◄UNIT1 CONTRIBUTION OF THE MAIN ANCIENT CIVILISATIONS TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 1 MODERN SOCIETYUNIT 3 THE GREAT REVOLUTIONS OF 18TH TO 19TH CENTURY►

UNIT 2 POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN TIMES.

  • UNIT 2 POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENTS IN THE MEDIEVAL AND MODERN TIMES.

    Key Unit competence:
    The student-teacher should be able to examine the political, economic and

    intellectual progresses in the medieval and modern times.

    Introductory activity
    The medieval times also known as Middle Ages was the period between
    300AD to 1500AD. The medieval period saw two major world religions
    such as Christianity and Islam and they attracted many followers in different
    parts of the world. Middle ages was also marked by European early
    explorations. The impacts of these religions and explorations were further
    to be witnessed in the modern times. The period begun from 1500AD up
    to date. Modern time also witnessed enlightenment era known as the age
    of reason that took place between 1720 and 1790.Use internet, textbooks,
    maps, photographs and media to answer the questions below:
    1. Describe the origin, spread and effects of Christianity and Islam.
    2. Show the relationship between Islam and Christianity in the middle
        and modern times.
    3. Analyse the causes and effects of the early exploration.
    4. Examine the ideas of Philosophers.

    5. Discuss the impacts of the ideas of the era of enlightenment.

    2.1. Origin, spread and effects of Christianity and Islam in

             Europe and the rest of the World

    2.1.1. Christianity

    Learning activity 2.1.1

    f

    Observe the photos above and use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs
    and media to research on origin, spread and effects of Christianity in Europe
    and the rest of the world and answer the following question:

    Discuss the origin, spread and effects of Christianity.

    Origin of Christianity
    Christianity emerged from a Jewish background. Christianity was founded by
    Jesus Christ of Nazareth over 2,000 years ago. Jesus was a Jew who was born
    in Bethlehem. Upon attaining 30 years of age, he began his public life which
    involved preaching about the way God wanted human beings to act towards

    one another. He made many followers who believed in his teachings and actions.

    He was the Son of God but born through Mary and Joseph. Jesus was born at
    about 4 BC at almost the same time Rome took over the Jewish Kingdom. He
    was thus both a Jew and a Roman subject. He was born during the reign of
    Emperor Augustus. Information on him is found in the four Gospel books in the

    Bible, which are; Matthew, Mark, Luke and John.

    According to the gospels, Jesus grew up in the village of Nazareth in northern
    Palestine. It is said that each year he went with his parents, Joseph and Mary,
    to Jerusalem to celebrate the Passover. This is a Jewish ceremony which
    commemorated the Israelites’ exodus from slavery in Egypt. During the visits,
    Jesus displayed an amazing knowledge of religious matters which impressed
    Jewish scholars of the time. Jesus began to attract large crowds through his
    teachings, especially when word went round that he performed miracles of
    healing. This made his followers to equate him with the legendary Messiah or
    anointed King sent by God to lead the Jewish people to freedom. They even
    said that before conception, an angel called Gabriel told Jesus’ mother that she
    would give birth to the Messiah. “He will be great,” said the Angel, “and will be
    called the Son of the Most High God.” Mary’s pregnancy was believed to have

    been supernatural. She did not conceive with Joseph because she was a virgin.

    Paul of Tarsus, a Jew and a Roman citizen did much to spread Christianity in the
    Roman Empire. He travelled extensively in Eastern Mediterranean spreading
    the faith. The letters he wrote constitute the earliest Christian writings. His
    interpretation of Christ’s teachings, which divorced it from following the Jewish
    traditions, enabled it to spread widely in the non-Jewish communities. He

    argued that Christ had brought the one detailed in the Hebrew Bible.

    Christianity was further supported by Emperor Constantine’s conversion to
    the faith. The emperor made efforts to see the faith embedded in the Roman
    Empire for example through the Edict of Milan, all forms of religious worship
    were legalized in the empire. Constantine reached the decision with his coruler,
    Licinius. The Edict made the faith to be granted imperial recognition in
    the Roman world. Many Roman emperors took to Christianity after the end of
    Constantine’s reign. The faith thus received official support, and spread in most

    parts of the empire – Europe included.

    Christianity survived the fall of Rome and Grew to be one of the major influences

    on Western civilisations.

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    Spread of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world

    Factors that facilitated the spread of Christianity in Roman Empire
    From Palestine, Christianity spread to other parts of the Roman Empire and
    beyond. There are many reasons which have been advanced for the spread
    and success of Christianity in the Roman Empire and they include the

    following:

    – Christianity had changed people’s behavior to leave the traditional
        customs and religions.
    – Christianity spread the idea of a unique God.
    – The belief in life after death taught by Christianity attracted many
         non-believers.
    – Stability and peace in Rome also helped in the spread of Christianity.
    – In 312AD, Emperor Constantine I authorized the Romans to convert
        to Christianity and heal lowed the use of government money to
        support Christianity in Rome and Jerusalem.
    – The good communication network in the Roman Empire enabled in
        the guide and spread of Christianity. E.g. good roads.
    – The good examples shown by the Christian community also helped in
        the spread of Christianity, where pagans admired believers.
    – The good examples shown by the Christian community also helped in
        the spread of Christianity where pagans admired behavior.
    – People wanted the love, kindness and security that Christianity
        offered.
    – In 392, Emperor The odosius made Christianity the official religion of

        the Roman Empire and outlawed all other religions.

    Spread of Christianity
    The support Christianity got from the Roman emperors greatly contributed to its
    spread in areas under Roman Ruler. Most of these lands were in Europe and to
    some extent Asia and parts of Africa. Christianity with the political backing from
    the Roman rulers grew rapidly with time. It was the religion of choice of people
    in various parts of the world.
    Expansion (30-65 AD)
    This period witnessed the spread of Christianity from Jerusalem to other parts
    of the world starting with Rome. They took a threefold approach at this time:
    Kerygma (proclamation of gospel message), did ache (further teaching and
    explanation of Christianity to new converts who had accepted the Kerygma)
    and finally, the worship and liturgical activity of the early communities gathered

    together especially to celebrate the supper of the Lord.

    Persecution (AD 65 -90)
    The first period of expansion ended in 65 AD. By 70 AD persecution of Christians
    commenced. This persecution was spearheaded by Emperor Nero. Life for
    Jews and Christians alike become unbearable in the Roman Empire. Inspite of
    this, Christians were happy and believed in Christ. They soldiered on. A host
    of Roman emperors led in Persecution of Christians. It began with Emperor
    Nero (54 -68 AD) then came Decius (250 -251 AD), Galerius (who was in
    charge of the Eastern part of the Roman Empire during the reign of Emperor
    Diocletian (284- 305 AD). There were equally those emperors who supported
    Christianity. The most notable one was Constantine (312 -337 AD). Others
    were Valerian (251-260 AD) Diocletian (284 -305 AD) and lastly Theodosius
    I. The emperors who supported Christianity greatly contributed to its spread in

    the Roman Empire, Europe and some parts of Asia and Africa.

    During the period of persecution, the Christians were outlawed and hunted
    down like criminals. Many were killed due to their faith. Many Christians were
    undeterred by the persecutions and they remained steadfast in their spread of
    the faith. They produced written gospel literature during this time. The presence
    of eyewitnesses and the excellent uncluttered memories of those times
    were sufficient enough. The recording of the teachings of Christ was partly
    necessitated by the disappearance of the eyewitnesses due to persecution of
    Christians thus making them disappear at an alarming rate. Peter and Paul, who
    were some of the disciples of Jesus Christ, were killed in Rome for their faith
    and another disciple by the name of James was killed in Jerusalem. Apart from
    the killing, Christianity was also under the threat from new ideas and heresies.
    All this made recording of the story and teachings of Christ very important.
    It would provide a fixed, written definitive account, which would be available
    for the increasing number of converts. The Gospel of Mark opened the floor
    to others. Mark was the disciple and interpreter of Peter. He thus recorded
    Peter’s preaching. Luke was also to do the same for Paul. The Gospel of Luke
    and Mathew were written towards the end of A.D 96. Mathew had a Jewish
    audience in mind while Mark, had a Roman one. Luke on the other hand had
    a Gentile world in mind. He sought to put straight on Christianity amidst the

    hostility, false accusations and misunderstanding which Christians aroused.

    Effects of Christianity in Europe and the rest of the world
    • Emergence of monotheism: Previously communities were
        polytheists. It was Christianity which brought the belief in one supreme
        God. It preached against the existence of many gods and goddesses.
        The Christian God was all-powerful and was believed to have been the

        creator of everything in the universe and beyond.

    • Belief in salvation: Christianity brought individualism in humanity’s
        relationship with God. An individual was required to receive salvation
        in order to enter the heavenly kingdom. This was to be seen in ones’
        behaviour both to God and secondly to fellow human beings. Good
        behaviour thus became a practice in society.
    • Promotion of justice in society: The pillar of Christ’s teachings
        was justice. All Christians were expected to be just in all their dealings.
        As a result, Christians developed a just society where the interests of
        all were respected.
    • Promotion of equality in society: Christians did not tolerate
       discrimination. Discrimination of women slaves, non-Jews and later
       racism, was not encouraged. People were treated as equals in spite of
       their differences.
    • Promotion of social services: Christians strongly believed in
        serving others. From an early time, Christian monks and nuns traversed
        different parts of the world spreading spiritual, physiological and mental
        food. They spearheaded provision of medical, educational and other
        social services in lands where they spread their faith. In Africa and
        many parts of Asia, it was the missionaries who opened up services. In
        both the Middle Ages and later, education became a path for upward
        mobility and employment. This was first done by Cathedral schools
        which later developed into universities e.g. University of Paris.
    • Development of infrastructure: Roads and buildings were
        constructed in different parts of the world courtesy of the missionaries.
        Christians travelled to remote areas which were lacking infrastructure.
        They helped stimulate the making of such areas accessible.
    • Promotion of Western culture: Originally, Christianity was Jewish
         in cultural orientation. This however changed when most of Europe
         embraced the faith. The western world gave Christianity some aspects
        of its culture. These came to be part and parcel of the faith. Today,
        most of these cultural practices have been adopted by Christians in
        different parts of the world. Christianity equally evolved its unique
        culture, e.g., it came up with the Eucharist – these involved converts
        taking the blessed bread and wine. It was a symbol of God’s sacrifice
        for unity with his people.
    • Encouragement of trade and urbanization: During the crusades,
        Christians evolved commercial relations with the Muslim states they
        waged the war against. Mostly, the crusades stimulated the demand
        for luxury goods. Population of towns increased thus leading to rapid
        urbanization.
    • Adoption of new ideas: The interaction between the Christians and
         Muslim groups during the crusades enabled Muslim ideas to find their
         way in Europe. In an equal measure, western ideas found their way in
         the areas traversed by the Christian traders, e.g. new translations of
         texts by Aristotle, texts on astronomy, numerals and paper, made their

         way across the trade routes.

    • Loss of lives and destruction of property: Christians organized
       crusades against the non-adherents to the faith. This involved waging
       wars which brought untold suffering, loss of lives and destruction of
       property to the victims. The crusades took place in the 11th and 12th
       centuries. They were holy wars sponsored by the Pope to recover
       holy land from the Muslims. These crusades grew partially out of long
       conflicts between Muslims and Christians in Spain. The crusaders
       believed they would receive spiritual merit and earn a place in paradise.
    • Discrimination in society: Even though Christianity taught on equality
        of persons, the Christians discriminated the non-Christians in various
        ways. Many non-Christians were excluded from certain privileges. This

       in itself was discriminative hence encouraging inequality in the society.

    Application activity 2.1.1
    1) Explain the origin of Christianity.
    2) Describe the spread of Christianity.

    3) Discuss the effects of Christianity to the world.

    2.1.2. Islam

    Learning activity 2.1.2

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    Observe the photos above and use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs
    and media to research on the origin, spread and effects of Islam in Europe
    and the rest of the world and answer the following question:

    Describe the origin, spread and effects of Islam.

    Origin of Islam
    The word Islam means submission to Allah (Arabic word for God). The followers
    of Islam are known as Muslims (ones who submit). The Islamic religion was
    founded by Arab merchant named Mohammed. He came to be known as
    the prophet of Allah or God. In the 7thc, Islam originated from Mecca and
    Medina. The Koran is the holy book of Islam and it contains the teachings

    of Prophet Mohammed that were revealed to him by Allah.

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    The birth of Muhammad
    Muhammad was born in Mecca around AD. 570. In his youth, he worked as a
    shepherd among the Bedouin Arabs. Later, he led caravans across the desert
    and became a successful merchant at the age of 25. He married Khadija, a
    wealthy widow who ran a prosperous caravan business. Islam developed in two

    cities – Mecca and Yathrib (Medina).

    Muhammad received a series of spiritual revelations from God. These were to
    form the religious basis of Islam. He met with opposition to the new faith but

    managed to place it upon firm foundations. The prophet was very religious.

    He often went to a cave outside Mecca to quietly contemplate spiritual matters.
    At about the age of 40, he had a spiritual vision. While meditating in the cave,
    an angel spoke to him. Angel Gabriel was communicating with him. This
    happened from time to time and Muhammad discussed it with his wife Khadija
    and close friends. These people accepted the seriousness and truthfulness of
    the revelations. They were later written and are today what are contained in the
    Quran, the Muslim holy book. Muhammad started to convey the content of some
    of his revelations to a wider public around AD 613. Some people found the
    message appealing, particularly that a single God was the source of all power
    and goodness in the world. The message was especially attractive to the poor
    nd those who were not in power. It was attractive because it transcended tribal

    groupings hence a challenge to the tribal leaders.

    Spread of Islam
    Islamic expansion was carried out through Jihads, Trade and Education.

    At first, the teaching of Muhammad did not change Mecca’s people from their
    old way of praying idols and human sacrifices. He escaped to Medina. In
    Medina, he preached by the use of force or Jihad (holy war). Muhammad and
    his followers spread the faith by conquest and persuasion. Those
    who tried to oppose Islam, were killed. Sword was the main instrument of
    conversion for example if you died in the act of killing disbelievers, they would
    go straight to heaven and see the presence of God. By 8thc, Islam expanded

    to Egypt, Perce, Berber, Spain, Turkey, Iraq, Palestine, Syria and Tunisia.

    Factors that led to the rapid spread of Islam
    • Prophet Muhammad’s military expeditions: The prophet was a
       good military organizer. He led his army from Medina to many successful
       excursions in Mecca and other areas.
    • Role of merchants: Muslim merchants spread their religion during
       their commercial activities in other areas. Islam thus easily spread along
       the busy trade routes of western Arabia.
    • The Hajj ceremonies: Every Muslim, as we have already learnt, was
       expected to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. This
       ceremony brought Muslims from various places together. It bound them
       and made them to put all efforts at spreading the faith.
    • Decline of the Eastern Roman and Persian empires: The fall of
       the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) and Persian Empire created a
       power vacuum which was easily filled by Islam.
    • Teachings of the Quran: Arabs were passionate in their new faith.
       This was strengthened by the teachings of the Quran which held that
       wars fought for God were just. A warrior killed in a jihad or holy war,
       was promised immediate entry into paradise.
    • Use of a mixture of force and diplomacy to win converts:
        Muslims used jihads and diplomacy to spread the faith. Force which
        involved using jihads was employed on large un-cooperative groups. The
        Muslim traders used diplomacy to spread Islam. The merchants spread

        Islam to West and East Africa, Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines.

    The teachings of Islam
    Islam is based on two basic truths in what is called the Islamic creed. The creed
    of Islam is La ilaha il’Allah, Muhammadan Rasoulu Allaha simple statement
    in two parts translated as “There is no God but Allah, and Muhammad is
    the messenger of Allah.”This is the shahada (witness) and expresses the
    very heart of the Islamic creed.
    1. The first part of the creed means that: ‘there is no God but Allah the
         Almighty’.
    2. The second part of the creed is that ‘Muhammad is the messenger
         of God’.
    Muslims accept these two basic statements in the heart, that there really is
    one God, supreme and unique, and that the revelation given through Prophet
    Muhammad by Allah is genuine, final and complete, and super cedes all

    revelations that came before it.

    The teachings of Islam are based on the revelations Prophet Muhammad received
    from God. They were first memorised by the prophet before they were written in
    the Quran. Muslims believe that the original books from where these revelations
    were got are in heaven with God. To Muslims, God will not reveal anything else
    beyond the Quran. They regard Muhammad as the medium through which

    God’s revelations reach humanity.

    Muslims believe that the Quran is the direct word of God. It contains 114

    chapters, or suras. The chapters are divided into verses called Ayah.

    Adherents of Islam have five principal duties which they are obliged to fulfill as
    part of the faith. These are usually termed the five pillars. They constitute the

    main teachings of the Quran. The five pillars are discussed below.

    1. Profession of faith/creed (Shahadah): All Muslims are expected
    to utter the following statement: “There is no god but Allah and
    Muhammad is the messenger of the God.” This statement is to
    be uttered by new converts and is also the principal means by which
    an individual asserts his or her adherence to Islam. It stresses that for
    Muslims, there is only one God and the belief in one God (monotheism)

    is central to the Islamic faith.

    2. Ritual prayer (Salah): It requires that Muslims who may pray to God at
    any time of the day to pray five times a day, using certain words while
    facing Mecca. The prayers are also accompanied by certain forms of
    kneeling and bowing (prostrations). This form of prayer is known as Salah
    and should be preceded by ritual washing to create a sense of spiritual
    cleanliness prior to prayers in what is known as wudu. Where there is no
    mosque, a clean and peaceful place is used and a prayer mat is placed
    on the ground as a symbol of spiritual cleanliness. The ritual prayers
    take place on five occasions during the day: at daybreak, midday, the
    middle of the afternoon, at sunset and during the evening. The main
    prayer time of the week is at noon on Fridays. These prayers are said
    by the Imam, who also gives a sermon based on a few verses from the

    Quran.

    Islamic prayer

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    3. Giving of alms (Zakat): Zakat is regarded as a requirement in Islam.
          It does not stop Muslims from giving money or goods to charity at any
          time. The alms usually consist of giving two and a half percent of one’s
          income, and perhaps other assets to charity or deserving causes. There
          are however, variations in the income and goods which form its basis,
          how it should be donated and how it should be collected. Communities
          may differ on who is required to give the alms. The zakat collected is often
          used not only to support those in financial need, but also to help with

          passing the message of Islam onto others.

    4. Fasting during the holy month of Ramadhan (Swam): Ramadhan
          is usually marked in the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. The fast is
         observed from sunrise to sunset for a total of 30 days. All Muslim adults
         are prohibited from taking food or drink during the day. This occasion is
         a period which Muslims demonstrate great discipline, both in a physical
         sense and in a spiritual sense. They also contemplate God and the religious
         life. At sunset each day during Ramadhan, Muslims eat a light meal to
          break the fast. Later in the evening, there is a much more substantial
          meal taken together with family members. People visit the mosque in the
          evening for prayers and to take part in the special events marked during
          the holy month. After a night’s sleep, people wake up early to take a
          light meal which they will survive on up to evening. Towards the end of
          Ramadhan there are special celebrations. One important celebration is
          celebration symbolises the first night during which Prophet Muhammad
          received revelation from God. The conclusion of the fast of Ramadhan
          is usually graced by great celebration, when family members gather and

          offer each other presents. This festival is known as Eid-Ul-Fitr.

    5. Making of pilgrimage to Mecca: This is also known as hajj. A Muslim
          is expected, where possible, to make the pilgrimage at least once during
          one’s lifetime. The event is held every year at approximately the same time.
          This date is usually between certain specific days on the 12th month of
          the Islamic calendar. Prophet Muhammad made a hajj in AD 632. Most of
          the tradition and celebratory features of the hajj are based on this visit.
          During the pilgrimage, people visit Mecca, the neighbouring towns and
          sites of religious significance in the history of Islam. There is a particular
         dress code for men and women. The first place to be visited is the Kaaba
         (a large cube-shaped building covered in black cloth at the time of the
         Hajj). In one corner of it, there is a black stone which was said to have
          been given to Ibrahim (Abraham) by Angel Jibril (Gabriel). The Kaaba is
          situated in the grand mosque in Mecca. Pilgrims walk around it seven
          times, moving in an anti-clockwise direction. All Muslims are expected to
         “fight” to further the faith and to defend it against any acts that might seek

          to undermine Islam. Jihad may at times involve a physical struggle.

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    The Five Pillars

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    Effects of Islam in Europe and the rest of the world
    Islam had both positive and negative consequences in Europe and the rest of

    the world.

    Arab scientists called alchemists tried to turn base metals, such as tin, iron
    and lead, into gold and silver. Arabs are considered the founder of modern

    chemistry.

    Astronomy and Geography
    Arab astronomers studied the heaven and gave many stars the names they still
    have today. They determined the size and circumference of the earth. From
    their studies they concluded that the earth might be round. Additionally, the
    Astronomer geographers created the first accurate map of the World. They
    accurately described the eclipses of the Sun and proved that the Moon affects

    the oceans.

    Mathematics
    Arab mathematicians invented algebra and introduced it to Europeans. Arab
    mathematicians also borrow the zero and the numerals 1-9, from Hindu

    mathematicians in India and passed them on to Europeans.

    Medicine
    Arab doctors had to pass an exam before they could practice medicine. The
    Arabs established the World’s first School of pharmacy and opened the
    World’s first drug stores. They organized medical clinics that travelled through
    the empire proving drugs and care for the sick. Arab doctors were the first to
    discover that blood circulates or is carried to and from the heart. They were also
    the first to diagnose certain diseases, that Tuberculosis is contagious. They also
    discovered that one way to prevent illness from spreading is to keep the sick

    people apart from those who are not infected.

    Arabs also made many contributions in arts
    One of the best known writings is The Arabian Nights, a collection of tales put

    together from Persian stories. They designed swords, books, Mosques, etc.

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                                                                                       Islamic Mosque

    • History
    At first Arab historians wrote about events one year at a time. Then they
    began to organize events around rules and peoples, which is what most
    historians do today.
    • In literature
    Arabic language influenced English. E.g. tariff, traffic magazine, alcohol,
    Muslim, sugar, algebra, etc.
    • Trade
    Muslims penetrated Asia, China, Africa, India and Europe for trading
    reasons.
    • Chemistry
    They discovered different chemical processes like distillation, filtration and
    sublimation.
    • Belief in monotheism
    Muslims believed in only one God-Allah and his prophet was (is) Muhammad.
    People reached Allah through prayers. Islam also brought an end to
    paganism in areas it controlled.
    • Loss of life and destruction of property
    This issued from the Jihads. It involved waging a physical struggle against
    nonbelievers who threatened Islam. The wars led to massive loss of lives
    and destruction of property.
    • Division of Muslims
    At first Islam had uniform adherents. But due to interpretation of the faith visà-
    vis leadership, divisions occurred. This led to the emergence of the Sunni
    and Shi’a. Each has interpreted the teachings of the prophet differently.
    • Change in dietary habits
    Islam brought some dietary regulations on its adherents. Acceptable foods
    were (and are) called ‘Halal’ while forbidden ones are called “Haraam”.

    Muslims have since stuck to these dietary regulations.

    Application activity 2.1.2
    1. Examine the origin of Islam.
    2. Describe the spread of Islam.

    3. Discuss the effects Islam to the world.

    2.2. Relationships between Islam and Christianity in the

    middle and modern times.

    Learning activity 2.3
    Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on
    the causes and effects of crusades and jihads to answer to the following
    questions:
    1) Examine the causes of crusades.
    2) Identify the effects of crusades.

    3) Explain the causes and effects of jihad movements in West Africa.

    2.2.1. The christian crusades (1097-1271)

    Crusades were religious military holy wars or expeditions carried out by the
    Christians of Western Europe under the leadership of pope Urban II against the
    Muslim Turks of Eastern Europe in order to liberate the holy land of Jerusalem.
    These Christian holy wars involved a series of military campaigns where pope
    Urban II appealed to Christian soldiers to carry the cross in a struggle to purify

    Christianity and stop the spread of Islam.

    In 1095 at Clermont in southern France while addressing churchmen and
    nobles, Pope Urban II made one of the most moving speeches in history. “…
    Jerusalem a land fruitful above all others, a paradise of delights, the royal city,
    situated at the centre of the Earth, implores you to come to her aid. Undertake
    the journey eagerly for the remission of your sins, and be assured of the reward
    of imperishable glory in the kingdom of Heaven.” As the pope concluded his
    speech, a feeling of intense excitement swept through the crowd, with many

    believers chanting, “God wills it, God wills it.”

    During the medieval times, Christians thought of Palestine, and all other places
    connected with the life and works of Jesus, as the Holy land and as early as

    200 AD, Christians from Europe had begun making pilgrimages to Jerusalem.

    However, in the 7th century AD, the Muslim conquered Palestine. Despite the
    Arab conquest, Christians were tolerated by the Arabs, and they continued
    visiting the holy sites. The situation changed in 1071 when Seljuk Turks (an
    extremist Arab tribe) captured Palestine and started mistreating Christian
    pilgrims, charging them large sums of money to access Jerusalem. The Seljuk
    Turks had recently stormed Baghdad, taken Jerusalem, and conquered all Asia
    Minor from the Byzantine Greeks. This prompted pope Urban II to appeal to the
    Christians to join the crusades to liberate Jerusalem. The first crusade in 1097

    was followed by seven additional ones. However, only the first was successful.

    Causes of crusades
    • The desire to liberate Jerusalem: Christian desired to liberate Jerusalem
       (Christian holy land) from Turkish Muslim domination led to Crusades.
       Begun in about 1071 and followed by killing and heavy taxation of
       Christian pilgrims. The Muslims had also destroyed the holy places,
        sacred to Christians but of no religious significance to Muslims.
    • The crusades were also intended to re-unite the Christians in the
       west (Roman Catholics) with those in the East (Orthodox Christians).
       In 1054, the Christian church experienced a schism, a heresy which
       split the Christian faith in two, because the Byzantine Christians had
       denied the supremacy of the pope as head of the church, causing a rift
       between the two. Pope Urban hoped to settle the differences between
       the Byzantine and the roman Christians through a successful crusade
       against a common enemy, “the accursed Muslims”, as the pope called
       to them.
    • Crusades were organized also to completely eliminate Islam from the
       face of the earth. The crusades could therefore help to purify Christianity
       and stop the spread of the Islam especially in Europe.
    • Some Christians joined the crusades because they wanted to go to
       heaven. These were inspired by the religious zeal. It was believed that
       if one died in a crusade (Holy war), his/her sins would be forgiven and
       it was a sign of spiritual fulfillment. This therefore forced many to join
       the crusades hoping that if they died in action, paradise awaited them.
    • Some Christians hoped that through the crusades, they would conquer
       and loot great wealth from the Arab world and become rich men.
    • Some crusaders especially merchants, joined the crusades in order to
       protect their monopoly over the Mediterranean Sea trade, threatened by
       the possibility that their trade routes would be lost if Muslims expanded
       to Spain and Italy. By means of a crusade, the western merchants would
       defeat and drive the Muslim back and thereby also take control of the
       important trading centers of Antioch, Damascus and Jerusalem, which
       Muslims had controlled for centuries.
    • Many Christians joined the crusades as a sign of obedience to Pope
       Urban II. The pope had unquestionable powers and therefore given
       orders from him, all Christians felt obliged to join the crusades.
    • The pope was also motivated to launch a holy war with an army of
       crusaders, knights from all over Europe’s kingdoms to display his power
       as the leader of all Christians.
    • Some joined Crusades as a sign of obedience to the Pope.
    • Love for adventure made people to join Crusades. Many Christians
        joined Crusades in order to know what was happening beyond their
        home land.
    Effects of crusades
    • The Crusades led to loss of lives: just like any armed conflict, the
       crusades were destructive as many crusaders and civilians lost their
       lives. In the first crusade, about 80% of the crusaders died. Thousands
       of Muslims were slaughtered in Jerusalem including those who took
       cover in Solomon’s Temple.
    • Crusades led to destruction of properties: like houses, the crusaders
        re-sacked Constantinople and the looters set fire that burned much
       of the city including libraries priceless ancient documents and
       artefacts.
    • Crusades increased (widened) the enmity between Moslems and
        Christianity up today.
    • The Crusades brought humiliation and disrespect to the Church
        leaders especially the pope who preached and assured victory, but
        at the end, the Crusaders were defeated.
    • Crusades helped to create unity among Christians from different
        parts of Europe. That is to say Christians from Western Europe and
        Eastern Europe.
    • Crusades to some extent, stopped the spread of Islam, in some
       parts of Europe, and this is the reason as to why Islam is not widely
       spread in Europe.
    • The Crusades helped spread of civilisation: where Christians from the
        West adopted the culture of Eastern Europe which quite civilised.
    • Crusades led to complete collapse of Christian influence in holy
        places.
    • Crusades led to disruption of economic activities: in Eastern Europe,
        during the fighting, there was insecurity which disorganized trade
        and commerce.
    • The Christians of Western Europe learnt about gunpowder from
        Moslems, who had also learnt it from Chinese.

    

    2.2.2. Jihad movements in west Africa
    A jihad is an Islamic religious movement or a holy war that is fought by fanatic
    Muslims against those who do not believe in their faith. It aims at spreading,

    purifying and strengthening Islam.

    The 18th and 19th centuries saw a wave of jihads or Islamic movements in
    northern Sudan. Although, the causes were religious, they had a mixture of

    political, economic and intellectual causes.

    The first jihads in West Africa took place in Guinea in Futa Jallon in 1720s. They
    were led by Ibrahim Musa. In the 1770s there was yet another jihad in Senegal
    in Futa Toro led by Sulayman Bal. In 1808, Uthman Dan Fadio started holy wars
    in the Hausa states (Daura, Kano, Katsina, Zaria, Rano, Gobir and Hiram). Other
    West African jihadists were Seku Ahmadu of Macina, Al Hajj Umar of Tukolor

    and Ahmed Bello.

    Causes of Jihads in West Africa
    • Need to purify Islam: After the decline of Mali and Songhai, there
       was a decline in Islam in western Sudan. Islam was mixed with pagan
        practices. Therefore, there was a need to revive Islam.
    • To stop unfair judgments in courts of law: There was a lot of
        corruption and bribery in the courts which were against the teaching
        of Islam.
    • Local political competition: The Fulani were discriminated. The
       Fulani leaders of the jihads aimed at overthrowing the government of
       the Hausa people and to establish a government favourable to their
        people.
    • Widespread belief in the Mahdi (Savior): According to the
       Muslims, a Mahdi was supposed to emerge during the 13th century of
        the Islamic calendar. This started from 1785 to 1882.
    • Nee to overthrow pagan governments: The jihadists wanted to
        establish governments based on Islamic rule. Strict Muslims in West
        Africa could not tolerate rule by pagans. Muslims were also forced to go
        to war against fellow Muslims which was contrary to Islamic practice.
    • To spread Islam: This was aimed at the people who had resisted
        conversion to Islam. Thus they would be forced to join Islam.
    • Desire to spread Islamic education: Through the conversion of
        pagans who were against Islamic education, the jihadists hoped to
        build an ideal Islamic society through education.
    • Over taxation: Governments in western Sudan imposed heavy taxes
        on the Fulani town merchants while the Fulani pastoralists or nomads
        were opposed to the heavy taxation.
    • Methods used to collect taxes: The tax collectors were harsh. They
        whipped and imprisoned the people who failed to pay. Some of the
        property was confiscated. This is why the people welcomed Islam.
    • Defence of African independence: The West Africans joined jihads
        in order to protect their independence and fight against slave trade. This
        was because according to Sharia, no Muslim is supposed to enslave
        or sell another Muslim. Therefore, the time was right for a revolution
        that only needed someone to start it. This was provided by the arrival of
         men filled with religious zeal and reformist ideas and with the ability to
         lead and organise. For example, Uthman Dan Fodio, Al Hajji Umar, Seku
        Ahmadu among others.
    • The belief that the end of the world was going to come soon:
        The belief that the world was going to come soon made people to
        Jihads.
    • Most of the Hausa rulers were corrupt. The need to overthrow
         corrupt Hausa rulers who were corrupt caused the Jihad wars in West
         Africa. They embezzled government resources and the taxes corrected
         remained in the hands of the few. This forced the Fulani Jihads to rebel
        hence the Jihad wars.

    Example of the Jihad leader

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    Uthman Dan Fodio and his caliphate. (Source: Google.rw/image)

    Uthman Dan Fodio
    The first jihad in western Sudan took place in Hausa land in 1804. This jihad
    was led by Uthman Dan Fodio. He was a Fulani and a scholar. He was born in
    1754 at Martha in Gobir.
    He received Islamic education from various teachers but finally he ended up
    in Agades under the famous Islamic teacher Jibril Ibn Umar. At the age of 20,

    he started his career as a writer and teacher in Senegal. From here, he started

    missionary tours in Hausa land, especially Zamfara, Kebbi and Daura in his
    preaching and writing, he attacked all unreligious tendencies. He condemned
    corrupt and unjust governments, and illegal taxation. He insisted on complete
    acceptance of the spiritual and moral values of Islam.
    He soon mobilised a large number of followers. Most of these believed that he
    was the Mahdi or the saviour. His fame attracted the administration of Sultan
    Bawa, the leader of Gobir. He was employed as the tutor of the Sultan’s son. All
    these increased Fodio’s influence.
    Because of this influence, he successfully negotiated with Sultan Bawa of Gobir
    to release all Muslim prisoners. He also requested the king to grant freedom of
    worship and also exempt Muslims from un-Islamic taxes.
    Unfortunately, Bawa was succeeded by Sultan Nafata and later Yunfa who did
    not support Uthman Dan Fodio. Because of Uthman’s growing influence, Yunfa
    arranged the assassination of Fodio but he managed to escape.
    Along with his brother Abdullah and son Mohammed Bello, Fodio escaped to
    Gudu outside Gobir. At Gudu, many Fulani tribesmen joined him and he was
    elected commander of the faithful, Amir Al Munimin. He then, declared a jihad
    on the non-believers in 1804 and confronted Yunfa’s army.
    After a prolonged fight, Yunfa’s army was defeated and he was killed at Akolawa.
    Serious resistance against Fodio’s army collapsed in 1809. Immediately, Fodio
    declared the Sokoto Caliphate and he became the undisputed caliph.
    Once the conquest period was over, Fodio returned to his work of writing books
    since he was basically an Islamic scholar.
    He divided the empire between his son and his brother. Mohammed Bello his
    son was in charge of the eastern region and Abdullah his brother the western
    region. Fodio died in 1817 and his son Mohammed Bello was recognised as the

    caliph of the Sokoto Caliphate.

    Consequences of Jihads in West Africa
    • The jihads led to closer contacts with the outside world. This was true
    with Saudi Arabia and the Middle East. In fact a pilgrimage made by Al
    Hajji Umar to Mecca in 1825 further exposed the Sudan to the outside

    world.

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                                                                                                                      Al Hajji Umar

    • They led to the spread and revival of Islamic culture for example the way
       of dressing with items such as the veil, the turban and the daily prayers
       and the hijja.
    • Literate Muslim officials were employed by kings and emperors as
        clerks, secretaries, judges, auditors, inspectors and teachers. This
       strengthened Islamic way of life.
    • Large and powerful Islamic states were formed under Muslim rulers
       like Uthman Dan Fodio of Sokoto, Muhammad Bello of Sokoto, Seku
       Ahmad of Macina, Al Hajji Umar of Tokolar and Al Kanemi of Dinguiray.
    • They caused clashes and conflicts between the pagans and the Muslims.
       For example there was enslavement of non-Muslims as permitted by
       the Koran. This led to tribal wars and antagonism.
    • Strong states emerged to resist European infiltration. Jihads united the
       masses and their leaders against French colonialists.
    • A Centralised system of administration was introduced and managed
       according to the Koran.
    • There was the stabilisation and efficient management of the economy
       in the Islamic states.
    • They abolished unlawful taxes and levied taxes as stipulated in the holy
       Koran.
    • They led to the decline of the African traditional religions. This is because
       leaders of traditional religion and people who refused to change to
       Islam were executed.
    • The jihads checked the spread of Christianity in West Africa. This is
       because the Christian Missionaries were not allowed to enter Muslim

       lands.

    Application activity 2.3
    1) Explain the term crusades.
    2) Discus the causes of crusades.
    3) Identify the effects of crusades.

    4) Discuss the effects of jihad movements in West Africa.

    2.3. Causes and the effects of the early explorations.

    Learning activity 2.3

    Use internet, textbooks, maps, photographs and media to research on the
    causes and effects of early explorations and answer the questions below:
                           1) Identify the causes of early exploration.

                           2) Explain the effects of early exploration.

    To explore refers to search for the purpose of, or obtaining information or
    resources. Europe led the rest of the world in early explorations. Various
    countries made voyages of exploration to distant lands away from Europe.
    Europeans sailed and explored the rest of the world. They were mainly searching
    for material wealth. Explorers came mainly from Portugal, Spain, Netherlands,

    Britain, and later, France.

    Map showing early exploration routes

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    Early exploration is also known as the age of discovery was a time characterised
    by the explosive overseas expansion of European civilisation. The European
    nation states of Western Europe, led by Portugal, embarked on a series of
    explorations and colonisation whose impact was felt in virtually every part of
    the world. This development represents the first and earliest manifestation of

    globalisation.

    Causes for early explorations
    The early explorations were caused by many factors. The main ones were:
    i) The explorations were made possible by advances in science
    The main advances in science and technology that had been occasioned by
    discoveries during the renaissance period were:
    • Widespread dissemination of newly rediscovered geographical
      knowledge about the earth; especially the realisation that it was round
       and not flat.
    • Much improved and detailed maps, sea charts and star charts used for
       navigation.
    • The application of an improved compass for establishing direction.
    • Effective use of the astrolabe used in determining latitude.
    • The development of the ship’s rudder and geared steering system.
    • Improvements in cannon fabrication and use aboard ships; used for
        offensive and defensive purposes.
    • Basic education and marine training instituted for ship’s officers and

       sailors.

    ii) Commerce
    There existed a profitable commerce between European states and the regions
    of Asia. Europeans had a high appetite for goods from the Asian countries.
    However, the trade was dominated by traders and merchants from Asia, the
    Near East and Italians. These people grew rich and powerful by selling a variety
    of goods to Europe. Spices were the most valued goods at the time. The
    European powers wanted to equally benefit from this trade from the 15th Century.
    Spain and Portugal wanted to break the monopoly enjoyed by the Asiatic states
    and the Italian traders. To achieve this, they financed voyages to try and find sea
    route to the Far East and therefore, to completely bypass the overland route
    through the middle East to Asia. Apart from the goods from Asia, cloves from
    the coastal regions of East Africa, pepper, curry, nutmeg, ginger, cinnamon and
    other spices added new and very popular elements to the food consumed by

    the Europeans who could afford such luxury items.

    iii) Curiosity to understand the nations and civilisations of Asia
    Europeans are said to have become increasingly curious and interested about
    the nations and civilisations of the orient. They wanted to get more information
    about the regions especially in India and China. Many Europeans were eager to
    get information about the “strange” and unknown worlds beyond the boundaries
    of Europe. The thirst and quest for knowledge about people, civilisations,
    continents and other dimensions, greatly encouraged the spirit of overseas
    travel and exploration.
    iv) Desire for colonies
    Monarchs in Europe desired to get colonies in other parts of the world so as to
    shore up trade and wealth. They were also aware of the capacity of the colonies
    to provide their states with prestige. This made the rulers to go out of their way
    to support the voyages of exploration. Rulers took great risks to channel capital

    investment and manpower necessary to make the missions successful.

    v) Desire to spread christianity
    The Europeans also expected to spread Christianity to other parts of the world.
    Many Portuguese and Spaniard traders remotely intended to convert those they
    came into contact with during their commercial excursion.
    vi) National prestige and power
    Exploration was also influenced by power politics. European states were led
    by desire for prestige and power. This made the search of Gold and Glory be

    intertwined in the countries’ quest for knowledge and wealth.

    Example of some early explorers

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    Effects of early explorations
    The early explorations had long lasting effects on the history of the world. These
    were both positive and negative. The main ones included:
              • Expansion of empire
    All the European powers which participated in the explorations built themselves
    large empires. For example, Portugal acquired Brazil in the New world and had
    numerous territories in Africa and Asia. Portugal controlled most of the African
    Atlantic and Indian seaboards, India and other parts of Asia.
    Spain took most of the territories in the New world. She had settlements in the
    West Indies, Mexico, Central America, Florida, the south west areas of what
    later became the USA and California. Her riches in these areas made her the

    envy of rival powers.

               • Spread of war in the colonies
    As the quest for colonies intensified in the new lands and areas outside Europe,
    colonial rivalries and economic competitions forced the major European powers
    into many conflicts. More often than not, these led to wars between the 16th
    to the 18th centuries due to overseas hostilities. Each power built its army
    and navy to safeguard or expand its colonial acquisition. England, for instance,
    fought bitter wars with Holland, France and Spain. By 1763, England, now

    called Great Britain, had emerged as the world’s first modern super power.

               • Introduction of new products in Europe
    Expanded global trade brought many new products into European markets,
    commerce expanded as the quantity and type of imports increased. Some of
    the new food products were: maize, tobacco, chocolate, tea, quinine, tomatoes,
    peppers, indigo, sugar, rice and the king of them all. There were also products
    that the Europeans could not get enough of. Examples were: Chinese porcelain,
    silk and Indian cotton or calico cloth. These items were in addition to what had
    become known as “the spice trade” of the East Indies. These goods, coming in

    large numbers, improved the standard of living in Europe.

                • Slave trade
    Although slaves were considered goods, it is vital to treat it independent of
    the new products. At first a few slaves were captured by the explorers, but
    later armies and navies got involved. This saw large Africans being captured
    and sold as slaves to go and supply labour in the New world. The New world’s
    appetite seemed insatiable in the demands for slave labour in sugar, rice, indigo,
    tobacco and cotton plantations now dotting various parts of the continents. The
    demands for European markets and the lust for profits superseded any ethical
    or moral considerations when it came to slavery. Even the so called Christians
    turned a blind eye to the practice. It didn’t prick their conscience at all from
    the 15th Century when the Atlantic slave trade begun in earnest. Africans were
    exposed to the horrors of the “middle passage” the pain and suffering slaves
    underwent as they crossed the Atlantic Ocean. This only stopped in the 19th
    Century. Slavery had grave consequences on the victim population.
             • Cultural exchange
    Exploration led to cultural exchange. People exchanged ideas, products,
    languages, and many other aspects of culture between Europe and the other
    civilisations. This is what has been referred to as the ‘Columbian Exchange”.
    Subsequent world history remains essentially the story of the results of the
    Columbian Exchange. Today, this is what underlies globalization. During the
    early exploration, both the European and the new communities were not spared
    the vagaries of cultural exchange. Each borrowed from one another.
             • Mineral exploitation
    The new world and areas outside Europe which were of interest to the explorers,
    had large deposits of minerals. When the European countries realized this, they
    embarked on a serious exercise of mineral exploitation in the New World. This
    was done by slave labour while in other areas, the indigenous communities
    were engaged forcefully. As a result, large quantities of minerals were shipped
    to Europe. Such minerals include: gold, silver, tin, copper and diamond. Gold

    and silver were minted into coins and used as currency.

            • Invention of the concept of insurance
    Governments and merchants tried to reduce and control their risks and losses
    due to overseas ventures by contributing a restricted amount to help in case
    of loss due to inflation or theft or accident. The amount paid into the fund was
    termed the insurance premium. This was the genesis of the insurance industry
    as we have it today. Investors thus received compensation from loss due to
    piracy, war, fire, storm, etc. The most famous of these insurance companies has
    survived to today. This is Lloyd’s of London, founded in the 17th Century.
            • Shift of economic power base
    Commercial activities and trade networks shifted from the Mediterranean Sea
    and its bordering countries to the Atlantic Coastal nation-states. The Ottoman
    Empire, the Italian city states and the countries of North Africa entered a period
    of economic decline in economic and therefore, political in significance. Trade
    fell sharply across the Sahara Desert, Mediterranean Sea, Black Sea and even
    in the Baltic Sea. This made all these areas to witness both economic and
    political decline. This was in sharp contrast to developments in the Atlantic
    Coast. Here, there was an increase in power, wealth and importance. In fact,
    new nation-states emerged. These were mostly based upon powerful absolute
    monarchies a feature which was to be dominant in western civilisation from the
    16th to the 18th centuries.
            • Increased population
    Early explorations also occasioned widespread demographic and social
    changes. There was increased migration while due to education, abundance of
    food and security, people’s standard of living greatly increased. All these factors
    contributed to increased population. Job opportunities equally expanded the
    middle class. People moved to secure employment. With time, distinctions
    between classes: middle class, nobility and lower class, and even slaves became
    blurred. This was to be with time, lead to an end to distinctions of population
    along classes. All races found home in the New world. Some in favoured status
    while others, like Africans, as slaves. Nonetheless, all contributed to the rise in
    population.
            • Development of mercantilism
    The governments of European states developed a doctrine of economics called
    mercantilism. This was geared towards obtaining wealth from the new lands.
    The benefits would be felt by the ordinary citizens and rulers. This doctrine was
    pursued by virtually all the European powers. It was based on certain interrelated
    elements. They were:
    • Nations must adopt economic policies that attract the most amounts of
        gold and silver.
    • A nation should arrange its trading matters so that it exports more than
        it imports.
    • A nation could increase its exports most advantageously if it subsidized
        and supported domestic manufacturing.
    • Tariff levied on imported goods.
    • To obtain as many colonies as practically possible.
    • Limit or forbid the rise of colonial industries and the production of
          manufactured goods in the colonies.
    • Prohibit colonies to trade with any other rival power except the mother
          country and ensure that any raw material from the colony is supplied by
          vessels from the mother country.

    • Require the colonies to pay taxes to the mother country.

    Colonies lived to satisfy the economic needs of the mother country. Mercantilism
    preceded the emergence of capitalism by about 200 years but it bore all the
    hallmarks of the latter. A free market economy was encouraged with strict
    government control. Business persons paid large fees to the government to
    enable it control monopolies over a particular product in even an entire subcontinent.

    Trade was thus undertaken by joint-stock companies.

             • Emergence of the banking industry
    The early explorations directly led to the accumulation of capital which
    necessitated the development of the banking industry. Banks sprung up to
    support business enterprises. They provided the services that were required
    to accommodate the increased supplies of gold and silver to the nation-states.
    Lending money to reliable customers in return for interest charges and bank
    services commenced. Banks also gave loans to governments to run their
    services, examples of outstanding banks were The Medici family of Florence
    in Italy and the German family of the Fuggers. These were family-ran banks.
    They were very successful. To reduce the challenges of the use of gold and
    silver, banks adopted innovative systems of exchange. This included the use
    of new ideas as bills of exchange (used in international trade) and adoption of
    bank notes (a kind of paper money printed by the primary bank involved in the
    transaction). Later banks also came up with cheque system. Cheques were
    mainly used in national, regional and local business transactions. Their use

    then, has not changed much as we have them today.

              • Emergence of the factory system
    Production moved from the guild system to factories. Large manufacturing
    industries were shifted to factories. Here products were produced in large
    quantities to satisfy the demands of the nation-states. These factories were the
    precursors of the factory system of the industrial revolution of the 18th and 19th
    centuries. Apart from the factory system, the guild system was also bypassed
    by the use of the cottage industry. This involved people producing the goods
    in the comfort of their homes. The raw materials were brought by the rich
    business persons to the homes of the workers from where the latter made them
    into various products in exchange for payment for his or her labour.
              • Discovery of bio-diversity
    Early exploration led to the discovery of various animals and plants. New animal
    and plant species were now studied thus contributing to the field of scientific
    knowledge.
             • Spread of christianity
    The explorers were partly driven with the motive of spreading Christianity. This
    was true of the Portuguese in East and Central African Coast. However, the
    Portuguese made little mark in as far as the spread of Christianity was concerned.
    They were more driven by the trade motive. Nonetheless, there were some areas
    away from the Portuguese dominated coastal regions of East and Central Africa
    where Christianity made a foothold. It became a dominant religion in the new

    worlds and in Goa and India.

    Application activity 2.3

    1) Examine the contribution of science and technology to early
         exploration.

    2) Discuss the consequences of early exploration.

    2.4. Ideas of philosophers/ Age of Enlightenment

    Learning activity 2.4
    Use internet, textbooks, photographs and media to research on
    Enlightenment era and answer the following questions.
    1) Describe the ideas of philosophers.

    2) Discuss the impact of the ideas of the Enlightenment era.

    Concepts of enlightenment
    The enlightenment was a sprawling intellectual, philosophical, cultural, and social
    movement that spread throughout England, France, Germany, and other parts
    of Europe during the 1700s. It was an intellectual and philosophical movement
    that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the 18th century, and later in
    North America. It is a term used to describe a time in Western philosophy and
    cultural life centred upon the eighteenth century, in which reason was advocated

    for as the primary source and legitimacy for authority.

    The Age of Enlightenment or the Age of Reason was a period in Europe during
    the 17th and 18th centuries when many individuals refused to acknowledge
    the authority of the Scripture and instead exalted their own reason to a place
    of extreme authority. It was a period in which people rejected traditional
    ideas and supported a belief in human reason. Thus from 1650 to 1800, the
    European philosophers began rethinking old ideas about government, religion
    and economics. This movement was spearheaded by philosophers like Jean
    Jacques Rousseau, Baron Charles-Louis Montesquieu and Denis Diderot. They
    criticized different ideas, condemned prejudice and mistakes of the past. Based
    on reason, these philosophers criticized the religion, (They were against the
    religion of the state), the absolute monarchy and the society in general. They

    had a Slogan: liberty (freedom), equality and fraternity.

    A philosopher is a person who seeks wisdom or enlightenment; a scholar or

    a thinker.

    During this period, the use of reason in shaping people’s ideas about the society
    and politics defined a period called the Enlightenment. People began to put
    great importance to reason, or logical thought. They used reason to try and
    solve problems such as poverty and war. It was believed that the use of reason

    could achieve three great goals: knowledge, freedom and happiness.

    The occurrence of the Age of Enlightenment was due to political, scholarly and

    religious causes.

    Politically
    • People believed and wanted economic improvement and political
          reforms and believed that both were possible.
    • Rulers who believed in enlightened absolutism wanted to centralise
         their authority to reform their countries.
    • They put the well-being of their country above anything else; including
         religion.
    • Need for administrative reform in France after the wars of Louis XIV.
    • The wars of Louis XIV left a huge debt and lots of commotion.
    • Philosophers started to write topics that related to the government,
        politics and rights.
    • People began thinking differently about these subjects and coming
        up with their own opinions; which, according to Kant, happens when

        someone is enlightened.

    Scholarly
    • Growth of the print culture that made ideas circulate faster through
          books, journals, newspapers, and pamphlets.
    • Isaac Newton and John Locke’s ideas were the basis for the
         Enlightenment.
    • Newton’s tabula rasa (blank page) and other fundamental ideas were
         brought to the public.
    • Newton’s discoveries in science allowed people to question things
         more.
    • People began to think the universe is understandable through science,
       not religion.
    • Inspiration came from the Scientific Revolution.
    • The discovery that the earth was not at the centre of the universe and
        the discovery that God had not created everything led to a new way of

        thought where the Church’s validity was questioned.

    Religiously
    • Deism believed that rational and religion can be combined.
    • Philosophers wanted to transform religion into an encouraging force to
          improve living.
    • People started to think for themselves and disregarded the idea of
         following God’s laws by following their “own” laws and thinking for
         themselves.
    Characteristics of Enlightenment era
    • The Enlightenment or The Age of Reason was marked by the glorification
         of man’s ability to reason.
    • Science and development served as the backbone for the popularity of
         law and reason.
    • Stability and peace were regarded as the symbols of this period.
    • Greater cultural development took place but with the social desire
         of everyone remaining within the hierarchical order for stability to be
         established.
    • At the same time, it should be borne in mind that due to the agrarian
        society evolving into an industrial economy, there was a great flux in the
        value system and the cultural background of England.
    • Its participants thought that they were illuminating human intellect and
        culture after the ‘dark’ middle Ages.
    • Characteristics of the Enlightenment include the rise of concepts such
        as reason, liberty and the scientific method. Enlightenment philosophy
        was sceptical of religion, especially the powerful Catholic Church.
    • Independent thought was embraced, scepticism ran freely through
        work, and new values, including an emphasis on science, became
        quite common among the educated classes. Not surprisingly, this
        Enlightenment found its way to the literary world as well.
    • This era was dominated by the Declaration of Independence and the
        thoughts of thinkers such as Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton
        and James Madison, who laid the founding stones of the modern free

        world that we enjoy today.

    Ideas of philosophers

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    Impact of the ideas of the era of Enlightenment
    We have already discussed at length the contributions of selected personalities
    during the age of reason to the modern world. Below is a summary of the
    contributions of Enlightenment to the modern world.
    1. Emergence of modern European feminism: campaign for women’s
    rights, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to
    earn fair wages, equal pay and eliminate the gender pay gap, to own
    property, to receive education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights
    within marriage, and to have maternity leave.
    2. Promotion of individual rights.
    3. Separation between the Church and the State.

    4. Promotion of democracy in the governance process

    5. Promotion of the capitalist ideology (Adam Smith and Marquis de
          Mirabeau). It encouraged individual ownership of wealth.
    6. Separation of power of the three arms of government for efficiency in the
         governance process.
    7. Provision of equal educational opportunities for both boys and girls.
    8. Creation of an enabling environment for the child (learner).
    9. Role of education in liberation.
    10. Broadening of historiography (writing of history) so as to cover political,
           social and cultural aspects of humanity’s life. They advocated for total
           history.
    11. Promotion of aesthetics: This was marked by treatises and debates
          over abstract questions such as the nature of taste, beauty, the sublime,
          imagination and creativity, and by speculation on the relations between
          the arts.
    12. Morality: The problem of moral values was central to the Enlightenment
          period. Revelation and traditional Christian doctrine were rejected. The
          demand for happiness and pleasure set the standards for morality. The
         Enlightenment period marked a turning point in human development. It
         made people to be rational. It had both moral and intellectual significance
         to humanity. This period was revolutionary. It destroyed myths by which
         people lived and proposed new myths of its own; many of which were
         later to be challenged in the second half of the 20th Century.
    Enlightenment thinkers in Britain, in France and throughout Europe questioned
    the traditional authority and embraced the notion that humanity could be
    improved through rational change.
    The American and French Revolutions were directly inspired by Enlightenment
    ideals and respectively marked the peak of its influence and the beginning of its

    decline. The Enlightenment ultimately gave way to the 19th-century Romanticism.

    Romanticism was the attitude or intellectual orientation that
    characterized many works of literature, painting, music, architecture,
    criticism, and historiography in Western civilisation era from the late

    18thto the mid-19th century.

    The first effect of the Age of Enlightenment was a general rebel against the
    teachings of the Church. Earlier, the Church used to profess that God was the
    absolute power and the reason behind every occurrence. People used to believe

    in miracles. But with the age in discussion, all those were being questioned.

    People deduced that there was scientific logic and reasons behind every
    happening around the World and not simply God’s wish. Thus everybody
    began to stop believing the Church blindly and put their own reasoning behind

    everything. For this, that period is also called the Age of Reason.

    The most apparent effect that followed the Age of Enlightenment was the
    development of new ideas in every field. Everybody also began to be intolerant
    to all the dictations made by their earlier faith. Economically, the Industrial
    Revolution happened, changing the very face of the then society in Europe as it

    gave rise to a new group of independent, wealthy and educated class of men.

    A whole new political scene emerged with the formation of nations and state,
    led by independent kings and parliaments. Earlier the Church was the supreme
    power, but after the enlightenment, it began to lose its position. All these paved

    way to the social and political scene that we know today.

    The Enlightenment developed through a snowball effect, that is to say small
    advances triggered larger ones, and before Europe and the world knew it,

    almost two centuries of philosophizing and innovation had ensued.

    During this period, people like John Amos Comenius (1592-1670), the father
    of modern education, fostered the belief that education should “follow the
    natural order of things”. Children’s development follows a timetable of its
    own and their education should reflect that fact. They should be allowed to learn

    at their own pace and learn by doing.

    John Amos Comenius was an innovator who first introduced pictorial textbooks
    written in native language instead of Latin. He applied effective teaching based
    on the natural gradual growth from simple to more comprehensive concepts. He
    supported lifelong learning and development of logical thinking by moving from
    dull memorization. Three most important contributions that he made are: books
    with illustrations, education with the senses, social reform-educate the poor as

    well as the rich.

    During the Age of Enlightenment, there were many discoveries in the fields of
    earth science and astronomy, as notables such as Johannes Kepler and Galileo
    Galilei took the old, beloved ‘‘truths” of Aristotle and disproved them. Thinkers
    such as René Descartes and Francis Bacon revised the scientific method,

    setting the stage for Isaac Newton and his landmark discoveries in Physics.

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    From these discoveries there emerged a system for observing the world and
    making testable hypotheses based on those observations. At the same time,
    however, scientists faced ever-increasing contempt and scepticism (doubt
    as to the truth of something) from people in the religious community, who felt

    threatened by science and its attempts to explain matters of faith.

    Scepticism is generally any questioning attitude or doubt towards one or more
    items of putative knowledge or belief. It is often directed at domains, such as the

    supernatural, morality, religion, or knowledge.

    a. Summary of the unit
    This unit examines with the political, economic and intellectual developments
    in medieval and modern times. The medieval time is estimated to be the
    period between AD 300 to AD 1500 and it recognized the influence of
    two strong religions. Christianity is believed to have been founded by Jesus
    Christ of Nazareth over 2,000 years ago. Early Christians shared a common
    faith in the teachings of Jesus Christ. The word Islam means submission to
    Allah (Arabic for God). Muslims believed in Allah and Muhammad was the
    messenger and the prophet of Allah (God). Every Muslim was/is expected
    to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in a lifetime. The modern period
    refers to the historical era that started with the end of Renaissance in 16thC.
    It was marked with the discovery of America by Christopher Columbus.
    There were great discoveries in science, religious reformation and the
    beginning of capitalism. In politics, there were centralized states and the
    rise of democratic practices. This was also the beginning of globalization
    where world became interconnected through trade, spread of new ideas,
    improved agricultural production, etc. The Age of Enlightenment known as
    ages of reason was a period in European history in the mid-18th Century
    when scholars believed in the use of reason and in the scientific methods.
    The scholars in the Age of Enlightenment applied the methods of new
    science which had been developed during the scientific revolution to study
    human behaviour and provide solutions to political and economic problems
    facing them. All of these features that marked enlightenment greatly shaped

    contemporary history.

    Application activity 2.4
    1) Explain the term enlightenment era.
    2) Analyse the ideas of John Locke and Voltaire.

    3) To what extent did the age of reason shape today’s world?

    Skills Lab
    Move around your school/college and observe the social, economic,
    political and intellectual activities carried out in your sector to examine the
    legacies of the medieval and modern times to contemporary era. Make a

    report and present your findings to the plenary.

    End unit assessment

    1. Discuss the contribution of Christianity to the world.
    2. Why do we say that Mohammed was the founder of Islam?
    3. In 1095 at Clermont in southern France while addressing churchmen
         and nobles, Pope Urban II made one of the most moving speeches
         in history. “… Jerusalem a land fruitful above all others, a paradise of
         delights, the royal city, situated at centre of the earth, implores you
          to come to her aid. Undertake the journey eagerly for the remission
         of your sins, and be assured of the reward of imperishable glory in
         the kingdom of Heaven.”
    4. To what extent was this statement responsible for the outbreak of
         the crusades?
    5. Use a sketch map of the world to show the main routes of early
          explorers.

    6. Identify the ideas of Jean Jacques Rousseau.


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