungary in the Treaty of Trianon. Hungary lost Slovakia, Ruthenia and Bratislava to
Czechoslovakia while Croatia and Slovenia joined the newly-formed Yugoslavia.
One of the most devastating territorial losses was that of Transylvania, which
was given to Romania along part of the Banat. Similarly to Austria, Hungary was
forced to pay reparations while its military was reduced to 35,000 men.
Treaty of Sevres with Ottoman Empire, 1920:
Arguably the most complicated settlement was the Treaty of Sèvres that was
signed with Turkey in 1920. Negation on territorial terms led by Mustafa Kemal
which led to war between Greeks and Turks - unsuccessful treaty, Arabs
were promised Arab state for siding with Britain & France to defeat Germany,
Palestine problem till date. The Ottoman Empire was already ‘the sick man of
Europe’, and Britain, France and Italy sought to benefit from its disintegration.
They each wished to use the treaty to benefit their own national interests in the
region, but the necessary compromise resulted in a final treaty that was seen
as both harsh and humiliating. Italy felt justified in demanding Turkish territory
in return for joining with the Entente powers, while Britain hoped to expand its
control over the merging oilfields in Iraq and Iran. President Wilson of the USA,
meanwhile, hoped for Armenian independence.
The final terms of the treaty stated that Turkey was required to abandon all
its claims all claims to its Arab and North African territory and, although
Constantinople remained Turkish, it lost control of large areas of its previous
empire. Greece gained Eastern Thrace and the area around the Dardanelles
as well as being allowed to occupy and administer Smyrna for five years.
Armenia and Kurdistan were to become independent states while Palestine,
Iraq, Transjordan and Cyprus became British mandates. Syria was put under the
control of France. Turkey’s finances, meanwhile, were put under Allied control.
The Turkish ruler, Sultan Muhammad VI, was ready to accept the treaty but it
was met with significant opposition by the Turkish people who were offended
by the loss of the empire to the same foreign forces that were now controlling
areas their sovereign country. The treaty was also rejected by the emerging
nationalist movement under Mustapha Kemal Pasha who established a new
National Assembly at Ankara. The Turkish War of Independence soon followed,
which saw the nationalists force Greece out of Smyrna and negotiate both a
French withdrawal from Turkish territory and a compromise agreement with
Britain.
Rather than becoming an independent state, Armenia opted to join the Soviet
Union after years of fighting against Turkey. The war in Armenia is a highly
contentious period of history, with Turkey fiercely rejecting claims by Armenians
and many historians of forced movement and mass killing that amounted to
genocide.
An armistice was eventually agreed between Turkey and its enemies in 1922,
and this was followed by the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923 which recognised
Smyrna, Anatolia and Thrace as Turkish territory. This replaced the Treaty of
Sèvres, and essentially established the modern Turkey that we know today.
Application activity 4.2.1
Examine the merits and demerits of the Versailles peace treaty of 1919.
4.2.2. League of Nations
Learning activity 4.2.2
Observe the following symbol and use internet, textbooks, and media to
answer the questions that follow:

1) What do you understand by the above organisation?
2) Identify the objectives, achievements and failures of the organisation
shown by the symbol above.
The League of Nations was an international peace keeping body formed after
the first World War. It formally came into existence on January 10, 1920. It
began with 42 member states but the number increased to 55 by 1926 when
Germany was admitted. The Headquarters of the League of Nations were
located in Geneva, Switzerland a neutral State. When the League of Nations
was set up, point No.14 of the Woodrow Wilson statement was carried out, and
for the first time in human history an international organisation was deliberately
created to maintain peace and security in the world.
The League of Nations was an integral part of the Treaty of Versailles. It is often
spoken of as being the brainchild of the US President W. Wilson. However,
although Wilson was certainly a great supporter of the idea of an international
organisation for peace, the League was the result of a coming together of similar
suggestions made during the first World War by a number of world statesmen.
Organs/structures of League of Nations

The main organs of the League of Nations were the General Assembly; its
main function was to decide general policy; the Council, its main task was
to deal with specific political disputes as they arose; the Permanent Court
of International Justice; its main task was to deal with legal disputes
between states; the Secretariat, had to look after all the paperwork, preparing
agendas, and writing resolutions and reports related to the decisions of the
League; Commissions and Committees were in charge of dealing with
specific problems. The main commissions were those which handled the
mandates, military affairs and disarmament.
Aims of League of Nations
• Maintain peace through collective security.
• Encourage international co-operation.
• Solve economic and social problems.
• Defend and promote territorial integrity and sovereignty of member
nations against aggression of any kind.
• Limit production of the disastrous military weapons.
• Implement the terms and conditions of the 1919 Versailles Peace
settlement.
• Preserve its achievements.
• Promote diplomacy in settling disputes since the first World War was
partly caused by lack of international organization and collapse of
international diplomacy (the congress system).
• Suppress Sea pirates who were a threat to international trade on big
waters like the Mediterranean Sea, black sea and the Pacific Ocean.
• Control drug trafficking and consumption of dangerous drugs like
marijuana, cocaine and opium.
• Improve the conditions of workers and stop exploitation of workers by
employers.
• Work out a plan for repatriating and resettling refugees or people
displaced by the first World war.

Achievements of League of Nations
a) The League of Nations achieved success in dealing with matters of human
welfare, for example, the international Labour organization (ILO) was
formed to improve general conditions of workers.
b) The League of Nations recorded success in looking after refugees.
c) League of Nations recorded success in health organization which was
concerned with the control of diseases where it helped in reporting
epidemic diseases, their spread and finding ways of controlling them. It
also organized campaigns against Malaria, leprosy, rabies and syphilis.
d) The League of Nations recorded success in maintaining peace by solving
political conflicts that involved smaller powers. For example, in 1921, the
League of Nations solved the conflict between Sweden and Finland about
an Island and League of Nations ruled that the Island belonged to Finland.
e) The League of Nations monitored and controlled mandated states by
sending questionnaires to mandates states asking them how they are
controlled by the new colonial masters.
f) The League of Nations made an achievement in disarming Germany which
helped in reducing Germany’s supremacy.
g) The League of Nations effectively solved the problem of slavery and Drug
trafficking by setting up anti-slavery commission.
h) The financial commission of League of Nations succeeded in negotiating
for loans for the construction of the economy of Austria after World War I.
i) The League of Nations solved the international disputes through the
international court of justice.
j) It maintained international peace for about 20 years.
k) It also reconciled defeated Germany with the victorious powers because
Germany was also admitted in League of Nations in 1926.
l) It promoted human rights. It advocated for emancipation of women. It
protected rights of refuges.
Failures of League of Nations
a) The League of Nations failed to disarm victorious powers which forced
Hitler to revive Germany’s militarism, thus leading to World War II.
b) The League of Nations failed to form a joint international army that would
be used in checking the activities of dictators.
c) It failed to check and control the activities of Dictators: Adolph Hitler of
Germany and Benito Mussolini of Italy which led to World War II.
d) It failed to handle conflicts between Japan and China or Italy and Ethiopia.
e) League of Nations failed to win the membership of USA whose military
and economic strength would have helped the League of Nations in
controlling the dictators.
f) It failed to put in place precautions against membership. Countries were
free to enter and withdraw without any penalty and in 1935 many countries
had withdrawn, which made the League of Nations very weak.
Application activity 4.2.2
1. Account for the formation of League of Nations by 1920.
2. Assess the achievements of the League of Nations in the inter-war
period.
4.2.3. World economic depression
Learning activity 4.2.3
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on
world’s great economic depression and explain its causes and effects.

The economic depression was a general economic decline in economic
activities after World War I. It started in 1929-1935. It was characterized by
unemployment, low income, low aggregate demand (low purchasing power),
low prices, low investment and low economic activities. Economic depression
began in the Canadian agriculture sector and by 1929 it had spread to other
parts of Europe and the world at large.

Economic depression begun on Thursday, 24th October 1929, black Thursday.
Many people who had saved their money in banks had to go and withdraw their
savings. This was followed by the closure of many financial institutions leading
to unemployment, closure of factories, and low demand for available goods. The
prices fell dramatically.

The beginning of the Great Depression. The stock market crash of 1929
Source: https:i.pinmg.com/563x/06/2f9ca21d063265aad81cd8do3.jpg.
The causes of the Great World Economic Depression
The causes of the great World economic depression of 1929-1933 were many
and none of them can stand alone in isolation of other factors to explain this
phenomenon but a combination of many factors as seen below.
• Negative impacts of the first World war
– The war destroyed industries, farms, ships, trading centers and factories
which resulted into a low production.
– The war also brought the problem of debts in which USA demanded
high interest rates from European powers.
– The war led to the collapse of international relations and trade.
– More to this the war indemnity charged on defeated powers led to
economic.
All these consequences had a negative effect on production and the ability to
purchase goods, hence leading to the economic depression.
• Domestic overproduction
Because of high profits and mechanization, American industries produced many
goods which could not be absorbed by domestic markets.
– Overproduction forced many industries to close down and workers
were sent out.
– The problem of unemployment increased.
– The prices of agricultural and industrial products became low.
– The producers and manufacturers lacked the finances to produce
goods. All these led to economic depression.
• The American policy of economic nationalization and isolation
(trade protection)
After the World War I, USA closed her markets from other European exporters
so as to protect her industries. In response, other countries also protected their
markets from external exporters. This led to the collapse of international trade
and the accumulation of unsold surplus. Hence the world economies collapsed.
• The negative economic implications of the Versailles treaty
This forced Germany and her allies to pay a heavy war indemnity, which affected
their economies.
– Defeated countries lost their colonies
– Defeated powers were not allowed to trade with victorious powers.
Hence the collapse of international trade and the collapse of economy.
• The announcement of effects of the economic depression
The newspapers, radio stations, politicians and opinion leaders had announced
the economic depression. This forced various businessmen to withdraw their
money from banks and hence the fall of other economic activities.
• Poor distribution of income
Poor distribution of income between the employers and the workers, major
consumers, was reduced at 80% while the profits of industries rose by 72%. This
led to economic depression because the workers were losing their purchasing
power.
• The failure of League of Nations to solve problems
It failed to promote economic cooperation and international trade. It failed to
suppress protectionism policy. It failed to prevent USA from exploiting her debtors
by paying debts using gold. It also failed to solve problems of unemployment,
inflation, overproduction which led to economic depression.
• Reduction in the efficiency of labour
The first World War reduced the efficiency of labour because most of the
strongest, experienced and skilled manpower was either killed or disabled by
the war. This led to low production and general collapse of economic activities.
• The rise of political instability in Europe
These are revolutions, assassinations, riots, demonstrations and conflicts
between communism and capitalism, the rise of Nazism and Fascism, etc. Such
instability paralyzed economic activities and led to economic depression.
• The increasing population with limited welfare services
The population increased after World War I but the economy remained
underdeveloped. As result, there was unemployment leading to financial
shortages and hence the collapse of purchasing power, industries closed
down which led to economic depression.

• The rise/emergence of weak and young states
These could not support themselves financially and powerful countries like USA
spent large sums of money to the new countries like Poland and Yugoslavia. The
money given to the new countries reduced the production capacity of donor
countries.

• The general decline in agricultural activities
After World War I there was a great rural-urban migration (USA and UK) and
this affected agricultural productivity, thus affecting negatively agro-based
industries.

• The gold standard system
This was operating in world economies by 1929 also caused the depression.
This is because each country was supposed to have a total amount of money in
circulation equivalent to total value of gold in her reserves. This limited money
supply for some countries which had little gold which reduced demand leading
to a depression.
Measures to overcome the World Economic Depression
The USA and other European countries set the following strategies to resolve
the crisis:
• Germany on her part attempted to solve the economic depression by
violating the 1919 Versailles Peace treaty terms when she stopped
paying the war indemnity of around 6.6 billion pounds and also started
serious industrialization thus solving the economic depression in
Germany.
• The USA fought the economic depression by using the New Deal
Program introduced by the new US President Franklin Delano
Roosevelt in 1932. By this program, there were new laws regulating
the stock market and protecting bank depositors’ savings, jobs creation
programmes for the unemployed like Tennessee Valley Authority
(TVA), construction of schools, hospitals etc. The USA also set up a
social security system and depreciated the value of her dollar so as to
increase the purchasing power of the Americans. The New Deal was
largely inspired by some economists such as John Maynard Keynes
who introduced an economic theory popularly known as Keynesian
theory of unemployment after analysing the causes of the Economic
depression.
• The gold standard system was stopped since played a role in the
outbreak of the World Economic Depression from 1929 up to 1935.
• A World Economic Conference was held at Geneva in 1933 in
Switzerland and was attended by 66 countries that worked out different
solutions to end the Economic Depression such as to remove obstacles
to free trade and implement a uniform tax on imports and exports.
• World powers attempted to solve the economic depression by using
aggressive policy where they invaded weak states so as to solve the
problem of lack of raw materials and markets for their goods. For
instance, in 1935 Italy invaded Ethiopia, in 1936 Germany invaded
Czechoslovakia and in 1939 invaded Poland.
• Unemployment relief schemes were adopted by various countries
which among others included United States of America, Britain and
France to benefit the unemployed citizens above 18 years.
• European powers formed regional economic integration for example,
the European Economic Community (EEC) which promoted interstate
trade in the region, hence solving the depression.
• Socio-economic reforms were also used to solve the depression. This
was through modernization of agriculture and industrialization and
formation of trade unions which fought for the rights of workers.
Effects of the World Economic Depression
The effects of the World Economic Depression are as follows:
• The economic depression led to widespread unemployment.
• It led to the closure of industries: factories were producing surplus
products yet prices and demand were very low. This subjected
industrialist to heavy losses and consequently they closed down
factories.
• The economic depression led to the rise of dictators in Europe like
Adolf Hitler in Germany, Benito Mussolini in Italy and General Franco
in Spain.
• It made powerful countries of the World to start attacking weak powers
as way of solving their economic problems. For example, Japan on
China and Italy on Ethiopia.
• Economic depression led to formation of European Economic
Community (ECC) as a way of promoting trade among European
countries.
• It led to the failure of League of Nations member’s states had no money
to finance its activities.
• It led to the breakdown of international relationship where European
countries hated America because of the isolation policy.
• The gold standard system was abandoned up to the present. This is
because this system limited countries with little gold to have enough
money in circulation which had contributed to the economic depression.
• It led to World War II because of the rise of dictators, weakening the
League of Nations and making countries aggressive.
Application activity 4.2.3
1. Discuss the causes and consequences of the world economic
depression of 1929-1935.
4.2.4. The totalitarian regimes in Europe
This is a system where the government allows the only one political party of
the government in power and does not allow parties to coexist. This system
also calls for complete obedience. It is basically characterized by autocracy,
despotism and favoritism of those in power like the Fascist Regime in Italy and
Nazism Regime in Germany.
4.2.4.1. Fascism
Learning activity 4.2.4.1
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on the
rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe and explain the factors for the rise and
downfall of Fascism.
Background of Fascism and Mussolini
Fascism: The world fascism is derived from Latin world “fasces” or bundle
of rods tied around the axe which was the magistrate’s emblem of power in
ancient Rome.
In Italy, Fascist group presented themselves as the only symbol of authority and
strength for the purpose of making Italy gain her place and pride in Europe and to
fight socialism and communism. It was a style of politics that was characterized
by personal dictatorship of Benito Mussolini, Political intolerance, party rule,
violence and terror.
Mussolini was born in Romagna in1883. His father Alessandro Mussolini was a blacksmith
and a socialist, while his mother Rosa Mussolini Maltoni, a devoutly Catholic school teacher. Owing
to his father’s political leanings, Mussolini was named Benito after Mexican Reformist President
Benito Juárez, while his middle names Andrea and Amilcare were from Italian socialists Andrea Costa
and Amilcare Cipriani. Benito was the eldest of his parents’ three children. His siblings Arnaldo and
Edvige followed.
Benito Mussolini
At the age of 9, Mussolini began his education and graduated as a teacher
with a diploma in education in 1907. He later abandoned his education career
and joined journalism as a newspaper editor. Mussolini had fought for Italy
in the first World War and was wounded during the war, but by its end he
formed a political movement called the Fasci Italiani di Combattimento (Italian
Combat Leagues or Squard), in March 1919 at Milan City in Italy whose
members came to be known as the Fascists. It was composed of frustrated
jobless youth, industrial capitalists and the middle class.

In 1922, Italy witnessed a successful fascist revolution that led to the rise of
Mussolini, supported by the Black shirts, army and the guards. On October
28th, 1922 he organised a March to Rome and when King Victor Emmanuel
II was convinced by the Parliament to suppress the marchers, he refused and
then, the Cabinet under Prime Minister Luigi Facta resigned without firing a
shot. The King Victor then handed over power to Mussolini by inviting him to
form a new government on October 28, 1922 and the Fascist Party got power
in Italy. Mussolini was supported by the military, the business class, and the
liberal right wing.
Characteristics (Principles of Fascism)
• Anti-liberalism: The Fascist members were against the principles
of French revolution (equality, liberty, human rights). They suggested
authoritative regime.
• Anti-communism: Fascists were enemies of communism and
socialist because these systems promoted equality while for fascists,
social inequality is a natural fact that nobody can suppress.
• Extreme nationalism: That is an emphasis on rebirth of nation after
a period of decline. They promoted prestige of the country by the war
and conquest. Hence military regime.
• One party state: there was no room for democracy.
• A totalitarian system of government: This was where the fascist
was to control everything in Italy.
• Economic self-efficiency: The government needs to direct the
economy of the nation owning factories and land.
• Military strength and violence: Mussolini said “peace is absurd
fascism does not believe in it”. They get power by force and they were
to use violence to silence opponents.
• Tireless propaganda (unremitting): fascist slogan “believe, obey,
fight”.
Factors for the rise of Mussolini (Fascism) to power in Italy by 1922
Mussolini rose to power on 28^th October 1922 after taking over Victor Emmanuel
III the legitimate king. He was favored by the following factors.
• The negative effect of World War I: The impact of the first World
War aided fascism and Benito Mussolini to power. The war had
negative consequences like loss of lives over 600,000 Italians both
civilians and soldiers. Mussolini associated the democratic government
of Victor Emmanuel III with such losses and Mussolini decampaigned it
as weak and incompetent of handling the Italian affairs. This paralysed
the democratic government and undermined its popularity in favour of
facism and Mussolin. Hence rising up of Mussolini and fascism.
• Weakness of Victor Emmanuel III’s democratic government:
The government failed to handle crucial socio-economic problems
like inflation, unemployment, poverty, high crime rate and bloodshed.
Victory Emmanuel failed to promote unity and harmony. His government
ignored violence with false hope that the opposition would crash,
weaken, and destroy themselves. This gave Mussolini a chance to
exploit such negligence and violence to weaken other rival political
groups and undermine democratic government. This led to the rise of
Fascism.
• The unfair Versailles treaty on Italy: It cultivated a favourable ground
for the rise of Mussolini to power. Italy was promised territorial rewards
which were not fully implemented and Italy was poorly compensated.
• Role of the fascist terrorist squad: Mussolini used a group of
hooligans to create chaos in Italy so as to get a reason for blaming
the government of Victor Emmanuel III. He was therefore supported by
most Italians.
• His personal talent: Mussolini was a gifted speaker whose speeches
were enjoyed by the Italians. During his public speeches, he spread the
fascist manifesto to the Italians convinced them to support him against
the government of Victor Emmanuel III.
• Influence of press: Newspapers like Papolo d’Italia campaigned for
Fascist and made Mussolini popular for Italians. It was also used to
spread the Fascist propaganda as well as de-campaigning against the
then government.
• Political and democratic reforms in Italy: From 1900, Italy allowed
different political parties and people to participate in politics. This
opened the gates for Mussolini and Fascism to join political struggles.
• Disunity among political parties: in Italy also provided opportunity
for fascism to rise to power with Benito Mussolini. Such political parties
had different ideologies that facilitated room for a united fascist party
to become popular.
• The July 31st 1922 strikes: The fascist was instrumental in suppressing
the general strikes organized by the socialists. This increased the
popularity of the fascism hence rising to power.
• The weakness of the League of Nations: This failed to check the
rise of the new aggressors like Mussolini.
• The prevailing social and economic problems: for example,
declining industries, inflation, mass unemployment, low wages,
starvation, poverty, foreign debts, and collapse of agriculture. All these
led to his rise because Mussolini also promised to solve these problems.
How did Mussolini consolidate himself to power?
• He abolished other political parties and established a single party
government in Italy. This removed opposition parties from the parliament.
• He carried out public works. Roads, bridges and health centers were
established or innovated. Most Italians therefore supported his rule
because of the hardworking spirit.
• He made the Catholicism a state religion and declared Vatican an
independent state under the Pope. He was therefore supported by
most Catholics. Mussolini achieved this through the Lateran treaty
which he signed with Pope Pius XI in 1929.
• Strict censorship of press. His government monitored all newspapers
before their circulation and opposition journalists were usually forced
into exile to Lipari Island in the Mediterranean Sea.
• He strengthened dictatorship by removing constitutional check on his
rule.
• He used the Fascist propaganda of extreme nationalism to change
people’s minds and thinking or opinion against his rule.
• He used economic reforms such as industrialization, modernization of
agriculture, supply of hydro-electric power and modernization of towns
to win support of the majority Italians.
• He abolished democratic constitutional of Italy. He dismissed all officials
who had been elected democratically in Rome like mayors, town clerks
and town councils.
• He organized and strengthened the Italian army and police which
ensured peace and fought all those who opposed his rule.
Different factors that led to Mussolini’s downfall:
• Mussolini established the Fascist state in Italy based on
dictatorship and leadership by decree: This inflicted a lot of
suffering of the Italian masses. He denied Italians their democratic rights.
Leadership through elections came to an end with his coming to power
and referendum was introduced in policy making and representative.
• He made Fascism the supreme and only political system:
i.e. political pluralism was suffocated and in 1925, party system was
abolished. This was brought by repressive measures on communist
supporters many of whom were imprisoned.
• Mussolini denied the Italian people all sorts of freedom: these
included the censorship of the press, no freedom of speech, association
and worship among others. Injustice was widespread and because of
this the majority of the Italians were living like prisoners in their country;
• Mussolini failed to control the malpractices within the
government: there was corruption and embezzlement of government
funds. By 1930, the Italian economy had deteriorated by all standards;
• During his period of administration, leadership discrimination was
rampant in all sectors of the society. Even the social services were not
extended to the poor Italians in the rural areas;
• He promoted the feeling of anti–Semitism: the negative attitude,
hatred and segregation against the Jews. The union between Mussolini
and Hitler and their ideology were hated throughout Europe and this
forced European communities to unite and fight against them and
eradicate their ideologies of Nazism and Fascism.
• Mussolini followed aggressive policies: when he involved Italians
in hostilities and military confrontation with other Europeans leading to
the outbreak of the Second World War. He was therefore responsible
for the disastrous war between 1939 and 1945.
Application activity 4.2.4.1
1. Identify the rise of Fascism in Italy.
2. Examine the factors for the decline of Mussolini’s fascist regime in
Italy
4.2.4.2. Nazism
Learning activity 4.2.4.2
Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on the
rise of totalitarian regimes in Europe and explain factors for the rise and
downfall of Nazism.
Adolf Hitler
Adolph Hitler was born on April, 20th 1889 in the Austro-German border town of Brounaal. His father
Alois Hitler was a minor customs oyears but was released after only 6 months. While in prison, Hitler wrote his
book “Main Kampf” (my struggle) which became the bible of the Nazis. This
new bride, Eva Braun, joined him in suicide.fficial in Austria. In 1902 his father died and in 1907 his mother also
died. Hitler did not get proper education on account of his obscure background and being a total orphan.

Adolf Hitler
Hitler got his early education in Linz town academy; however, he failed to get
a certificate (1907). His ambition was to become a fine artist but this was
frustrated when he failed to join the Vienna as a sign painter, causal labourer
of odd jobs and a street beggar. This is what shaped Hitler’s personality of
poor interpersonal relationship, intolerance and hatred of the bourgeoisie, the
royalists, the socialists, the Republicans and the Jews.
In May 1913, Hitler went to live in Munich a city in Germany. In 1914, Hitler
joined the Germany’s army and fought in World War I. at the end of the war;
he had risen to the rank of Lance Corporal and awarded the “Iron cross” for
his bravery. Towards the end of the war, Hitler was badly wounded and was
hospitalized when the armistice was being signed. He was discharged and
returned to Munich where he lived for some time on occasional work.
Hitler was very disappointed with the defeat and humiliation of German in the
first World War. His views were that Germany was not defeated due to her
military weakness but was “stabbed in the back” (betrayed) by its leader Emperor
Kaiser William II and traitors like Jews, Socialists, Pacifists, Democrats, etc.
this experience haunted him for long time as he later wrote: ‘the more I tried to
glean some definite information of the terrible events that happened,
the more my head become a fire with rage and shame.’
Hitler later joined the National German workers socialist party which was later
renamed Nazi. He distinguished himself as a true patriot and his oratory and
demagogic skills earned him the leadership of the party. In 1924, Hitler attempted
a futile coup against the Weimar Republic for which he was imprisoned for five
years but was released after only 6 months. While in prison, Hitler wrote his
book “Main Kampf” (my struggle) which became the bible of the Nazis. This
made him and the party more popular. By 1933, Hitler and Nazism were very
popular amongst the Germans. In the elections of March 1933 the Nazi won
288 seats in the parliament. This forced president Hindenburg to appoint Hitler
as a chancellor that became a platform for his rise to power when Hindenburg
died in August 1934.once in Power, He eliminated all opposition and launched
an ambitious program of world domination and elimination of the Jews. His rule
lasted 12 years and he died a broken and defeated man. Several attempts were
made on Hitler’s life during the war, but none was successful. As the war defied
his orders, he killed himself on 30^th April, 1945. His long term mistress and a
new bride, Eva Braun, joined him in suicide.
Dust jacket of 1926–1928 edition Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mein_Kampf
The factors for the rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazism to power
• The first World War led to the rise of Nazism: It left Germany in
the state of economic decline and dictatorship was looked at as the
only solution to Germany’s problems. Hence the rise of Hitler to power.
• Unpopularity of the Weimer republic: It accepted the unrealistic
Versailles settlement which was against the will of the Germans. This
made the people of Germany to admire a leader like Hitler who was
courageous to strongly oppose the unfair terms of the Versailles treaty.
• His personal character and talent: He was a courageous and
ambitious leader and above all an eloquent speaker. His speeches
touched on the hearts of the Germans who felt that Hitler was the
answer to all their problems. This made him to work for his rise to power.
• His publication: For example, my struggle (1923-1924) while in
prison. It contained a 25-year program promising to improve the general
conditions of German masses.
• The death of Von Paul Hindenburg (the president of the Weimer
republic) on 15th august 1934 also created a power vacuum for Hitler
to rise to power moreover he was the chancellor from 1933.
• The great economic depression: It created a desperate situation
of poverty, unemployment and inflation and Hitler was looked at as the
only liberator.
• Role of the Nazi storm troopers: The Storm Troopers, also known
as Sturmabteilung, or “Brown Shirts,” refer the Nazi Party militia that
helped Adolf Hitler rise to power in Germany. Created in 1922, and
organised by Hitler’s great follower captain Ernest Roehm. The Storm
trooper was extremely antisemitic and antidemocratic in its military
activities. Its members were mainly lower-middle class Germans who
had lost their jobs due to the country’s economic problems. The Storm
troopers gave them something to be part of and proud of. They engaged
in street fights with their political enemies, practiced pseudo-military
exercises, and terrorized Germany. Ernst Rohm became the Supreme
Commander of the Storm troopers in 1924. They influenced people to
vote for Hitler.
Source: https://www.amazon.com/Hitlers-Stormtroopers-Nazis-Brownshirts-1922/
dp/1848324251
• Role of the Nazi party: Most Germans believed that the Nazi party
would solve the problems of the middle class such as unemployment
and poor working conditions. They therefore supported the Nazi party
and Hitler.
• The Germany traditional history of loving dictators: Germany
was characterized by dictatorial rule since her unification struggle such
as Bismarck, Von Moltek, Von Roon and Kaiser William influenced
people to believe that dictators can rule the state.
• The unrealistic Versailles treaty: Hitler condemned the Versailles
as unpopular and influenced the Germanys to stop paying the war
penalty of 6.5 billion pound. He was therefore judged as a true Germany
nationalist.
• The growth and spread of communism in Germany: the success
of 1917 Russian revolution led to the establishment of communist
government in Russia. The spread of communism threatened the
property owners in Germany. However, after the formation of Nazi party
in 1920, Hitler promised to fight communism and protect capitalists.
How did Hitler consolidate himself to power?
Hitler came to power in 1934 after the death of President Hindenburg. When he
came to power, he used the following measures to strengthen himself to power.
• Dictatorship: as a dictator, Hitler: He made law which outlawed other
parties. He only recognized Nazism. He limited the power of parliament.
He outlawed the constitution. He denied the people, the freedom of
association and press.
• He banned all political parties and the Nazi party remained the only
legal party in Germany.
• He used suppressive policies to eliminate his political enemies that are
by setting up special prisons, concentration camps to jail those with
anti-Nazi ideas.
• Hitler suppressed public press broadcasting, literature, drama, music,
painting, public films and publications reflecting Hitler’s tastes. All
books which had anti-Nazi ideas were burnt in huge fire in Berlin in
1935.
• The clergymen were warned to sign an oath promising never to teach
materials that were against Nazi.
• The professional teachers had to sign an oath promising never to teach
materials that were against Nazi party.
• Hitler built a strong army that was used against internal and external
enemies.
• Hitler reduced the pre-1933 economic problems which earned him
more support from Germans and no one would think of opposing
Adolph Hitler.
• Hitler modernized agriculture, set new industries, thus solving
unemployment which attracted support to Adolph Hitler.
• Hitler captivated Germans youth where parents had to take their
children to public schools where they had to register and joined Hitler’s
young group association and were brought up according to Hitler’s
doctrine and the young generation was completely royal to Nazism.
• Hitler used Nepotism to consolidate his power, he employed his close
relatives and friends to carry out administration on his behalf.
• Hitler used a strict spy network and a secret police to keep him informed
of the events in his empire (suspects were jailed, killed or exiled).
• Hitler controlled education to his favour: he did this by encouraging
the teaching of Nazi principles and ideas in public schools. Hitler also
rewrote school textbooks to include Nazi ideas.
• Hitler promoted strict control of the church: he controlled both Catholic
Church and the protestant. For example, he signed an agreement with
the pope in which the pope was to appoint bishops after consulting
Hitler. He also withdrew the church from controlling politics and
education.
• Hitler used Racism to maintain his power in Germany. For example, he
discriminated the Jews and the Slavs. He banned intermarriage between
Germans, Jews and Slavs. Jews were dismissed from political offices,
arrested and killed Jews in large numbers: The Jews were accused of
collaborating with the big powers to defeat Germany in World War I.
• Hitler introduced the people’s courts to try suspects charged with
treason.
• He promoted strict control of workers.

The factors for the downfall of Nazism and Adolf Hitler
• Death of his best friend Benito Mussolini on April 28, 1945 and the
downfall of Fascist Party damaged Hitler’s morale and forced him to
commit suicide on April 30, 1945.
• The great decline in the economy of Germany due to bombardment of
her factories and industries by allied forces of Britain, France and USA
among others harmed Hitler’s popularity.
• Dictatorship which was coupled with excessive oppression like banning
other political parties, harassing and killing of his German opponents
who among others included Hans Ramshorn a member of the Reichstag.
In 1934, as part of the Night of the Long Knives, Ernst Julius Röhm was
executed on Hitler’s orders as a potential rival among others.
Ernst Julius Röhm
Source: https://www.fold3.com/page/286091759-night-of-the-long-knives/stories
• The size and heterogeneous nature of the German Empire by 1939,
whereby it included the Germans, the Austrians, the Poles, the Dutch
and the Czechoslovakians and by the time Adolf Hitler failed to manage
to control this wide size. It was necessary for Hitler to commit suicide
before the various German senior officers did since they attempted to
do so several times.
• Withdraw of Germany from the League of Nations which put Germany
under isolation from world affairs. This made Germany to be considered
as an enemy of other European countries which later formed an alliance
against Germany.
• Betray of strong supporters of Nazism. For example, Hammira the
commander of the Schultz Staffel crossed and surrendered to the allies
on 28^th April 1945. This weakened Hitler since all his war plans were
exposed to the allies hence his downfall
The formation of the allied powers of Britain, France and Russian against the
Axis powers of Rome Tokyo-Berlin Axis meant decline of the Nazi party as it
was the case with World War I, the alliance system played a significant role in
the defeat and downfall of Adolf Hitler by 1945.
Application activity 4.2.4.2
1. Explain the factors for the rise of Nazism and Adolf Hitler in Germany
2. Account for the downfall of Adolf Hitler in Germany.
Skills Lab
Use a combination of knowledge, skills, attitude and values acquired
throughout this unit and create a poster against wars and any other form of
conflict in the world. Present your poster to the class.
End unit assessment
1. The outbreak of the First World War was inevitable by 1914. Discuss.
2. Examine the merits and the demerits of the Versailles peace treaty
of 1919.
3. Account for the formation of the League of Nations by 1920.
4. Examine the significance/consequences of the world Economic
depression of 1929-1935.
5. To what extent was Mussolini’s ability responsible for the rise of
Fascism in Italy?
6. Why did Hitler and Nazism collapse in 1945?

Social Studies ECLPE

General

UNIT 4 FIRST WORLD WAR AND INTER-WARS

UNIT 4 FIRST WORLD WAR AND INTER-WARS

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