Course: Social Studies ECLPE, Topic: UNIT 3 THE GREAT REVOLUTIONS OF 18TH TO 19TH CENTURY

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UNIT 3 THE GREAT REVOLUTIONS OF 18TH TO 19TH CENTURY
Key Unit competence:
The learner should be able to evaluate the major events that happened
between 18th to 19^th centuries.
Introductory activity
The period between 18^th and 19^th century witnessed Great Revolutions and
world wars. Among these revolutions include industrial revolution, American
and French revolutions. Read relevant materials and use internet to answer
the following questions and make presentation in class.
1. Explain the reasons that led to the industrial revolution in Britain and
identify its effects.
2. Examine the causes and consequences of American and French
revolutions.
3. Discuss the factors responsible for the rise and downfall of Napoleon
Bonaparte.
3.1. Causes and consequences of industrial revolution
Learning activity 3.1
Use the internet and history textbook to explain the factors that led to the
industrial revolution and its effects.

The term ‘Industrial Revolution’ was first used by the historian Arnold Toynbee,
to describe the economic development in England, from 1760 to 1840. Charles
Beard gives a good description of the Industrial Revolution, which he calls a great
transformation brought about by discoveries and inventions that changed the
methods of production and distribution of the means of life and of the economic
functions of society. During the 18th century, Britain and Europe witnessed this
transformation caused by the mass production of consumer goods with the help
of the newly invented machines.
The Industrial Revolution thus refers to the transformation in the method of
production, from man-made, to machine made goods. Being mechanical
in nature, the Industrial Revolution was peaceful. However, it proved to be
destructive as well as constructive, and indeed very noisy.
Industrial Revolution was also defined as a widespread replacement of manual
labor by machines that began in Britain in the 18th century and is still continuing
in some parts of the world. It is a series of dramatic changes in the way the work
was done. Human labour was replaced by machines. The Industrial Revolution
thus refers to the transformation in the method of production, from man-made,
to machine made goods.
Map of England showing major industrial areas in the 18^thCentury
3.1.1. The Causes or origin of industrial revolution.
The Industrial Revolution first started in England from where it rapidly spread to
the U.S.A. and later to Europe. Several factors were responsible for the advent
of the Industrial Revolution in Great Britain and not elsewhere in the world.
England had sufficient money (capital) to finance new industries. Overseas
trade, commerce and industry were encouraged by England’s naval supremacy.
There was political and social stability in England, so people could invest
their savings in new enterprises. With this political stability, Britain’s political
development during this period was fairly stable, with no major internal upheavals
occurring. Although Britain took part in many wars during the 1700s, none
of them took place on British soil, and its citizens did not seriously question
the government’s authority. By 1750 Parliament’s power far exceeded that of
the king, and its members passed laws that protected business and helped
expansion.
An Agricultural Revolution: The Industrial Revolution would not have been
possible without a series of improvements in agriculture in England. Beginning
in the early1700s, wealthy landowners began to enlarge their farms through
enclosure, or fencing or hedging large blocks of land for experiments with new
techniques of farming. These scientific farmers improved crop rotation methods,
which carefully controlled nutrients in the soil. They bred better livestock, and
invented new machines, such as Jethro Tull’s seed drill that more effectively
planted seeds. The larger the farms and the better the production the fewer
farmers were needed. Farmers pushed out of their jobs by enclosure either
became tenant farmers or they moved to cities. Better nutrition boosted England’s
population, creating the first necessary component for the Industrial Revolution:
labor.
England began to manufacture practical and inexpensive articles, which
could be exported if they were produced on a large scale. Hence England
invented new techniques and machines to produce such articles.
Many agriculturists, who became unemployed owing to the Agriculture
Revolution, were available as laborers in mills, factories and workshops. These
laborers were able to move freely from place to place for jobs in factories. Coal,
a cheap fuel, was available in large quantities for running factories, mills and
workshops.
Napoleon’s Continental System of preventing the import of English goods
into Europe enabled England to blockade the continental ports. Thus England
bought raw materials at low rates and supplied finished products at high
prices to her colonies.
England had a large man power or labor force due many skilled immigrants.
Many Spanish and French artisans, who were persecuted owing to their religion,
went and settled down in England, thus giving an impetus to English industries.
The English colonies were ruthlessly exploited for raw materials and as
markets for finished products.
Scientific discoveries were encouraged by the Royal Society of London. The
inventive genius of the English, as seen in scientists like Sir Humphry Davy,
George Stephenson, Dr. Edmund Cartwright and James Watt, favored the
Industrial Revolution.
Source: Encarta premium 2019
New inventions and new methods of production went hand in hand, giving
rise to many factories over a span of a hundred years in Britain’s countryside.
Improvement in transport and communication. This included roads,
railways and water transport which were much developed. Canals were
constructed linking existing rivers and lakes. During the second half of the 18^th
century, roads and railways were constructed to link industrial centres. They
were to transport raw materials and finished products to their destinations as
well. It eased connectivity in terms of sources of raw materials, transportation of
workers, industrial centres and markets.

Favorable geographical location of Britain and good harbors favored
industrialization. As an island, Britain has good harbors and direct links to almost
all parts of the world. This encouraged overseas trade which allowed Britain
access to raw materials and markets in Africa, America and India.
The good banking and insurance systems in Britain also encouraged
industrial revolution. Banks promoted savings and gave people loans for
businessmen that encouraged them to invest in better machinery, build new
factories and expand their operations.
Technological leadership: Britain took the leading role in technological
innovations and inventions. Machines such as water wheel, spinning jenny,
spinning mill and steam engine were first invented in Britain. This was a great
step towards industrial development.
Natural resources - Britain had large and accessible supplies of coal and
iron - two of the most important raw materials used to produce the goods for
the early Industrial Revolution. Also available was water power to fuel the new
machines, harbors for its merchant ships, and rivers for inland transportation.
Britain could also get these resources from her overseas colonies.
Key inventions during the industrial revolution
Textile Industry
The Industrial Revolution first started in the textile industry in England and started
with the techniques of ’spinning’ as well as ’weaving’.
• Hargreaves’ Spinning Jenny, 1764: Spinning was an extremely slow
process, with the spinner spinning only one thread at a time, with the
help of the spinning wheel. In 1764, James Hargreaves invented
a machine called the ’Spinning Jenny.’ It enabled a spinner to spin
as many as eight to ten threads at a time, on his new machine. This
increased the production of yarn (wool, fiber).
• Arkwright’s Water-Frame, 1769: In 1769, Richard Arkwright
invented a machine run by waterpower instead of manpower. Hence
it came to be called the ’Water-Frame’. This second machine could
produce stronger and finer yarn than the Spinning Jenny. It increased
the production of threads to a very great degree, as it worked on water
force.
• Crompton’s Spinning Mule, 1778: Samuel Crompton removed the
defects of the Spinning Jenny and Water Frame, with his machine known
as ’Spinning Mule’. A spinner could now spin threads of stronger and
better quality on this machine.
• Cartwright’s Automatic Loom, 1785: In 1733, John Kay had invented
a device called the ’Flying Shuttle’, which speeded up the weaving
of cloth. It helped the weaver to do the work of two or three people at
a time. In 1785, Dr. Edmund Cartwright invented the Automatic or
Power Loom. It could do the work of many people at a time, since it
worked on waterpower.
• Whitney’s Cotton Gin, 1793: Eli Whitney invented a machine called
the ’Cotton Gin.’ It separated the seeds from the fibers of raw cotton.
So cotton could be produced in large quantities for spinning and
weaving of cloth.
Eventually, inventions were made involving new techniques and processes for
bleaching, dyeing and printing fabrics.
Basic Industrial Materials
• Coal: Wood was used in large quantities as a fuel in Great Britain,
before the Industrial Revolution. However, as the supply of timber
diminished, and since wood was not able to withstand the strain of
new techniques and processes, coal and steel was brought into use by
industrialists. Thus coal mining became an important industry.
• Davy’s Safety Lamp, 1816: In 1816, Sir Humphry Davy invented a
machine called Davy’s Safety Lamp.’ It could save the lives of the
miners by giving them a warning, in case of any danger in the mines.
• Steel: Large Quantities of iron and steel were required to make new
machines. This led to the establishment of smelting plants and foundries
in Great Britain. In 1856, Henry Bessemer discovered a process by
which impurities could be removed from iron. This purified refined iron
came to be known as ’steel’, which helped in making more accurate
tools, implements, weapons and machines.
Transport and Communication
• McAdam’s Roads (1756-1836): John Loudon McAdam found
out a new process of road building. Heavy stones were placed at the
bottom of the roadbed and smaller stones at the top, with a mud-binder
between them, in order to produce a hard surface. Later, tar was used
in place of mud binder. These Macadamized roads became popular in
Great Britain, and also in the U.S.A, Canada and France.
• Trevithick’s Locomotive (1801): Since roads were not sufficient to
meet the needs of transportation, railroads became necessary. Therefore,
in 1801, Richard Trevithick invented the first steam locomotive.
• Stephenson’s Rocket (1814): George Stephenson is regarded as ’the
father of the railway locomotive’, because he made great improvements
on Trevithick’s locomotive in his ’Rocket’ in 1814. It moved at a speed
of twenty-nine miles an hour.
• Canals: John Smeaton (1724-1792) built the Forth and Clyde
canals, while Charles Telford constructed the Ellesmere canal and the
Caledonian Canal.
• Fulton’s Clermont (1807): In 1807, Robert Fulton invented the
steamboat called the ’Clermont’. It completed the one hundred and
fifty-five-mile trip on the River Hudson from New York to Albany, in
thirty-two hours, at a speed of about five miles an hour.
Motive Force
• Steam Power: Initially manpower and river water was used as the
motive force in order to run all kinds of machines. However, this proved
to be inadequate, when the new machines were invented. Further water
and wind-power proved to be limited resources. Hence, a new motive
force was sought and discovered in the form of steam power.
• Steam Engine (1705): Thomas Newcomen invented the first steam
engine in 1705, in order to pump water out of the mines.
• Watt’s Beelzebub (1769): In 1769, James Watt invented a better
steam engine called the ’Beelzebub.’ This engine was also used to shift
spinning and weaving machines in the textile industries.
• Electricity: In 1800, Giuseppe Count Alexandro Volta invented
the Voltaic Cell and Michael Faraday invented the Dynamo. These
inventions led to the production of electric power, which was widely
used in industries.
Agriculture
• Tull’s seed Drill: Jethro Tull (1674-1740) experimented with farming
on a scientific basis. He invented a Seed Drill that would distribute the
seeds evenly in rows, over a large piece of land.
• Townsend’s Crop Rotation: The discovery of a new method of
’Crop Rotation’, was made by Viscount Townsend (1674-1738). This
enabled one to keep land always under cultivation, without letting it lie
idle for a season. This helped to double the yield per acre.
• Scientific Breeding of Animals: Robert Bakewell (1725-1795)
introduced scientific breeding of farm animals. He found through
experiments, that by selective breeding of farm animals, he could
improve the quality of cattle, horses and sheep.
3.1.2. The consequences of industrial revolution
The Industrial Revolution revolutionized art, architecture, literature and science,
as also the social, economic, political and cultural life of the people.
• New machines which were used led to unemployment of many people.
• There was expansion of international trade as countries produced
different goods.
• The Industrial Revolution encouraged Colonialism and imperialism.
Industrialization led to the need of market and raw materials from
Africa and subsequent colonisation of Africa. They needed colonies
for securing raw materials at low prices for their industries. They also
used the colonies as markets for setting their finished products at high
prices.
• It led to the development of modern transport and communication
systems. Many roads, railway lines, bridges and canals were constructed
during this period.
• It led to increased utilisation of idle natural resources that were not in
use before.
• Industrial revolution led to urbanisation, that is, urban centres developed
due industrial activities and rural-urban migration.
• Industrial revolution increased the demand for services provided by
lodges, hotels, banks, insurance companies and schools.
• Industrial revolution led to the rise of socialism. People advocated for
state ownership of property to replace private ownership and income
inequality.
• It increased the number of middle class for these owned factories and
mines. Some started sending their children to upper class schools.
• It led to rural-urban migration leading to overcrowding and
accommodation in towns.
• The fumes from industrial centres led to environmental degradation.
The industries produced bad smell leading to air pollution.
• It led to the increase in population in Europe. Population in many
European countries tripled due to better living conditions. There was
good shelter as well as improved medical care that reduced diseases
that previously killed people.
• Industrial revolution led to exploitation of workers by industrial owners.
People worked for long hours with low wages. Many factories or mills
had no sanitation facilities. They did not even have safety guards on
machines which led to frequent accidents. There were no provisions
for the care of the injured and the sick. There were cases of unfair
dismissals which contributed to the formation of trade unions. The
trade unions bargained for better working conditions.
• Under the Factory system there was large-scale production. This
resulted in a low cost of production per unit. There was also uniformity
and a high quality in production
• It led to the development of capitalism, since the capitalists owned
the means of production like wealth, land and machinery. Hence the
capitalists became the supreme masters of industry. Two classes, the
capitalist and the laboring classes were created by the Revolution. The
capitalists were the masters of industries, the managers of mills and the
proprietors of workshops, who amassed great wealth, owing to a high
profit margin. The laboring class, was a mere tool in the factories. Thus,
the gap between the rich and the poor went on widening.
• England grew very wealthy on account of industrialization. It became a
leading country, in the field of industry, trade, commerce and finance.
• The cities were overcrowded, owing to migration from villages and also
because of high birth rates. The housing shortage in the city forced
people to live in dull and dingy rooms. It also led to the creation of
slums, which caused various diseases and premature deaths.
• It also led to the creation of slums, which caused various diseases and
premature deaths.
• The factories produced large amounts of air pollution from the burning
of coal. Coal was easily the most used fuel during the Industrial
Revolution, since it was needed to power the newly developed steam
engines.
• Finally, the comforts and luxuries in people’s lives increased, owing to
the inventions in the various fields. The new means of transport and
communications and the new methods of production served to be a
boon to mankind in an important way
The spread of industrial revolution was aided by the following factors:
• The development of international trade.
• Education because many students went to study in Britain went back
to their home countries with the knowledge of industries.
• Migration of engineers and craftsmen from Britain to other parts of the
World helped the industrial revolution to spread.
• The improvement of transport and communication in the other parts of
the world also enabled the industrial revolution to spread.
As a conclusion, the Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain and then
spread across the United States and the rest of the world. The revolution in
Britain is often called the first Industrial Revolution while the later worldwide
revolution is referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution. There is a debate
among historians about the precise dates of the beginning and end of the first
Industrial Revolution. It is generally believed to have taken place in the time
between 1760 and 1840 in Britain primarily due to innovations in machine
technologies that led to higher productivity. The Industrial Revolution marks a
major turning point in history as it hugely impacted the way societies in the
world would function in the years to come.
Many factors contributed in the development of industrial revolution in Great
Britain but the most prominent comprise political and economic competition in
Europe which led to the rising colonial powers, scientific revolution in Europe,
agricultural revolution in Britain which was characterized by unprecedented rise in
agricultural production in Britain from the 17th to mid-19th century. Government
policies which were characterized by long time of political stability, availability
of coal and iron, financial innovations – capitalism and entrepreneurship (Britain
had financial institutions in place since the early 18th century; such as a central
bank, county banks and a stock exchange to finance new ventures and well
developed), transport system well developed in Britain, innovation and new
technology were obviously the key factor to explain the reasons why industrial
revolution started in Great Britain.
Application activity 3.1
1. Examine the factors that led to industrial revolution in Britain.
2. Discuss the consequences of industrial revolution.
3.2. Causes and consequences of the American Revolution
Learning activity 3.2
Read relevant materials and use internet to explain the causes and impact
of American Revolution and make a presentation in class.
American Revolution (1775-1783) was a war or conflict between 13 British
colonies in North America and Great Britain. Thirteen American colonies rejected
the British monarchy and dictatorship. They overthrew the authority of Great
Britain and founded the United States of America. The American Revolution is
also known as the American war of independence.
The thirteen former British American colonies were Virginia, New York,
Massachusetts, Maryland, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire,
Delaware, North Carolina, South Carolina, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and
Georgia.
These American colonies had been under British control for a long period of
time. They wanted to be independent.
American Revolution was made up of two related events: The American War of
Independence (1775-1783) and the formation of the American government as
laid out by the Constitution of the United States in 1787. first, the war achieved
independence from Great Britain. Second, the newly created United States of
America established a republican form of government, in which power resided
with the people.
The map of 13 colonies of America
3.2.1. Causes of the American Revolution
• The colonies were populated by hard-working, freedom-loving,
intelligent farmers, adventurous sailors and enterprising
producers. Since they could think and act for themselves in every field
they did not feel there was any need for them to be guided by the
mother country. Their desire to be free from England grew stronger
with time.
• A spirit of self-reliance and enterprise was shown by the
English colonies, which had established their own political institutions.
However, George III and the British Parliament did not give any political
rights to the colonies which in turn felt like slaves in the political field.
Each colony had a legislative assembly and a governor appointed by
England. They gained great political experience by running their political
institutions. Thus they resented the political control of England and had
a strong desire for self-government. They did not consider it necessary
to be under the control of England, their mother country.
• The rise and growth of nationalism among the Americans and
need for independence: This was promoted by nationalists such as
Samuel Adams, George Washington, Benjamin Franklin and Thomas
Jefferson. They argued that if the British governed themselves, why not
Americans? This awakened the need for self-rule among the Americans
hence leading to the revolution.
• The effects of Anglo-French war of 1756-63: During this war,
France was fighting with Britain over profitable colony of Canada.
The war ended with the defeat of France by Britain, and taking over
Canada. The effect of this was that it weakened Britain financially and
encouraged the Americans to revolt against her. Britain also raised
taxes to solve financial crisis at home. Americans protested against the
tax increment.
• The passing of intolerable acts: These included the Stamp Act
whereby revenue stamps were put on printed materials and commercial
documents like newspapers. It was replaced by Townshend Act whereby
the British chancellor levied taxes on lead paper, paint, glasses and
tea. These were received with negativity by Americans making them to
begin a war of independence.
• The character of King George III of England: He came to power
in 1760. Unlike the former kings, he wanted to bring American colonies
to closer control. In order to achieve this, he introduced a number of
harsh laws. He was also so rigid that he refused to change the taxation
system.
• The oppressive rule of the British government: The British
leaders such as Greenville, Townshend and Rocking were harsh to the
Americans. They did not allow freedoms such as of speech, press and
worship. There were no fair trials in courts of law. All these annoyed the
Americans.
• The Boston massacres of 1770: After the Townshend Act, the
Americans started shouting and throwing snow and ice to the English
troops. The troops responded by firing and killing them at Boston.
This is what came to be known as the Boston massacres. It drove the
Americans into a war of independence against the British.
• Undemocratic nature of the British leadership: The Americans
were not given chance to participate in the politics of their country.
This made them inferior. Only the rich were elected to the colonial
assemblies as opposed to the poor. This was opposed by the majority
hence leading to the revolution.
• Inter-colonial congress at Philadelphia: In 1774, representatives
from all colonies met at Philadelphia. It was there where they started
preparing for war. They chose George Washington as the leader of
the revolution. They trained soldiers known as minutemen and started
seeking for assistance from other countries.
• Unfair judicial system of Britain and the restriction for colonies to occupy
new lands of Ohio and Louisiana.
• Poor economic policy of the British: The Americans were not
allowed to set up their own industries in America. This was intended to
force them to continue buying expensive British manufactured goods.
This was viewed as a move to subject them to endless poverty. They
opposed the policy.
• The Boston Tea Party in 1773: This was when the Americans
dropped boxes of tea from Britain into water at Port Boston at night.
This made the British government furious. The government decided to
close the Boston harbour. It also punished Americans so as to pay
back the tea. This also led to American Revolution.
Destruction of Tea at Boston Harbor
• Trade monopoly by the British: In America, trade was exclusively
done by the British. All European goods imported to the colonies
had to pass through England for taxation. The British benefitted while
the Americans did not. On top of that, the imports were expensive
compared to exports. This exploitation made the Americans to revolt for
their independence.
• The unfair taxation system: In North America, Britain raised taxes in
order to meet her debt expenses and to solve financial crisis at home.
Both direct and indirect taxes such as like stamp tax and sugar tax were
introduced.
• The role of political philosophers: These were intellectuals and
great thinkers who exposed the wrongs of the British government to
the Americans. Philosophers such as Thomas Penn and Patrick Henry
inspired and awakened Americans to fight for their independence. They
used newspapers such as New York gazette, American Mercury and
The Boston News-Letter.
• Foreign support: The Americans got foreign support from other
countries such as France, Germany and Spain. These countries gave
Americans military, moral and financial support. This increased the
determination of Americans to fight for their independence.
• Religious intolerance and the domination of the Anglican
Church: There were religious differences between the Americans and
the British. Americans had many religions which were different from the
British Anglicans. The British forced Americans to adopt their religion
against their will. The protestant religions practiced by the Americans
included Lutherans, Puritans, Huguenots and Presbyterians. Americans
strongly opposed it thus leading to the revolution.
• Lack of the colonists ’political representation in the British
parliament also infuriated them. No American was elected to
represent the interests of his fellow Americans in parliament.
• Distance between England and America was also an obstacle to
king Georges III of England to send more soldiers to stop American
Revolution.
American Revolution time line (Main events in the course of American
Revolution)
• 1763: The French and Indian War ends. The British defeat France
and acquire the French empire in North America.
• 1765: Britain passes the Stamp Act to directly tax the colonists. The
act requires that revenue stamps be put on all legal documents, deeds,
newspapers, pamphlets, dice, and playing cards.
• 1773: During the Boston Tea Party, colonists disguised as Native
Americans throw tea from British ships into the ocean to protest the
Tea Act (December). The act was passed to allow the British East India
Company to sell tea to the colonists, but the tea included a British tax.
• 1774: Intolerable Acts are passed. They close the port of
Boston,
• 1775: American militias defeat British troops in the battles of Lexington
and Concord, the first battles of the war (April). 1775 American troops
capture Fort Ticonderoga, beginning the war in New York (May).
• 1775: The British defeat the Americans at the Battle of Bunker Hill.
The Continental Congress commissions George Washington to lead
the Continental Army
• 1776: The Continental Congress adopts the Declaration of
Independence (July).
• 1776: The British defeat American troops at the Battle of Long Island,
seizing the city of New York (August). 1776 Washington and his troops
cross the Delaware River to launch a surprise attack; they defeat the
British at the battles of Trenton and Princeton (December).
• 1777: British troops capture Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, home of
the Continental Congress (September). 1777 British troops are
defeated at Saratoga, New York, failing to cut New England off from
the rest of the colonies (October).
• 1778: The Continental Congress enters a formal alliance with
France, which provides money, weapons, and soldiers (February).
• 1778: The British capture Savannah, Georgia, in an effort to
implement their Southern strategy, an attempt to capture Southern
colonies with support of Southern Loyalists (December).
• 1779: Colonial troops seize a British fort at Vincennes, taking
control of the war in the west (February).
• 1779: The colonial vessel, Bonhomme Richard, forces the surrender
of the British warship, Serapis (September).
• 1780: British forces capture Charleston, South Carolina, as part of
the Southern strategy (May). 1781: The British are defeated at Guilford
Courthouse, North Carolina and realize that their Southern strategy is
unlikely to succeed (March).
• 1781: The British surrender at Yorktown, ending most of the
fighting in North America (October).
• 1783: The Treaty of Paris is signed, recognizing the independence
of the United States (September).
• 1787: The Constitution of the United States is signed by the
delegates of the Constitutional Convention (September).
• 1789 The Constitution becomes effective.
Declaration of independence of 13 Colonies
3.2.2. The consequences of the American Revolution
The American Revolution had a great impact on today’s world political, social
and economic systems. The following are the consequences of American Revolution.
• It gave birth to a new nation, that is, the United States of America. Under
the Treaty of Paris (1783) England acknowledged the independence of
her American colonies.
• France regained two small colonies, Tobago in the West Indies and
Senegal in West Africa. Spain recovered Minorca and Florida.
• England lost her colonies in America and her national debt increased to
a great extent. However, England could defeat and destroy the Spanish
and French fleets, and thus retain her naval supremacy.
• The revolution led to loss of lives. Many people including soldiers,
civilians, Americans, the French and the British died in the war.
• It led to destruction of property such as buildings, roads, bridges and
communication lines.
• It led to the inclusion of blacks into Americans citizenship, a privilege
which had earlier been denied to them by the British.
• The monopoly of the protestant church was removed and after the
revolution. There was freedom of worship among the Americans. It
increased religious freedom in all states of America. The citizens were
no longer forced to join Protestantism. Many churches came up. Other
Americans became Muslims.
• It led to French Revolution due to the effects it had on the French
government. France lost heavily during the American Revolution.
Owing to her heavy naval and military expenditures the royal treasury
in France grew bankrupt. Further bankruptcy soon led to the fall of the
French monarchy, since the Frenchmen had helped the Americans in
their revolt against a King. They were now prepared to revolt against
their own king. Apart from financial crisis in France, there was also
the spread of revolutionary ideas by the ex-soldiers of the American
Revolution such as General Lafayette.
• It led to the granting of independence to the American colonies. At Paris
treaty of 1783, the British king recognised the colonies of America to
be free, sovereign and independent. The 13 states were now free to
join together and become the United States of America.
• There was liberalization of trade after the American Revolution. The
Americans were free to carry out trade without the British monopoly.
The British limitations on American trade were removed, allowing the
marine merchants to trade freely.
• It created good diplomatic relationship between France and America.
This was due to the assistance rendered by the French to the Americans
against the British imperialists. France provided Americans with arms
and a combat army to serve under George Washington. They also
sent a navy that prevented the second British army from escaping from
Yorktown in 1871.
• It increased the status of women and subsequent women emancipation.
Women now took control of the families and catered for school going
children. Men were away fighting for independence. The revolutionary
war affected women by placing them in non-traditional roles. As men
went off to war, women were left to fill jobs typically fulfilled by men.
• American Revolution increased the status of George Washington for
his role in gearing the struggle for independence. During the American
Revolution, he led the colonial forces to victory over the British and
became a national hero. Its success was attributed to him. He later
became the first president of America.
Reasons for the defeat of the British army in the American war of
independence
• The British fought in foreign country not well known.
• Availability of forest in America which helped warriors to hide themselves.
• The determination of American fighters.
• The rebellion in oppressed Ireland caused the British to lose the war.
The British were sent to stop Irish rebellion which weakened them in
America, hence the defeat.
• The French support with army and machinery to Americans contributed
to the British defeat. This support boosted American resources and the
balance of the war.
• Low morale of the British who were fighting their American cousins.
Notes that the British were fighting British migrants.
• The long distance from home led to the British defeat. The source of
orders, provision and supply, Britain, was very far from America.
• The support of the African Americans for the colonists impaired the
British ability in the war. The African Americans gave the colonists
numerical advantage over the British.
• Good leadership and military command of the American fighters
surpassed that of the British. The American leaders like General
George Washington were distinguished by their foresight, courage and
determination.
• The American enjoyed the moral advantage that came from the
conviction that they were fighting a just war.
To conclude, The American Revolution was a time when the British colonists
in America rebelled against the rule of Great Britain. There were many battles
fought and the colonies gained their freedom and became the independent
country of the United States. The American Revolutionary War lasted from
1775 until 1783. Before the American Revolution, there were several British
Colonies in the Americas. Not all of them participated in the revolution. There
were 13 colonies which ended up rebelling. These were Delaware, Virginia,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland,
North Carolina, South Carolina, New Hampshire, New York, and Rhode Island.
One of the main reasons that the colonists rebelled against Great Britain is
that they felt they were not represented in the British government. The British
government was making new laws and taxes on the colonies, but the colonies
had no say. They wanted to have some say in the British government if they
were going to pay high taxes and have to live by British law. War didn’t happen
right away. first there were protests and arguments. Then some small skirmishes
between the colonists and the local British army. Things just got worse and
worse over the course of years until the colonies and Great Britain were at war.
Each colony had its own local government. In 1774 they each elected officials
to represent them at the first Continental Congress. This was the first effort
of the colonies to unite and make a single government. In 1776 the Second
Continental Congress declared the independence of the United States from
Great Britain. The new government of the United States was different than the
government of the colonist’s homeland, Great Britain. They decided that they
didn’t want to be ruled by a king anymore. They wanted a government that was
ruled by the people. The new government would be a democratic government
with leaders elected by the people and balances of power to make sure that no
one could become king.
Application activity 3.2
1. Account for the outbreak of the American revolution.
2. Assess the effects of the American war of independence on the
Americans.
3.3. Causes and consequences of the French Revolution
Learning activity 3.3
Read textbooks, internet and other materials to get the information about
the causes and consequences of the French Revolution and make a
presentation in class.
A revolution is a fundamental change that takes place in the society’s social,
political and economic set up of a given society. It takes place not because
people are interested in change but rather, because of unbearable conditions
of living in that given society.
Before the outbreak of the French revolution of 1789, France was ruled by the
Bourbon Monarchy. The Bourbon Monarchy had ruled France for a period of
over 400 years, beginning from the administration of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and
Louis XVI. The French had a glorious foreign policy, the French language was
used in many countries. The Catholic religion was a religion of the majority. But
surprisingly enough, by 1789 France experienced a revolution. This revolution
transformed the lives of the French men.
Thus, the French Revolution of 1789 refers to social, economic, political
and religious changes that took place in France. The changes included the
overthrow of the ancient regime and the establishment of a new social order
that was based on liberty, (freedom of speech, freedom of worship, freedom
of expression and other fundamental freedoms of man) equality, (having equal
rights by all citizens) and fraternity (meaning brotherhood, that is to say seeing a
person as your relative). The effects of the French revolution were widespread,
both inside and outside of France, and the revolution ranks as one of the most
important events in the history of Europe.
The conditions of Europe on the eve of French revolution
Politically, many states, except Britain, were ruled by despotic king or
monarchs, who based their authority on the principle of divine rights, i.e. they
were answerable to God rather than the people they ruled.
i) England was ruled by George II and William Pitt as prime minister. She
was the most peaceful, stable government in 17th century in Europe.
England was considered as the super power of the time and had a
constitutional monarchy. George III allowed freedom of worship.
ii) Austria was under the Hapsburg family and was ruled by Maria Theresa
(1740-178). She was later succeeded by her son Joseph II (1780-1790).
Austria lacked constitutional democracy and parliamentary leadership;
there was religious intolerance where Catholics was state religion. Austria
was a class society with aristocrats (nobles) who enjoyed high privileges
in government, the Middle class and the serfs.
iii) Prussia was ruled by the hotentollem ruling family. She was ruled by
Frederic the Great from 1770-1786. Later he was succeeded by
Frederic William. Prussia had class division of Nobles, bourgeoisie, and
Feudal Lords, it had no proper constitution, no parliamentary democracy
and Prussia had no religious freedom. There was protestant monopoly
government.
iv) Russia: On the eve of French revolution Russia was ruled by Catherine
II who succeeded Peter the Great in 1762. There was no freedom of
religion worship in Russia (orthodox). Selfdom also existed. Russia was
an imperialist country that had acquired Azov, Ukraine ad Crimea as her
colonies. There was also a class society: aristocrats, merchants, serfs and
squatters.
v) Turkey (Ottoman Empire) was the largest empire in Europe. It extended
to parts of east Europe, Western Europe, the Balkans region, Asia Minor,
the Mediterranean region, North Africa and the Red Sea cost. On the eve
of French revolution, the Ottoman Empire was under sultan Mahmoud
II. However, turkey was multiracial, multilingual, multi-religious, and
multicultural empire.
vi) France was under Bourbon rulers who had ruled France for over 400
years. By 1789, France was ruled by King Louis XVI (1774-1793). During
his rule France had no constitution, no functional parliament and no
uniform laws. Louis XVI was despotic and absolutists.
Socially many states in Europe had social classes. Each state basically had
three classes:
a. The clergy, who included bishops, cardinals and priests. They had plenty
of land, they were exempted from taxes and they monopolized the political,
military and civil service offices.
b. The nobles (the nobility), there were ruling classes in many states. Their
privileges were higher than those of clergy.
c. The peasantry was the third class. It was a group of people without a
political influence. Under this class there were many other small classes
like bourgeoisie for the sake of France, workers, serfs or tenants.
Each state had a state religion. For example, in France, and Austria, Catholicism
was the state religion; in England and Prussia, Protestantism was the official
religion while Russia had the orthodox faith. For the Ottoman Empire Islam was
the empire religion. Therefore, religious persecution existed in many states.
Economically, most of European state mainly depended on agriculture;
industrialization had not yet taken place. However, Britain was the richest state.
Having workshop and crafts, Britain was regarded as a workshop of Europe.
Trade was also at low level. Land ownership i.e. in all states, land was owned by
the nobles and the clergy (the church) while peasants were a landless group.
Peasants only rented land from absentee landlords.
Taxation was another burden to the peasants. In France there were many types
of taxes: land taxes, corvee, salt tax, capitation etc. about 80% of the peasant’s
annual income went to the taxes.
3.0 Conditions of france on the eve of french revolution
A summary of the political conditions
i) France was under the despotic rule of King Louis XVI who practiced
nepotism, arbitrary imprisonment or imprisonment without trial (lettres
de cachet).
ii) France had no functional parliament. Therefore, Frenchmen lacked
where to address their problems
iii) France had no uniform codes of law. There were about 360 feudal codes
that contradicted each other. Each region had its own laws.
iv) In the army, promotions were unfair, only sons of the nobles were
promoted. There was low pay, poor feeding, poor dressing and poor
accommodation and mistreatment of junior guards or soldiers.
v) France had no constitution that could guarantee the freedom, right and
liberties of the people. The king was the law and the law was himself as
Louis XVI said “I am the state and the state is me something is
legal because I wish it”.
vi) The administration only favoured the nobles and the clergy who
dominated administrative posts in the army, police, education, etc., at
the expense of the middle class and peasants who had no role in the
administration of their society.
vii) The palace was extravagant: a lot of money was wasted on parties,
functions, luxury and senseless wars. The king and the queen had a
large number of slaves and servants, camels and donkeys all of which
required a lot of cash for maintenance.
1. Condition of French people
1.1 Peasants
i) This was the largest section of French population. They were about 23
million people out of 25 million, the total population of France. About 1
million peasants were slaves. They could be sold or bought with land.
ii) Another section of peasants were tenants. They had rented plots of land
from landlords.
iii) There were also peasants who completely lacked land.
Burdens or the problems of the peasants.
1. Direct taxes
a) Taille: This form of tax was charged on land but in some district it was
charged on a person’s estimated income.
b) Capitation tax: this was charged on all adult males.
c) Property tax (vingtième): The peasants also paid this tax.
2. Indirect taxes
a) Salt tax: In order to pay this tax everybody above 7 years of age was
forced to buy 4 kg of salt annually. (Gabelle).
b) Peasants were also forced to pay feudal dues for using the mills and wine
press machine of their landlords.
c) Corvee (forced labour), a tax for road maintenance. It could be paid in
exchange for one’s labour.
d) Tolls: these were other feudal dues which peasants paid for using local
roads and bridges.
e) There were also taxes on inherited property.
f) There was tithe (church tax) which was not actually 1/10 as the name
suggests but 15/100.
g) Peasants also paid taxes, which allowed them to take their cattle or sheep
through the estates of their landlords.
3. The problem of taxation was worsened by the way taxes were
collected
1) The tax farmers or tax collectors were given authority to enter the houses
of peasants or tax defaulters at any time (day and night).
2) The tax collectors were also harsh, brutal and cruel and aggressive
in treating tax defaulters or to those who denied them access to their
houses to value their property. For example, one day a tax collector cut off
a hand of a woman who refused to surrender her cooking utensils which
he was trying to confiscate for tax evasion.
3) In 1783, there were 11 arrests for peasants who had not paid the salt
tax: about 6,600 of those arrested were children.
4) About 30000 peasants were hanged each year for evading taxes.
5) Peasants were not allowed to use seawater, to feed their cattle in salt
marshes and salty springs but they had to buy salt.
6) The conditions in the army were harsh due to poor payment, lack of
promotion and lack of descent accommodation.
1.2. Bourgeoisie
The bourgeoisie was a section of the peasantry class. However, they were an
educated and a professionally trained group of people. They included: traders,
bankers, doctors, teachers, industrialists, moneylenders, lawyers and controllers
of government corporations in towns.
The grievances of bourgeoisie were
a) They were excluded from top government office like army, diplomatic
missions, etc.
b) The merchants complained of lack of good policies for their trade. For
example: Louis XVI allowed free trade with Britain.
c) Bourgeoisie complained of the way government finances were being
misused through extravagant spending.
d) They also complained of lack of promotion in the army for themselves or
their children.
e) They were not allowed to criticize the government openly.
f) From 1776-1783, they lent their money to the government during the
American war of independence but the government failed to pay back that
money.
g) They were forced to be Catholics.
1.3. The Nobility
The Nobility was divided into three groups:
– The great nobility.
– The lesser nobility.
– The nobility of the robe.
i) The great nobility: they were composed of 1000 families. They owned
the largest amount of land; they were the wealthiest people in France,
the most privileged group of people in French politic. They dominated
top jobs in the army, navy and government. They were exempted from
taxation, they were absentee landlords, and they lived in luxury cities.
However, they were very corrupt.
ii) The lesser nobility: There also exempted from taxation and they too
owned large plots of land. However, they had little political powers, they
always complained due to unequal privileges with the great nobility.
iii) The nobility of the Robe: this group became noble due to their
services to the state. They became nobles as a merit. However, they did
not enjoy the privileges which the greater and lesser nobility enjoyed.
1.4 The clergy and the church
The clergy were divided into two sections: the upper and lower clergy:
i) The upper clergy: consisted of bishops, cardinals, etc. they had plenty
of land and earned the highest pay from the government. However, they
did a little work. They were also exempted from taxation and they shared
the 500 million francs, which the church received from the government
annually. They also advised the king on many political and religious
issues. However, their advice was poisonous, because they encouraged
religious intolerance in France.
ii) Lower clergy: they were composed of the parish priests; and they did a
lot of work in the church and schools. They were paid less and had little
or no land at all. This forced them to join the peasant to start a revolution
by 1789.
1.5 The French thinkers or philosophers
These were intellectuals and great thinkers. They included people like Voltaire,
Montesquieu, Jean Jacques Rousseau and encyclopedists like Diderot Denis
and D’Alembert. The philosophers wrote books and circulate them across
Europe. In their writings, they criticized despotic rule, unfair land distribution,
unfair taxes, lack of political liberties, letters de cachet (warrants of arrest), the
power of the church, lack of religious freedom as well as lack of a constitution
and functional parliament in France.
3.3.1. The Causes of the French Revolution
The French revolution had both long term and short-term causes. Its origins are
said to have stretched back into the 17th and 18th Centuries. The outstanding
causes were as follows.
Unfair political system of ancient regime: The ancient regime in France
was led by despotic kings. The administration was characterised by dictatorship,
nepotism and abuse of human rights. The King’s powers were absolute and could
not be questioned. He was the law and the law was himself, and that is why he
once boasted “the thing is legal because I wish it to be”, “the state is myself!”
There was no written constitution, no democracy, and no fair representation in
the parliament. Even the King’s ministers had unlimited powers through “lettrede-
cachet” (arrest warrant with imprisonment without trial), which caused a
lot of suffering to the French people, forcing them to think of change and work
towards it.

Religious intolerance: In France, Protestants and Muslims were not allowed
freedom of worship and were always subjected to intimidation, torture and
imprisonment and the need for freedom of worship made the French to join the
revolution. Catholicism was the state religion and had owned 1/5 (fifth) of all
land in France, controlled education, church forced peasants to pay tithe and
promoted class discrimination.
Social class struggle: French society was divided into three social classes or
Estates. Those were clergy, the nobles and middle class with the peasants. The
clergy and nobles enjoyed a lot of privileges. They owned large tracts of land,
dominated the key government posts, and were exempted from taxes. They
could collect tributes from the peasants; they had the right to get pensions; the
right to enjoy all forms of freedom; to stay in the King’s palace and the right to
move with weapons in public.
The peasants and the middle class were 23 million out of 25 million, but were
denied all sorts of freedom, subjected to forced labour, to unfair taxation,
were imprisoned without trial, were denied promotion in the army and higher
education.

The middle class (bourgeoisie) was composed of teachers, lawyers, doctors,
scientists and industrialists. Despite their education, they were excluded from
top posts in the government and in the army. They also had to end money to
the government and were not sure of recovering that money. By 1789, they
had read and interpreted the work of philosophers, which opened the eyes of
French people and forced them to fight against the ancient regime.
Role of the French philosophers: Philosophers were great thinkers who
were highly educated in world affairs, who put their ideas in writing condemning
the social, political, and economic situations in France, creating more awareness,
sharpening minds of the French and created in them a revolutionary spirit.
Philosophers revolutionized the thinking of the members of the Third Estate
with their new ideas and revolutionary solutions.
a) Voltaire: His original names were François-Marie Arouet, later changed
to Voltaire (historian, poet). He exposed the weaknesses and abuse of
power of the ancient regime and he said “I had rather be ruled by one
lion than a hundred rats” meaning that he preferred to be ruled by one
enlightened king than many ambitious schemers.
b) Charles Montesquieu (1689 - 1775), a lawyer and student of
constitutional government summed up his ideas in his book L’ Esprit
Des Lois (The Spirit of the Laws). Here he puts forward the theory of
the separation of powers. According to this theory, the legislature, the
executive and the judiciary should be separate and independent of each
other. If not, there would be dictatorship and tyranny. Through his writings,
Montesquieu exposed grand monarchy in France, in its true colors and
deeply influenced the minds of the people.
c) Jean Jacques Rousseau: He was a poet and musician; he wrote
his ideas in the book called “the social contract”. He explained that
a government is a social contract between rulers and ruled, but if the
government fails to protect the rights of its people, then the people have
the right to overthrow the government. Here he made people aware of
their rights. This was the case of bourbon monarchy.
d) The encyclopedists: They condemned the unfair system of taxation and
recommended the abolition of all taxes except land tax which was to be
paid by all.
Unfair land ownership: The land was unfairly distributed among the nobles
and the clergy at the expense of the majority peasants. The Church also owned
20 per cent of the land that it rented to the peasants. The peasants lived as
tenants on the estates of landlords who also exploited them. This is why they
demanded for reforms in the revolution of 1789.
Unfair taxation system: Before 1789, the taxation system of France was
unfair. The clergymen and noblemen owned about three-fifths of the entire land.
However, they paid less than one-fifth of the total direct taxes in the country.
On the other hand, a member of the Third Estate paid 152 francs as income
tax, whereas he should have paid only 14 francs, if the distribution were equal.
Further the nobles and clergy were totally exempted from direct taxes levied on
personal property and land. While the rich nobles and the clergy were exempted
from taxation, the poor peasants were forced to pay a lot of taxes like salt tax,
property tax, road tax, tithe and customs duty. The peasants were tired of this
unfair taxation system and rose up against the regime of the time.
Bankruptcy of the ancient regime: By 1788, the French treasury was
alarmingly empty. This financial crisis was caused by the luxurious lifestyle of
the kings and members of the royal family, the exemption of the nobility, higher
clergy and the church from taxation, corruption, and embezzlement of funds. The
financial crisis forced the government to borrow money from the middle class
and at the end they failed to pay back. In an attempt to recover their money, the
middle class advocated for the overthrow of the government. This financial crisis
led to the French revolution in the following ways:
People lost confidence in the government and wished that it could be removed.
When the government failed to pay back the money to the middle class, the
people decided to remove the government. That crisis led to inflation and
unemployment which forced people into the revolution. It forced the King to call
the Estates General meeting in which the revolution started.
Dismissal of the financial reformers: Capable financial controllers, Turgot
and Necker, were dismissed. This worsened the financial crisis in France. They
had suggested reforms such as taxing the wealth of the nobles and the clergy,
but the Queen advised the King to expel them because they criticized the
financial mismanagement at the royal palace. This led to the revolution against
Louis XIV in 1789.
The financial crisis was also caused by involvement in endless wars, notably
the American war of independence and the 7 years’ war (1756-1763) over the
colonies of India and Canada between Britain and France.
Character of Louis XVI: He was the last King who ruled France from 1774 to
1793. He contributed to the occurrence of the French revolution in the following
ways:
Louis was responsible for the financial crisis that hit France due to corruption,
embezzlement and extravagance that characterized his reign. This created a
revolutionary mood among the masses.
He confined himself in the royal palace, which made him unpopular and he was
always asleep or hunting during crucial meetings.
He married a beautiful but less intelligent, arrogant and proud Marie Antoinette
from Austria, a traditional enemy of France. Besides, she poorly advised the
King hence committing blunders that resulted in the French revolution.
He signed a free trade treaty with Britain to allow her to sell her goods in France
untaxed. This led to the collapse of local industries and generated a lot of hatred
from the middle class who also joined the revolution against him.
He lacked firmness and often shed tears during hot debates. He was inconsistent
and that is why he was ill-advised by the Queen. To Frenchmen, Louis XVI was
king in name but not in character.
He involved France in the American War of Independence which led to the
bankruptcy of his regime and he failed to pay back the money borrowed from
the middle class.
Louis XVI (August 23, 1754–January 21, 1793) (Source: Google) Louis XVI of
France was the grandson of King Louis XV and was married to Marie- Antoinette.
Louis was considered a well-intentioned but weak king. A heavy tax burden and
court extravagance led eventually to a popular revolt against him and paved the
way for the French revolution. Louis was guillotined by the revolutionary regime
in 1793.
Influence of Marie Antoinette: Marie Antoinette was a daughter of an
Austrian Empress called Marie II Thérèse. She was hated by Frenchmen, more
especially among the middle class, because she represented Austria which had
supported Britain in the “Seven Years War” which led to the loss of French
colonies in Canada and India.
She was very insensitive to the problems of the French and that was why she,
at one time, arrogantly told the peasants that: “let them eat cakes if bread is
expensive” which angered the peasants during the French revolution.
She was also busy wasting taxpayer’s money on luxurious parties, giving a lot of
gifts, employing about 500 servants and buying four pairs of shoes per week.
This contributed to the financial crisis and led to the outbreak of the revolution.
Marie Antoine (November 2, 1755–October 16, 1793) Marie Antoinette was the
Queen of France who died on the guillotine in 1793 during the French revolution.
Her lavish life-style made her unpopular. Paying no attention to her country’s financial
crisis, she refused to make any concessions to hungry mobs who marched
on the palace in Versailles. Instead, she called out troops.

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Marie_Antoinette

Influence of England: England provided an example to French society. By
1750, she had modernized and had the best parliament, a good constitution and
an independent judiciary as well as freedom of religion. In addition to a better
political environment, England became a reference for political philosophers
who based their arguments on Britain. Many Frenchmen desired the life of
England and this fueled the 1789 French revolution.
Effects of American Revolution: France participated in the American War
of Independence to revenge against Britain. The French government, therefore,
sent troops to America to fight the British. In 1776, the Americans defeated
Britain. However, the war worsened the already alarming financial crisis in France
and also provided a practical example to the French that “if success could be
obtained by the Americans, it could be obtained by the French as well”.
Politically, the French soldiers who fought on the side of America came back
with new revolutionary ideas and they were shocked to find out that the very
conditions that America was fighting were present in France. General Marquis
de Lafayette who was the commander of the French troops in America took the
commanding role in the French revolution.
Natural calamities: To make matters worse, from 1788 France experienced
natural calamities which led to the untold misery. In 1788 there was famine
caused by poor harvests, and the poor taxation system which prevented
easy transportation of food. In early 1789 severe winter hit Europe leading
to the freezing of many rivers in Europe; hence no fishing, transportation and
employment. On top of that, in 1786 France had signed a free trade treaty with
Britain which caused suffocation of French industries as cheap goods from
Britain flooded the French market. As a solution to the problems faced by the
French, a revolution was looked at as an alternative.
The estates General meeting of May 5th, 1789: The above factors created
a fertile environment for the revolution. It only needed an incident to spark off a
great revolution. King Louis XVI decided to call a meeting for all the three classes
on Sunday May 5th, 1789 in order to resolve the economic crisis. In attendance
were 1,224 delegates, including 308 clergy, and 295 nobles. Jacques Necker
advised the King that the number of the third class members should be double
because they represented the majority. That was why the third class members
were 621.
Trouble came when they failed to agree on the voting procedures where the
King wanted the voting to be on class basis and their opinion was for one man
one vote. The king being very weak, failed to control the situation and the third
class members declared themselves the National Assembly. This marked the
beginning of the French revolution.
The main events in the course of French Revolution
Calling of estates general meeting (5 May 1789): King Louis XVI called the
meeting on advice of Necker, his Finance expert. It aimed at solving the financial
crisis in France and other problems affecting the French society. However,
King Louis VXI wanted each state to seat and vote alone over the “cahiers”
(grievances) to be solved. But the representatives of the third states rejected the
king idea of separate sitting and voting because the first and the second estates
would outvote the third estate by the ration of 1:2 since they had similar interest.
In this meeting the nobles were represented by 285 representatives, 308
represented the clergy, and the third Estate was given double representation,
621 representatives because they represented the majority of population.
The third estate wanted a joint meeting where every member would vote basing
on “one man one vote” but the king ruled against this. The third estate was set to
attain liberty, equality and fraternity. Failure to agree on the sitting arrangement
and voting procedure, members of the third estate lead by Mirabeau declared
them a national assembly and invited the members of underprivileged lesser
nobility and the parish priest to join them.
This marked the beginning of 1789 French revolution. Possibly without calling
the estate general meeting, the Frenchmen would have kept their grievances at
a local level and the revolution would not have broken out, it marked the revival
of the French parliament, peasants began to demand for their rights, it showed
the weaknesses of the bourbon monarchy for it had no any means of disciplining
the third class, it marked the beginning of the constitutional rule in France, it
exposed the weaknesses of the king in that he failed to handle the matter of the
sitting and voting procedure, it showed the unity and determination of peasants
against the king, the nobility and the clergy and it lead to the end of absolute
monarchy in France
The tennis court oath 20th June 1789: Since the third estate had become
stubborn after the failure of the estate general meeting, the king decided to hold
a special royal session (meeting) in which he planned to give his last order. But
the representatives of the third estate were not informed of the royal session.
So, when the third estate came, they found the hall locked and the soldiers
told them that the hall had been locked for necessary preparation (a counter
revolution). So, the third estate moved to a neighbouring indoor tennis court
where they swore that “they would never dissolve until the constitution
of the French society is established. In the course of the French
revolution, this event was referred as “tennis court oath”.
This increased the determination among members of National Assembly and
marked the beginning of debates about the national constitution of France. The
members of National Assembly thereafter started debating about the national
constitution assembly separating it from the first and second estates. This was
their first independent meeting.
The royal session on 23^rd June 1789: In June 1789 another royal meeting
was called in which the king announced reforms. But in this meeting the king
declared the national assembly of the 3^rdestate illegal and unconstitutional.
He also ordered that the 3^rdestates should always meet separately. After the
meeting, the king and other two estates left the hall. The third estate remained
seated in the hall. The king’s master of ceremony ordered them to quit the hall
and the soldiers were seen at the gate coming to drive them out of the hall.
Mirabeau reacted by replying the M.C. that “go and tell your master that we
are here by the will of people and that, we shall not leave except at the
point of the bayonet”.
Challenged by the tough stand of the 3^rdestates, Louis XVI ordered 1^st and
2^nd to join the third estates in the National Assembly. This was marked as a
victory of the 3^rd estate (class). This assembly of 3 estates became known as
the “constituent assembly”.
This event showed that violence would be used during the revolution (bayonet)
and It showed the future victory of the third estate. It showed the weakness of
the clergy and nobility some of whom joined the 3^rdestate.
The storming of the Bastille on 14^th July, 1789: The Bastille was a royal
state prison of the ancient regime. Many innocent French peasants and some of
the members of the middle class were detained here without trial. This became
to be known as the “lettre de cachet”. Bastille was also where the state arms
were kept. It marked the birth of freedom, the end of “lettre de cachet” and
the fall of despotism, it marked the release of prisoners who actively joined
the revolution, the fall of Bastille (14^th july1789) is still cerebrated as a public
holiday in France. The revolutionaries got fire arms and brought violence in
the revolution. It led to the introduction of tricolour flag (revolutionary flag) and
withdrawal of white flag (monarchy flag). The tricolour flag was made of: red,
white, blue which symbolized a revolution.
The session of 4^thaugust 1789: This meeting was called after the storming
of Bastille. It was called because the peasants had rowdy destroying properties
and residences of the clergy and the nobles. By August, the National Assembly
had expanded following the joining of nobles and clergy who had remained in
France realizes that the only way to save their lives was to painfully surrender
their privileges and therefore on the day when the National Assembly was in
a night session the nobles, one after the other announced the surrender of
their privileges. Two members of the nobility proposed equality in taxation, the
bishop proposed the sharing of the church land, and an archbishop proposed
abolition of salt tax. The assembly also destroyed class discrimination and made
promotion to public offices to be based on merit. This event forced therefore
many nobles and clergy into exile. The meeting marked the removal of some
problems of the third class and It destroyed the order of the ancient regime.
The declaration of rights of man and citizenship 26^th August 1789:
The national assembly changed its name to the Constituent Assembly
because it had the role of making constitution for France. Therefore, in August
the Constituent Assembly met to discuss the rights of the people. The French
constitution was formulated on the model of USA. At the end of the meeting, the
rights of self-rule and equality freedom of speech, press, worship, association
and protection, right to vote and elect their leaders were declared.

But they made a mistake of leaving the king with too much power to veto which
he used to refuse to sign the declaration of the rights of man and the decree
(official order of decision) of 4^th August 1789 which led to the march of women.
The rights of the French became the foundation of the human rights for all men.
USA and UNO copied them and they have become the basis of the right of the
man today. It lead to the destruction of all forms of class discrimination in France
and hence equality of people.
The march of women on 5^th October 1789: The march of women referred to
the demonstration in which woman (6500), children and men dressed in women
clothes moved from Paris to Versailles. The march of women was caused by the
king’s refusal to sign the decree of 4^th August 1789 and declaration of rights
of man, increased price of bread and the mobilization of troops from Germany
against revolutionaries.
On 5^th October 1789, a huge group of woman followed by men dressed as
women began their move from Paris to Versailles aiming at the king reducing the
prices of bread. And when the king was called from his daily game (hunting), he
was surprised and promised special food for the people of Paris and agreed to
sign the declaration of rights of man as well as the decree of 4^th August 1789.
Note that the people wanted to bring the king to Paris so as to separate him
from the influence of the Nobles who used to ill-advise him.
This had a great significance as it showed the contribution of women in the
French revolution, the king agreed to sign the declarations of rights of man
and the decree of 4^th August 1789 and it was a great humiliation to the royal
family as they were moved from Versailles to Paris the following day (6^th October
1789).
The civil constitution of the clergy July 1790: The Assembly went on in its
determination to change the position of the church in France. The Pope in Rome
was not to have any power in church affairs in France. All bishops and priests
became servants of the state, and salaries of the higher clergy were reduced,
while those of lower clergy were increased. This ended the privileges of the
church, reduced the powers of the pope in France, abolished the church tax, the
nationalization of the church land which was later sold to the peasants at lower
prices, the salaries of lower clergy were increased while those of upper clergy
were to be reduced, the beginning of the freedom of worship in France, it forced
the king to plan an escape to exile and others.
The abortive (failed) flight (escape) of the king from Paris to Varennes
22 June 1791
Louis XVI having been forced to sign the civil constitution of the clergy
became humiliated. So, the pope, some nobles and his wife advised him to
escape to Austria, join the émigrés and raise an army to come back and fight
the revolutionaries. So, at right, Louis XVI, his wife and their children escaped
heading to Varennes. Unfortunately, he was seen and arrested at the borders of
France and Austria. He was brought back to France in a very a shaming manner.
This showed that the king had become an enemy of the revolution because he
was planning to destroy it using foreign troops, it proved the weaknesses of
Louis XVI (he accepted wrong advice of escaping).This event disgraced the
royal family of France and It appointed the death of the French monarchy. One
historian said “at Varennes the monarchy had died, a year later Paris had
burry it. It increased the demand for a republican government. This demand
was led by Robespierre and Danton and in 1792 the first republic was called
“Conventional Government” and it led to formation of political clubs in France.
Some wanted republic while others wanted a constitutional monarchy.
The new constitution of September 1791: The national assembly finished
writing the constitution of France in September 1791. The constitutions had the
following provisions:
France was to be governed by a constitution with a king having executive
powers.
The king was given the suspensive veto for six years.
The chamber was to have 745 deputies.
The chamber was to be elected by only tax-payers. (Tax equivalent to a threeday
work pay.
Members of the former constituent assembly were excluded from the new
parliament. However, this constitution was rejected by the republicans who
formed a number of political clubs demanding for a republican government.
The formation of political clubs: After the establishment of the September
constitution, many republicans rejected it. As a result, they formed many political
clubs (parties) demanding for a republican government. For ex: Montagnards,
the Jacobins, the Girondins, Cordeliers and Feuillants. These groups competed
for political leadership in France and as a result they created violence and the
reign of terror.
The reign of terror 1792 and the guillotine of the king (21st Sunday,
January 1793)
The reign of terror was the second stage of the French revolution. It was
characterized by notorious violence. During this stage the republicans resorted
to war. Under the Jacobins’ republican government of Robespierre, violence
increased at this stage due to the formation of the committee of public safety
and the committee of general security whose work was to arrest suspects for
guillotine.
On the 2^ndand the 6^th September 1792 these committees led to the guillotine of
1200 Frenchmen in Paris alone, an event known as the September massacres.
Majority of the people killed were royalists who were suspected to be supporters
of the king. On Sunday 21^stJanuary 1793 Louis XVI was guillotined or hanged
(executed).
3.3.2. Consequences of the French Revolution
The French Revolution had many permanent results, which proved to be of great
value. This Revolution affected not only the people of France, but also changed
the course of human history.
Effects of French revolution on France
• The revolution led to the loss of lives: Many lives were lost in the
confusion that characterized the revolution. At first it targeted the
privileged sections of the society. Mobs killed those they felt had in one
way or another been responsible for their suffering during the ancient
regime. With time, the introduction of the guillotine saw many perceived
to be against the revolution being killed. The guillotine even consumed
some of the revolutionaries as rivalry and suspicion hit their camp.
• The revolution destroyed Bourbon Monarchy in France: There was
a complete collapse of the ancient regime. The French Revolution
abolished all elements of feudalism including serfdom. The privileges of
the clergy and the nobility also came to an end.
• The revolution forced many Nobles and Clergy to Austria as émigrés
on exiles.
• The revolution brought conflicts between France and European powers.
• The revolution led to the destruction of property in France.
• It weakened the French economy. Unemployment problem was high
especially among the people in towns since the lost their jobs and
businesses stopped.
• It damaged the diplomatic relations between France and her neighbors
like Prussia, Austria, Russia and Britain due to the mistreatment of
Louis XVI.
• It led to the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the citizenship on
August 27th, 1789. The document abolished the social class divisionism
which had existed in France during the Bourbon monarchy (ancient
regime). This led to equality among French citizens, as it declared that
all men were equal before the law.
• The revolution encouraged multiparty democracy in France and this led
to the rise of the Directory government. New men were appointed into
high offices basing on their ability to perform.
• It revived the French parliament (National Assembly or General meeting
on May 5th, 1789) which had last sat 175 years before in 1614.
• The revolution led to the outbreak of the reign of terror in France. This
was characterised by bloodshed hence increasing the number of
refugee problem.
• The revolution ended feudalism and selfdom in France: The French
revolution ended feudal privileges on August 4th, 1789 in the assembly
at Versailles. Land that belonged to the Catholic Church and the nobles
was nationalized and given to the landless peasants at cheaper prices.
• The revolution improved the education sector: The revolutionaries
introduced reforms in the education system. Polytechnic schools were
built to train and produce skilled labour; secondary schools were built
and old ones rehabilitated. This promoted efficiency in the education
sector.
Effects of French revolution on the Catholic Church
1. It abolished church control over land; land was nationalized and sold to
the peasant citizens.
2. It abolished church’s control over education and Pope had no influence
in French affairs. The clergy had to be elected and paid by the state. This
spoiled the relationship between France and the rest of the world.
3. It abolished the church tax (tithe) which was seen as a sign of feudalism
and exploitation.
4. It reduced salaries of upper clergy and increased those of the lower
clergy.
5. Privileges of the church were abolished: The revolution denied the
Catholic Church of its privileges in France. The church clergy had to
pay taxes and the clergy were turned into ordinary men and the church
became a poor institution.
6. It abolished religious intolerance and freedom of worship declared. The
civil constitution of the clergy brought freedom of worship by making
Catholic Church merely one of the religions in France.
7. Abolition of Catholicism and replace it by the religion of reason, abolish
Christian calendar, remove names of saints from calendar, Sundays
become working day.
8. It divided the clergy into two groups. The juror priests and the non-juror
priests (refractory).
9. In French history, non-jurors or Refractory clergy were clergy members
who refused to swear an oath of allegiance to the state under the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy; also known as refractory clergy, priests and
bishops.
10. It spoilt relationship between France and other catholic countries (Spain,
Sardinia, Austria).
Effects of French revolution on Europe
• Rise of revolutionary political parties: The rise of political clubs in
France influenced radical reformers to organize similar political parties
to pressurize the existing government for reforms. By 1792 political
clubs were established in England and Scotland.
• It led to the 1820, 1830 and 1848 revolutions: in America, Italy,
Germany, Greece, due to the spread of French revolutionary ideas
which inspired them.
• It spoilt the relationship between France and other catholic powers in
Europe.
• It led the abolition of feudalism in other parts of Europe, for example
Prussia, Hungary, Italian; land was nationalized and sold to peasants.
This ended monopolization of land by the church and the nobles.
• It increased constitutionalism in Europe. Revolutionary ideas led to
the rise of constitutionalism as a check and a balance to despotism
in Europe. Indeed, the UN charter on Human rights and American
constitution has borrowed from the declaration of the right of man and
citizen in France.
• Abolition of social classes system: The French revolution also
influenced the abolition of the discriminative social class system that
existed in Europe. The ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity influenced
conservative states like Russia, Spain, and Prussia to abandon social
class division and grant equality between the nobles, clergy, middle
class and peasants.
• The rise of nationalism in Europe and the world. The French revolution
led to the rise of new forces of change. I.e. Liberalism, nationalism and
socialism in Europe. The revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and
fraternity undermined the old order of Europe that was characterized
by conservatism and despotism. Nationalism influences the world
up today while socialism brought antagonism and tension that led to
cold war in the 20th century. Socialism dominated Eastern Europe and
Western Europe was dominated by capitalism.
• The French revolution influenced the rise of new States men in Politics
of Europe. The destruction of segregative social classes system and
revolutionary ideas of equality offered opportunity for talented men like
Napoleon in France, Mazzini and Cavour in Italian states and Bismarck
in German States to rise to positions of importance in their states.
• Unification of Italy and Germany: The French revolution contributed
to the unification of Italy and Germany. France conquered and
re-organized the Italian and Germany states in 1796 and 1807
respectively. The French soldiers who liberated Italians and Germans
preached the revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity and
nationalism. This inspired Italians and Germans with a high spirit of
unity and independence against foreign domination. This foundation
was combined with other factors which led to the unification of Italy in
1870 and Germany in 1871.
• French revolution increased the enmity between Catholic Church and
the states because of the civil constitution of the clergy which nullified
the privileges and influence of Pope and Catholic Church in France.
This contributed to the outbreak of war between France and other
catholic States in Europe e.g. Austria, Prussia, Russia etc.
• Diplomatic alliances: The French revolution initiated the idea of
diplomatic cooperation in handling world affairs. The alliances
against Revolutionary France that started in 1793 inspired the rise of
international organizations like congress system, the League of Nations
and the UNO.
Application activity 3.3
1. Examine the causes of the 1789 French Revolution.
2. Assess the consequences of the 1789 French Revolution.
3.4. Factors for the rise, performance and downfall of
Napoleon I.
Learning activity 34
Read textbooks, internet and other history documents to discuss about the
rise and the decline of Napoleon and make a presentation in class.

Napoleon Bonaparte
Napoleon was born at Ajaccio in the Italian Island of Corsica in the province of
Genoa. He was born on 15 august 1769. His father was Charles Bonaparte
and the mother was Letizia Romalino Bonaparte. A year before his birth, Corsica
Island was annexed by France. Napoleon I was born in a very poor family. He
was one of eight children out of 13 who survived early childhood death. He got
his education at Breinne military academy in Paris from May 1779 to October
1784. At 16 years he had graduated as artillery officer with the rank of 2^nd
Lieutenant.
Napoleon in 1795 saved the directory government from Royalists uprising,
where he was rewarded Josephine Beauharnais, the daughter of Barras who
was the first director of the directory government which earned him a rank
of general. After a two-day honeymoon with Josephine, Napoleon led an illequipped
army in Italian campaign of 1796 when he defeated Austria in Italy
and signed Compo Formio treaty with Austria which agreed to withdraw from
the coalition against France and northern part of Italy was taken by France.

By1797, the Directory Government was threatened by Napoleon’s popularity yet
they had Britain as another external enemy and they sent Napoleon in Egyptian
campaign such that he may die there, but as he was defeated by the British in
Egypt, he learnt from the British newspapers that: The directory government
was about to collapse, the Campo-Formio treaty had been rejected by Austria
and the wife Josephine had become unfaithful.
And Napoleon escaped for Paris and organized a successful coup d’état against
the directory government with the assistance of Abbey Sieyes, Pierre Roger
Ducos and Barras he became the leader of France on 9^th November 1799. In
1804 he confirmed himself the life emperor of France. However, Napoleon
was defeated by the troops of wellington (British general) and Marshall Blucher
(Prussia) in the battle of Waterloo. Then on 17/061815, he was forced to
exile to Saint Helena, a rocky Island of South Atlantic Ocean where he died in
1821 in a miserable life.
Napoleon Bonaparte at St. Helena Island
Source: https://www.google.com/search?biw=1365&bih=690&tbm=isch&sxsrf=ACYBGNS
NNWwbPycm5YKsf-4y4
3.4.1. Factors for the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to power
The French revolution helped him to rise to power: There is a common
agreement that Napoleon was a product of the French revolution without which
he would have died a common man. This remains a historical fact because
Napoleon’s rise to power was greatly due to the changes and progressive
events of the French revolution. He exploited the opportunities provided by the
revolution to rise from a poor Corsica to an emperor of France. This is why he is
called the child of French revolution. The role of French revolution in Napoleon’s
rise to power was as follows:
• The revolution abolished classes and this helped peasants to rise to
positions of leadership.
• The French revolution also led to the exile and death of senior army
officers and politicians which created scarcity of senior army officers
and Napoleon was called in army in 1792.
• It is a French revolution that gave chance to Napoleon to display and
advertise his abilities which helped him to be quickly promoted.
• The need to export the French revolution generated foreign wars which
gave Napoleon more opportunities to display himself.
• Napoleon used revolutionary ideas within and outside France: this
made him popular.
• The revolution brought many wars in which Napoleon got involved.
These provided Napoleon with a platform to display his military talents
which helped him to be recognized. It made him popular and this helped
him to win the support of the people.
The weakness of directory government helped Napoleon to rise to
power: By 1799, the directory government was unpopular and the French
people longed for good French leadership. The government was bankrupt,
officials were corrupt, there was insecurity, inflation, unemployment and there
was intrigue among directors. The second coalition was had been organized
against France and Austria had taken back the territories she had surrendered
to France by the treaty of Campo Formio. These desperate conditions made the
Frenchmen to be in high mood of change. This explains why Napoleon’s coup
received a blessing rather than opposition from the Frenchmen.
Luck helped Bonaparte to rise to power in France. Napoleon became
Frenchman by luck because Corsica was annexed to France one year before
his birth, by luck he survived the reign of terror because he was a friend of
Robespierre.
• It was also luck, that the coup d’état of 1799 was successful.
• It was luck that Napoleon survived death in campaigns, especially in
Egyptian and Italian campaign.
• He was lucky to be the only son-in-law of Barras. Therefore, Barras
supported his rise to power.
• He was dismissed from service for over delaying on leave but he was
so lucky to be called back due to shortage of artillery officers.
• He was also lucky to join the military academy of Brienne and Paris.
• He was lucky to survive early childhood diseases.
• He was lucky that he survived revolutionary event like the Reign of
Terror in France.
Napoleon character’s greatly contributed to his rise to power. He was
courageous man, brave and skillful. He was military genius and intelligent soldier
France had ever seen. Such character helped him to capture the attention of
people and rose to power.
Napoleon’s power of foresight: Napoleon had the abilities to assess
situations and know how he could manipulate them to his advantage. After the
French revolution, he abandoned the ambition to liberate Corsica and became
a loyal French citizen. He did this because he had rightly foreseen that the
revolution had come with opportunities that he would use to rise to power.
He also refused to command the Paris forces when he was commissioned by
Robespierre during the reign of terror. He refused to offer because he was
aware that Paris was not secured and anybody could be guillotined any time.
Napoleon’s family background and ambition also helped him to rise to
power. Napoleon was born from a poor family and this gave him a determination
to always work hard. He was an Italian by descent and he always longed to set
his mother land free from French occupation and this is why he tried to liberate
it three times but he failed. This ambition forced Napoleon to risk fighting Great
powers like Austria and England with a disorganized army which helped him
to capture the attention of the masses who supported him to rise to power in
France.
Education was yet another factor which helped Napoleon 1 to rise to
power. The education Napoleon acquired gave him merit to get appointments
in the army. It also helped him to be able to read revolutionary literature and the
work of political philosophers and to be aware of political events. The knowledge
from the military academies helped him to be a great and successful soldier.
These skills made him popular and helped him to rise to power.
Napoleon close association with great people and his marriage to
Josephine also helped him to rise to power. He associated with men like
Robespierre who was the leader of the Jacobins and Barras one of the Directors
of the Directory government. This helped him to gain political experience and
influence which eased to rise to power.
Napoleon’s early military success and operations helped him to rise to
power. In 1793 he successfully expelled the British from Toulon which earned
him the rank of Brigadier, in 1795 he crushed a Paris insurrection, and after his
Italian campaign, he was promoted to the rank of general. These victories made
him popular to the masses and supported him to rise to power.
Annexation of Corsica Island from Genoa (Italy) to France in 1768
helped Napoleon to rise to power. The annexation of Corsica Island to
France in 1768 was a blessing in disguise for Napoleon. It made him to be
born a French man who was eligible to hold any public office in France. If it had
not been so, he would have born Italian and would not have benefited from the
military academies of Brienne and Paris. He would not have risen to power in
France since he would have been a foreigner (Italian).
3.4.2. Napoleon’s performance/reforms/achievements
a) Military success: Leading the French army to military success against
the foreign armies: He led the French army in battles against the foreign
troops. He drove British forces out of the French port of Toulon, he won
several victories against Austrians, he captured most of northern Italy, he
forced the Hapsburg emperor to sue for peace, and he led an expedition
to Egypt in 1798 in the hope of disrupting British trade with India and
others.
b) Establishment of the Consulate in 1799: His military success
encouraged him to assume political responsibilities in 1799. He overthrew
the weak directory and set up a three-man governing board known as
The Consul. This body was now to lead the revolution. Napoleon was its
leader. He took up the title of first Consul. The Consulate drew a new
constitution.
c) Effected economic reforms: Napoleon developed economic reforms
to address the deteriorating economic conditions that faced France. He
controlled prices, encouraged industrialization, established the first bank
of France in 1801 and built roads and canals to improve transportation.
He even sold France’s vast Louisiana land territory across the Atlantic to
the American government in 1803. This action doubled the size of the
USA and ushered in an age of American expansion.
d) Strengthening of the central government: Under Napoleon, power
was consolidated in an effort to strengthen the central government in which
he was the supreme power. Through these measures, ‘order, security and
efficiency’ replaced ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ as the slogan of the new
regime.
e) Establishment of schools to train military officials: The revolution
was characterized by ill-trained military personnel. This affected the
operations of the army. Napoleon addressed the problem by setting up a
system of public schools under strict government control. The military was
trained in these schools. Members of the public also benefitted from good
education.
f) Restoration of relations with the church: He made peace with the
Catholic Church in the Concordant of 1801. This law kept the church
under state control but recognized religious freedom for Catholics. It was
welcomed by Catholics but opposed by revolutionaries. Other religions
were also recognized.
g) Appeasing all classes in the society: Napoleon took measures to
appease all sections of the society. He encouraged Emigres to return so
long as they took an oath of loyalty. Emigres were members of the nobility
who had fled the country during the revolution. Peasant’s right to land
ownership was also made. He also made jobs open to all talent.
h) Development of a new law code (the Napoleonic code): He wrote
the French laws leading to the civil code of 1804. The code embodied
Enlightenment principles such as the equality of all citizens before the law,
religious toleration and advancement based on merit. It touched on rights
and duties, marriage, divorce, parentage, inheritance and property, and a
statement of the general legal principles concerning them. However, the
code was weak in certain respects. Male heads of household were given
complete authority over their wives and children.
i) Spread of the revolution to other parts of Europe: By 1810, his
empire had expanded greatly in Europe. As the empire grew, it took the
ideas of the revolution to the new territories. The areas he conquered
included the Netherlands, Belgium and parts of Italy and Germany. All
these became part of the grand French empire. He also abolished the
Holy Roman Empire and created a 38-member confederation of the Rhine
under French protection.
j) Forceful diplomacy: Napoleon had another tactic. He used forceful
diplomacy to install his relatives to power in various European countries.
For example, after removing the Spanish king; he placed his own brother
Joseph Bonaparte, to the throne. He also forced alliances on European
powers from Madrid to Moscow. At various times, the rulers of Austria,
Prussia and Russia reluctantly signed treaties with Napoleon. He came
up with the Continental System which brought the whole of European
mainland into an alliance headed by France. He tried to use the alliance to
bring Britain to its knees but did not succeed. The French army spread the
ideas of the revolution and helped to install code Napoleon in the areas.
k) Boosting the spirit of Nationalism: The successes made by Napoleon
enhanced the spirit of nationalism in France. Great victory parades filled
the streets of Paris with cheering crowds. French citizens were proud of
their king’s successes. They celebrated the glory and success of their
country.
l) Napoleon 1 also promoted agriculture in Franca. He introduced
new seed varieties from Holland which increased output in France.
3.4.3. Reasons for the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte I
By 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte had been denied by nature never to rule France
again. He was defeated by the European 4^th Coalition at the battle of Waterloo
and exiled on the rocky Island of St. Helena where he died from in 1821 in
a miserable life. The following were the factors responsible for Napoleon’s
downfall in 1814.
• The continental system of 1806 which had many negative effects such
as inflation, famine, unemployment, hatred between French traders and
Bonaparte also led to the downfall of Napoleon. The Continental system
were a series of economic measures which Napoleon 1 used in order
to weaken the British economy. He issued out economic blockades or
trade embargo on the British goods and stopped all the French allies
from buying the British goods. This he did in order to bring Britain to his
knees. But the Continental system turned into a boomerang and was
largely responsible to Napoleon’s down fall in 1814.
• Napoleon’s imprisonment of the Pope in 1808 who had rejected
continental system, led to the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte because
he lost the support of the Catholics. It should be remembered that when
the Pope refused to obey Napoleon’s Continental system, Napoleon
ended up imprisoning him in 1808. This made Napoleon to be hated
by the entire Catholic World and the Catholic French men hence his
downfall.
• The peninsular war of 1809 or the Spanish war: This was caused by
the reject of continental system. When Napoleon attacked Spain and
Portugal, these two joined together and they defeated Napoleon. This
defeat in the Peninsular encouraged European powers to join together
and overthrow Napoleon. Note: The Peninsula wars refers to the wars
which Napoleon fought with the countries of the Western Peninsula
particularly Portugal and Spain.
• Napoleon’s naval weakness led to his downfall. He had weak naval
compared to that of Britain. Napoleon was defeated by Britain in the
battle of Trafalgar due to the naval weakness of Bonaparte.

• Napoleon’s overwhelming ambition: His ambition forced him to get
involved in a very aggressive foreign policy to conquer Europe and the
whole world. “I know limits of my legs, I know the limits of my eyes
but I have never known the limits of my work” Napoleon remarked in
expression of his ambition to conquer Europe. For this he got involved
in endless wars of conquest and bloodshed, this led to his downfall.
• The negative effects of the Moscow campaign of 1812 contributed to
Napoleon’s down fall in 1814. Because Tsar Nicolas I of Russia had
rejected Napoleon’s continental system of 1806, Napoleon ended up
attacking Russia in 1812 in what Historians call the Moscow campaign
of 1812. In this campaign, he lost many soldiers, his horses, some
generals detested him, and the defeat forced some of his colonies to
rebel against him.
• The growth of European nationalism led to downfall of napoleon because
he had spread revolutionary ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. On
which Napoleon’s rule had been oppressive.
• Desertion by his military generals because they were tired and
corrupted, and they revealed military secrets to the enemies. Most of
generals deserted him and joined the enemy side. They revealed his
fighting tactics to his enemies making him to be defeated.
• Rise of liberation and patriotism in the lands which were under
Napoleon’s control. For example, the King of Prussia raised national
feelings in his people by using Napoleon’s own “ideological weapon”
to arouse national spirit in his country, thus setting his people against
Napoleon. Nationalism thus heavily played a role in Napoleon’s downfall.
• Napoleon’s excessive ambition and growing sense of self–importance
made him to have increasing pride and self-confidence in himself.
Napoleon wanted to remake Europe as a new Roman Empire. With this
ambition, he was engaged in endless wars which caused the downfall.
• Lack of an adequate naval power which could rival the British navy. This
made any chance of attacking Britain, her great rival, remote.
• Age in addition to exhaustion as a result of endless wars he fought
contributed to his downfall. By the time of his downfall, Napoleon 1
had become exhausted due to many wars he had fought. He could not
command his soldiers the way he used to do before. This made him to
be defeated in 1814.
• The formation of the 4^th European Coalition finally hammered the last
nail on Napoleon’s rule leading to his downfall in 1814. By 1814,
European countries of Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Britain organized a
coalition (combined force) to defeat Napoleon. Therefore, by 1814, he
was defeated by a combined force of these countries marking the end
of his rule.
• In the final analysis therefore, one can assert/ conclude that many
factors contributed to Napoleon’s down fall but the Continental system
of 1806 played an important role than other factors.
To sum up, Napoleon Bonaparte (1769 – 1821) is considered one of the greatest
military commanders in history. Starting as a second lieutenant in a French
regiment, he rose to prominence during the French Revolution as a general
of the Revolutionary government against the Royalist forces. He rapidly rose
through the ranks through his military genius ultimately becoming the Emperor
of the French in 1804. The army commanded by him is known as the Grande
Armée (Great Army) and he led it to a series of historic victories that gave the
French Empire an unprecedented grip on power over the European continent.
Hugely popular among the masses, Napoleon also carried out various influential
reforms including the implementation of Napoleonic Code, a legal code which
served as a model for many countries across the world. Countries in Europe
came together against Napoleon forming one coalition after another. He was
triumphant against them for years but was finally defeated in the War of the
Sixth Coalition. He was able to escape from exile and became an Emperor again
for a brief period but lost the famous Battle of Waterloo, ending his political
and military career. Though many aspects of his life are controversial, Napoleon
Bonaparte remains one of the most celebrated figures in history.
Application activity 3.4
From a very humble background, Napoleon rose to power and become
one of the most important world politicians and soldiers in the world. He
achieved a lot and finally declined.
1. What were the factors that led to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte to
power?
2. Discuss the achievements of Napoleon I.
3. Examine the factors responsible for the downfall of Napoleon I in
1814.
Skills Lab
Use a combination of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values you have
acquired about great revolutions of 18th to 19th century and describe
the positive legacy of these revolutions to the modern world and make a
presentation.
End unit assessment
1. Why did industrial revolution start in Britain and not elsewhere in the
world?
2. Examine the effects of industrial revolution which are still visible
today.
3. Explain the causes and effects of American Revolution.
4. To what extent did unfair political system of ancient regime cause
the French revolution of 1789?
5. Describe the factors for the rise and downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Social Studies ECLPE

General

UNIT 3 THE GREAT REVOLUTIONS OF 18TH TO 19TH CENTURY

UNIT 3 THE GREAT REVOLUTIONS OF 18TH TO 19TH CENTURY

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